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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031251584
DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
CONTAINING
264
EXPERIMENTS
Svo.
4r. 6rf.
With
Illustrations.
Crown
CO.
NEW
DYNAMICS OF ROTATION
AN ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO RIGID DYNAMICS
A. M.
WORTHTNGTON,
C.B.,
M.A., F.R.S.
HEADMASTER AND PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AT THE ROYAL NAVAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, DEVONPORT
FOURTH EDITION
CO.
who from
either of mathematical
of sufficient
much
of the
Dynamics
of a Particle as
is
given in
after
all,
which
their
know-
phenomena exhibited
and
make
As
who
is
interested
and
who
has mastered
relations
between couples,
and angular
accelerations, in a rigid
vi
Preface.
Angular Momentum.
first
developing
phenomena
for verification,
by reference
think
of,
gain his
jirst ideas
the best
way
may
makes no pretence
treatise.
My
who
have assisted
me
my
colleague,
W.
many
corrections.
A. M.
W.
Dbvonpobt,
Z\st
Oa.
1891.
book has
opportunities
first issue.
considerable
improvements
since its
have been
rectified,
my own
me
to detect
and
alter
proved
so
satisfactory
simplification
for
non-
mathematical students, to
whom
momental
ellipsoid
so
manner indicated
be pardoned for
may
and
interesting,
moment
of inertia of the
oscillating
on
p. 80.
vii
viii
Preface.
am
throughout, of using
'
the word
pound when a
'
force is meant,
i.e.
to the
mass in
is
foot-per-sec.-per-sec.
A.
M. W.
Dbvonpobt, Wfh
Oct. 1902*
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER L
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND PRELIMINAKV KINEMATICS.
Page
1.
Rigid Body.
2.
2.
Angular Velocity.
Bate
of Revolution.
(u)
3. 3. 3.
5. 6.
Relation between
and
(u).
Angular Acceleration.
Uniformly Accelerated Rotation.
Examples.
Geometrical Representation of Angular Velocit es and Ac>
celerations.
7.'
On
8. 8. 8. 8.
Definition of Torque.
Definition of Equal Torques.
Fundamental
Measure
Unit Torque.
Statical Experiment.
of Torque.
8.
9.
9.
9.
QHAPTEB
Page
11.
12.
II.
Proposition
ii.
13.
Methods
of
Experimental Verification.
Contents.
Page
14.
,,
15. 15.
17.
The Analogue
of
Mass
in Botational Motion.
Botational Inertia,
17. Definition of
,,
18.
18. 18.
Inertia.
To
Proposition
m.
an Ideal Single-particle System.
20.
20. 21. 22.
Moment of laertia. Unit Moment of Inertia. Definition of Angular Momentum. To find the Kinetic Energy of a Bigid Body
Fixed Axle.
rotating about a
23. 23.
Work
done by a Couple.
for the
Work
done by a force
24.
24.
to a Couple.
25. 30.
Note to Chapter n.
D'Alembert's Principle.
CHAPTER
DEFINITIONS,
AXIOMS,
Page
,,
Moment Moment
of Inertia of
an Area.
of Inertia of a
Volume.
Axiom,
Axiom.
Proposition L
,,
34. Blustratiou.
.,
34.
35.
Contents.
Page
36.
xi
of Inertia
Moment
cases.
about an
Examples
,,
Theorem
38. Proposition
n.
39. Applications.
40. Proposition
III.
42.
Examples
for Solution
on Chapters
i., il.,
and
in.
CHAPTER
IV.
To Find
Rod ahout a
Perpendicular
,,
,,
Moment
an
Ellipse.
62.
53. Exercises.
CHAPTER
V.
PRINCIPAL
SUfi-
Page
,,
,,
and
vi.
xii
Contents.
60. 62.
63. 64.
Page
,
Diagrams
of Inertia Curves.
,,
Construction of
Moment
of Inertia Surface.
Vlil.
,,
Equimomental Systems
Proposition
Proposition IX.
CHAPTER
VI.
Page
67. Definition of
CHAPTER Vn.
AN ELEMENTARY ACCOUNT OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES AND LAWS Or
ELASTIC OSCILLATIONS.
Page
70. Perfect or
70.
Simple Elasticity.
Hooke's Law.
Elasticity.
Hooke's Law.
,,
due to
73.
,,
,, ,,
,, ,,
77.
Examples.
79. Oscillating
81.
Examples
for Solution.
Contents.
xiii
CHAPTER
VIII.
Analogue
Axle.
in Eotatiou to
Newton's Third
Law
of Motion.
,,
83. First
Example.
Third Example.
,,
85.
Fourth Example.
Other Exemplifications of the Principle of the Conservation
of Angular
Momentum.
,,
88. 89.
Moment
of
,,
89. Conservation of
Momentum. Moment
of
Momentum.
,,
,,
,,
Pendulum.
93.
Examples.
CHAPTER
IX.
Page
94.
Evidence of the Existence for a Rigid body of a point possessing peculiar Dynamical Relations,
95. 96.
96.
Experiments
Experiments
(1), (2),
and
(5).
(3).
,,
(4)
and
A Couple
of Gravity.
97.
Experiment
(6)
(7).
98.
Experiment
xiv
Page
99. Definition of
Contents.
Centre of Mass.
, ,
100.
Proposition
I.
(Kiuematical.) (Banematical.
(Kinematical.)
)
On
Centre of Ma^s.
101.
101.
On
Centre of Mass.
101. Proposition
III.
On
Centre of Mass.
102.
Summary.
102.
,,
Corresponding Propositions about Moments. On the Resultant Angular Momentum 103. Proposition iv.
104. Proposition y. 104. Proposition vi.
Mass of a
,,
The Motion
it.
of the Centre of
Mass does
On
Examples.
Examples
for Solution.
CHAPTER
X.
.Uniform Motion of a Particle in a Circle. 112. Use of the terms ' Centripetal Force and ' Centrifugal
111. Proposition.
'
Force.
Rigid Body.
Rigid Lamina.
\
Contents
Page
115. Extension to Solids of a certain type. 116.
xv
Convenient Dynamical
Artifice.
is
about a
Principal Axis.
,,
121.
121.
123. Transfer of
of Centrifugal Couples
CHAPTER XL
CBNTEK or PBKCUSSION.
Page
125.
126.
127.
Experiment.
a Body
of
any Form.
CHAPTER
XII.
Page
130.
Simple Illustrations.
135. Rotation
The luvariabla
Axis.
xvi
Contents.
CHAPTER Xm.
ON SOME OF THE PHENOMENA PRESENTED BY SPINNING BODIES.
Page 136. Gyroscope.
137.
Experiments
(1), (2),
and
(3).
138.
Experiment
(4).
Experiment
Experiments Experiments
(S).
(6), (7),
and
(10).
(8).
141.
(9)
and
Explanation of Precession.
in
Rate of Precession.
'
Observation of the
Wabble.'
150. 152.
of
154.
The Rising
Example
of a Spinning Top.
'
Effort to Precess.'
rail-
157.
on the machinery
of
a pitching, rolling,
or turning ship.
158.
Example
(2)
Torpedo-boat turning.
(1) (2)
The Parallelogram
of
Angular Velocities.
of spin inclined.
86.
of a gyroscope or top
164.
(3)
DYNAMICS OF EOTATION.
CHAPTEE L
DEFINITIONS OF TEEMS AND PEELIMINAEY KINEMATICS.
Rigid Body.
(i.e. stiff)
A
at
body in Dynamics
its parts.
is
said to be rigid
it
upon
do not change
We shall deal,
stone
;
first,
its
hinges
pendulum
a magnetic
its
compass-needle;
attached mirror.
needle
of a
galvanometer with
body
as,
is
for example, a
not, taken as a
two practically
may be
regarded as a rigid
far
when
otherwise handled.
So
tutes,
by an
is
with the
string,
may
be regarded'
Dynamics of Rotation.
Angular Velocity.
this axis in the
^When
If
body describes a
circle
about
same time.
of
we
conceive a radius to be
circular
any such
if
path to the
then,
number
radius
is
of unit angles
The
unit angle
the 'radian,'
i.e.
Hence, in
brief,
we may
write
= Number
is
of
radians
The
(the
Greek
omega).
When
its
is
Rate of Revolution.
describes
2b-
velocity is
(o,
and
when
a body
describes
2jr
angular velocity
(o
25r.
20 X 27r 60
2x
3
Tangential Speed.
()
of a particle
Definitions of Terms.
describing a circle of radius r about a fixed axis
is
at any
and
is
Since
an angular velocity
follows that
= or w =
-^
will be
made
of this relation.
feet in diameter is driven
(1)
A rotating
600
drum 4
by a
and without
slipping on the
drum.
To
=
(2)
Find
= 1*6
=15
X 10 feet per
feet per seo.
seo,
Angular Acceleration.
rigid
of rotation of a
body about a
The usual symbol for angular acceleration is at any instant the number of radians per second
deal at
first
Thus
&>
is
We shall
symbol A.
rigid
body
Dynamics of Rotation.
start rotating
from
t
rest with a
A, then after
given by
= Ai.
rest,
If the
had
initially
t
an angular
velocity
seconds the
= ft),+A<
(i)
uniform
interval, which,
when
multiplied
lies
mean between,
the
=a.,+|A<,
and the angle described
= K+iA<)<
=o,<+JA<'
(ii)
t
By
substituting in
(ii)
the value of
given in
(i)
we
obtain
the equation
<o2=w,2+2Ae
which connects the angular velocity
(o
(iii),
with
initial velocity u,
The student
similar to
and are derived in precisely the same way as the three fundamental kinematic equations that he has learned to
not considered necessary to reproduce here the geometrical by which this is established. See Gamett's Elementary Dynamics, and Lock's Dynamics for Beginners,
'
It
is
or other reasoning
Definitions of Terms.
s=v,t-\-\at^
'o^u^-\-1as
Example 1. A wheel is set gradually rotating from rest with a uniform angular acceleration of 30 units of angular velocity per sec. In what time will it acquire a rate of rotation of 300 revolutions per minute ?
Solviion.
300 revolutions
,.
,
per minute
.
is
.^
^^r
300 x2b-
J wul be attained
,
.
m
.
sec.
=Eseo.= ?^2il?
3 3
= 1-0472 sec.
:
Example 2. wheel revolves 30 times per sec. with what uniform angular acceleration will it come to rest in 12 sec, and how many turns will it make in coming to rest ?
Solution.
cd
= 30 x 2n- = 60jr.
This
i*.
is
destroyed in 12 sec,
angular acceleration =
= Stt = 15-708
The
be
sign
which we have
tacitly
assumed
to
+ in
The angle described in coming to rest is obtained at once from the 3rd of the fundamental equations now that we know the value of A.
Thus:
ai=<2 + 2A5
O2=(e0jr)2-107r(9
.'.
107rfl
..
= (607r)2
=3607r revolutions.
tf=3e07r
"2^
= 1 80
revolutions.
Dynamics of Rotation.
Example
will
3.
angular retardation of
be brought to
rest,
and when
it
will
=
and
sec.
will therefore
The wheel
be destroyed by the opposing acceleration n- in 100 and in 100 sec. more the same
vertically
(Compare this example with that of a stone thrown and then returning.)
up
Geometrical Representation of Angular Velocities and Accelerations. At any particular instant the
fixed,
must be one of
some
some
axis
fixed in space
point.
Thus the
angular velocity
at
any
by
drawing a straight
line, of
of the
of
axis in question,
and
it is
shall
be
that in which
a person looking
along
axis
would
it
find
the
rotation yj^i
about
to
be
right-
handed
line
(or clockwise).
Thus the
OA
K we choose
to conceive a
body
as affected
by simultaneous
shall
lines
component rotations about three rectangular axes, we obtain the actual axis and angular velocity, from the
(For proof see Appendix
Definitions of Terms.
In the same
in space
way angular acceleration about any axis fixed may be represented by drawing a line in its direcsame convention), and simultaneous angular
be combined according to the parallelo-
may
gram
law.
On the Use
was
first
'
of the word Moment. The word moment used in Mechanics in its now rather old-fashioned
'
sense of
importance ' or
moment
of a
force about
respect to
axis ;
power
to an axis
the axis.
about
a force about an
its line of
action
from the
'
axis,
we
are
much
forces are equivalent to each other as regards their It is important that the student should bear
mind
this original
'
meaning
*
of
'
phrases as
moment
'
of a force
and moment of
may
at once call
up an idea instead of merely a quantity. But the word moment has also come to be used by analogy
'
in a
'
mo-
or
'
the
moment
of an area with
In
and
scientifi-
Dynamics of Rotation.
Unfortunately the words
by some
is
writers as the
'
But
happily for the learner the difficulty thus created has been
of the
modern word
torque to express
turning power.'
Definition of Torque.
A force or system
of forces
is
which
said to
torqueo,
Definition of
Equal Torques. Two torques are said to may be statically balanced by the same
Fundamental
Statical
Experiment.
Torques
are
Experi-
ments in proof
of this
also
may
The
result
may
Laws
of
Motion.
Measure of Torque.
of this product.
The value
is
This again
a matter of definition.
said to be or to
plane
when
the product of
its
Definitions of Terms.
British Absolute Unit of
absolute system, in which the
reasonable and
is
the
is
of
which the
force
This
we
shall call a
which
is
In
time,
which
and with g
lbs.*
each force
is 1
1 foot.
This
may
be called
the 'pound-foot.'
Distinction between
'
pound and
'
'
lb.'
The student
is
used in
two
senses,
sometimes as a
it will
force,
sometimes as a mass.
