Arab J Geosci DOI 10.

1007/s12517-011-0373-9

ORIGINAL PAPER

Status of arsenic contamination in potable water of Northern areas of Mizoram State and its adjoining areas of Southern Assam, India
Shikhar Kumar & Klaus Baier & Ramakar Jha & Rafig Azzam

Received: 27 April 2011 / Accepted: 18 July 2011 # Saudi Society for Geosciences 2011

Abstract A reconnaissance survey was conducted to examine the physicochemical properties of the potable water of Northern parts of the State of Mizoram, India, as well as the adjoining southern parts of the State of Assam, India. Groundwater samples were taken from those sources of water which were used as potable water source in the area. All the samples were analyzed for ionic concentrations of potassium (K+), sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), chlorine (Cl), sulfate (SO42), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), and arsenic (As). Parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, and total hardness were also measured in situ using digital instruments. The aim of the present work is to study the various physicochemical parameters following the recommendations of World Health Organization in order to test whether these sources are safe enough to be used as potable water resources. Furthermore, present work will throw light on the probable causes of presence of arsenic in Silchar City of southern Assam and total absence of it in neighboring state of Mizoram. Keywords Arsenic . Potable water . Tuikhur . Assam . Mizoram . India
S. Kumar (*) : K. Baier : R. Azzam Department of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstr 4-20, 52064 Aachen, Germany e-mail: shikhar5070@gmail.com S. Kumar e-mail: kumar@lih.rwth-aachen.de R. Jha Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769008( Orissa, India

Introduction The quality of water is of vital concern for mankind, since it is directly linked with human welfare as well as socioeconomic development of any area. Poor quality of water adversely affects the plant growth and human health (Wilcox 1948; Thorne and Peterson 1954; US Salinity Laboratory Staff 1954; Holden 1971; Todd 1980; BIS IS 10500 1983; WHO 1984; Hem 1991; Karanth 1997; Singh et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2010, 2009). Groundwater quality data gives important clues to the geologic history of rocks and indications of groundwater recharge, movement, and storage (Walton 1970). Thus, the knowledge of hydrochemistry is vital in understanding the chemical behavior of groundwater (Zaparozec 1972). Naturally occurring high arsenic concentration is one among the recognized problems in groundwater from many regions of southern and eastern Asia, including parts of Bangladesh, West Bengal (India), China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand, and Nepal (Smedley 2003). One such region that forms the study area of the present work lies in close proximity of Bangladesh, a country which has been dealing with very high arsenic concentrations in groundwater for a long time. In the present investigation, an attempt has been made to study the extent and degree of groundwater contamination with special emphasis on arsenic concentration in the Northern parts of the state of Mizoram and the adjoining southern parts of the state of Assam in India. The purpose of this study is to examine the differences in groundwater quality vis-a-vis differences in geology of the two areas and to explore the geological control on presence or absence of arsenic in groundwater besides various geochemical concentrations.

