TheFutureofDataStorage

byAndrewJennings CIT595,Spring2007

Abstract:Computerusersneedtostoremoredataeveryday.Businessesarerequiredbylawtohang ontorecordsforyearstosatisfylawscreatedinthewakeofcorporatescandals.Consumersarebuying moreoftheirmusicandmoviesonlineandmediaprovidersarelookingtopushbandwidthheavyhigh definitioncontenttousers'mediadevices.Tostorethistorrentofdata,oldtechnologieswillneedtobe updatedandradicalnewideaswillhavetobebroughtfromengineeringlabstothemarket.

TableofContents
Introduction:RevolutionaryRandomAccess...................................................................... ......................3 PerpendicularStoragevs.theSuperparamagneticEffect........................................................... ...............3 MicromechanicalStorage:TheMillipede......................................................................................... .........5 BluRayandHDDVDViefortheLivingRoom.............................................................. ........................7 HolographicStorageBreaksintotheThirdDimension.................................................................. .........10 Conclusion:MorethanTechnology.................................................................................... .....................12 Bibliography..................................................................................................................... ........................13 ImageCopyrights............................................................................................................................... .......14

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Introduction:RevolutionaryRandomAccess
IBMintroducedthefirstcomputerwithaharddiskdrivein1956:theRAMAC305.Thedrive weighedafullton,usedanoisyaircompressortomoveapairofread/writeheadsamongits50platters, andstoredonly5MBofdata(Hoagland,1871).Itsfullnamerevealedthetechnologythatwouldmake RAMACrevolutionary:RandomAccessMethodofAccountingandControl.RAMAC'sreadarmcould reachanybitofdatainashortamountoftimeanddidn'thavetogothrougheverybitbetweenhereand thereinordertodoso.Thisrandomaccesswasahugebreakthroughthatbroughtdataseektimes downto600milliseconds(IBMArchives).BeforetheintroductionoftheRAMAC,datawasoftenstored onreelsofmagnetictapethatneededtobewoundtoaspecificpointbeforedatacouldberead.Seek timesforsequentialaccessonamagnetictapecouldbemeasuredinsecondsratherthanmilliseconds.If atapewasfullywoundandyouwantedtoreaddataattheend,youwouldhavetowaituntiltheentire tapeunspooledtodoso.Withrandomaccess,databecamequicklyaccessibleregardlessofwhathadjust beenread. Asthecomputerbecameubiquitousinthemodernworld,harddriveshaveincreaseddrasticallyin speedandstoragespacewhileshrinkingtopocketsize.Theystillrelyonthesameprinciplesthat RAMACbroughttothemarketfiftyyearsago:aread/writeheadglidingaboveplatterscoatedin magneticmaterial.AlthoughRAMAChadonlyapairofdatareadingheads,amodernharddrivewill haveapairfloatingonanarmbetweeneverytwoplatters,eachtiedtotheactuatorthatpositionsthe headsinparalleloveraspecifictrack.Dataisreadbyexaminingthemagnetictransitionsamongthe magneticgrainscoatingeachplatter.

PerpendicularStoragevs.theSuperparamagneticEffect
Continualimprovementsintheminiaturizationandspeedoftheunderlyingmechanicaldevicesthat makeuptheharddrivehaveallowedthenumberofbitscontainedwithinadrivetoincreaseexponentially (seeFigure1).Butthereisalimittotheamountofdatathatcanbepackedintoadrivebecauseofthe physicalpropertiesoftheharddiskdriveplatter,thespinningdiscthatholdsthemagneticbitsthatmake updata. Dataisstoredonaharddriveingrainsofmagneticmaterialthatarelaidoutontheplatters.The grainsaredistributedintoislandsofaboutathousandgrains,witheachislandmakingupabitof Jenningsp.3