He
pound whenever a
'
force
is
'lb.'
when a mass
is
meant.
An
axis
whose position
is
fixed relar
may be
conveniently referred
* It is convenient to give a name to this practical unit of inertia, or shall call it a ' slug.' sluggishness, of about 32-2 lbs.
We
CHAPTEE
II.
is
assumed to be
familiar,
three statements
known
as Newton's
Laws
of Motion.
These
Thus,
tell
us that the
mass
difficult to set
we have torques instead of rectilinear velocities and accelerations we have angular velocities and accelerations and instead of the simple inertia of the body we have to consider the importance or moment of that inertia about the axis, which importance or moment we shall learn how to
measure.
It will contribute to clearness
first
body pivoted
Rotation under the Influence of Torque.
about a fixed axle,
%.&.
\ 1
and in
its
position in space
and although
it is
possible to
later,
Pkoposition
I.
and in
a moment
i.e.
by an external torque.
but
if
same angular
e.g.
velocity, unless
acted on
ing a
passes"
be balanced
by the equal and opposite pressure which fixes the axis. It is true that pressure of a rotating wheel against the material
axle or shaft about which
it
axis.
body
is
is
is
always the more prolonged and uniform the more this friction
diminished,
it is
period
The student
between this
first
12
Dynamics of Rotation.
known
as
Newton's First
Law
of
Motion.
Proposition
of angula/r
II.
The angular
velocity
an
aids fixed
in the body
in space
is
proportional to the
moment about
To
think
fix
first
through
let
its
centre,
and to
this
wheel
us
AB
may be
shown
in the chapter on
mass of the wheel does not move, there must be some other equal and opposite external
force acting
Fio. s.
on the body.
This
other force
is
axle, so that
moment
about the
axis,
the rotation.]
Our
(1)
i.e.
so long
may
happen
(2)
to
is applied.
That a torque of double or treble the value would produce double or treble the acceleration, and so on.
torques be applied simultaneously, the
is
(3) If several
eflFect
precisely the
same
as if it
acted alone.
Also
(4)
it
follows
different torques
That
may be
statically
to act in turn
on the same
pivoted
rigid
body in a
the
and
observing
Methods
Verification.
of
Experimental
Let an arrangement
an accurately centred
little friction
e.g.
made.
AB
is
bicycle
its
wheel on
ball
is
bearings.
fine cord,
Kound
circumference
wrapped a
from one
of
scale.
14
It will
tion.
Dynamics of Rotation.
be observed that
BC
on
the weight
(a) of
easily found,
W-T _g
~g
by the
wheel
force
alone),
and
T multiplied by
is
ment enables us to apply a known and constant torque. But since the linear acceleration of C is uniform^ it follows
that the angular acceleration of the wheel
is
uniform.
By
W,
the torque
may
be varied, and
other torques
may
drum attached
thereto,
total
we
it
Law
by
of Motion in order
;
but
inserting between
and
tells
known torque
employ
it
Variation of the Experiments. ^Instead of using our to generate angular velocity from rest, we may
to destroy angular velocity already existing in
the following
manner
and be brought to
rest
by
may be
easily controlled so as to
It will
be
amount
the effect of
of the
It
first.
its
retarding couple
may be remarked
pa/rt
of
Law
of Motion
to
a given body is
is
really
is
Newton's Second
Law
of
Motion
Familiar Instances.
immediate consequences
order, to close
of these principles.
in
near the outer and not near the hinged side, so as to secure
a greater
moment
workman checking
axis.
the
rotation of
his
any small wheel by hand near the circumference, not near the
of
friction of the
hand applies
The Analogue
Mass
in Rotational
it is
Motion.In
if after
found that
making
we
Dynamics of Rotation.
forces applied to the second
it
same
body do
not, in general,
is
produce in
found to be
first.
'
less
more easy
We
'
first.
Thus, the
of a massive fly-wheel
much
greater angular
velocity.
For,
if
the wheel be
from
the
mass or
a straight
line,
is
unaltered, yet
it is
now found
accelerate
to
be more
difficult
to
rotationaUy than
before.
With two
made
of a lighter
Rotation under the Influence of Torque.
material than the other, so that the masses are different,
1
it is
less
mass
is
to accelerate rotationally.
we
We
shall
amount
as in the
shall
Definition of the Unit of Rotational Inertia. Just Dynamics of rectilinear motion we agree that a body
be said to have unit mass when unit force acting on
it
when
unit torque
it,
gives
it
..
adds or destroys in
sec.
in one second,
we
say
two
units, and,
Rotational inertia
-^.
Dynamics of Rotation.
by the
relation
Acceleration
,.
= Force
mass
brake which exerts a con-
(1)
friction
a fly-wheel rotating 90 times a minute brings it to rest in 30 seconds. Compare the rotational inertia of this wheel with one whose rate of rotation is reduced from 100 to 70 turns per minute by a friction
couple of 80 pound-foot units in 18 seconds. Ans. 25 : 24. cord is wrapped round the axle, 8 inches in diameter, of a (2)
massive wheel, whose rotational inertia is 200 units, and is pulled with a constant force of 20 units for 15 seconds, when it comes off.
What wiU
second.
per minute?
then be the rate of revolution of the wheel in turns The unit of length being 1 fool^ and of time 1 Ans. 4'774 turns per minute.
calculate the Rotational Inertia of any rigid body. We shall now show how the rotational inertia of any rigid body may be calculated when the arrangement of its
To
particles is
known.
:
III.
'
The
'rotational mertia' of
'
sum of the rotational inertias of its constituent parts. That this is true may be accurately ascertained by trials with the experimental wheel of Figs. 4 and 5. Let the wheel,
pieces,
have
its
rotational inertia
value
I.
Then
let
sliding
let
and
the
new
Ij.
Then, according
to our proposition, Ii
If this
be the
case,
be the same,
be now made with the wheel loaded in all sorts of ways, it will be found that this is the case. The addition of the sliders in the
If trial
Rotational
light of our
Inertia
of an
ideal
Single-particle
theoretically, in the
particle,
what
connected by a
dis-
tance
(r).
Let
OM=r,
t^
and
by a torque of
This
units.
we may
suppose to be
>
2:
-^
Fia. 6.
moment
of
is
Fr = L or
force
P=
P
-.
The
m generates
P i
is
in it a linear
acceleration a =
in its
own
direction.
therefore the
amount
in its
by the
force
this
o),
own
linear speed
is
20
Dynamics of Rotation.
is
- th of the linear
A= = rm imr
Torque
rm'
-.
rotational inertia
.-.
The
mass
m at a
Any
whole
rigid
as
made up
of such ideal
inertia of the
single-particle systems,
is
the
sum
r
we
see that
if m-^,
m^,
m
.
particles, rj,
their distances
from the
axis,
then
The
body
. . .
=Miir,'+jrear,'+m,r,'+
is
Moment
of
The student
why
which
it refers.
We
shall
from
this point
'
rotational
inertia,'
inertia,' for
the letter
Unit
Moment
of Inertia.
particle
moment
circular
hoop
of unit radius
and of unit
dicular to the
circle,
mass
rotating
moment
dis
may with
In
I=2(mr'')
=2(mxl')
= 1.
The same
is
of unit radius
own
axis.
will find it
standards of
unit
moment
A
lb.,
thin
will
We
The
engineer's
1 foot,
is
slug-foot^.
Definition of
duct mass
Angular Momentum.
(jtvo),
velocity, or
in translational
called
momentum,
filled axle,
by analogy when a rigid body rotates about a the product (moment of inertia) x (angular velocity),
so
22
or (lu),
is
Dynamics of Rotation.
called angular
momentum.* And
it
just as a force
is
produces in unit
any axis
it
is
of angular
momentum
axis,
for since
A=^
L=IA. To find the Kinetic Energy of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axle. At any given instant every
particle is
moving
and
its
kinetic energy
is
therefore
is
true for
may be
written 2f
V
is
But
for
any
where r
is
the angular
kinetic energy
=2- units
of work,
and
in a
.'.
rigiil
body
<a
is
=
The student
*
fixed axis,
Jlft)'
units of work.t
is
will observe
exactly
not moving with simple rotation about a given not generally the same for all the particles, and the angular momentum about that axis is then defined as the sum of the angular momenta of the particles, viz. 2(nir'w). t It will be remembered that the unit of work referred to will depend on the unit chosen for I. If the unit moment of inertia be that of 1 lb. at distance of one foot, then the unit of work referred to will be the foot-poundal (British Absolute System). If the unit moment of inertia be that of a slug at distance of one foot, then the unit of work referred to will be the foot-pound.
'
'
23
^v^
energy of translation.
Work
done by a Couple.
When a couple
which a
in a plane
body is body through an angle Q, the moment of the couple retaining the same value (L) during the rotation, then the work done by the couple is L0.
rigid
is
equivalent in
its effect
on the rotation to
acting at
,,0. 10.
L units
of work,
Analogy with the expression for the work done by a force, in rectilinear motion. It will be observed
couple
is
of the force.
the couple be
in turning
through an angle Q
\S
foot-poundals.
If the
couple be
\S
foot-pounds,
24
Dynamics of Rotation.
Change of Kinetic Energy due to a Couple. When the body on which the couple acts is perfectly free
to turn about a fixed axis perpendicular to the plane of the couple,
it is
is
For
if
initial,
and
o)
iii.
<u=(o/
+ 2A6>;
6='-
2A
and
A==I
It is
evident that
if
we
could
Jc
which
if
moment
of inertia as the
is
body
has.
This distance
body
by the
^-^TS
^^^'
to the
of the
sum
up
of the
constituent particles.
please, regard
[We may, if we
great
any body as
built
of a very
number
same mass,
25
where
it is rare.
Then
i.e.
k' is
up the squares
of the
dividing by the
is,
number
of
That
we may
regard
k' as the
In a few
This
is
of the
of a radius is small
Numerical Examples.
We
now
give a
number
of
numerical examples, with solutions, in illustration of the principles established in this chapter.
10, 14,
and
Chapter
III.
Example 1. A whed weighing 81 lbs., and whose radius of gyration 8 vnches, is acted on by a couple whose moment is 5 vound-foot units for half a minute ; find the rate of rotation produced.
is
1st
Method of
Solution.
Taking
1 lb. as
unit mass.
The
unit
force is the
,-.
poundal
I(
units.
26
Moment
Dynamics of Rotation.
of force or
units (nearly)
1 , angulax acceleration =
=oi=At=
,.
X 30 radians per ^ 9
per sec
^
sec.
= 400 radians -^
o
1 = 400 X-- -^
sec.
2jii
Method of Solution.
is 1
55 slugs,
.-.
Torque = 5
,
. .
pound-foot units
,.
9
-r
= -?r
40 9
per minute.
rotation of
one wAmute mil stop the Find the torque which a whed whose mass is 160 lbs. and radius of gyration 1 ft. 6 im. and which is rotating at a rate of 10 turns per second. Find also the wu/mber of turns the wheel will make in stopping.
1st
lb.,
ia
= Mk^ =
27
this is to
be destroyed in 60
sec.
..
= -^ = ^
body in question
acoeleration=360x
^ o
pound-ft. units.
velocity during the stoppage is half the initial
,.
..
number
of turns
made
60 x 5=300.
2nd
SoliiUon.
Using Engineer's
The unit mass
( )
The unit
force is 1 pound.
is 1
45
.,
-j- units.
The angular velocity to be destroyed = 10 x 2ir radians per The time in which it is to be destroyed is 60 sec;
.*.
sec.
angular acceleration
=A=-^jr= 5
bO
o
radians per
sec.
each sec
body
in question
wrapped rov/nd
the axle,
4 inches
Ml dia/meter, of ahea/oy
pulled with a constant force of The wheel is then all wn/wound wnd comes off.
cmd
is
its
moment of inertia.
of mass
is 1 lb.
units.
The unit
is
and of force
The
force of 60
exerted through
=8 x 60 x 32
ft. -poundals.
(90 X
60~/'
SttX^
28
Dynamics of Rotation.
ilx9?r2=8x 60x32;
.
1^2x8x60x32 n,.f^,^^t^_
9jr2
is
of the axle
wound, which
is
not involved in
the solution.
were of
The torque exerted would indeed be greater if the axle greater diameter, but the cord would be unwound proporwould remain
the same.
The unit of force is 1 pound and of mass The work done by the 60 pound force feet=8 X 60 = 480 ft. pounds. The KB.
of work.
in advancing
through 8
x (^^il~) foot-pounds
ilx97r2=480
T I
-^ (slug-ft.'' = 2x480,,
, 2
s umts)
.,
.,
as before.
Example
to rest
4.
is
brought
hy a uniform friction of 12 pounds allied at a disHow long would it take to be tance of 15 inches from the axis. brought to rest by the sa/me friction if two small masses each weighing
in 40
sec.
1 lb.
dista/nce of
force is 1
1st. Using Engineer's or gravitation units. The unit of pound and of mass 1 slug. In order to find the eflfeot of increasing the moment of inertia we must first iind the moment of inertia
Ij
This
is
Rotation under the Influence of Torque.
29
stop it, directly as the time taken to stop it, and inversely as the angular velocity destroyed in that time. Thus IK
I
^
12x=^x40
'^
f slug-toot^ units.
,
..
case is
=I + X22
8 ^ = 100 +-;rx approximately.
.
g
,
100
I3
TT
8 32
TT
and the time required for the same retarding torque to destroy the same angular Telocity is therefore greater in this same ratio, and is
now 40
sec.
+ ^ x :r-r^ x 40
sec.
