ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Basic structure of spoken language is Grammar. Sound, Syllables, words and sentences to achieve communication. Words are formed by combination of sounds called Syllables. All sounds are called phonetics. Long sound and short sound. Words are formed by combination of sounds called Syllables. All sounds are called phonetics. Long sound and short sound. There are 4 kinds of sentences

1. 2. 3. 4.

ASSERTIONS INTERROGATIVE IMPERATIVE EXCLAMATORY

ASSERTIONS
A sentence which makes assertions: Declarative/ Assertive Fore example: The boy ran to the beach A lady is walking down the road A car is the garage Children are playing in the garden. He helped her carry the bags.

INTERROGATIVE
A sentence which asks questions Where do u live? Is there water shortage in Thane? How heavy is the bag? Do you know where can I get these books?

IMPERATIVE
A sentence which expresses, commands, requests, entreaty, called Imperative sentence Example: Be silent Shut the door Get some water Please do me this favour. Have Mercy on us.

EXCLAMATORY
A sentence which expresses strong feeling What a shame! What a terrible thing to happen! Indeed, it is a great event! An imperative sentence is one where the subject is left out completely Sit down (you is understood) Thank him Come here Run, there is a fire Subject Predicate When we make a sentence, we usually do it, to name a person or thing To say something about that person or thing. We must have a SUBJECT to speak about and PREDICATE something about the subject.

Subject Predicate
Hence every sentence has 2 parts.

The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about called the SUBJECT of the sentence The part which tells something about the subject called the PREDICATE of the sentence. The subject usually comes before the predicate For Example: The early bird catches the worm. The school bus has arrived. A sick room should be well aired. Delhi is the capital of India. Occasionally the subject may came later as Here comes the bus. The bus being the Subject. You will notice that Subject is usually a noun or pronoun & the Predicate is a verb ARTICLES DEFINITE (specific) The tourist The area The card The hotel The restaurant The people The signs

Indefinite Article
A tourist An area A card A hotel A restaurant Some people Some signs

Parts Of Speech
The 8 parts of speech are:

NOUN

Noun Adjective Pronoun Verb Adverb Preposition Conjunction Interjection

Name, place, or thing. Abdul Kalam is the president of India The Jasmine smells sweet His courage won him honor Four Kinds Of Nouns Common noun Proper nouns Collective Noun Abstract noun

COMMON NOUN
Common Noun is a name given in common to every person, place or thing of the same kind or class Example: Boy, girl, Man, Woman, park, Lion, River. The crowd was very big A committee of 5 was appointed. The soldiers were rewarded for their bravery. Bees build hives. The garden has many flowers. PROPER NOUN Proper nouns - Is the name of a particular person, place or thing. Proper nouns must always begin with a capital letter when we write. The Brahmaputra over flows its banks every year Mr. Raman is the chairman of that company The Earth revolves around the sun. Mumbai is the capital of Maharahstra. COLLECTIVE NOUN Is the name of a number of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole. Crowd, mob, team, flock, family, army, jury, nation, herd, swarm, crew, fleet, set, group ABSTRACT NOUN Is usually the name of a quality , an action or a state, considered apart from the subject to which it belongs. Goodness, kindness, darkness, laughter, sleep, poverty, sickness, slavery. NUMBER A noun that denotes one person or thing is called a singular number Boy, girl, cow, bird, chair, book. A noun that denotes more than one person or thing is called a plural number Boys, girls, cows, birds, chairs, books. Tree/trees, box/boxes, ox/oxen, man/men IRREGULAR NOUN PLURALS When a noun ending with y is preceded by a consonant, change the y to I and add es

Example: Baby babies Lady ladies IRREGULAR NOUN PLURALS (cont.) If a noun ends with in fe or f, the ending is changed to ves Example: life lives thief thieves Add es to nouns ending in sh, ch, s, Z and x Wish wishes Class - classes IRREGULAR NOUN PLURALS (cont.) If a noun ends with in fe or f, the ending is changed to ves Example: life lives thief thieves Add s or es to nouns ending in o tomato tomatoes, tomatos hero- heros IRREGULAR NOUN PLURALS (cont.) The plural forms of these nouns is also irregular: Child children Foot-feet Goose-geese Man-men Tooth-teeth

