LECTURE 9: Cell Theory

CELL BIOLOGY

The invention of the microscope in the 1600s led to the discovery of a whole new world not formerly visible to the naked eye, and not even suspected. Robert Hooke in 1665 was the first person to see and name cells (while viewing thinly sliced cork from a mature tree). He named what he saw cellulae because they resembled the tiny rooms that housed monks in a monastery. Later in the 1600s, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed (with more improved microscopes) organisms in pond water. In the 1800s, Matthias Schleiden (a botanist) and Theodor Schwann (a zoologist) concluded from observations that all plants and animals respectively are composed of cells. Schwann, after years of studying animal tissues proposed the first two tenets of the cell theory (1838,1839): 1. 2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic organizational unit of life (smallest unit to give rise to new life and sustain life). Rudolf Virchow, a physician proposed a third tenet over ten years later (1855) in response to the question where do cells come from?

3.

All cells arise from pre-existing cells by the process of division.

The cell theory is one of the greatest unifying concepts in biology in that, no matter how diverse organisms are they are all made of one or more cells. Cells vary considerably in size and shape, and most are specialized for a particular function (e.g., nerve cells, epithelial cells, parenchyma, red blood cells). exchange of materials. Cell structure All cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes (pro - primitive and karyon -nucleus) are simpler having no membrane bound organelles except ribosomes. They have 70S ribosomes that are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes. They are believed to be evolutionarily more primitive than eukaryotic cells. An organelle is a distinct part of a cell which has a particular structure and function. Prokaryotic organisms include the bacteria and the cynobacteria (blue-green algae) and they posses the simplest of all cellular organisation. They lack an organised nucleus (Fig. 1.) Cells are composed of several structures all surrounded by a membrane which keeps it separated from the environment, but at the same time allowing

All other organisms are said to be eukaryotes (eu, true). Eukaryotes are larger (10 100 m) and more structurally and functionally complex than prokaryotes. prokaryotic cells. They have a well developed nucleus which houses the genetic material, and the cells contain many membrane-bound organelles not found in In addition to the nucleus, the eukaryotic cell has the cytoplasm (cytosol and organelles) - the living material in which various activities takes place, and a plasma membrane surrounds the cytoplasm (Figures 1, 2, 3). Each organelle in the cytoplasm serves a particular function.

Fig. 2
Generalised animal cell

In addition to these three universal components, the cells of plants and unicellular photosynthetic organisms have cells walls outside the plasma membrane (Figure 3), and usually contain a fluid filled vacuole surrounded by a membrane called a tonoplast.

Fig. 3 Generalised plant cell

Nucleus This is the most conspicuous structure in the cell (Fig. 4). This is where the DNA is found coupled with proteins called histones to form chromatin. Chromatin is the loosely coiled form of chromosomes which become more compact and distinct before nuclear division. The nucleus has a double membrane/envelope perforated by pores that allow the entry of substances such as nucleotides for DNA replication. They also allow the exit of mRNA and ribosomes. It has a semifluid nucloplasm in which proteins, granules and fibres are found. It also contains a nucleolus (or more than one). The function of the nucleolus is to manufacture ribosomes (RNA + protein). The nucleus is often called the control centre of the cell because it contains DNA that has the instructions for making proteins (including enzymes that control all metabolic activities).

Fig. 4

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) The ER occurs throughout the cytoplasm as an elaborate system of folded, stacked and tubular membranes called cisternae. It is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. If ribosomes are attached to the cisternae, the ER is called rough ER and this is the site of protein synthesis and their transport. The membranes of the ER create a system of passageways that allow materials to be channeled to different locations within the cell If there are no ribososmes then the ER is smooth ER. This is the site of lipid synthesis e.g., steroid hormones. It is also involved in the destruction of toxic materials in the liver, regulation of calcium ion concentration (e.g., during muscle contraction). Ribosomes (80S) consist of two subunits made of rRNA and protein. Golgi apparatus/complex/body This also consists of a stack of membranes (cisternae) formed from the fusion of vesicles derived from RER (Fig. 5). Its function is to chemically modify proteins destined for export from the cell e.g., glycoproteins. Also involved in lysosome formation and the complex polysaccharides of plant cell walls.

Fig. 5

Lysosomes

These are storage vesicles with hydrolytic enzymes (Fig. 6). They have a single membrane that protect the cell from the contents of the lysosome. It breaks down old organelles, ingested bacteria, and digests macromolecules.