=40"31416 sec
The unit of mass is 1 lb., the unit force 1 poundal The moment of inertia Ii of the unloaded wheel is
torque required to stop
its rotation, directly as
directly as the
12x32x^x40
*
180X2.
60
lb-ft-'''^its,
32x15x40x60
^^ J
..
^^.^g (approximately)
30
Dynamics of Rotation.
in the second case
TT
/.
the
moment
3200
TT
+o
,
3200
:
TT
for the
is
increased in the
and
is
now
sec.
40
+ 40 sec. X
^ =40'31
sec.
Note to Chapter
II.
In order to bring the substance of this chapter with greater vividand reality before the mind of the student, we have preferred to take it as a matter of observation and experiment that the power of a force to produce angular acceleration in a rigid body pivoted about a fixed axle is proportional to the product of the force and its distance from the axis, i.t. to its moment in the technical sense. But this result, together with the fact that what we termed the ' rotational inertia ' of a body is given by S(w^, might have been obtained as a direct deduction from Newton's Laws of Motion. We now give this deduction, premising first a statement of d'Alembert's Frinciple, which may be enunciated as follows ' In considering the resultant mass-acceleration produced in any direction in the particles of any
ness
:
material system,
it is
on the system.' For every force is to be measured by the mass-acceleration it produces in its own direction (Newton's Second Law of Motion), and also every force acts between two portions of matter and is accompanied by equal and opposite reaction, producing an equal and opposite mass-acceleration (Newton's Third Law). The action and reaction constitute what we call a stress. When the two portions of matter, between which a stress acts, are themselves parts of the
external forces acting
system,
it
duced in the system is zero. The stress is in this case called an internal stress, and the two forces internal forces. But though the
forces are internal to the system, yet they are external, or, as
Newton
two
particles respectively.
Hence, considering Newton's Second Law of Motion to be the record solely of obserrations on ^cwtirfes of matter, we may count up the forces acting in any direction on any material system and write them equal to the sum of the mass-accelerations in the same direction, but in doing so we ought, in the first instance at any rate, to include these internal forces, thus
_/
external forces
\
)
y /
I
We
now
Hence we obtain
_ /external forces\
_^
/mass-accelsrationsN
any
is
forces whatever act on a free rigid thereby caused to rotate or not, the
sum
sum
of
Now,
same
as
multiply both the force and the mass-acceleration by the distance r of this line firom the axis, and
the line of the mass-acceleration,
we may
thus write
the moment about any axis of '^ the force, on any particle, f along any line, J
and, therefore,
moment
same
of the mass-accelera-
system,
(
any
<
axis of) the forces acting on the V. particles of the system J of the extemal\
=2
< (
> )
._ /moments
forces
of the internal\
j+^V
V
)
of the mass-\
=2 /moments
Now, not only
are the
accelerations.
two
forces of
an
two
32
particles equal
Dynamics of Rotation.
and opposite, but they are along the same straight line,* and hence have equal and opposite moments about any axis whatever, hence the second term on the always zero, and we are left with
left side
/moments
of the external\
__ /moments
\
forces
of the accelerations.
massA
/
particle
Now, we may
perpendicular to the axis, one parallel to the axis, and one perpenIt is only this latter
component (which we
will
its
has any
moment about
is
moment
is rOp,
where r
of the mass-acceleration of
any
particle of
mass
same disfrom the axis, cSj, is the rate of increase of the tangential speed V, and if a be the angular velocity about the axis, v=r<o. So that Operate of increase of ra. Also, r being constant, the rate of increase of ra is r times the rate Hence, in, this case, ap=r&, and if, further, the of increase oi a. whole system consists of particles so moving, and with the same angular velocity, i.e. if it is a rigid body rotating about a fixed aade, then /or sudi a body so moving S (moments of the mass-accelerations) = Smr-rdi.
in the case of a particle which always retains the
(r)
Now,
=(B2mr'.
Hence,
m
or
this case
S (moments
,,
the
angular ^
acceleration
i-
;:
-J
is, perhaps, not explicitly stated by Newton, but if it were not then the action and reaction between two particles of a rigid body would constitute a couple giving a perpetually increasing rotation to the rigid body to which they belonged, and affording an indefinite supply of energy. No such instance has been observed in Nature.
* This
true,
OHAPTEE
DEFINITIONS, AXIOMS,
III.
AND ELBMENTAKY THEOREMS NEOESSAEY WITH MOMENTS OF INERTIA. route's rule and its APPLICATION.
FOR
DEALING
will
Constant use
and
Propositions.
Definition.
By a
we speak
of inertia
material of unit mass per unit area, so that the mass of the
figure is numerically equal to its area.
if
we
moment of
axis, of
are at distance
ra,
from the
axis, is equal to
=2(ar'').
It will
may be
the
either plane or
curved.
Definition.
In
the same
way
moment
of inertia
v^VtVt
may
be defined as
'i*-i'+'ii'-a"+
. .
=2(w').
c
34
Axiom.
any axis
Dynamics of Rotation.
The moment
the
of inertia of a
is
sum
of the
moments
moment of
equal to the
sum
of the
moments
may
con-
Illustration.
inertia of a peg-top,
shaped as in the
volution,
about
its
axis of re-
equal to the
the hemispherical
of the conical
frustum
ABDE+that
of the
DE.
Axiom.
FIG. 11.
It
is
about any
of the base.
aixis
perpendicular to
its
base
is
solid divided
by an
in-
number of
same shape
as
the base.
Thus,
if
A be radius of gyration of
the mass of
of inertia is
moment
Mi"
units,
as OjO'i.
'
moment
o;
FIO. 12.
of
inertia
of
an
ordinary
that
figured,
reduces
to
that
Moments of Inertia
ABCD.
I.
Elementary Theorems.
00'
moment of
axis
35
of the horizontal
Proposition
inertia of
The
Oz
any
its
sum of
plane,
its
moments of
inertia about
Ox cmd Oy
Or,
in
and
Oz
meets the
an
obvious notation.
Proof.
we have
='Em{x'+f)
=lmx^+lmy*
=Ij,+Ia.
^
FIO. 11.
have already seen that a thin hoop of radius of inertia Mr^ ahout a central
Example.
axis perpendicular to its plane.
We
and
luass
haa a
moment
Let I he its moment of inertia ahout a diameter. Then I is also its moment of inertia ahout
a second diameter perpendicular
to the former;
.'.
hy
this pro-
position
2I = Mr*;
.V
i=Mr2
"2"'
of inertia of
t.e.,
the
moment
a hoop ahout a diameter is only half that ahout a central axis perpendicular to the plane of the hoop
36
Dynamics of Rotation.
Routh's Rule for finding the Moment of Inertia about an Axis of Symmetry in certain cases. When the axis about which the moment of inertia is required passes
is
also
an axis
large
Moment
symmetry
or
5,
,a_ sum ~
or 5
The denominator
sphere).
is
to be 3, 4, or 5, according as the
body
is
This rule
is
obtained by calculation.
2(TOr')
is,
The
case,
in
any particular
may
also be obtained, in
some
cases,
by simple geometry.
all
We
and
it
will be
rightly summarised
Eoutli's Bule.
:
To
find the
(1)
Of a
and
(2b) about
a central
[(O)
-SJ-ic
Here the semi-axes, perpendicular to each other and a and b ; therefore, apply-
we have
72 K'=
a^ + h'
-^
(2)
Of
centred axis
its
plane perto
pendicular
one side
(b).
38
inertia
Dynamics of Rotation.
about any parallel axis can be found by applying the
:
following proposition
Proposition
axis is equal to its
its
II.
moment of
a parallel
ascis
through
moment of
inertia
its
Thus,
I;,
if
I be the
moment
and and
of gravity
Proof.
of rota-
be the projection on
this
from the plane in question. any piece of matter is found by experiment to be proportional to its mass or inertia (m), we may substitute (m) for (w) in the above equation, and we thus obtain
.
their distances
Now,
S{mx)
For this reason the point in question is also called the centre of mass, or centre of inertia. If the weight of (i.e. the earth-pull on) each particle were not proportional to its mass, then the distance of the centre of gravity from
still
be
2(wx^ -i;
2w
':
39
of the
Let
m be the
mass
OP
and
GP
axes respectively.
since
.-.
Let
PN
be perpendicular to OG.
Then,
0P''=0G=+GP-20G.G;
2(wiOP')=2(niOG')+2(mGI"')-20G.2(mGN)
=MOG''+2(mGP)-0,
for, since
G is the
through G.)
I=ME=+I.
Applications.
about Us hmges.
(1)
To find
the
M, we
see
that
its
moment
its
centre of gravity,
l=mH4
12
(2)
=M 12'
\2/
3
I
..I=M^^+M(|y = M;-.
FIG.
w.
disc
To fund
the
moment of
plane.
inertia of
a imiform circular
about a tangent in
its
I=M
^'+"'
(by Eouth's
rule),
and I=I,+Mr'
=U^j+ r'\=Mjr'(3)
To find
the
moment of
inertia of
a uniform
40
ha/r
Dynamics of Rotation.
or other prism about
is
to its length,
not thin.
by a
fine
thread as in the
of
fig.)
being
able to
like this,
which
ID
FIO. 21.
is
of
very
common
occurrence,
:
we
Proposition
right prism, of
.
III.
The moment of
cross section
inertia of
any vmiform
any
perpendicular
is
to the
of the ends,
equal to the
bar,
a thin
moment of inertia of the same prism considered as plus the moment of inertia that the prism would
slice
Proof.
Let
g, g^,
the prism.
^-r>-^
d>
O'
by planes
The
Moments of Inerha
Elementary
of of the
Theorems. 41
and
of
any one
of these
Then the moment of inertia % of this about the given axis 00' is, by the theorem of parallel
by
the
i=%,-\-mfi,
i, is
axes, given
where
moment moment
the whole
of inertia I required is
I=2(i.+mr)
and
I4, is
moment
;
slice
proved.
of a cylindrical bar
zontal
component
of the earth's
magnetic
42
Dynamics of Rotation,
Examples
(/
fhest,
for Solution.
the book, the answers given
as
oil other
Examples in
Unless otherunse stated, the value of g is taken as 32 feet per second each second, instead of 32'19.)
(1)
This cord
The wheel
5 times a second. Find its a force of 5 pounds applied at a distance of 3 inches from the axis
rest.
uniform door 8 feet high and 4 feet wide, weighing 100 lbs., (2) swings on its hinges, the outer edge moving at the rate of 8 feet per second. Find (1) the angular velocity of the door, (2) its moment of inertia with respect to the hinges, (3) its kinetic energy in foot-pounds, (4) the pressure in pounds which when applied at the edge, at right angles to the plane of the door, would bring it to rest in I second.
Ans.
'
(1) (2)
(3)
is
equal to that of 40
to
is is
employed
wind up a load
and
when the steam is cut off. How far below the shaft-mouth should the load then be that the kinetic energy of wheel and load may just suffice to carry the latter to the surface
Ans. 41-9 feet (nearly).
(4) Find the moment of inertia of a grindstone 3 feet in diameter and 8 inches thick the specific gravity of the stone being 2-14.
;
Ans. 709-3
lb,-ft.2units.
Examples on Chapters
I., II.,
and III.
43
(5) Find the kinetic energy of the same stone when rotating 5 times in 6 seconds. Ans. 303-7 ft.-pounds.
nal diameter
1
Find the kinetic energy of the rim of a fly-wheel whose exteris 18 feet, and internal diameter 17 feet, and thickness foot, and which is made of cast-iron of specific gravity 7'2, when
(6)
{N.B.
viz.
8f
of gyration.)
(7)
Ans. 23360
ft.
-pounds
(nearly).
on
its
and 3 feet wide, weighing 80 lbs., swings hinges so that the outward edge moves at the rate of 8 feet
per
sec.
How much work must be expended in stopping it ? Ans. 853'S foot-poundals or 26'67 foot-pounds (very, nearly).
(8) In an Atwood's machine a mass (M) descending, pulls up a mass (m) by means of a fine and practically weijghtless string passing over a pulley whose moment of inertia is I, and which may be regarded as turning without friction on its axis. Show that the acceleration a of pither weight and the tensions T and t of the cord at the two sides of the pulley are given by the equations
Mo-T
'^=--M~~
...
(i)
a=
inq
....
.
(u)
a=ra>=^
What
will equation
(I)
'
(ill)
become
if
there
is
a constant
friction of
moment
r=(T-*4)
J-
Ans. o =
(9)
"horizontal axle
moment of inertia is 50 Ib.-ft.^ units, has a 4 inches in diameter round which a cord is wrapped, Find how long the weight will to which a 10 lb. weight is hung.
wheel, whose
take to descend 12
Directions.
feet.
Ans. 11'65
sec. (nearly).
during
=t
sec.
velocity
sec, ,
44
at
Dynamics of Rotation.
now
a uniform rate the final velocity of the weight is twiix this. Knowing the final velocity ^\i) of the cord and the radius (?) of the axle we
w=-
of the
of the descent,
The sum
eartli's pull of 10 pounds acting through 12 feet, i.e. to 12x10 footpounds or 12 X 10 X 32 foot-potmdals. This equality enables us to find *.
(10) Find the moment of inertia of a wheel and axle when a 20 lb. weight attached to a cord wrapped round the axle, which is horizontal afld 1 foot in diameter, takes 10 sec. to descend 5 feet. Ans. 1595 Ib.-ft.^ units. Directions. Let the moment of inertia required be I Ib.-ft.^ units. g The average linear velocity of the weight is jx f-s.
Hence
final
=^^
apace traversed per
sec.