ADJECTIVE
Word used with a noun to describe or point out the person, an.. which the noun names, or to tell the number of quantity- is called an adjective- adds meaning! We may say an Adjective is a word used with a noun to add meaning (added to) CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVE Adjective of Quality Distributive Adjective Adjective of Quantity Demonstrative Adjectives Interrogative Adjectives Adjective of number Adjective of quality Tells us something about the quality of the noun. Kolkotta is a large city. He is an honest man. The foolish crow tried to sing Re red car sped past our house. Distributive Adjective Distributive Adjective point to each one of a number of countable nouns. For example: He is a man of few words. Every dog has his day Each boy must take his turn. Adjective of Quantity Adjective of quantity tell us what amount of an uncountable noun is meant. For example: I ate some rice. There hasnt been sufficient rain this year. He lost all his wealth. Demonstrative Adjective Point to what or which noun is meant. These grapes are sour Those houses must be expensive I was in such a pain after the fall INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

Are what, which and whose when they are used with nouns to ask questions. What is the time? Which way shall we go? Whose hat are you wearing? ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER Adjective of number tell us how many of a countable noun is meant or in what order a countable noun stands. The hand has five fingers. Most People Like cricket There are several issues to deal with. USING COMPARISONS There are two ways to make a comparison in English: Use More in front of the Adjective Its More exciting Add er to end of the adjective A bus is cheaper than a taxi Using Than I am older than my wife

DEGREES
Listen to the following sentences: Chitras voice is sweet Ashas voice is sweeter than Chitras Latas voice is the sweetest of all Positive ending with er Most adjectives form the comparative by adding -er to positive degree. Similarly the superlative of such adjectives are formed by adding -est to the positive degree.

POSITIVE Small Bold Tall Great Young Cold

COMPARITIVE Smaller Bolder Taller Greater Younger Colder

SUPERLATIVE Smallest Boldest Tallest Greatest Youngest Coldest

Positive ending with e In cases when +ve ends in e, Only r & stare added to positive to form the comparative and superlative respectively.

"e" Brave Fine Large Wise White

r braver finer larger wiser whiter

st bravest finest largest wisest whitest

Positive ending with y When +ve ends in y, then yis changed to I before adding er to form the comparative degree and est to form the superlative as shown in the following examples:

"y" Happy Easy Heavy Wealthy

Pronoun

ier Happier Easier Heavier Wealthier

est" Happiest Easiest Heaviest Wealthiest

A word that is used instead of a noun is called a PRO-noun Subject Pronouns A subject pronoun takes the place of the noun or subject. Subject pronouns come in front of verbs while object pronoun follow them

Examples: Deepa goes to school She goes to school Santosh and Deepak live there They live there OBJECT PRONOUN

I You He, she, it

We You They

Examples: We see our friends We see them (them takes the place of friends) Call the waiter Call him. (i.e. the waiter) They like Coffee They like it. (i.e. coffee) Placement of Object Pronouns When there is a sentence with more than one object pronoun, the rule is as follows: Place the direct object pronoun directly after ht verb Any indirect pronoun will come last We the lawyer give you the envelope He Gives it to you. They will send me some letters They will send them to me He is explaining the will to us He is explaining it to us. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES / PRONOUN 1st person, singular my 3rd person, singular his, her, its 1st person, plural our 2nd person, sing/pl. your 3rd person, plural their 1st person, singular mine 2nd person, singular yours 3rd person, singular his, hers, its 1st person, plural. - ours 2nd person, plural - yours 3rd person, plural theirs Forms of other

me you him, her, it

us you them

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Examples:

myself yourself himself, herself, itself

ourselves yourselves themselves

A reflexive pronoun usually refers to the subject of a sentence: We looked at ourselves in the mirror (we and ourselves are the same persons)