informationstoredonaharddrive.Thereadandwriteheadsoneachactuatorarmoftheharddriverun abovethesegrainsofmagneticmaterialanddetecttheirmagneticorientations,whichrepresenttheir statusasstoringa1ora0.Bymakingthegrainsofmagneticmaterialsmallerandcreatingmore sensitivereadandwriteheads,manufacturershavebeenabletoincreasethenumberofbitsstoredonhard drives.Currentdiskdrivescanusethislongitudinalstorageofgrainstoreachanarealdensityof120 Gb/in2(Currieetal.,153).RAMAC'sdiskdrivehadanarealdensityof2Kb/in2. Butthereisaminimumsizethateach magneticgraincannotsinkbelowifitisto usefullyholdacharge.Asthegrainsget shorter,theyreachapointwherethethermal energyaroundtheplattersisenoughtoflip themagneticorientationofagrain.Thisis thesuperparamagneticeffect.Onewayto getaroundthisisusingmagneticmaterials thathaveahighercoercity,theresistanceto changeinmagnetization.Althoughsuch materialsarelesslikelytounexpectedly changeorientation,highercoercityalso makesreadingandwritinginformationmore difficult. Anotherwaytogetaroundthis limitationisstackingupthedatacarrying Figure1:ArealDensityOverTime magneticgrainssotheyaremagnetically orientedperpendicular,ratherthanparallel,

toeachplatter.Byorientingthedatacarryingislandsthisway,thevolumeofeachmagneticunitis increasedandthesuperparamagneticbarrierispushedback.Althoughtheplattersareusingathicker coatingofmagneticmaterial,it'spossibletocoatthesurfaceareaofthediskwithmorebitsof information.Theplattersarealsospecialized,withasoftmagneticunderlayerthathelpsorientthe grains'chargevertically.Hitachicurrentlysellsdiskdrivesusingthistechnologyandbelievesthatareal densitiesusingperpendicularrecordingcanextendbeyond500Gb/in2(Currieetal.,153). Jenningsp.4

Althoughthesuperparamagneticbarrierloomsintheharddrive'sfuture,perpendicularrecordinghas pusheditbacksothatmanufacturershavemoretimetodevelopnewtechnologiestoreplace(or revolutionize)theharddiskdrive.Forexample,IBMisusingnewplattermaterialstofurtherpushback thebarrierandresearchinpatternedmediamayallowforharddrivesthatstoreabitinasinglegrainof magneticmaterial.

MicromechanicalStorage:TheMillipede
Anotherwaytogetaroundthesuperparamagneticbarrieristousenonmagneticmaterialstostore data.IBMisdevelopingastoragedevicethatemploysheated,micromechanicalcantileverstojabtiny pitsintoapolymermedium.Initialexperimentswiththecantilevertechnologyhappenedintheearly 1990s.Scientistswereabletosuccessfullywritedatawithanarealdensityof30Gb/in2bypullingthe tinytipacrossarotatingcircularmedium(Vettigeretal,2000,p324).Thedensitywasimpressiveforthe timebutreadandwriteoperationswereslowwithaccesstoonlyonebitatatime.Soscientists developedachipthatcancontrolanarrayofcantileversforfastaccessinasmallpackage.The appearanceofthesetinylevershangingfromtheircontrollergivesthedeviceitsname:Millipede. TheMillipedeusestechnologydevelopedfortheatomicforcemicroscope,adevicethatdragsatiny cantileveroverasurfacetodetectitsshape.Asthecantileverbouncesthroughthepeaksandvalleysof thematerial,itsverticalmovementistrackedbyaphotodiodethatobserversalaserreflectingofftheend ofthecantilever(UniversityofBristolSPM).AlthoughtheMillipedeusesmicromechanicalcantilevers liketheAFM,thestoragedeviceusesheatratherthanlighttodetectthemovementofthelever. TheMillipede'sread/writemechanismcontainsatwodimensionalarrayofcantilevers,each70 micrometerslong.Eachleverhasawritingtip,apointwitha2micrometerbaseandanapexonly20 nanometerswide.Thesetipswriteonathreelayerstoragemedium.Thebottomofthemediumisabase ofhardsilicontodissipateheat.Ontopofthesilicon,abufferlayerofasoftpolymercalled photoresistkeepsthelevertipsfromreachingthehardsiliconlayer.TheMillipededependson uniformityofthesizeofthewritingtipsforaccuracyandcontactwiththesiliconunderlayerwouldwear downthetips.Thethirdlayerisacoatingofthepolymermarkedbythewritingtips, polymethylmethacrylate(PMMA). Towriteonebitofinformation,aleverisheatedto400oCelsiusrightabovethemeltingpointofthe Jenningsp.5