V
2x5
f.s.
=1
f.s.
=.
i radius oi axle
-r-
energies of weight
and wheel
to
work done
cylindrical shaft
lbs.,
fine
cord
is
wrapped round
it
by which a 20
lb.
were so much
previous question to rest in 1 minute from a rotation of 10 turns per Ans. sec, what would the answer have been ? of 1'52 sec.
Vff#
(13)
Two
lbs.,
the form of a uniform circular disc, whose weight is 12 oz. time taken by either weight to move from rest through ff
,
Ans. \
sec.
(14) Find the moment of inertia of a fly-wheel from the following The wheel is set rotating 80 times a minute, and is then data thrown out of gear and brought to rest in 3 minutes by the pressure
:
Examples on Chapters
/., //.,
and III.
45
of a friction brake on the axle, which is 18 inches in diameter. The normal pressure of the brake, which has a plane surface, is 200 pounds, and the coefficient of friction between brake and axle is '6. Ans. 61890 lb. -ft.2 units.
Prove that when a model of any object is made of the same on a scale n times less, then the moment of inertia of the real object is v^ times that of the model about a corresponding
(15)
material, but
axis.
(16)
Show
that,
moment
of inertia divided
by the square
of the radius.
CHAPTEE
IV.
who
On
the Calculation of
Moments
a
'
of Inertia. In
we quoted
rule
'
which summarised
We
now
give, in
itself
by
the rule.
(1)
thin
end perpendicular
Let
axis.
AB
be the rod,
OAO'
the
Through
to
FIO. 23.
draw
BO
perpen-
AB.
On BC,
to
pendicular
AB,
Join
describe
the
square BODE.
A to the angles
E, D, C, of the square.
Moments of Inertia
which has
Mathematical Proofs.
viz.
47
for vertex
m.
number
by
To each
rod.
slice
from A,
and
Then
but
mass
is m-s.,
and
its
moment
of inertia
mass
of the
area
and
its
thickness
is
inertia of the
whole rod
is
but
mR is the mass
of the whole
.-.
rod=M;
I=Mx^.
Corollary.
If the
b'
[a
axis,
the
moment
of inertia of the
48
the whole
Dynamics of Rotation.
moment
of inertia
would now be
I=2M: 3'
but
2M
of the
whole rod.
Hence we
and mass
length
I=Mf.
(It
rule.)
will
be
observed
that
this
agrees
with
Eouth's
(2) Case of
rectcmgle of sides
2a cmd
26,
twning abovi a
Mr
(bJi
into
may
be
Hence
I.=M^
axis in its
plane,
26,
perpendicular to
the side
moment
(3)
FIO. 25.
of inertia Ij:
<
of
length
the
3i:
I.,
Hence, by Proposition
p^Jif the
moment
of inertia
=M^",
which again
(4)
is
To find
a
disc of
mass
M with
respect to
central axis
plane.
Moments of Inertia
Conceive the
definitely
circle
Mathematical Proofs.
of
49
large
26),
number
and
of
let i
very
small
sectors
(fig.
be the moment
of the whole
Fie. 26.
of inertia of
any one
be the
circle.
moment
sector
inertia
Each
may
be regarded as an
iso-
in comparison,
i is easily
shown*
to be equal to
m
iso-
as follows
sceles
A ABC be
of lengths^,
Let g be the
centre of gravity of
ADCF.
The moment of
is
m,
A(iy..
3
the
where
12
ABC.
this
for
A ADC
is
half
10. 27.
By
.=* 2
and .^=..
-h
(^9')'=
12
"2"3b~^ "2~18~
2 (Aff)^= 2
T8-+
2 9
\'^+
UJ /
small in
r.
~2
'
~'2^
A
'fi
V2 +6, ;) when I
is sufficiently
comparison with
*^ ^^^^
.:
^ ^^^ ^""^^^
''"^'
This
is
the value
made use
of in the pro-
50
where
Dynamics of Rotation.
=C2m
=CxM,
which
is
Each
briefly
of these results
by
integration.
about
moment
of
of
d/r
any
elementary
dr
FIO. 28.
length,
at distance r
of
=mass
element X*"'
moment
of inertia of
whole rod=
'r
= M'-.
In the case of a uniform circular
disc
of
mass
to
M
its
and radius a
plane,
we may
its
moment
=mass
of annulus
Xr*
= Mx?!^^xr =
. '
r'ar
Ma'
2
r=0
Moment
of Inertia of an Ellipse.
circle.
This
is
readily
For the
circle
ABC of radius
a becomes the
ellipse
ADC
with semi-
Every
OB
OB
7^=;
=a
OA
remain
and
a
to
.
at the in the
OC
Hence
of inertia of ellipse
circle
Moment
a'
6
Ma'
4
a
a
4
a*
=Mass
of ellipse X
b*
-j-.
52
The moment
is
Dynamics of Rotation.
of inertia of the ellipse
X
a
mentary area
reduced in
magnitude in the
ratio
Hence
Moment
of inertia of ellipse
a 4
= M^xl'
a
=Mass
Combining these two
obtain,
results
of ellipse
X .
I.
a'
by Proposition
p.
35,
we
moment
its
pendicular to
plane
=M ffl=+J
p. 346,
a geothe
proof
is
given
of
for
moment
and, on
that
axis
r "yu
of inertia
p.
sphere,
of
is
a right cone
shown geometrically
is
to be
3 Mr% where r
base.
however, so
tained
The proof for the sphere is, much more readily obby integration that we give it
below.
no. 31
We
by
\
Moments of Inertia
planes
Mathematical Proofs.
the
diameter,
53
perpendicular
of inertia
is
to
moment
If r
elementary thickness
dr. slice
its
moment
mass of
slice
x^
2
'-
8a'
5/
= Mx4a' =M
The student who
ellipsoid
tion, in
ellipse
is
"-^
an
may
the same
way
that
circle.
we obtained the
Exercises.
(1.)
(2.)
An.i-|.
54
(3.)
Dynamics of Rotation.
An
isosceles triangle of base 6
Ans.
(4.)
&2=
a central axis
perpendicular to
plane.
Ans.
(5.)
W=-
2 E-r6
5
R3_^;
DirexAwns.
Write (M) =
Moment
(m)
that of inner.
of inertia of shell
= (M - m)^^ =
.
difference
Also since
all
TO=M=^aDdM-m=M
E.
R*
Thus
the masses
OHAPTEE
V.
PRINCIPAL AXESGRAPHICAL CONSTRUCTION OF ERTIA CURVES AND SURFACES EQUIMOMENTAL SYSTEMS SKELETONS.
IN-
^INERTIA
to obtain the
object of the
by means
of
can be determined.
The
geometry
them, he
recommended,
at a
and not to
Proposition IV.
In any rigid
body, the
m the body,
Oy, Oz,
is constant,
Let
Oa;,
Let P be any
particle of
the body
66
56
and of mass
Dynamics of Rotation.
(m),
and co-ordinates
x, y, z.
Let
OP = r,
let
the distances
CP, of
X,
y and
z respectively,
r,
be
called r
and
r.
of
Then
about X
Flo. 23a.
the
moment
mr^=m{y -^-z^),
yismrl=m{z''+z%
ais mr|=m(a;'+y'),
for the
therefore,
whole
body,
the
moment of
Ij.,
y,orIy,
z,
= Smy'+^ms" = 'Emz''+2'mc=2ma;'+2m^'
or I,
Therefore
Now
Therefore
+Ij,+Ij= Constant,
and
this is true
Proposition V.
and
least
moment of
inertia,
far
For
is
maximum
I^ is
viee versd.
Proposition VI.
point
(Oa;) through
its
a fixed
Principal Axes.
ahmti some
57
it
cms
mil have
its least
value; amd about the remaining reekmgvlar axis {Oy) the moment
of inertia will be a maxdmtmifor the plane ye, and a minimiimfor
fhepkmeay.
For, let us suppose that
we
ha/ve
experimented on a body
Ox.
Then an
axis of least
moment
of inertia
must
somewhere in the plane through 0, perpendicular to this, for if in some other plane through there were an axis of
still
axis,
still
greater
maximum
axis.
minimum
a!xis
as the axis of
z.
moment of inertia about the remaining now be a maximum for the plane yz.
I,+I|r=constant, and therefore
I, is
axis, that of y,
The must
is
For
I^^
being fixed,
since I,
maximum
a minimum. Again,
a
I,
Ij,
is
minimum
Definitions.
inertia are
principal
axes
them are
;
called principal
moments
two
of
of inertia for the point and a plane containing the principal axes through a point is called a principal
for that point.
plane
When
the
and
the
moments
of inertia
58
Dynamics of Rotation.
such a body as a rigid rod, the
moment we
of inertia
of
is
maximum
is is
mass that
and so
far as
maximum axes
We
not the
case.
Proposition VII. To
about any axis
shm
that the
a,
fi,
moment of
inertia (Top)
OP
C
making cmgles
y,
ami
respectively, is
Acos'a+Bcos'yS+Ccos'y.
It will
conduce to
give
clear-
ness
first,
to
the
proof
plane
and Oy any
axes
in
its
rectangular
let the
moments
and
,,,
of inertia
be (A')
(B') respectively,
^^
and
24*
^*'
^ required to find
of
the
moment
inertia
Let
Draw MN perpendicular to OP to meet it in N. Then the moment of inertia of the particle M about OP is mM.N\ Draw the ordinate MQ, and from Q draw QS
ordinates X and
Principal Axes.
meeting
59
OP
at right angles iu S.
Then
MN' = OM-ON^
=a;''+2/''-(0S+SN)
and
OS
is
the projection of
OQ
aicos^
and
SN
is
the projection of
QM
equal to y sin^
.-.
MN=ai'+2^-(!Bcos0+2/sin<9)''
Iop=2mMN'=cos''e2i3/''+sin'^2ma!''-2sin6'cQse2ma;y
For
of the
moment
of inertia about
0,
is
now a maximum, Iqp cannot be greater than A, so that A Iqp cannot be a w quantity whatever be the position of OP.
%.e.
.e.
AAco^Q'B%\v?d-\-^^va.d(io%Q''2imasy cannot
be e,
^sin^^ jBsin2^+2sin5cos5Sma!y cannot be e, now, when OP is taken very near to Ok, so that Q is infinitesimally small, then also sind
is
is
equal to
1,
and so that
if
first
may be
\-m or m,
+e
or
is
m.
+e
;
or
m,
cosfl is
.
always constant
neither of these
is w when
it is
Hence
6o
But
fore
SffKcy is
is
Dynamics of Rotation.
constant whatever be the value of
Q,
and
Q
there-
when
is finite
therefore, finally,
Iop=^cos2e+5sin2e
[If
we
OP
as
making angles a
cosa for cos5,
and
and
)8
Then
we have everywhere
C0S2;8.]
and
Iop=^oos 2a+5
general case for the moment of inertia Iqp of a solid body of three dimensions about any axis OP, making angles a, ;S and y, with maximum, minimum, and
The proof
of the
Ors,
Oy, Os
is
exactly analogous
we have QlW=^ll?\f^-z\
instead of
QiW=^-\-'f
Iop=^'cosV+jB'cos';8 2cosacos^2)?ia;y,
we
obtain
lop =-(4'cosa
2cosj8cos7 '2myz2cosycosaSmzx.
And, as before, when
small,
or
G=G,
each of
and therefore
finally
Iop=^cos^a+5cos/8+ Ccos^'y.
Surfaces.
radius
Graphical
Construction
Definition.
^By an
of
'
Inertia-Curves
'
and
inertia-curve
we mean a
proportional to the
moment
represents.
moment
of inertia surface
is
Principal Axes.
It is evident that
6l
curves or
inertia of
surfaces
the body.
(I.)
axes in Us plcme.
Draw
the
they represent
maximum
of in-
and minimum
moment
ertia
on a conscale,
venient
and draw
radii
between them
at intervals of,
say, every 10.
FIO. 2SA.
Then mark
expression
off
on these in succession
the corresponding
values
of the
OAcos'^-HOBsin'^,
(which may be done graphically by a process that the student will easily discover), and then draw a smooth curve through
the points thus arrived
of the
at.
In this
way we
OA j^ was
taken
equal to
metrical about both axes, so that the form for one quadrant gives the shape of the whole.
If
OA
were equal to
OB
circle, for
all
62
Dynamics of Rotation.
fio. 26a.
curves
when
-,
and
respectively.
Principal Axes.
(II.) Construction
63
of
Moment
of Tnertia Surjhce.
^Let
any
section
and
let the
plane
2OC
or
of this section
6 and
BOC=(90 0)
<l>,
FIO. 27a.
tively,
said,
the intersection
OC
maximum
OP
OP
Then cos'a=cos'AOP
03?
OP"
OA'
OD'
OD^^OF
=cos'6cos''S
and cos'/3=cos''BOP=
OF
OP'
64
Dynamics of Rotation.
Therefore Iqp =-<^cos'6cos'S+5cos'^co8''S+(7cos'y
=(^cos'6'+cos?<^)cos28+acos2y
=IooCos^8+Ccos''7.
Therefore the inertia
cwne far
the section
2OC may
he d/rawn
m precisely the
mum
or
minimum
is,
or intermediate axis.
26a) shows
that there
case
in general, for
is
any
when
the curve
circle),
only one
VIII.
Any
two rigid bodies of equal mass, and for which the three principal mo-
from the previous proposition ; and since any other axis must
be parallel to an axis through the centre of mass,
it
follows
iii. p.