Sometimes reflexive pronouns are used for emphasis: I washed my clothes myself RELATIVE PRONOUNS Examples: WHO (used for people) WHICH (is used only for things) THAT (to refer to person or thing) I tipped the waiter who (that) served us. We thanked the people who (that) helped us. She found the book which I needed DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES / PRONOUN To differentiate between things in English, use either: This That These Those Examples: Do you what this box or that box? I would like some of that popcorn Do you want these or those? This apartment is nicer than that one Relative Pronouns: Objects Follow the same rules for using who(m) which, and that, as you do with other relative pronouns. Only differnce,now these pronouns are objects The movie that we saw last night was very good The movie which we saw last night was very good Relative Pronouns: Objects For people, you will use either who or whom. Who is usually used instead of whom in colloquial speech, even though it is grammatically incorrect. The person who they saw was good The person whom they saw was good There is the driver who the police arrested There is the drive whom the police arrested. Using Whose Whose is used to show possession. It has the same meaning as other possessive adjectives such as his, hers, its, their, etc. Theres the man whose house we bought I have a book whose story is fascinating Whose modifies people but can also be used with things. You should learn how to combine short sentences using Whose. The woman is a talented artist. I saw her paintings. The woman whose paintings I saw is a talented artist. Using Where Where can be used to ask questions: Where are you going? Where can also be used in a dependent clause: I see the house where they live. In the later example, where is used to refer to a place, such as a city, state, country , room, etc. Note: In dependent clauses, where can be replaced with in which, whichin, thatin, or nothing. The building where they work is new. The building in which they work is new. The building, which they work in, is new. The building that they work in is new. The building they work in is new. Using When When can be used to ask questions: When are you leaving? When can also be used in a depndent clause:

I forgot the date when you arrived In the latter example, when is used to refer to a noun of time (i.e., a day, week, month etc.) Time clauses: I forgot the date that you arrived I forgot the date on which you arrived Combining sentences with when: Ill always remember the day she was born. She was born then (on that day) Ill always remember the day when she was born VERB The Verb is a word of action. It tells or assets something about a person or thing. There may be just ONE word which makes meaning by itself showing Action. For Example: Run, Sit, Go, Do, Come, Look it, are verbs, so you may have a complete sentence with just this one word The word (you) before Run is understood. Similarly when we say sit the you before sit is understood. ACTIVE-PASSIVE VOICE A verb is in Active Voice when the person or thing it denotes is doing the action. A verb is in Passive Voice when something is done to the person or thing it denotes. For Example: A mason is building the wall (active) The wall is being built by the mason (passive) The watch man opened the gate (active) The gate was opened by the watchman (Passive) Who did this? (Active) By whom was this done? (passive)

Tense
When we speak we refer to events in relation to time. What has already transpired (known) is called PAST; What is happening is called PRESENT and what is likely to happen is called FUTURE. In the future tense there are 2 possibilities: What will happen and what may happen. For The The The example teacher wrote on the black board (Past). teacher is writing on the black board (present) teacher shall write on the black board (Future)

Four forms of Present Tense I love (Simple Present) I am loving (Present Continuous) I have loved (Present Perfect) I have been loving (Present Perfect Continuous) Four forms of Past Tense I loved (Simple Past) I was loving (Past Continuous) I had loved (Past Perfect) I had been loving (Past Perfect Continuous) Four forms of Future Tense I shall love (Simple Future) I shall be loving (Future Continuous) I shall have loved (Future Perfect) I shall have been loving (Future Perfect Continuous)

ADVERB

A word that adds meaning to the verb or qualifies it is called Adverb. For Example: A very strong man walked slowly on the road. The adverb slowly modifies the verb walked. The adverb very modifies the adjective beautiful. THE PREPOSTION A PREPOSTION is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what elation the person nor thing denoted by it, stands in regard to something else. basically it tells you about relationship: For Example: There is a cow in the field. He is fond of cricket The dog jumped over the gate. Here is the watch that you asked for. What are you looking at? The boy stood on the burning deck. SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS At, by, for, from, in, of, off, out, on through, till, to, up, with are examples of simple

prepositions

Conjunction
For example Two and two make four. Sachin and Dravid are good batsmen This is the place where she was caught Some conjunctions are used in pairs. For Example: Either-or, Neither-Nor, Both-And, Though-yet, Not Only-but also Either take it or leave it. It is neither useful nor ornamental. We Both love and honour him Though he is wounded badly, yet he does not complain Not only is he brave.. but also kind.