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Study area The state of Mizoram is one among the seven sister states of Northeastern India. It is bounded on the north by the states of Assam and Manipur, on the east and south by Chin Hills of Myanmar, and on the west by Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and the state of Tripura. It covers an area of 21,087 km2. It is situated on a hilly terrain and located between latitudes 2157 N and 2432 N and longitudes 9216 E and 9325 E. Mizoram is quite urbanized state with 49.50% of population living in urban areas, in contrast to the state of Assam, with a value of 12.72% of urban population (2001 census). Mizoram comes under the influence of monsoon, and the maximum rain is experienced between May and September. It has annual rainfall of 217.5 cm. The general geology represented by a repetitive succession of Neogene arenaceous and argillaceous sediments which were later thrown into a series of approximately NS trending longitudinal plunging anticlines and synclines impart a characteristic topographic expression to the study area. The arenaceous and argillaceous groups of rocks occur in relatively higher and lower grounds, respectively. Assam is the largest state in Northeast India covering an area of 78,523 km2. Located at the gateway of Northeast India, Assam is separated by Bangladesh from mainstream India. The state is bounded in the north by Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan, in the east by Nagaland, Manipur, and Burma, in the south by Bangladesh, Tripura, and Mizoram, and in the west by West Bengal. The present work has been performed only in the southern most districts of Assam viz. Cachar, Hailakandi, and Karimganj, which are just adjacent to Mizoram state. Lying to the north of the Tropic of Cancer and bounded by high hill ranges in the north, east, and south, Assam experiences the predominant influence of the southwest tropical monsoon which reigns from April to October with occasional winter showers. The annual average rainfall of the state varies with extraordinary rapidity between 160 and 430 cm from place to place; the average for the state as a whole is about 290 cm with the maximum precipitation during June and July. Map of the study area and the locations of the various stations is shown in Fig. 1. Geology of area under study comprises of Upper Bhuban formation in Mizoram and of Tipam and Bokabil formations in studied districts of Assam. In Upper Bhuban unit of Bhuban formation, arenaceous rocks predominate with sandstone, shale, and siltstone. The contacts remain gradational type as in case of lower and middle Bhuban units (Ganju 1975). In the northern part of Mizoram where the potable water was analyzed, the sandstonesshale intercalations dominate viz. Taitow, Bilkhawthlir, V airengte. On the other hand, Bokabil formation rocks are forming the

aquifer at Dwarband village in Hailakandi district. It borders northwestern boundary of Mizoram. Hailakandi, Karimganj, and Silchar form a part of Surma V alley of Cachar in Southern Assam.

Materials and methods Field work A survey was carried out in February 2010, and groundwater samples were collected. Water samples were collected in clean polythene bottles, washed with distilled water, and again rinsed with representative water samples. Two bottles of 250 ml for each location, one acidified with 2 ml HNO3, and one non-acidified were collected. Laboratory work The physical parameters of the water sources like pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electroconductivity (EC) were measured in the field. Digital instruments made by Eutech Instruments (www.eutechinst.com) were used to test the in situ values of pH, TDS, and EC. Total hardness (TH) was measured using the water testing kit made by Transchem Agritech Limited (www.transchemagritech.com). Using an Arsenic Test Kit made by Merckoquant Chemicals, Germany (www.merck-chemicals.com), a qualitative analysis of the water samples was done in the field to determine the presence or absence of Arsenic. When Zinc powder, a solid acid, andfor the elimination of interfering sulfide ionsan oxidizing agent are added to compounds of arsenic (III) and arsenic (V), arsenic hydride is liberated, which in turn react with mercury (II) bromide contained in the reaction zone of the test strip to form yellow-brown mixed arsenicmercury halogenides. The concentration of arsenic (III) and arsenic (V) are measured semi-quantitatively by visual comparison of the reaction zone of the test strip with the fields of a color scale. Measuring range of the kit or the colorscale graduation is given below: 0:005 0:01 0:025 0:05 0:1 0:25 0:5 mg=l As The hardness of the samples and the calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration was measured by the EDTA titrimetric method. Magnesium ions (Mg2+) were calculated from the TH obtained by the EDTA titrimetric method and the calcium ions estimated by the EDTA titration. Estimation of sulfate ions (SO42) was done by turbidimetric method. Sulfate ions are precipitated in a hydrochloric acid medium with barium chloride in such a manner so as to form barium sulfate. The absorbance of sulfate suspension is measured by spectrophotometer, and sulfate ion concentration is

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Fig. 1 Map of the study area

determined by comparison with a standard curve. Chloride (Cl) was estimated by volumetric titration of neutral or

slightly alkaline sample against silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate as an indicator.