37) that in
is
true for
Any body
is,
completely
Inertia Skeleton.Proposition
IX^or
amy
rigid
voith its
principal axes.
Principal Axes.
For
let aa', 66', cd (Fig.
65
moment
Obe
while that
of. 66' is
(nl is
A'
,<x:
B
G'
and that of
I.=A'+B'.
If,
therefore,
the body in
question
principal
has
corresponding
Q,
moments A, 5,
B'+C
(i) (ii)
(iii)
C+A'=B A'+B=G
A', B',
of
and
C",
By
addition
we
have,
and
G'.
of rods
we may call an
inertia skeleton.
Such
an
body.
The moment
of inertia will be a
maximum
about the
66
Dynamics of Rotation.
and a minimum about the
equimomental
a certain homogeneous
ellijpsoid
whose
if
Also that
we had chosen
everywhere
i.e.
moment
for
and the
inertia-
surface an ellipsoid.]
CHAPTEE
VI.
The
definition of
:
be
given as follows
Let a particle
cir-
cumference of a fixed
and
let
to any
As P
travels
round the
fro,
oscillates to
and
and
motion.
It is obvious that
oscillates
positions
projections
on
A and B
to
it,
velocity of
is is
velocity
which
the velocity of
N is the velocity of P resolved in the direction Also the acceleration of N is the acceleraline.
tion of
Now
the acceleration of
is
of the circle,
and
is
equal to
=rity'
= (PC)u)*
68
Dynamics of Rotation.
of
PC
X (NO),
C on
the fixed
line.
Thus we
at
it oscillates,
proportional
position,
and equal to
in the circle.
We shall
see,
musical note of
oscillation.
Hence
to the centre of
the time
taken by
This
is
defined as the
of N.
Period,' or
'
It is evident that if at
and
then
it will
again be
in
in the
a complete
interval
between two
consecutive
direction.
'
69
passed through
is
its
direc-
tion
called the
phase
N at any instant
=NOxo>=
= displacement X v?
J
""corresponding displacement
or,
abbreviating somewhat,
acceleration
displacement' =^/i
Consequently
Since i
V
The
It
displacement
acceleration a(
must be carefuUy noticed that to take a particle and to move it in any arbitrary manner backwards and forwards
along a fixed
line, is
it
a simple
harmonic motion.
This
For
must be so moved as
drawn
will only
do
if it is
adted on by a force
its dis-
We
shall
now show
that a
CHAPTEE
VII.
For
all
kinds of distortion,
e.g.
stretching, compress-
given force
is
proportional to the
so
long as the
strain or deformation is
but small.
is
Up
true, the
called
the stress be
is
and
produces.
In brief
ratio
:It
is
strain
known
in
Physics as
'
Hooke's Law.
vis.'
was
ut tensio sic
Illustrations of
Hooke's Law.
'"^
A
=I
(1)
If,
to the free
small distance
%A,
d,
of a long thin horizontal lath, fixed at the applied which depresses the end through a then a force 2w will depress it through a distance
end
w be
3w through a
70
distance
3c?,
and
so on.
71
much
bent, as
in
the
fig., it is,
FIO. 85.
nearly approached, that the application of a small additional force at will produce a further deflection proportional to the force applied
it must not be expected that the original force w will now produce the original depression d, for w is now applied to a diflferent object,
But
viz.,
much bent
will
lath,
whereas
it
was
origin-
Thus
depression
d!
and 2w
d.
2(i'
3w
where
(3)
dl differs
3d'
from
wire;
a couple
is
and is found to twist it through an angle 6 then double the couple will twist it through an angle %6, and so on. This holds in the case of long thin wires of steel or brass for twists of the bar through
horizontal plane,
:
,,>^,''g'N
(
fam^ng^
6
is
stretched by
hanging a weight
W on
to
it (Fig. 37).
2u'
2,
3e,
3w
Similarly, if a weight
w
iii>
be subtracted from
n
the
Shortening
will be
e,
and and so
This
on.
.1
2,
we might
when
stretched
by the weight
72
Dynatnics of Rotation.
is
W-w
in
which
of
;
it
when
:&)
stretched by
W,
that the
addition
was must
produce the same elongation e as before therefore the shortening due to the removal of w must be e.
From
these examples
it
mass
for
of matter be attached to
an
elastic
body,
Fig.
as,
instance,
is
the weight at
in Fig.
36,
in
35,
the cross-bar
37,
AB
or the
weight
W in Fig.
go, it
rest,
it
and then
slightly displaced
and
in
let
coming to
of the force
exerted on
Fia. 37.
by the
body.
And
at
any
its
instant the
and
is
Hence we
mass are
propor-
is
rest.
the mass
^.
W in Fig.
37,
and
displacement
absolute units.
resisting
that
measures the
in
power
For
of the
if
question.
E=the
Elastic Oscillations.
corresponding force
:
73
thus,
to
is
wnit deformation.^
We shall consider
body
itself
may be
of the attached
body whose
we
study.
of
this
is
and
is
directed
is
a constant
displacement
equal to
is
constant and
^^^ '""
is
constant
displacement
and
5.
= ^.
Now it
is,
as
we have
mean
'
elastic
'
force, is
slightly displaced
and then
let
go, it
performs a simple
harmonic
oscillation of
oscillation
a complete
6.
= 2w^ /"displacement
acceleration
Hence (from
4)
we have
for the
linear oscillation of a
mass
'
amplitude
74
7-
Dynamics of Rotation.
Applications. (l) A 10 Ih. mass hangs from a long thin On adding 1 oz. the spring is found to be stretched Find the time of a complete small i/neh ; on adding 2 oas., 2 inches.
Here we
see that the distorting force is proportional to the dis-
examined.
poundals.
We will
express masses in
lbs.,
produces a displacement of
..
the ratio
^ =R=-^ = displacement
-^.
^ pounds
I'g
24.
T=vf=w: E~""'V
= 4"05
elastic cords.
24
(approximately).
sec.
(2) A mass of 20 lbs. rests on a smooth horizontal plane midway between two upright pegs, to which it is attached by light stretched
(See
fig.)
found that a displacement of J an inch towards either peg an elastic resistance of 3 oxs., which is doubled when the displacement is doubled. Find the time of a complete small oscillation of the mass about its position .of rest.
It is
calls out
force
3X
j^j
X 32 abs. units.
^^""^
^""di^lacement"
=
^
144
V
8.
V 'V 144
to cases in
'20
sec.
=2'34sec. (approximately).
The student
body
itself
will
now
limitation of the
elastic
argument
may be
neglected.
Elastic Oscillations.
75
W,
form would
part of
it
Thus the
considerations
much
a heavy
mass
W placed
on a light lath
by
itself.
9.
true
axle,
;
provided we sub-
moment
mass
follows that
when
of
2.y^
where
I is the
sec.
moment
of inertia
of
oscillation
and
is
the
ratio
^he
76
Q
Dynamics of Rotation.
Elastic Oscillations.
of oscillation, then
77
l=m&?, and
Let L be the length of a simple pendulum which would have the same period of oscillation as this body. The time of a complete oscillation of this simple
pendulum
is 27r
/-.
For
this to
V^VI"
or
L=
I
(l) thin cwculwr hoop of radius r hung over a peg swings under the action of gravity
Hxamples.
own
plane.
its
Find
is
given
of gravity
r.
equal to
K2
I'
r^
is,
in this case.
+ r^
= 2r.
verily this
The two
A horizontal
bar magnet, of moment inertia I, WMkes n complete Deduce from this the value of the product
MH
where
is the
the strength
of the earth's horizontal field. Let ns be the magnet. {See Fig. 43.) Imagine it displaced through an angle 6. Then since the magnetic moment is, by definition, the value of the couple exerted on the magnet when placed in a uniform
field of
it
follows
78
that
Dynamics of Rotation.
when placed
in a field of strength
H at
=MH sin
.
e.
is
=MH6 when 6
-D
small.
^=VI
MH
"
T2 =4ff2
orMH:
N.B.
IJI2I'
by using the same magnet placed magand W., to deflect a small needle
we can
Thus
^.
by combining the
tion-obserration of
result of an oscilla-
MH
with that of a
deflection-obseryation of =,
we
obtain
the value of
tion.
(3)
H at
bar magnet
oscillates
Two
ing one
ox.,
are placed on it at
a dnstamce of 3 inches on
the axis,
and
now
6 seconds.
Find
inertia of the
units.
Then the moment of inertia of the magnet with the attached masses is I + 2 X 1 X 3^=(I 18) oz.-inoh''' units. The time of a complete oscillation of magnet alone is 5 sec.
-I-
Thus
and
2)1
Stt
I-fl8
= 6.
Elastic Oscillations.
79
V
1
'
'H-18_
+ 1836 25' ~I
1
II.
Oscillating
Inertia.
ing the
very useful and convenient apparatus for findof inertia of small objects such as magnets^
moment
galvanometric
coils,
on a
flat spiral
spring
of
many
manner
of
of the balance-wheel
it
of a watch,
which
performs
oscilla-
which
is
done by observing,
table'
unloaded,
an
oscillation
moment
of.
inertia Ij
e.g.
the disc may be loaded with two known weight and dimensions placed
Then, since
T,=27r./i
and Ti=2^
/ I.+Ii
laid
on the
disc,
with
its
8o
axis, is
Dynamics of Rotation.
found from the corresponding time of
relations
oscillation
by the
V
and T=27r
R /I+L E
whence 1=1.
Examples on Chapters
Examples
(1)
V.
and
VI.
8l
for Solution.
position
light string attached to its ends, and passed over a peg vertically above the middle of the bar at a distance of 10 centimetres. Find the time of a complete small oscillation in a vertical plane containing the bar, under the action of gravity.
by a
seconds. Ans. 1'766 uniform circular disc, of 1 foot radius, \veighing 20 lbs., is pivoted on a central horizontal axis. small weight is attached to
.
. .
(2)
is
observed to
oscillate,
bar magnet 10 centimetres long, and of square section 1 When hung horizontally centimet;re in the side, weighs 78 grams.
(3)
by a
fine fibre it is
80 seconds at a place where the earth's horizontal force is '18 dynes. Find the magnetic moment of the magnet. dyne-centimetre units. Ans. 202 "48 (4) A solid cylinder of 2 centimetre radius, weighing 200 grams, is rigidly attached with its axis vertical to the lower end of a fine wire. If, under the influence of torsion, tho cylinder make 0'5 complete
. . .
pendulum consists of a heavy thin bar 4 ft. long, pivoted (B) about an axle through the upper end. Find (1) the time of swing (2) the length of the equivalent simple j)endnlum.
Ans.
(6)
(1) 1"81
seconds approximately;
(2) 2'6feet.
Out of a uniform rectangular sheet of card, 24 inches x 16 The remainder is inches, is cut a central circle 8 in&es in diameter.
then supported on a horizontal knife-edge at the nearest point of the Find the time of a complete small oscillacircle to a shortest side. tion under the influence of> gravity (a) in the plane of the card ; (6) in
a plane perpendicular thereto. Ans.
(7)
(a)
is
1'555 seconds
(6)
1*322 seconds.
force of 2 pounds, 2 inches by a force of 4 pounds. Find how many complete small oscillations it wiU make per minute with a 3 lb. weight
spring
elongated 1 inch
by a
attached.
Ans. 1527
OHAPTEE
Analogue
Motion.
VIII.
Law
of
Newton's
is
Law
of
Motion
is
the statement
This law
Momentum, which is the statement that when two portions of matter act upon each other, whatever amount of momentum is generated in any direction in the one, an equal amount is generated in the opposite direction in the other. So that the total amount of momentum in any
Conservation of
direction is unaltered
by the
action.
Law
is
of
To deduce
is
this as
it
sufficient to point
same
straight line
any
axis.
The corresponding
momentum
is
Conservation of Angular
on another can the
total
Momentum.
83
amount
of angular
momentum, about
altered.
round a fixed Axle.We have seen (p. angular momentum of a rigid body rotating
'
'
about a fixed
axle
is
the
name
given,
measured by the
the
momentum it generates in a given moment of a force may be measured by the momentum it generates in a given time.
1st
angular
Example
Ij,
of the Principle.
to be rotating with
toi
angular velocity
about a fixed
a second disc
of
moment
will
rest.
of
at
inertia Ij,
first
and which we
suppose to be at
Now,
along
B to
be
slid
up a
moment
of
Fio.
be the
44
same
as
is
destroyed in
quantity
of
will
total
angular
motaentum
will
is
remain
unaltered.
Ultimately the
angular velocity
two
J2
rotate
which
(Ii
+ Ia)0=li<o
or
0=
ii+i;
84
Dynamics of Rotation.
had
initially
an angular velocity
Uu,
then
momentum
gives us
or
whjch,
it will
of conservation of linear
inelastic bodies, viz.
:
momentum
(mi + ms,)
F= WiVi + mjrj.
whose moment of
Ij,
2nd Example.
A
'^
horizontal disc
inertia
is
rotates
,
about
with
fixed
vertical
axis
angular velocity
toj.
Imagine
rest,
and
an independent
first let
rigid bar
At
Now,
let
a horizontal
particle is checked,
accelerated
against
and that of the remainder of the system by a man standing on the disc and pushing the radius rod as one would push against the arm of a
(e.g.
is
brought to
By what has
much
angular
momentum
be communicated to the
momentum
remain unaltered.
We
the stationary
Conservation of Angular
the motion of the latter.
If I^ is
toj
Momentum.
the reduced
85
now
its
angular velocity,
moment we have,
said,
Ij(l)j
= IlO),
la
or
Ii (i)2=cai=i.