PMMAandpressedintothesledthatholdsthemedia.Asthelevergetsclosertothemediumand thetipsmakessurfacecontact,polymermeltsandatinybitisformed.Whenenoughheathasbeen transferredfromthelevertothestoragemedia,thatindicatesaproperbithasbeeninscribedandthelever ispulledawayfromthemedium. Readingdatausesasimilarheatdetectingprocess.Toreadthedataunderneaththestoragearray, eachofthetipsisheatedto350o,nothotenoughtomeltthemedium.Asthetipsmoveoverthestorage medium,thetemperaturesoftheleversfloatingabovethestoragemediumaremonitored.Asatipdips intoabitindentation,theamountofheattransferredfromthelevertothemediumwillincrease, indicatingthatamarkrepresentinga1ispresent. Usingthesemethods,scientistsatIBMhavebeenabletocreatepatternsfrombitindicatorsonly 40nmindiameter,100nmapart. InitialMillipedeshadadataarrayof only5x5leversbutrecently,64x64 arraysofcantilevershavebeen created,packingdatawithanareal densityofmorethan1Tb/in2(IBM ZurichResearchLab). TheMillipedemanufacturing processinvolvessiliconetchingand Figure2:TheMillipede'sdataarraymovesalongtheX andYaxesabovethestoragemedium surfacemicromachining,thesame methodsusedtomakemicrochips. TheMillipede'sbasicshapeisfirst etchedfromasiliconwafer.Thenlayersofsiliconaredepositedontothetipsofthecantileversand etchedintothewritingtips.Afterthearrayiscomplete,theMillipede'sdataarrayisjoinedtotheCMOS circuitsthatcontrolitsmechanicalmovement.Therearenoadditionalwiresneededtotransferelectrical signalthroughtheMillipedebecauseit'screatedfro mdopedsilicon. Theread/writepartoftheMillipedeisattachedtomagneticactuatorsthatmoveitabovethesled containingthestoragemedium.ThemagnetskeepthepiecestogetherandalsoprotecttheMillipede fromvibration.ThesledismovedalongtheXandYaxestotheproperpositionbelowtheMillipede, Jenningsp.6

whichcanthenreadandwritewithitsleversinparallel. TheMillipede'sreadandwritespeedsarebasedonthenumberofcantileverscontainedinthestorage array.Eachleveriscurrentlycapableofmorethan1Kb/s,meaningthata64x64arraycando4Mb/s. Thespeedlimitationisnotduetothemovementoftheleversorthedataarraybutthecyclespeedofthe electricalpulsesusedtoheatthelevers.ImprovementstotheMillipededesignareaimedatreaching megabitspeedsperlever,enablingthedevicetoreachdataaccessspeedsofgigabitspersecond. OneoftheissuesfacingtheMillipedeprojectisthelowtoleranceforerrorwhencreatingmachinesat themicrometerlevel.VettigerstatesthattheMillipedeismovinglessthan1micrometerabovethemedia sled.Toensureaccuratereadingandwriting,thetipsattheendofeachcantilevermusthaveatip uniformityoflessthan500nanometers.AlthoughtheMilllipedeisaccuratewhenallleversarein workingcondition,prototypesmayhavebetween20%and40%damagedcantilevers.Inadditiontotip nonuniformity,manyofthesenonworkingleversstemfromproblemswiththermalexpansionduetothe intenseheatatwhichtheMillipedeisworking. Becausethedevicesaresotiny,powerconsumptionforheatingthestoragearrayisquitelow.The Millipedeismanufacturedusingalreadyexistingprocessessotheywillbemanufacturedatarelatively lowcost.Thismakesitanidealstoragedeviceforwatches,PDAsandotherdevicesthatcurrentlydepend onbulkyharddrivesorexpensiveflashmediaforstorage.IBMscientistshaveproposedtousethe MillipedeinaNanodrive,acentimetersizeddevicecapableofholdingagigabyteofdata(Vettigeretal, 2006,p333).It'salsopossibletousetheMillipedeinlargerstoragedevicesbyleveragingtechnology existingintheharddrive,i.e.,theMillipedecouldbeusedasaread/writeheadwhileadiscmovedthe polymercoatedmediumunderneaththewritehead(Vettigeretal,2000,p336).WhatevertheMillipede isusedfor,it'scertainthatthisnoveldevicewillallowustostoremoredatathanpossiblewithahard drivebysidesteppingthesuperparamagneticlimit.