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All the metals and heavy metals were measured on ICP-AES. In principle, the method is capable of measuring most elements in the periodic table with low detection limits and good precision over several orders of magnitude. Elements are measured simultaneously and a complete analysis can be made in the space of about 2 min, making it an extremely rapid analytical method. The time lag between the collection of the water sample and analysis was 10 days.

pH The pH of an aqueous solution is the measure of the number of hydrogen ions or protons present and measured with a pH meter (Hem 1991). It is expressed as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen-ion concentration in water. The pH of the analyzed samples varies from 6.4 to 8.2 which are slightly out of the permissible limits of 6.5 to 8.5 (BIS IS 10500 1983; WHO 1984). In general, the groundwater of Mizoram area is basic and the groundwater of Assam area is acidic. The average pH value of Mizoram samples is 7.28 and of the Assam samples is 6.93. EC Electroconductivity depends upon temperature, ionic concentration, and types of ions present in the water (Hem 1991). Thus, the EC gives a qualitative picture of the quality of groundwater. The maximum permissible limit of EC in groundwater (BIS IS 10500 1983) is 1,500 S/cm. In our study area, it varies from 110 to 680 S/cm. The mean value in Mizoram area is 247.7 S/cm, whereas the mean value in Assam area is 200 S/cm. The EC values are well within permissible limits throughout the study area.

Results The results of various physicochemical analyses are summarized in Tables 1 and 2. Groundwater samples were collected from different sources, and the geographic coordinates of the locations of these samples were determined using a GPS. These samples were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, TH, constituents like Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl, HCO3, SO42, Mn, Fe, and As, by standard methods, as per the standard procedure prescribed by APHA, AWW (1998). A

Table 1 The various physical properties of the collected water samples with their respective locations S.NO. Station Name of the location Source Depth (in feet) 110 140 120 120 120 130 120 150 GPS coordinates pH EC (in S/cm) 680 240 320 253 172 198 244 132 128 110 200 120 180 110 250 310 230 TDS (in mg/L) 420 160 220 175 112 138 163 90 88 82 110 80 110 70 160 210 150 Hardness (in mg/L) 140 135 120 160 120 156 200 104 138 90 190 150 180 195 175 190 180

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Mizo1 Mizo2 Mizo3 Mizo4 Mizo5 Mizo6 Mizo7 Mizo8 Mizo9 Mizo10 Assam1 Assam2 Assam3 Assam4 Assam5 Assam6 Assam7

Taitow Bilkhawthlir V airengte Ralleng RamhlunS Pi Ruali Sihpuii TKV Thlertawi Theihai Majumdar's residence, Silchar Chota Jalinga (2 km towards Silchar from Dwarband) A residence near Hailakandi Karimganj College, Karimganj A Masjid (12 km towards Karimganj from Badarpur) D D Rai residence, Rangpur Kacha Kanti Mandir, Udarband

Handpump Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Tuikhur Borewell Handpump Handpump Handpump Handpump Borewell Handpump

2359.122 N 9242.865 E 2420.403 N 9243.115 E 2430.684 N 9246.352 E 2448.058 9247.489 2438.672 9242.795 2440.494 9234.455 2451.958 9222.031 2451.460 9227.966 2449.655 9248.377 2452.924 9252.780