Or,
we may imagine
to rest, placed at
some other
on
its
radius,
and
If I3 be
now
the
moment
we
shall
have
3rd Example.
always
Suppose
that,
by the application of a
force
we
its
distance
from the
alter the
momentum
let
about the
For example,
hollow
shaft
a disc rotating on a
radial
r4
be provided with
down
It is clear
groove
disc
is
angular
momentum
to them, losing as
much
as
it
imparts.
86
Dynamics of Rotation.
which passes through a-small
is
On slacken;
axis
on tighten-
momentum
the axis to
Iw
force with a
\
''x
moment about
in-
crease
its
amount.
in this case
no.
47.
how
moment
ticle
of inertia has
iinite
mass
a par-
when
rotating with
The moment
momentum
=Io)
the angular
must
versa.
particle.
particle
moving
drawn out
of that path,
Conservation of Angular
Momentum.
87
force.
Consideration of the Kinetic Energy. It should be observed, in general, that if by means of forces having no
moment about
the axis
we
alter
the
moment
of inertia
moment
of inertia
Ii
of the con-
momentum
I.
1-2
is ^Ijcol
i-i
way
described involves
disc,
and
that, in
Example
3,
88
(2)
Dynamics of Rotation.
When
however
Thus,
water
is
let
slight
and imperceptible
see that
it
at
(3)
we
which shrinks
as it cools,
and so brings
its
nearer to
it cools.
rate of rotation as
The sun and the earth itself, and the other planets, are probably all of them cooling and shrinking, and their respective
rates of rotation, therefore,
If the
lous mass, as has been supposed, a very slow rate of revolution, in its
original form,
would
sufi&ce to
present comparatively rapid rotation of the sun (one revolution in about 25 days).
Momentum.
The
angular
and
mo-
mentum
in question.
The
is
its
if
rotation.
in.
Thus
OA and OB
.If
Figs.
48 and 49 would
a
It can
may
also
produce the
referred
to,
Conservation of Angular
Momentum.
89
body having only angular momentum about an axis parallel to and represented by OA (Fig. 50) is acted on for a time by a couple in the same plane as the original direction of this axis,
this
will
momentum
Then the
about this
axis,
but
OB
OA.
total
angular
momentum
a
/
c
/ /
00
of the parallelo-
gram AB (Fig. 50). And in general the amount of angular momentum existing about
any
line is represented
by the projection on
representing the total
that line
cf the
line
/ /
angular
momentum
of
in question.
Moment
'
Momentum. The
'
phrase
^-^o-
angular
momentum
is
convenient only so
long as
we
momentum
is
more
'
conservation of
at
moment
of
of
momentum
any instant
(wM)p) of
of a particle
the resolved
the
momentum
of its direction
from the
axis,
the
moment
momentum
of a particle
by
the
of
the
particle
from the
Since the
action
one
particle
on
90
Dynamics of Rotation.
equal and
opposite
simultaneous generation of
momenta
II.),
it
axis of the
momenta
Hence
in
any system
is
side there
conservation of
moment
momentum,
or, in
algebraical language,
2(m!5?)
= constant.
of a particle as thus defined
its
is
The moment
of
momentum
_,p
same thing as
For, let
angular
momentum
and
vo.
mass
having a velocity
V inclined to the
and
have a resolute v
Let PP' be
(d(),
then
v=^.
of
PP'
ON
is
let fall
definition, the
moment
momentum
pmv-
PP'
PP'^E.
PQ
=Em'
dt
.
=mE,*
=i<ii.
i.e.
dO
dt
the
its
angular
same
as
Conservation of Angular
Momerdum.
will
91
General Conclusion.
The student
if,
observe that the forces acting on any system cause an alteration in the angular
fixed line, then
we shall find
axis, of
tion is simultaneously
momentum
Caution.
is
reminded that
it is
only
momentum
is
measured by
is
no angular
perpendicular to
angular
momentum
is
Ballistic
Pendulum.
In
moment
of
momentum.
The pendulum
consists of a
can turn
vertical
The
bullet
is
wood
in a plane
The amplitude
dulum
is
92
before impact
Dynamics of Rotation.
is
easily deduced.
of .inertia of the
its
Let
axis
m be the mass
when
of the bullet
and r
its
velocity
<o
found by
and embedded
lowest point,
bullet at
5-
=
'
-^
I.
in
lifting
Q,
through
'
angle
Now,
impact that
we
to the line of
Then writing
about">
moment
we have
of
momentum
rangular
momentum
about
m;i=(I+mr^)o),
which gives us
v.
that
we apply
the principle of
its
velocity at its
Of the
we
a distance
from the
simple pendulum.
Examples on Chapter VIII.
Examples.
in diameter, weighing 8 lbs., spins (1) without appreciable friction at a rate of 10 turns per second about a thin vertical axle, over which is dropped a sphere of the same
93
After a few moments of slipping Find the common angular velocity of the two, and also the amount of heat generated in the rubbing together of the two (taking 772 foot-pounds of work as equivalent to one unit
of heat).
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
sec.
-008456
uniform sphere, 8 inches in radius, rotates without friction (2) about a vertical- axis. small piece of putty weighing 2 oz. is projected directly on to its surface in latitude 30 on the sphere and tbere sticks, and the rate of spin is observed to be thereby reduced by j^. Find the moment of inertia of the sphere, and thence its
specific gravity.
Ans.
(i)
(ii)
1\ oz.-foot^ units.
-0332.
an orbit (3) under the influence of a central force sweeps out equal areas in equal
particle describing
times.
(4)
boy
and to which he clings. Find the on the second, supposing it to be unimpeded by friction, and that the boy reaches it along a radius.
to a neighbouring one at rest,
effect
(5)
wheel on a
frictionless axle
has
its
circumference' pressed
against a travelling
constant.
band moving at a speed which is maintained Prove that when slipping has ceased as much energy will
heat as has been imparted to the wheel.
fired into a ballistic
have been
(6)
lost in
pendulum from
Ib.-foot'
The moment of inertia of the pendulum is 200 and it weighs 20 lbs. The distance from the axis gravity is 3 feet, and of the horizontal line of fire
units,
of its centre of
is
-j*
feet
the
bullet penetrates as far as the plane containing the axis and centre of mass and weighs 2 oz. The cosine' of the observed swing is \.
sec.
= 32'2.)
CHAPTEE
IX.
point
Evidence of the existence for a Rigid Body of a possessing peculiar dynamical relations.
previously at rest and perfectly free to
move
in
any manner.
The student
will
be prepared to admit
that, in accordance
Law
of Motion,
its
it
will
tell
us explicitly
'force,
always
assuming
to be in the
same
direction.
that
a difference.
of
If,
body be
figure,
FIG. 53.
if
we
body
It is
if
always possible,
the force be ap-
95
body
will
The student
when the
2,
force
we may suppose
Law
applied to the
body
would
still
own
direction.
evidently important to
circumit
stances a
not.
body
will turn,
will
The
periment
is
to.
It is instructive to make the experiment in another Let a smooth stone of any shape, resting loosely on smooth It will be found easy to poke the ice, be poked with a stick. stone either so that it shall turn, or so that it shall not turn, and if the direction of the thrusts which move the stone without rotation be noticed, it will be found that the vertical planes containing these If, now, the stone be turned directions intersect in a common line. on its side and the experiments be repeated, a second such line can be found intersecting the first. The intersection gives a point through which it will be found that any force must pass which will cause
Experiment
way. hard
flat
piece of paper or
it, with a very fine thread attached, on the surface of a horizontal mirror dusted over with lycopodium powder to diminish friction, and then tugging
may be made by
laying
g6
at the thread
;
Dynamics of Rotation.
the image of the thread in the mirror aids in the
is is
alignment.
The thread
peculiar
the
Centre of Gravity,
will be
may
be confirmed by
system of forces (the weights of the respective particles) whose resultant passes through the centre of gravity. Experiment 5. When a body hangs at rest by a string, the direction of the string passes through the centre of gravity. If the string be pulled either gradually or with a sudden jerk, the body moves upward with a corresponding acceleration, but again without turning. This is a very accurate proof of the coincidence of the two points.
We
which
'
now may
be enunciated as follows
be a/pplied to
Ij a cowple
free
to
is to
perfectly
rotate about
from
home
to himself.
bar,
If a uniform
AB,
y^
A
free to
ner,
move
forces
in
any man-
y^
iQ. 54.
be acted on by a couple
are applied
whose
97
mass G, then
turn about
G-.
it is
But
A and the
other
FIQ. 5S.
at
G itself,
it is
as in Fig. 55, or
between
A and
G, as in Fig. 56,
then
point.
by no means so obvious that G will be the turning The matter may be brought to the test of experiment
indicated in the following figure.
in the
manner
Gi
FIG. 57.
lies horizontally on a squaxe-cut Experiment block of wood, being suitably counterpoised by weights of brass or large vessel of still lead so that the wood can float as shown in a water. The whole is turned so that the magnet lies magnetic east and west, and then released, when it will be observed that the centre ^ as the whole of gravity G remains vertically under a fixed point P
6.
Magnet
NS
The centre of gravity must, for hydrostatic reasons, be situated the same vertical line as the centre of figure of the submerged part in of the block.
1
98
turns about
it.
Dynamics of Rotation.
It is
is affected
by a
horizontal couple
due
experimentally that
in
when a
rigid
and
free to
move
any manner
is
acted on by
forces having
Gravity,
gular
dhffui,
acceleration
the
cmtre of
Let
FIG. 68.
It will be observed that the centre of gravity while at the same time the body turns about it, unless the direction of the blow passes exactly through the centre of gravity.
[It will
seen projected
frame.
window
The
The blow
lift
and
it is
moment
of
eccentric the
body
is
99
not been such as to enable us to decide that the points are not
in every case separated
h/
xinjTy inch,
or even by
yd-jj-
We
shall
now
that
known
as the
Centre of Mass, and defined by Let m wia, wis, ... be the masses of
of
particles;
and
be
given by the
relation
x=-
miXi+miXf\r
mi+mi+m,+
<" '^=
"EOmx)
'sTis
of
thus definedl
in the note
p. 38,
fact,
to the force with which the earth pulls them. of procedure will be,
first
Our method
formally to enunciate
and prove certain very useful but purely kinematical properties of the Centre of Mass, and then to give the theoretical
proof that
selected
stration.
it
we have
special
examples
for
direct
experimental demon-
loo
Dynamics of Rotation.
the student
By
who
experimental phenomena, the physical meaning of these propositions will be easily perceived
and their
practical import-
now
to be
difficult to
Proposition
(Kinematical.)
On
If
the particles
initial
positions in
the centre
any
experienced by
is con-
m any one
chosen direction
.
nected
with
resolved
of the
same
~"
mi+m,+ .... +m
or
a=-^
and
let
Proof.
For,
let
from
Then
.-=1^ and zm
^JE^ zm
~
2(ms)
'2m
"''
^^{md)
2i
_
...
a;-x=d=-^^-.
2(md)
Q.E.D.
If
2(ffM^)=o, then in
mass-displacement
d=o, i.e. if, on the whole, there is no any given direction, then there ia
of
mass
in that direction.
If
its
centre of
pure
When, on the other hand, the centre of mass moves, then we say that there is a motion of translation.
Proposition
II.
(Kinematical.)
If
On
Vi,
the velocity of
v^,
v,
...
be the
the
any given
mj, m^,
direction at
etc.,
any instant of
the
mass in
-
the
same
direction is given by
the relation
"ZOmv)
zm
This follows at once from the fact that the velocities are
measured
by,
to,
the
Pecposition
III.
(Kinematical.)
If a^ja^,
. . .
On
the acceleration of
be the accelerations in
any
and
at the
same
of masses
wii, rn^
...
of a system, then
the
the acceleration
of their centre
of mass in
same direction at
thai instant, is
2(ma) I* ^5
zm
II.,
102
Dynamics of Rotation.
V
)
the
is
equal
to
the total
mass of
displacement \
V acceleration
of the centre of mass.
Corresponding to these three Propositions are sum of the moments about any
{mass-displacements
\
momenta
mass-accelerations
> of
/
r mass-displacements ^ mass-aispiacements \
axis
< of the -l
',
momenta
J-
\ mass-accelerations )
is
egual
to the
swm
moment
about
c displacement \
of the-{
velocity
>of
*
the centre
acceleration
mass of the whole system. Since the moment of the mass-displacement of a particle has
momenta.
'
I03
(Kinematical.)
equal
to the
ang%lar
momentum
mass
with
Proof.
particle
let
Let
P
and
be the pro-
>L^
/
'
the
centre
of
^'~~'"7f=c"--'f
mass.
Join
OGr.
^^
/
l
P
"""--->_
'~~-
;~-.^.__^
'P'
Let
PQ
represent
{v)
the resolute
of
in
/q
the velocity of
mo.
69.
OG.
PS Draw
;
the resolute
'
of this velocity
to
of
about
0=pmv=mvx
-pa
OM.=mv{TM+OT!)=mvp'+mvOG^=p'mv+mv'OQ.
Therefore,
summing
Total angular
momentum
about 0=2(^m)=2(p'M))+
is
Corollary.
If the centre of
mass
is
at rest
= 'Sp'mv,
axes.
momentum
is
of a spinning
at rest
I04
this.
Dynamics of Rotation.
He will easily associate it with the fact that the momentum measures the impulse of the couple tjiat
it,
angular
has produced
is
the
same about
Proposition V.
(Kinematical).
we can prove
that
2(pjreai)=2p'ma+0G(l'2m.