INTERJECTION
The Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden emotion or feeling. For Example: Hello! What are you doing? Alas! He is dead. AH! Is that so? OH! I got such a fright Hush! Dont make noise Hurrah! We have won Good Gracious! What a downpour What a shame! How could you do such a terrible thing? FOR / SINCE For = used for general periods of time, 3 hrs, four days six months Since is used for specific time= 2006, january, lat week one, MONTH AGO

Direct and Indirect Speech

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the past. Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.

Direct Speech
simple present He said, I go to school every day. simple past

Indirect Speech
simple past He said (that) he went to school every day. past perfect

He said, I went to school every day. present perfect He said, I have gone to school every day. present progressive He said, I am going to school every day. past progressive He said, I was going to school every day. future (will) He said, I will go to school every day. future (going to) He said, I am going to school every day.

He said (that) he had gone to school every day. past perfect He said (that) he had gone to school every day. past progressive He said (that) he was going to school every day. perfect progressive He said (that) he had been going to school every day, would + verb name He said (that) he would go to school every day. present progressive He said (that) he is going to school every day. past progressive He said (that) he was going to school every day

Direct Speech
auxiliary + verb name He said, Do you go to school every day? He said, Where do you go to school? Imperative He said, Go to school every day.

Indirect Speech
simple past He asked me if I went to school every day.* He asked me where I went to school. Infinitive He said to go to school every day.

*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction with if orwhether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of embedded questions. The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this situation are given below.

Direct Speech
simple present + simple present He says, I go to school every day. present perfect + simple present He has said, I go to school every day. past progressive + simple past

Indirect Speech
simple present + simple present He says (that) he goes to school every day. present perfect + simple present He has said (that) he goes to school every day. past progressive + simple past He was saying (that) he went to school

He was saying, I went to school every day.

every day. past progressive + past perfect He was saying (that) he had gone to school every day. future + simple present He will say (that) he goes to school every day.

future + simple present He will say, I go to school every day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used, then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.

Direct Speech
Can He said, I cango to school every day. May He said, I may go to school every day. Might He said, I might go to school every day. Must He said, I must go to school every day. Have to He said, I have to go to school every day. Should He said, I should go to school every day. ought to He said, I ought to go to school every day.

Indirect Speech
Could He said (that) he couldgo to school every day. Might He said (that) he might go to school every day.

had to He said (that) he had to go to school every day.

Should He said (that) he should go to school every day. ought to He said (that) he ought to go to school every day.

While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good grammar text or reference book. Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell, announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably; check a grammar or usage book for further information.

Phrasal Verb
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the original verbPhrasal verbs are very important for learners because they are so prevalent in everyday spoken and informal written language. Not only do learners need to understand the more common phrasal verbs, but they will also need to use them themselves.

Phrasal Verb Meaning

act like (inseparable) act up (no object)

Examples

behave in a way that's like What's wrong with Bob? He's acting like _____ Note: This phrasal an idiot. verb is very informal. misbehave (for people); not The baby sitter had a difficult time. The work properly (for children acted up all evening. "I guess I'd machines) better take my car to the garage. It's been acting up lately." (make sense) logically fit together Note: This phrasal verb is often negative find the total. to total. (inquire about) ask for a date. His evidence just doesn 't add up. His theory is hard to believe, but his research adds up. "His theory seems, at first, to be plausible, but the facts in his research don't add up." What's the total of those bills? Could you add them up and see? The bills add up to $734.96. That's more than I expected! Jim was asking after you. Nancy has a new boy friend. Joe asked her out last night.