8.2 8 7.2 7.2 7 7.1 6.8 6.9 7.3 7.1 7.2 7.5 7.1 6.6 7.1 6.4 6.6

N E N E N E N E N E N E N E

Arab J Geosci Table 2 The various chemical concentrations present in the collected water samples S.NO. Station Na+ (mg/L) 2.13 3.62 1.14 9.8 10.08 11.36 13.98 13.9 14.55 12.62 3.44 4.87 3.21 2.74 2.8 1.21 1.5 K+ (mg/L) 157.61 10.62 15.26 1.98 1.72 2.48 1.98 1.98 2.01 2.39 9.06 8.79 14.07 19.89 22.83 16.81 26.11 Ca2+ (mg/L) 15.87 11.90 23.81 11.67 13.61 11.67 11.67 15.56 13.61 9.72 11.9 7.94 3.97 7.94 3.97 7.94 3.97 Mg2+ (mg/L) 9.62 4.81 2.39 5.88 3.52 3.52 5.88 4.7 5.88 9.42 2.4 0 0 0 2.4 2.4 0 Cl (mg/L) 67 48.85 25.9 9.75 13.86 13.15 13.3 11.26 16.8 14.68 21.95 19 35.95 26.7 79.5 147.5 37.5 HCO3 (mg/L) 280 120 155 38.5 42.5 48.5 32.25 34.75 48.65 46.5 75 60 95 60 110 60 85 SO42 (mg/L) 3.0 2.91 7.89 3.35 2.9 4.2 4.65 2.9 4.65 4.3 1.1 1.89 1.71 2.3 2.35 1.99 11.29 Mn (g/L) ND ND 62.06 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 2,733.69 19.43 640.66 1,472.26 280.27 592.55 79.01 Fe (g/L) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 14,443.22 148.21 ND ND 4,336.25 4,2212 ND As (g/L) 0.77 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 7.68 0.62 ND 20.28 96.43 55.61

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Mizo1 Mizo2 Mizo3 Mizo4 Mizo5 Mizo6 Mizo7 Mizo8 Mizo9 Mizo10 Assam1 Assam2 Assam3 Assam4 Assam5 Assam6 Assam7

TDS The weight of the residue consisting of pollutants (dissolved ions) left behind after all the water from a water sample is evaporated is a measure of the TDS and reflects the general nature of the groundwater quality and extent of contamination (Annon 1946; Robinnove et al. 1958; Davis and de Wiest 1966; AWW 1971). The BIS permissible limit A (BIS IS 10500 1983) for TDS is about 500 mg/l, whereas the WHO permissible limit (WHO 1984) is 1,000 mg/l. In general, TDS values of <1,000 mg/l are considered as freshwater and values of >1,000 mg/l are considered brackish. The TDS values in our study vary from 82 to 420 mg/l. The mean value in Mizoram area comes to 164.8 mg/l, whereas in Assam area, it comes to 127.14 mg/l. All the samples were within permissible limits of TDS values. Hardness TH, an important property indicating the quality of groundwater is mainly caused by calcium and magnesium cations and is defined as the sum of their concentrations expressed in milligrams per liter. Basically, it is the soapconsuming property of water (Fletcher 1986). The desirable limit for TH is up to 200 mg/l, but it is acceptable up to 600 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). The actual values observed in the samples of the study area were found to vary from 90 to 200 mg/l. The mean value in Mizoram area was found to be 136.3 mg/l, and in Assam area, it was found to be 180 mg/l. All the samples were well within the acceptable limits. Sodium [Na+] The primary source of sodium in natural water is the soluble products released during the weathering

of plagioclase feldspars. The sodium concentration of the study area varies from 1.14 to 14.55 mg/l. All the values were well below the WHO limit of 200 mg/l for domestic use (WHO 1984). Potassium [K+] Ionic potassium occurs at fairly low concentrations in groundwater (Sravanthi and Sudarshan 1998) and is derived from weathering of the mostly stable orthoclase, microcline feldspars, and biotite minerals present in the granites (Satish Kumar et al. 2007). However, excessive fertilizer usage can increase its concentration in surface as well as groundwater. The potassium concentrations of the study area are varying from 1.14 to 157.61 mg/l. The potassium concentrations are low for all the samples except for one Mizoram sample (Mizo1). Average potassium values for Assam samples is 16.8 mg/l and for Mizoram samples is 19.8 mg/l. Calcium [Ca2+] The calcium concentration of the area is varying from 7.94 to 23.81 mg/l. The Mizoram average value is 13.91 mg/l and Assam average value is 6.8 mg/l. While the permissible limit of calcium concentration is about 75 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983; WHO 1984), concentrations of over 200 mg/l are considered excessive. In the study area, all samples have calcium concentrations well below the permissible limit. Magnesium [Mg2+] Magnesium also is one of the abundant elements in rocks. It causes hardness in water. High