Proposition VI.
centre of mass of a
(Dynamical.)
that
On
We
shall
now show
The, acceleration in
mass of
mass of the
lohole system
For,
by Newton's Second
II),
Law
of
Motion
note on
Chapter
*
/the algebraic
sum
of the ex-\
/the algebraic \
ternal forces,
accelerations,
2E=2(ma);
hit h) III.
2(ma)=a2m;
.'.
2E=aSm,
-
2E
"^
*=2^'
which
is
what we had
is
to prove.
This result
when
the forces
are constant and have a resultant that does not pass through
105
the centre of mass (see Fig. 53), the centre of mass will,
nevertheless,
line,
acceleration in a straight
if
Proposition VII.
couple to
(Dynamical.)
and free
to
The
application
of a
a rigid body
at rest
only cause rotation about some axis through the centre of mass.
For,
by Proposition VI,
Acceleration of centre of mass=^j;
zm
2E=0
which, therefore
(if
Proposition VIII.
forces is applied to
(Dynamical.)
it,
When any
on
system
of
a free rigid
the rotation
is
For,
II., p.
32,
,,
,1.
2 (moments ^
,
.
the
mass-
\
I
accelerations
about
Eesultant
^
moment
,
of
the
any
> ==
external forces
or '2{pma)='L
but,
by
.p.
103),
io6
If,
Dynamics of Rotation.
of
mass
under considerais
it),
2(pfma)=L,
of the mass-accelerations about
i.e.
sum
of the
moments
moment
the
Mass.
This proposition
independent
treat-
ment
of rotation
and
of external forces.
On
of Mass, about which a couple causes a free Rigid Body to turn. Caution. The reader might be at first
but
will
not in general
To fix the
us
imagine
of
body composed
at
the
same
is
point 0, which
the
let
107
AB
other two
CD
in
let
this
massive system be
embedded
matter
whose
mass
may be
is
neglected in comparison.
It is evident that the
moment
about
much
less
about
AB than
body
Hence,
if
the centre
at
some point
on the bisector
DOB,
then this
CD
and
about AB.
But
more
AB
AB than
to
CD, and
,
of the couple.
In
fact,
the rods
EF and CD
AB
We
Chapter
xil.
Total Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body. When a body rotates with angular velocity (u) about the centre o
mass, while this has a velocity
(),
we
can,
by a force through
(|-I<u)
unaltered.
Thus,
mode
of solution.
io8
Dynamics of Rotation.
Examples.
and m, of which is the greater, hang at the ends of a weightless cord over a smooth horizontal peg, and move under the action of gramty ; to find the acceleration of their centre of mass and the wpwa/rd pressure of the peg.
(l)
Two
masses
as
is
__
is _
-g^
"M+m
^ =-=
M-TO
Hence substituting ^
in the
we have
- the push
sum
\M+mf
orP=(M.m),[l-(Mzgg
"{U+mf
==-=
M+m
(2)
uniform
inclined at
its centre
solid sphere rolls without slipping dovm a plane am angle 6 with the horimntal ; to find the acceleration of and the tangential force due to the friction of the plane.
It is evident that
if
there
were no
the
0,
accelera-
wish to find
to
which we is due
total force
mg
sin
5-
parallel to
Properties of the Centre of Mass.
the plane, where
109
P is the
friction.
a=?
where
.
m,
= grBinfl-? m
Now,
the
(i)
moment
is
through
Pr=AI=AxmF
.
(ii)
Aifc2
substituting in
(i)
a=o sin 5
Now,
/,.
A42
.
r
since the sphere is at any instant turning about the point of
we ha ve <b = and
r
A=r
(iii)
we
fl
get
=gf
sm 6
r^
+ fe"
=-^'r^
5
-
a=j'sin6x---.
nigAa. 6
- P=mgisin By.,-
Vnigan\6.
[This question might also have been solved from the principle of
the Conservation of Energy.]
no
Dynamics of Rotation.
Examples
(1)
for Solution.
Show
that
when a
rotational.
rolls in
Show
that
when a hoop
when
its
Show
that
moving
along a straight path, f of its kinetic energy is rotational. (4) Find the time required for a uniform thin spherical shell to roll from rest 12 feet down a plane inclined to the horizontal at a
slope of 1 in 50.
two spheres externally similar and of equal (5) weights, but one is a shell of heavy material and the other a solid sphere of lighter material. How can you easily distinguish between
You
are given
them^
(6j
uniform circular
disc, half
an inch thick and 12 inches in same material half an inch in The ends of this axle rest upon two
wood
to
(7)
What mass
by
seconds
Ans. g = 32'19 f.s.s. could be raised through a space of 30 feet in 6 a weight of 50 lbs., hanging from the end of a cord passing
round a fixed and a moveable pulley, each pulley being in the form of Ans. 84'02 lbs. a disc and weighing 1 lb.
Instruttwrn.
end of the
2x
/ *
other velocities, both linear and angular taking the radius of each pulley to be r. Equate the sum of the kinetic energies to the work done by the earth's pull. Remember
that the fixed pulley will rotate twice as fast as the moveable one.
(8)
<B,
A uniform cylinder of
its axis, is
radius
r,
about
which
3/iff
Prove that
'
it
and then
roll
CHAPTEE
We
have, so
far,
X.
We
shall
now
consider the
Proposition.
velocUy
ta
Any partide
circle
round a
the
the
where
is
the
mass of
particle.^
Let us
the length
radius
tion
agree
to
represent
the
by
OP
of
Then the
velocity at
OQ
measured
along the radius OB, and the velocity added in the interval
is
B is very near
to
Since u = -,
ria^ =i
and
it is
of a particle, such as Garnett's Mementcury Dynamics and Lock's Dynamics, that the acceleration of a point moving uniformly in a circle
is
We
Ul
Dynamics of Rotation.
therefore the velocity
it
represents
is
along this
Then
PQ
{dt),
i.e.
the
acceleration
X (it).
'
But
PQ _ acceleration x (dt) OP
~v
^=
angle
POQ=a)(dO
acceleration
X (dt) _
,-,,<.
acceleration
= tim =
r<o'.
Hence,
if
speed in a
circle
of radius r
is
is
a force of
The
mass of
a
unit force
Thus,
if
lbs.,
or mr<o^ poimdals
is
wj dynes.
terms Centripetal
'
Force' and Centrifugal Force.' A small bullet whirled round at the end of a long fine string approximates to the
case of a
heavy
particle
influence of a
centripetal force.
The
on
a centrifugal
Centripetal
113
rim of a solitaire-board
kept in
its circular
path by the
The
rim, on
push exerted on
In
fact,
it
by the marble.
move with uniform angular velocity in a circle by a centripetal force exerted on it by other matter, and the equal and opposite reaction exerted by the body in question is in most Thus, when two spheres attached cases a centrifugal force. to the ends of a fine string rotate round their common
centre of gravity on a smooth table, each exerts on the string
a centrifugal
force.
In the
case,
common
centre of
on the other
is centripetal.
We
Centripetal Forces in a Rotating Rigid Body. When we have to deal, not with a single particle, but with a
rigid
velocity
r^,
o>,
r r
from the
on the several
first
particles.
Rigid Lamina.
of
We take
lie
is
mass
plane.
Here
of
all
the forces
and
it is
easily
shown
the
is
[and MEu",
equal to
M^
where
V is
mass in
114
This
Dynamics of Rotation.
may be shown
at once
proposition in Statics:
'If
in
times
OA
AB,
so
.
7=r
CB
m
let
p.
18.)
For
A
particles of
and
be any two
and
n,
OA
is
nico'OA,
OB is
it
AB inversely
This
till all
Centripetal
piling
on the same
no 6&
Fio. 67.
FIG. 69.
^^-
'!0.
66-70),
we may
build
up
and
1 1
Dynamics of Rotation.
we
where
is
The
string.
by
The
axis
If
all
the axis passes through the centres of mass of such laminae, then E=0, and the force disappears, and
is
the axis
unstrained.
It is often of high
importance that
the rapidly rotating parts of any machinery shall be accurately centred, so that the strains
of
the axle
may be
avoided.
Convenient
Dynamical
Artifice.
It
should
be
for
example,
the cylinder
AB
rotating
as
indicated
or
about 00'
sand,
it
particles
of shot
in a rigid case
should maintain
equilibrium.
The
particles
between
G
6
and
would press
it
against each other and against the case, and tend to turn
and
would tend, by
way.
Now,
it is
very convenient in dealing with problems involving the consideration of centripetal forces to treat the question as one
Centripetal
117
as
we may regard
possessing
rigidity,
but no
mass,
is
appreciable
and
-
which
honey
combed
(WR<ii)
may
lie
be conceived to
as
loose
cores
cell-
exerting on the
walls
pressures,
centrifugal
tCIi
whose
re-
sultant
must be
bal-
c
FIO. Tl.
the equilibrium
is
to be
maintained.
By
artifice, for
the student will find plenty of scope in the examples that are
equilibrium
may be
Centrifugal Couples.
uniform rod
axis,
AB (Fig. 72).
its
if
So long
tilted
a single force at
centre of gravity
librium; but
the rod be
it is
towards the
shown
in
AG
GB
creased (the force being everywhere proportional to the distance from the axis)
;
now
to be sought
ii8
is
Dynamics of Rotation.
by the arrows in the
is
figure,
which
v^
andB,
Such a force
is
equivalent to
G-,
\g i\
1 I
and the
axis.
Such
a couple
is
called a
Centrifugal
the axis
n >
Couple.
for example,
by a
to
the
centre
of
mass),
FIG. 72.
un-
by a cord
set
itself
attached to
radially.
to
Centrifugal Couple in a body of any shape. body of any shape whatever rotating about a fixed
same conclusion
is
With
axis, the
arrived
at, viz.,
axis
mass of the body, and a couple in a plane parallel to the but the axis of this couple will not, except in special ;
be perpendicular to the plane containing the centre of
cases,
Centripetal
This result
ticles of
119
may
be reached by taking,
and n
and
are equivalent to
centre
of
the
two
particlies),
two couples f^ and q^. Then the two coplanar forces along
as before
114),
resultant
(m+m)(o''CGr,
to
CG
unless
all
the
particles in turn,
we
Centrifugal Couples vanish when the rotation is about a Principal Axis. It is obvious that in the case of a thin rod (see Fig. 72) there is no centrifugal couple when
the rod
tion,
axis),
is
which
and
it is
a rigid
body
of
any
is
when
the rotation
I20
Proof.
Dynamics of Rotation.
Let us
fix
of a body
Mj,,
about
Oy
centre of mass
Oa;
Let
axes perpendicular
Oy.
The
is
and
its
component
this
parallel to Oa; is
mxwy^, and
of this
The moment about Oz yz. component of the centripetal force is. a>j,''ma;y and
plane
momentum
moments
is
is
being
The sum
of the
of such
com-
ponents for
all
with
its
sign changed, or
m^lmxy,
is
Now
"Smzy vanishes
is
Hence
there
principal axis.
It follows that a rigid
axis,
But in
moments
of inertia about
we have
seen, will not be stable unless the axis of rotation is the axis
of greatest
moment,
Centripetal
121
Importance of properly shaping the parts of machinery intended to rotate rapidly. In connection
now
shall
injurious
Equimomental bodies similarly rotating have equal and similar centrifugal couples. Proof. Let i"!) Vu 2i be any three rectangular axes of the one body
(1),
and
x^,
2a
(2),
and
Then about any other axis, in the plane xy making (x), ^ (=90 a) with (y), and 7 (=90) with (2), the moment of inertia of (1) is (as we see by referaxes.
A' cos"
(for
cosy=cos90=0), and,
y,
the
are equal,
and
corresponding axes.
Substitution of the 3-rod inertia-skeleton.This result justifies us in substituting for any rotating rigid body
122
its
Dynamics of Rotation.
We
minimum
are equal,
inertia C.
is
A and B
and these
rod
dynamically equivalent to a
sphere for which
fugal
all
1110,.
all
centri-
couples
;
vanish about
axes
73a.
for
consideration
only
the
The
centrifugal
couple
is
G and
tion
(y),
and
its value, as
we have
seen, is (a^^mxy
now
if
r be
x=r
sin 6
and
y=r cos 6,
: o)'2ma;y=o)' sin
C
of the whole rod
= moment of inertia
dicular
about a perpen-
of inertia of rod
about
a perpendicular axis,
=|(A-t-B-C)-i(B-|-0-A)
(see p. 65)
=A-C
Therefore the centrifugal couple =(o''(
If
A 0) sin 6 cos
6.
C had been the axis of maximum moment of inertia then the rodO would have been the shortest of the three rods instead of the longest, and we should have had a defect instead of an
Centripetal
123
excess to deal with, and the couple would have been of the
cos
Q.
We
shall
make
three
moments
we
could
We
way
each pair separately and then combine the two by the parallelo-
gram
law.
We
shall,
Transfer of Energy under the action of Centrifugal Couples. Returning again to our uniform thin
rod as a conveniently
simple
case,
it
let
us
suppose
in the
attached
indi-
manner
74 and
as to turn freely in
rotates
about
The
rod, if liberated
while
the frame
is
of the centrifugal
al.
It is impos-
124
Dynamics of Rotation.
away, energy being dissipated
as frictional heat.
To the
is,
question,
Where has
this energy
come from
position
the answer
From
tion of the
AB
moment
of inertia about
00'
is
of forces
having no
in
moment about
VIII. p. 87,
we saw
Chapter
new
position)
must be diminished
in exactly the
same proThus,
portion.
if
the
whole
external torque,
and
rod
Fia. 75.
with
the
initially in
the
position
as the
AB, then
rod
oscillates,
will alternately
CC.