BluRayandHDDVDViefortheLivingRoom
Oneoftheothercommonmethodsofstorageistheopticaldisc.TheCD,introducedin1982asa musicstorageformat,isoneofthemostpopularformatsofopticaldatastorage.TheCDROMiscapable ofstoring650MBor700MBofdata.TheCDwassucceededbytheDVD,capableofstoringsixtimes thedata(4.7GB).DVDscanalsocontaintwolayersofinformationstoredoneachsideofthediscfora Jenningsp.7

grandtotalof17.1GBofstorage. Producersofhighdefinitionvideodecidedthatanewformatwasneededtobringtheircontentto consumers'livingrooms.TheoriginalDVDstandardwashammeredoutofcompromisesbythevarious membersoftheDVDForum.Thistime,theproducerscouldnotdecideonasingleformat.Nowthere aretwoincompatiblecontendersforthesuccessoroftheDVD:BluRayDisc(BD)andHighDefinition DigitalVersatileDisc(HDDVD).BDandHDDVDarebothcapableofholdingahigherdensityof informationthantheDVDduetotheuseofbluelasers(ratherthanred)usedtoreadCDsandDVDs. InformationonaBDorHDDVDisstoredinaspiralshapeonthedisc.Thedataspiralradiatesfrom thecenterofthedisctowardtheouteredge.Ifthedisccontainsasecondlayer,thatspiralmaystarton theoutsideofthediscsothelaserlenspickupdoesn'thavetostopandmovetothecenterofthedisc duringalayerchange.Thatmakesitlessnoticeabletoamoviewatcherthatthelayerchangeoccurred. Asthediscspins,thelaseronthereadheadfocusesabeamatthelayerbeingreadanda photosensitivedevicelooksforareflectionofthedatafromthedisc.Areflectionsignifiesapitwas found,meaninga1signal.Noreflectionmeansthediscwasnotpittedatthatparticularspot,causingthe laserlighttobedeflectedawayfromthereader,signifyinga0bit.Inthisway,digitalinformationcanbe readfromthedisc. Onafactorypresseddisc,thebottomlayerofthediscisinjectionmoldedandcontainsadataspiral writteninbumpsonthetopoftheplasticlayer.Alayerofaluminumisplacedontopoftheplastic,then anotherlayerofplasticandalabelgoontopofthealuminum.Thereflectivealuminumlayeriswhatis actuallyreadbythelaser.Anopticalpickupdetectswhetherthelaserlenshitabump(actuallyseenasa pitinthealuminumlayerfromthesideofthediscthelaserison)oranabsenceofapit(calledaland). Thespindlerotatesthediscasthelaserlenspickupmovestowardtheendofthespiral,leadingtoa streamofpitsandlandsthatcanbedecodedas0sand1sandprocessedbyacomputerorvideoplayer. Datacanbewrittentoadiscusingthesameequipment.Insteadofaninjectionmoldedplasticlayer containingbumps,thewritablemediacontainsalayerofphotosensitivedyeunderthealuminumlayer.A writinglasercombineswiththedyetocreatepatchesthattaketheplaceofthepitsandlandsinthe factorypresseddisc.Readingthediscusesthesamemechanismdescribedabove. Themostsignificantdifferencebetweennextgendiscsandpreviousgenerationsisthecoloroflaser Jenningsp.8