Add up add up (1. no object)

add up (2. separable) add up to (inseparable) Ask after ask out (separable)

back down (no not follow a threat; yield In Tom was going to call the police when I object) an argument told him I'd wrecked his car, but he backed down when I said I'd pay for the damages. Shella was right, so Paul had to back down. back off (no object) not follow a threat Tom was ready to call the police when I told him I'd wrecked his car, but he backed off when I said I'd pay for the damages. You missed the lines in the parking space. You'll have to back up and try again. "The people waiting in line are too close to the door. We won't be able to open it unless they back up." You're too close! Back your car up so I can open the garage door. If you don't believe me, talk to Dave. He'll back me up.

back up (1. no move backward; move in object) reverse

back up (2. separable) back up (3. separable) back up (4.

drive a vehicle backwards (in reverse) confirm a story, facts, or information

make a "protection" copy to When my computer crashed, I lost many

separable) Bargain for

use if there are problems with the original (take into acount)

of my files. It's a good thing I backed them up. We hadn't bargained for there being so much traffic, and we missed the plane. The lead singer of 'The Rolling Beatles' pop group is ill, so tonight's concert is off. The concert is off.

be off (1) to be cancelled usually used in the present tense (of an event / an arrangement etc.) be off (2) (of food) to have gone bad

Nick decided to have a fried egg for breakfast, but there was a terrible smell when he cracked the egg. 'This egg is off,' he thought. I can't eat it.' The egg is off. The storm is over; it has stopped raining and the sun is shining. The storm is over. Jeff was taken aback when he opened the door and discovered an elephant. Jeff was taken aback by the discovery of an elephant. Jeff was taken aback. Helen's alibi was borne out by her sister. Two men beat Fred up and left him lying unconscious on the pavement. They beat up Fred. They beat Fred up. They beat him up.

be over

to be finished

be taken aback to be surprised and used in the confused passive Bear out beat up (confirm the truth) to hurt someone badly by hitting and punching

beg off (no object) blow up (1)

decline an invitation; ask to At first Lily said she would be at the be excused from doing party. Later she begged off. something to destroy (something or someone) by explosion; to explode Mr Trent hated his house, so he blew it up with dynamite and built a new one instead. Mr Trent blew up his house. Mr Trent blew his house up. Mr Trent blew it up. The house blew up. We needs lots of balloons for the party. Will you blow them up?

blow up (1. separable) blow up (2)

inflate

a balloon/a tyre /a football Uncle Joe blew up the balloons for the etc. to fill with air; to inflate Christmas party. Uncle Joe blew up the balloons. Uncle Joe blew the balloons up. Uncle Joe blew them up. explode; destroy by exploding A: "That old building really came down quickly!" B: "That's because the construction company used dynamite to blow it up." Whe I told Jerry that I'd had an accident with his car, he blew up. If you're going to travel to Peru, you'd better bone up on your Spanish. Tom's car broke down on the way to the

blow up (2. separable)

blow up (3. no object) bone up on (inseparable)

suddenly become very angry review / study thoroughly for a short time

break down (1) to stop working.

(of machinery) break down (1. separate something into separable) component parts

airport, and he had to get a taxi. I His car broke down. We spent a lot of money at the supermarket. When we broke the total cost down, we spent more on cleaning supplies than food.

break down (2) to lose control emotionally Alec broke down and cried when his or mentally. mother died. I Alec broke down. David broke down and wept when he heard the news. break down (2. stop working / functioning no object) break in (1. enter by using force (and often no breaking a lock, window, object; with an etc.) object, break into-inseparable) break in (2. separable) break in (3. separable) wear something new until it's / they're comfortable Sharon will be late for work today. Her car broke down on the freeway. Jane's apartment was burglarized last night. Someone broke in while Jane was at the movies. / "Somebody broke into Jane's apartment while she was at the movies. These are nice shoes, but they're too stiff. I hope it doesn't take too long to break them in.

train; get someone / I hope I can learn my new job quickly. something accustomed to a The manager hasn't scheduled much new routine time for breaking me in. Last night a burglar broke into my house and stole my television set. A burglar broke into my house. A burglar broke into it. Peace talks between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. have broken off after three days of serious disagreement. Peace talks between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. have broken off. The U.S.A. has broken off peace talks with the U.S.S.R. They have broken off peace t

break into a to enter somewhere (e.g. a building / a house) illegally, especially bank / a house by force. etc. break off to end; to interrupt; to talks / discontinue, stop talking negotiations / an engagement / a relationship / an agreement etc. For more phrasal verbs click here.