Arab J Geosci Fig. 2 Total dissolved solids vs. electroconductivity

concentration of Mg2+ leads to encephalitis. Magnesium concentration is varying between 0 and 9.61 mg/l. The average magnesium concentration values in Mizoram area is 5.56 mg/l and in Assam area is 1.03 mg/l. The permissible limit of magnesium is 30 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983; WHO 1984). All the samples of the study area are well within this limit.
Fig. 3 Ca2+ vs. total hardness

Chloride [Cl] Chlorine gas is highly toxic but chloride ion is essential for life (Duffus 1996). Chloride in small concentrations is not harmful to humans in drinking water and with some adaptation the human body can tolerate water with as much as 200 mg/l chloride. However, above a concentration of 250 mg/l chloride, the water may taste salty (Hauser 2001; Nduka et al.

Arab J Geosci Fig. 4 Ca2+ vs. SO42

2008). Chloride concentrations of the groundwater samples in the study area are varying from 9.75 to 147.5 mg/l. The Mizoram average for chloride concentration is 23.46 mg/l and of Assam area is 52.59 mg/l. The WHO limit for chloride in groundwater is 250 mg/l (WHO 1984). BIS has desirable limit of 250 mg/l, but the maximum permissible limit in the absence of alternate source is 1,000 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). All our samples are well under these limits.
Fig. 5 Ternary diagram

Bicarbonate [HCO3] The bicarbonate concentration values in the study area vary from 32.25 to 280 mg/l. The average value in Mizoram area is 84.67 mg/l and in Assam area is 77.86 mg/l. Bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides cause alkalinity in natural water. Alkalinity of a water sample is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids. The WHO limit for alkalinity in water is 120 to 250 mg/l (WHO 1984). The BIS limit is 200 mg/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). In the study area, there is one sample (Mizo1) which has

Arab J Geosci Fig. 6 Piper diagram

bicarbonate concentration of 280 mg/l. So, its alkalinity value is definitely above the WHO and BIS limits. The source of alkalinity in the water is generally from sewage and various human activities. Water with high concentration of alkalinity, when used in irrigation may be responsible to cause for white deposits on the various fruits and leaves and thus result to health hazard. Sulfate [SO42] Rock weathering and pollution are the most significant sources of sulfate (Saini et al. 2006). Dissolved sulfate has its origin from dissolution of gypsum, oxidation of pyrites, and contaminated sulfate from industrial discharge. Sulfate concentrations in our water samples vary from 1.1 to 11.29 mg/l. The average value in Mizoram is 4.08 mg/l and in Assam is 3.23 mg/l. The WHO limit for sulfate concentration is 150 mg/l (WHO 1984). The desirable limit for BIS is 200 mg/l and water source containing 400 mg/l is acceptable if no other source is

available (BIS IS 10500 1983). So, our samples are well within the permissible limit. Manganese [Mn2+] Manganese is an essential element for humans and other animals. Adverse effects can result from both deficiency and overexposure (WHO 2006). The concentrations of manganese vary from 0 to 2,733.69 g/l. Only one of the Mizoram samples (Mizo3) has shown presence of manganese with a concentration of 62.06 g/l. There is no detectable presence of manganese in other Mizoram samples. All the samples in Assam show presence of manganese with an average concentration of 831.12 g/l. The WHO limit for manganese concentration is 100 g/l (WHO 1984); however, the limit has been changed to 400 g/l in the 2006 standard published by WHO (2006). The BIS maximum acceptable limit in the absence of another source is 300 g/l, and the desirable limit is 100 g/l (BIS IS 10500 1983). Clearly, most of the

Fig. 7 Depth of wells vs. [As]

Fig. 8 [Fe] vs. [As]