usedtoreadandwritedata.BDandHDDVDsusebluelasers,whichhaveashorterwavelengththanthe redlasersusedtoreadpreviousopticalstoragediscs.Thisshorterwavelengthmeansthatthebluelaser hasanarrowerfocusandisabletoreadsmallerpitsthanaredlaser(Piepenburg,31).Thereforenextgen discscanbethesamediameterasaDVDwhilehavingmanymorepitsinthespiraltrack. BDandHDDVDplayersuseadifferentaperturewidthforthelaserlens,leadingtoadisparityin storagesizesforthetwoformats(Cyberlink).BDlaserlenseshaveanumericalapertureof.85while HDDVDlensesare.65.AhigherNAmeansthelaserstartswiderbutspreadslessasittravels.The creatorsoftheHDDVDwantedtomanufacturethediscsoncurrentDVDpressingequipment.Thislead totheHDDVDhavingaplasticlayer0.6mmthick,justliketheDVD.ThemanufacturersofBDdidnot bindthemselvestotheDVDmanufacturingequipmentandcreateddiscswithabottomlayerofonly0.1 mm.ThethickercoatingcombinedwiththelesserNAmeansanHDDVDlaserneedstofocusonlarger pitsthantheBD'sreader.ThisiswhytheBDstoresmoreinformationthantheHDDVD.Asingle sided,singlelayerBDcancontain25GBofdatawhileasimilarHDDVDcanhold15GBof information. SpecificationsforHDcontentdiscs HDDVD StorageSpace LaserNA TrackPitch Codecs 15GBperlayer .65 .40micrometers MPEG2 MPEG4A VC VC1 Sound ReadSpeed(1x) Exclusivecontent DolbyDigitalPlus, DTSHD 32.4Mb/s Universal BluRay 25GBperlayer .85 .32micrometers MPEG2 MPEG4A VC VC1 DolbyDigitalPlus, DTSHD 36Mb/s Sony,Fox,Disney, MGM,LionsGate TakenfromofficialBluRayandHDDVDwebsites

BluRayandHighDefinitionDVDarebothavailableforuseascomputerstoragedevices.Write Jenningsp.9

onceandrewritablediscsareavailable.Butuntilwritablemediadropsinprice,mostconsumerswill encounterBDandHDDVDasprerecordedmediacontainingmovies.Eachoftheformatshasbeen backedbyanumberofcontentproducers,withSonybeingoneofthelargestBDbackersandUniversal StudiosprovidingcontentexclusivelyforHDDVD.Partoftheconflictwillplayoutonthecurrent generationofvideogameconsoles,withSonyusingitsPlayStation3asaTrojanhorsetogetBluRay devicesintohomesandMicrosoftreleasinganaddonHDD VDplayerforitsXbox360console. Devicesthatreadbothformatsareintheworksbutit'smorelikelythatoneformatwillcomeoutaheadin afewyearsandleavetheothertobecometheBetamaxofthisgenerationofopticalstorage. AsDipertpointsoutinhisarticle,there'salsoapossibilitythatconsumerswillchooseneither.There aremanyalternativestowatchinghighdefinitioncontentthatusecurrentredlaserDVDs.It'spossibleto buyWindowsMediaVideoencodedcontentonaDVDthat'splayableonaPC.Ratherthanfillingmore spaceonadisc,contentcouldbeencodedinaspacesavingcodecsuchasMPEG4orDivX.It'salso possiblethatanotherdisctype,suchastheEnhancedVersatileDisc(EVD)createdinChina,couldtake marketsharefromBDandHDDVD.Finally,consumersmaynotbereadyfortheexpenseinvolvedin upgradingtheirequipmenttoHD.Dipertmentionstheoftencitedstudiesthatclaimpeoplecan't distinguishhighresolutioncontentfromlowresolutionontelevisionsbelow50anyway.Soit'squite possiblethatbothhighdefinitiondiscswillgothewayofthelaserdiscandbecomeafootnoteinAV history.