Fig .6

Mitochondria Popularly called the power house of the cell and is located in the cytoplasm. It has a sausage shape with a double membrane (Fig. 7). The inner membrane is folded inwards to form cristae. It has a semifluid matrix. This is the site of ATP synthesis during aerobic respiration.

Fig. 7

Mitochondria (and chloroplasts) have their own ribosomes and DNA. Endosymbiont theory - This concept postulates that chloroplasts and mitochondria are the result of years of evolution initiated by the endocytosis of bacteria and cyanobacteria. According to this theory, cyanobacteria and bacteria were not digested but instead became symbiotic. Microtubules/microfilaments These form the cells cytoskeleton. This forms the internal framework of the cell, providing machinery for movement of cells and organelles. Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical structures composed of protein subunits called tubulin. Microfilaments are solid, thinner, more flexible structures than microtubules. It is made of actin

(a contractile protein). Intermediate filaments are tough, rope-like and are composed of a variety of proteins. Cilia & flagella These are found in animals and protoctists. Cilia are short, hair like structures that project from the surface of the cell. They are involved in movement of the entire cell or movement of materials by the cell e.g., the lining of the respiratory tract. Flagella are larger than cilia and fewer in number. Their beating motion propels the cell through the medium e.g., tail of the sperm. Both are made of microtubules arranged in a 9+2 pattern (9 pairs surrounding 2 central microtubules) (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8

Peroxisome These are produced by the RER and contain hydrolytic oxidase enzymes that act against toxins e.g., catalase. Chloroplasts Organelles that are found in plants and some protoctists. They are bound by a double membrane and have a system of flattened sacs called thylakoids (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

Chlorophylls are located on the thylakoid membrane which serves as the site of photosynthesis (light dependent stage). Vacuole A large central vacuole occurs in plant cells bound by a tonoplast. It contains cell sap which is a solution of salts, sugars, pigment, acids and enzymes. It is involved in storage and osmotic regulation. Animals may have smaller temporary vacuoles e.g., food vacuole, contractile vacuoles formed from endocytosis. Cell wall This is present in bacteria, fungi and plants. They are rigid protective structures, they slow dehydration, prevent the bursting of the cell on influx of water, provide support and are a pathway of movement for water. Plant cell walls are composed of cellulose microfibrils bundled together and embedded in a polysaccharide matrix which holds it together. The young plant cell wall is called the primary cell wall composed mainly of cellulose. Later a secondary wall is added when growth ends. This is often impregnated with lignin e.g., wood. Where two cell walls meet is called the middle lamella (made of pectic substances calcium and magnesium pectate). Cell surface membrane This is a protective barrier around all cells that also maintain the internal environment of the cell by regulating exchange of substances. In 1972, Singer & Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model (Fig. 10) to replace the unit membrane model.

Fig. 10

From:

http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/cellmemb.html

They proposed that the plasma membrane consists of a fluid, phospholipid bilayer with protein molecules (and lipids) floating in it looking like a mosaic (Fig. 9). Cholesterol in the membrane of animal cells increases the fluid nature. The lipids and proteins can move laterally or change places. This is essential for processes like endocytosis. The proteins are held in the membrane by hydrophobic regions interacting with the hydrophobic fatty acid tails. They also attach to the cytoskeleton. There are various types of proteins in the membrane, with different functions (e.g., enzymes, receptor proteins, recognition proteins, carrier and channel proteins, protein pumps). Cell Junctions Animal cells interact with each other forming intercellular junctions. These are specialized contacts between cells. Many cells form permanent or temporary bonds to other cells or extracellular materials. This may involve extensive areas of opposing cell membranes or they may be concentrated at specialized attachment sites. Adhering/Anchoring Junctions Contain adhesive materials between the plasma membrane e.g., hyaluronic acid in epithelial cells (intercellular cement). Found in tissues where the cells are subjected to stretching forces. Tight/Occluding junctions Found near the apical surfaces of cells that line the digestive tract keeping enzymes, acids and wastes from damaging delicate underlying tissues. Also between cells lining the capillaries in the brain (prevent many drugs from passing from the bloodstream into brain tissues. Gap/Communicating junctions Two cells held together by interlocking of membrane proteins. These allow for materials to pass from one cell cytoplasm to another adjoining cell cytoplasm directly thorough a channel. Common in epithelial cells where they help to coordinate the beating of cilia. Also found in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle where movement of mass of cells needs to be coordinated.