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Assam samples are having Mn concentration much higher than the prescribed limits. Iron [Fe] Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust. Iron is an essential element in human nutrition. Estimates of the minimum daily requirement for iron depend on age, sex, physiological status, and iron bioavailability and range from about 10 to 50 mg/day. A value of about 2,000 g/l does not present a hazard to health. The taste and appearance of drinking water will usually be affected below this level (WHO 2006). In 1984, a guideline value of 300 g/l was established by the WHO. In 2004, however, no guideline value for iron in drinking water is proposed. BIS desirable limit is 300 g/l but in the absence of another source of water, 1,000 g/l is the maximum acceptable limit for iron concentration (BIS IS 10500 1983). The presence of iron ranges from 0 to 42,212 g/l. There is no detectable presence of iron in the Mizoram samples. In Assam, the iron concentration gives an average value of 8,734.24 g/l. Arsenic [As] Arsenic is generally present as arsenate [As (V)] or arsenite [As(III)] for Eh conditions prevalent in most groundwater. Arsenic metal rarely occurs, and the 3 oxidation state is found only in very reducing environments. As(III) has been considered to be the more toxic oxidation state; however, more recent studies have shown that most ingested As(V) can be reduced to As(III). Thus, exposure to both forms of arsenic may result in similar toxicological effects. The presence of arsenic in Mizoram samples is zero, whereas in Assam, four out of the seven samples showed significant amount of arsenic present in the groundwater. Three of the samples viz. Assam5, Assam6, Assam7, had concentration above the permissible WHO limit of 10 g/l (WHO 1984). The BIS maximum permissible limit is 50 g/l (BIS 1983), so the sample Assam5 is safe according to BIS standard.

Fig. 9 [SO42] vs. [As]

handpump with water. A solid conclusion cannot be made because detailed investigation about the white substance was not done. Except the sample Mizo1, all other samples in Mizoram behaved in a similar way. The range of values of pH, EC, TDS, and TH were all very close to each other. The cationic and anionic concentrations of the Mizoram samples were also very close to each other. This is expected since the geology of the area of Mizoram from where the samples were collected is very similar. Almost all the water samples taken in Mizoram area show similar results as shown by Kumar et al. (2010) in Kolasib town, which has very similar geology in comparison with the Mizoram area of this study. In Table 2, it can be clearly seen that Mg2+ concentration in Mizoram samples is higher than the samples from Assam. Many of the Assam samples have no detectable Mg2+ concentration. This clearly suggests the presence of shale dominant rocks in Mizoram area and relatively less dominance in the state of Assam. The rocks present in the area of Mizoram state are belonging to the Bhuban formation which consists of sandstoneshale intercalations having gradational contacts. Similarly, Ca2+ exhibits slightly higher concentration at stations within Mizoram than the remaining stations in Assam. In order to study the mutual relationships among various physicochemical parameters of the water samples, some

Interpretation Except for station Mizo1, all other Mizoram water samples showed more or less similar characteristics. Mizo1 sample was taken from Taitow village, which is not very far from the city of Aizawl. The high values of EC and TDS and the high concentration of K+, Cl, HCO3, and very less but detectable amount of arsenic in that sample can be attributed to the presence of some locally spread contamination which was present only in that source of water (in this case, a handpump). The reason for this interpretation is when the collection of the water sample was done, some white paint-like substance was seen coming out of the

Fig. 10 pH vs. [As]