HolographicStorageBreaksintotheThirdDimension
Holographicstorageasaconcepthasbeenexaminedfordecadesbutonlyrecentlyhasitbecome commerciallypossible.InPhase,aspinoffofLucentLabs,willlikelybethefirsttomarketwiththeir Tapestrylineofdrivesthisyear.Theyhavemanagedtobringthisproducttomarketbydevelopinga specialmediathatsolvessomeoftheproblemsencounteredwithearlierattemptsatholographicstorage. HolographicstorageisfundamentallydifferentfromotheropticalstorageliketheDVDbecauseit storesdatathroughoutthemediuminsteadofonatwodimensionalsurface.Ratherthanbouncingalaser offadiscorreadingfromthesurfaceofaplatter,holographicdevicesshootlasersthroughmediato createandreadpatterns.Thisallowsforadensityofinformationnotpossiblewithtwodimensional storage.Thebasicunitofdatainholographicstorageiscalledapage.Apagecancontainonemillion Jenningsp.10

bits,arrangedinacheckerboardlikepattern.PagesareprojectedbyshiningalaserthroughaSpatial LightModulatorthatturns0sand1sintoapatternoflightsdifferentintensity.TheSLMletsthrougha beamoflightcontainingthepatternofthedatapagethedatabeam. InadditiontogoingthroughtheSLM,thedevice'slaserissplitandaimedatasmallmirrorthat projectsthebeamintothemediaatanangleintersectingthedatabeam.Thisbeamiscalledthereference beam.Theangleofthebeamsandtheirrelationtothemediawillbethekeytoretrievingthepage. ThereferencebeamandthedatabeamproducedbytheSLMintersectinsidethemedia,combiningto createaninterferencepatternwheretheymeet.Theinterferencepatternisrecordedbythephotosensitive mediaandbecomestherepresentationofthedatapageonthemedia.Toretrievedata,thereferencebeam canbeaimedatthemediaatthesameangle.Thereferencebeam,shiningthroughtheinterference pattern,willrecreatethedatabeamonthe othersideofthemedium.Thedatahitsa chargecoupleddevice(CCD),thelight sensingdeviceattheheartofthedigital camera,whichcantranslatethedatabeam backintoanarrayofdigitalbits. Byslightlychangingtheangleofthe referenceanddatabeams,movingthemedia orchangingabeam'swavelength,overlapping pagescanbewrittenthroughoutthemedium. Inprototypedevices,mediafilledwith booksof100overlappingpagescouldstore Figure3:Writingtoholographicmedia dataat80Gb/in2.InPhasehasaneyeon improvingthatdensitybyadjustinglaserNAandwavelengthtoallowforbooksofmorethan600pages andadensityof1600Gb/in2(Wilsonetal,35). Oneoftheinitialproblemswithholographicstoragewasfindingapropermedium.Initialpolymers reactedpoorlytolasersanddeformed,damagingtheinformationstoredinthemedia(Huang,66). InPhaseclaimstohaveavoidedtheseissuesbycreatingatwochemistrymediathatreactscorrectly whenwritingbutstaysstableduringreadoperations.TheTapestrymediaiscreatedfromtwopolymers, Jenningsp.11

onethatkeepsthediscstableandanotherthat'sphotosensitivetorecordtheholograms. Becauseanentiremegabitofdatacanbereadinparallel,dataretrievalfromholographicmediais extremelyfast.SeektimesontheinitialTapestrydrivesaresaidtoaverage250msanddatatransferrates shouldbe20Mb/s.InPhasehascreatedaroadmap(Wilson,35)oftechnologiesandisshootingfor eventualspeedsof120Mb/s.

Conclusion:MorethanTechnology
Thosearejustafewofthestoragetechnologieswemayseeinthenextfewyears.Despiteeachbeing anadvancementovercurrenttechnologiesinspeedorspace,there'snoguaranteethatanyofthemwill catchonenoughtobecomeasubiquitousasthemodernharddriveortheDVD.There'smoreto technologythanefficiencyanddesign;there'smarketing,priceandeaseofuse.Whetherthesedevices becomepopularwilllikelydependmoreonadvertisersthanengineersbuteachisafascinatingwayto conquertheissuesfacingaworldthatneedstostoreaneverincreasingnumberof0sand1s.

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ImageCopyrights
Imagesreproducedforacademicpurposes. Figure1:IBM2003,fromIBMSystemsJournal,vol42,no2 Figure2:IEEE1999,fromTechnicalDigest,12thIEEEInternationalMicroElectroMechanical SystemsConference,p564569 Jenningsp.14

Figure3:InPhaseTechnologies2007,fromhttp://www.inphase technologies.com/technology/default.asp

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