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bivariate plots (Figs. 2, 3, 4) were also prepared and studied. Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids are proportional to each other, i.e., with an increase in the value of electrical conductivity; the value of total dissolved solids also increases (Fig. 2). Also, the samples from both the states show similar EC and TDS values except for sample from station Mizo1. The very low ratio of SO42/Ca2+ (Fig. 4) indicates that gypsum dissolution is not a primary source of SO42 in these waters. SO42 is a major constituent in the aerosols where burning of forests or forest fires are frequent (Saini et al. 2006; Balasubramanian et al. 1999). The higher concentration of sulfate ion in supply water may be attributed to burning of forests as the area under study experiences frequent burning of forests in the summer season for Jhum cultivation which is still prevalent in Mizoram. To identify trend and relationship between groups of samples, a Ternary diagram incorporating Mg2+, Na+, and Ca2+ as shown in Fig. 5 was also prepared. It reflects samples from all the stations are deficient in Mg2+. Some of the Assam samples do not show any sign of Mg2+ at all and are thus lying on the line joining Na+ and Ca2+. The overall indication is that samples contain more Ca2+ than Na+ and Mg2+. Piper (1944) developed a form of trilinear diagram which is an effective tool in segregating analysis data with respect to sources of the dissolved constituents in potable water, modifications in the character of water as it passes through an area, and related geochemical problems. A Piper diagram was also prepared and shown in Fig. 6. Here, the water samples from Mizoram and those from Assam are grouped together in the triangles Mg2+Ca2+(Na++K+) and SO42HCO3Cl. All the results are exhibiting a deficiency in SO42 and richness in HCO3 than Cl. In the section where Cl and S042 ions are checked against Ca2+ and Mg2+, a distinct grouping among the stations of Mizoram and Assam is being exhibited. The water samples from Assam are rich in cations (Cl, SO42), while the water samples from Mizoram are rich in anions (Ca2+, Mg2+). The general trend of presence of Arsenic and depth of water is sympathetic in nature. This is shown in Fig. 7. Further concentration of iron and/or sulfate ions relate to more arsenic in the water (Figs. 8 and 9). Also, it can be seen that higher arsenic concentrations are found in acidic water, i.e., the lower the pH value, the more is the tendency of arsenic concentration (Fig. 10). The absence of arsenic at the stations within Mizoram and also its immediate bordering areas in Assam, as well as presence of arsenic at remaining stations in Assam, may be attributed to the phenomenon of adsorbance by the clay minerals Kaolinite, Illite, and Montmorillonite (Welch and Stollenwerk 2003) present in the shale horizons of the Upper Bhuban unit of Bhuban formation. The liberation of

arsenic is interfered by the phenomenon of adsorbance at differential degrees within the state of Mizoram and the state of Assam. While in the state of Assam, the rock units comprising sandstone and shale having a finite thickness with sharp contact, the intercalation and gradational contacts within sandstone and shale in Upper Bhuban unit of Bhuban formation in Mizoram permits water to be purified with respect to arsenic by the process of adsorbance as more surface area of contacts are available. On the contrary, the upper Bhuban rocks are present at greater depths within the state of Assam, where arsenic was found in considerable amount in groundwater.

Conclusion Though the groundwater of the study area in general is safe for potable use as per WHO and BIS standards, yet three locations in Assam are marked with higher As content than the permissible limit of WHO. The presence of arsenic in Assam and absence in Mizoram can be attributed to the geology of the areas. The aquifers in Mizoram area are upper Bhuban formation rocks dominated by shale and intercalated sandstonesiltstone lithology. On the contrary, in the area around Silchar City, Assam, there are alluvial sediments of younger age overlying the Surma and Tipam group of rocks. These younger rocks consist of semi-consolidated sediments forming hillocks, the dominant lithology being sandstone, ferruginous sandstone, mottled clay, pebble bed, and boulder beds, etc. without dominance of shale. As a result, the process of adsorption of heavy and toxic metals including arsenic on the surface is minimized leading to concentration of arsenic and other toxic metals in the water of neighboring Silchar City of Southern Assam. Because of the little occurrence of intercalated sandstone and shale, the surface area of clay minerals available for rockwater interaction in the Assam is much lower than that of Mizoram area. The water in three locations viz. Assam5, Assam6, and Assam7 is not safe for potable use. The present quantitative assessment of arsenic now opens the avenue for further investigation in the southern Assam areas bordering Mizoram.
Acknowledgments One of the authors would like to acknowledge the able guidance and support extended by Dr. R. P Tiwari, Professor, . Department of Geology, Mizoram University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India.

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