CHAPTEE XL
CENTEE OF PERCUSSION.
Let a
and
let
thin rod
AB
of
mass
be pivoted at
about a
y
(P)
and the
rod,
let
G be the centre of
is
not neces._lt)_
there act at
G
<_ieL<~
seen
B
FIQ.
7fi.
of
moment P x GN.
if free,
On
account of
On
it
\,.
(P)XNG '
125
126
Thus the
side of
figure),
Dynamics of Rotation.
velocity of
will,
any
point, such as
on the opposite
left (in
G to N,
the
remain at
rest,
and the
body
will, for
We
that
ON
may be
the case.
Call
OG (i)
Z.
.
and
let
the radius of
then
GN=a;
The
velocity of
to the left
is
right=Za,=><^).
These are equivalent when
ZP(a;-;)
P
Wi
WlF
I.e.
when when
_- = l
9;=
7^
I
t.e.
=%-
I
But
therefore,
M .whose distance
the
will
is
the
length of
equivalent
pendulum, there
on the
axle.
be no impulsive action
FiG. 77.
Centre of Percussion.
127
then struck a smart horizontal tap in the manner indicated by the arrow, it will be found that if the place of the blow be above the point M, situated at \ of the length from the bottom, the upper end will be driven from between the fingers in the direction of the
rod will cause it to escape from the grasp in the opposite direction. If, however, the rod be struck accurately at M, the hand experiences no tug.
It is easy to
is
blow be below
of support to
cal-
direct experimental
method of hanging both the rod and a simple pendulum of length OM from a pivot run through the rod at 0, and observing that the two oscillate synchronously under the action of
gravity.
It is evident that,
For example,
if
on the
m the plane
Fio. 78.
axle.
We have
first
for all
cases in
on
this axis,
Such
by
128
Dynamics of Rotation.
(i.)
hand
as
by a
pivot,
somewhere
in the
and perpendicular to
the face.
(ii.)
A
is
centre of
when
it
'
stop
'
We
at a distance of
FIG. 79.
blow must be
so
if free,
parallel
by a
of
the
central
plane
of
symmetry.
For
that
is
this reason,
too,
it
a door swings
brought up as
hinges
even
though
at
the
right
stop
YiG. so.
be
placed
the
We
Centre of Percussion in a Body of any Form. have seen (p. 106) that a free rigid body, acted on by
Centre of Percussion.
couple, will begin to rotate about
29
an axis tbrough
its
centre of
and
it is
evident that
is
struck
when a body can only turn about by an impulsive couple, the axle
axis of
unless
it
is
parallel to
spontaneous rotation.
a body turning about a
;
Hence
it is
not possible, in
all cases of
and the
criterion or
Through the
centre
of
mass draw a
Rotation
The
of
this
criterion
will
be apparent after
It is easy,
by its
if
always an easily
found centre
N.B.
when once
rotation has
axle,
begun
be of
on the
even
and
will not
be an impulsive
force.
Our
investigation
is
only
CHAPTEE
XII.
It
may
fixed axle
may
involve angular
momentum
first
about an axis
perpendicular thereto.
To
instance,
two simple
be rotating
while at
is
illustrations.
p. 124,
let
the rod
AB
OC,
OC
suddenly stopped.
fixed axle
GO' and
on the rod, or by impact with a smooth ring that can be slipped down over the axle 00'
as indicated in Fig. 81,
i.e.
by
forces having
no moment
about GO'.
In order to test whether, in any
130
case,
Simultaneous Rotations.
of rotation about
131
CO' shall
affect the
it
sufficient to inquire
whether, stoppage
when
the rotation
is
involves
the
action
any
impulsive
couple
about 00'.
In the case of the thin rod just examined the impulsive
couple required
is
moment about
00',
FIO, 81.
But
if
EF
CC
and
of the
momentum
tion about
of the loads at
and
AB,
CC
that though
we allow
CC,
132
loads at
Dynamics of Rotation.
F
and
have .angular
momentum
that
when we suddenly
CC, we
also
momentum
is
supplied by other
momentum
by
and H.
existing at any instant about
The reader
angular
affected
momentum
it is.
second case
He
CO'
is
a principal
Now
it is
when one
a principal
axis.
Let
P
is
which
to
The
velocity of
is
perpendicular
r(Oy
and
tion
its
which alone has any moment about Ox,=x(>>y, moment about Ox=iayXy (negative because the rota-
therefore the
moment of momentum of the particle about Ox^umixy, and summing for the whole body, the reangular
sultant
Simultaneous Rotations.
vanishes
I33
when
either Oa; or
Oy
is
body.i
that even
Total Angular Momentum. It will now be clear when a body rotates in rigid attachment to an axis
is
momentum
the other
by the
parallelogram
law to obtain
the whole
angular
momentum.
manner
when
The
total
axis of
make
the axis of
angular
momentum
The
that
Centripetal Couple.
that
When we
we
see
we have shown
(i)
coy^Sroaiy
couple about
(ii)
and
the
contribution
(i)j,Sma;y
measures
of angular
y.
momentum
momentum
about
a;.
The
sigiiificance of
Chapter
Xiii.
' If the rotation about (Fig. 81) had been suddenly arrested when the loaded rod was perpendicular to 00', each load would then have been at the instant moving parallel to 00', and there would have been no moment of momentum about 00'. 00' would at this instant have
CC
134
Since the
Dynamics of Rotation.
moment
of a couple is greatest
about an axis
perpendicular to
its plane, it
momentum about
instant 2
is
x reaches
its
maximum
value, at that
is
thus seen to
be perpendicular to the
plane containing the axis
of rotation
total angular
momentum.
We
way
Lx
of
a centrifugal couple.
a solid of
angular velocity
Fio. 8iA.
to
about an
an
axis C.
axis
Oy making
minimum
momentum
about
a.
The angular
0)
two com-
w sin
about
about OC.
then
Am sin 0,
The angular momentum about and about OC is Co) cos 0.^ The sum
OA and OA is
of the
Ox
is
0.
Awsin ^cos 5+Cft)Cos ^sin 0 {AG)(a cos ^sin This multiplied by w or eo2(A C)sin 6 cos is therefore
the
^
moment
It
is
only because
OA and OC
Simultaneous Rotations.
maintain the rotation.
is
135
obtained in a different
way on
p. 122.
is
body
of
which one
point, say
its
centre
of
mass,
instant
it
which we
call
Every
on that
fact
velocity).
Hence
axis.
after a short
rest,
same
particles will
no longer be at
If,
and
will
no longer
lie
is
however,
forces
it,
and no external
tli.ere
will
be no centrifugal couple.
We
motion will depend on the direction and magnitude of the After it is once abandoned, however, the centrifugal couple.
axis of total angular
it is
fixed in space
CHAPTEE
XIII.
The
way
we attempt
in any
to interfere with
and
appears to set
all
our pre-
It stands
on
its
when we endeavour
seems not only to
to turn
it
over,
us.
resist
but to evade
are best
may
(see
AB
of
rotating with
about an
axle
CD,
held, as
shown
in the figure,
by a frame,
either about the axle
perpendicular to
CD,
Phenomena presented by Spinning Bodies.
GH,
137
wheel
may
simultaneously.
The axle
the
CD we shall refer to as the axle of spin, or axle (1), axle EP we shall call axle (2), and the axle GH, which in
is vertical,
we
shall call
the figure, with both the axle of spin and axle (2) horizontal,
and
spin
let
it
CD.
1.
Ezperiment
bodily, say
If,
now, keeping
it
by carrying
GH vertical, we move the whole round the room, we observe that the axle
we go. This is only momentum. To change would be to alter the amount of
and would require the aU Mction, is
an
not present.
Experiment 2. If, while the wheel is still spinning, we lift the frame-work CD out of its bearings at E and P, we find we can move it in any direction by a motion of translation, without observing anything to distinguish its behaviour from that of an ordinary non-rotating rigid body but the moment we endeavour in any sudden manner to change the direction of the axle of spin an unexpected resistance is experienced, accompanied by a curious wriggle of the wheel.
:
Ezperiment
3.
For the
closer
axle
D and upwards
(1)
from
which we will again suppose horizontal, so as to produce rotation about EF ^axle (2). We find that the couple thus applied is resisted, but that the whole framework turns about the vertical axle
axle (3)
GH
ceasing to turn
removed
138
Dynamics of Rotation.
viewed from above when
(See Fig. 83.)
by the
arrows.
Experiment 4. If, on the other hand, we endeavour by means of a gradually applied horizontal couple to impart to the already spinning
wheel a rotation about axle (3), we find that instead of such rotation taking place, the wheel and its frame begin to rotate about the axle (2), and continue so to rotate so long as the couple is steadily applied. The direction of this rotation is that given in Pig. 84 below, aud
PIG. 83.
Fin. S4,
the
efifects
here mentioned
may be summarised by
the disc rotating about axle (1) the attempt to impart rotation about a perpendicular axle is resisted, but causes rotation about a third axle
perpendicular to both.
In each diagram the applied couple is indicated by straight arrows, by unbroken curved arrows, and the direction of the rotation produced by the couple by broken curved
the original direction of spin
It
it
is
reference that
zontal.
Had
and axle
pendicular to
same.
Definition.
The rotation
called a pre-
Phenomena presented by
cessional
Spinning. Bodies,
t^g
motion
and
we
shall speak of it
is
by that name.
The
application of the
'
couple
process.'
Rule
Precession. In
all cases
found to hold.
the axle of spin tends to convert the existing the axis of the couple, the spin being in the
The Frecession of
sjjin into
a spin about
Experiment 6. The actions just described may be well exhibited by attaching a weight at or D, as in the accompanying figure
FIG. 86.
FIO. 88.
point P,
more strikingly, by supporting the frame by means of a projection DK, in whose lower shallow conical hollow, in the manner indicated in the figure
(Fig. 85), or still
CD
side
on a
is
(Fig. 86).
14<^
Dynamics of Rotation.
would at once
fall,
but instead of
the vertical
when released to travel with preoessional motion round axis HP, and even the addition of a weight to the
will, if the rate of spin be sufficiently rapid, produce framework at no obvious depression of the centre of gravity of the whole, but only an acceleration of the rate of precession round HP. It will, indeed, be observed that the centre of gravity of the whole does in time descend, though very gradually, also that the precession grows more and more rapid.
Each of these
entirely.
effects,
however,
is
rid
may at
Let
and D. The centre of gravity at once Let the precession be accelerated by a horizontal couple. The centre of gravity of the whole begins to rise. Thus we see that any friction of the axle G-H in Fig. 85, or friction
zontal couple applied at
descends rapidly.
at the
point
centre of gravity to
descend.
Experiment
will be
7.
much
greater.
for the
might account
that
we
observe.
Experiment
8.
Let
us
now
which
tightening the screw Gr (Fig. 82), the base of the instrument being prevented from turning by its friction with the
table on which
it
may be done by
stands.
If
we now endeavour
all
as before to
tilt
we
appearance as
if
'
Bodies.
141
But
if
the stm
is
applied at
felt.
its 'eflfort
will
be strongly
Experiment 10. Let us now loosen the screw G again, but fix the frames CD, which may be done by pinning it to the frame EF, so as to prevent rotation about the axle BP. It wiU. now be found that
if,
as in
Experiment
4,
we
felt resistance
has disappeared
'
effort to precess
wUl be strongly felt if the framework CD be dismounted and held the hand, and then given a sudden horizontal twist.
in
etc.
It
most of us obtain
as children
with hoops,
Thus, when
we have
tilted
over to the
left,
it
fall
as
would
if
not rolling.
Since
with
it
a couple
uin. S7
We
observe,
however, that
left,
i.e.
it
we
make
it
turn
more quickly
when
the hoop
path of radius
in an inclined position, as
shown
in the
142
figui'e,
Dynamics of Rotation.
there
is
a couple acting on
,
it
and the
of
the
ground.
But
over,
for
if
position,
roll
back towards
him,
it
will
skidding,'
which precedes
It is
an instruc-
it is still iu
the
air,
to
strike
it
tal diameter.
The hoop
hoop
will
diameter.
If the
spinning, the
vertical diameter.
fall
when
its
axis of spin is
show^
(p.
due to an acceleration of
its
and
falls
tion
by the hoop,
illustrated in experiments 4
gyroscope.
* See also p. 70 of a Lecture on Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry, F. K. S. Published by the Society for Promoting Christian Know-
ledge,
143
In the
momentum
when
the
to preponderate in importance.
It is true that
left,
he gives to his
left
driving-wheel, by
means
of the handles,
a rotation to his
about a vertical
axis,
and that
cessional recovery
position.
How
considerable
may be
first,
readily appreciated
endeavour to change
in its bearings
from the
But
if
momentum
who
is
seated above the axle of the wheel, will be the more powerful cause in
It should also
be
by
it
it
over
still
further,
and
at the
of the
FIG, 88.
track,
and
friction couple
Explanation of Precession.
fully apprehended, it
is
That
the grounds of
may be
implies
momentum
144
(i)
Dynamics of Rotation.
generation of angular
axis of the couple
;
momentum
(ii)
at a definite rate
about the
and
any
body
Now,
if
would
if
not spinning,
it
and
as,
without experience,
to do,
For, as the
wheel, whose axis of spin was, let us suppose, originally horizontal, turned over, angular
momentum would
begin to be
the tilting
momentum would
it.
On
is
by
its
(i) is
also fulfilled.
momentum begin
to
appear
When
the wheel
is
(1)
the amount of
angular
(see p. 89)
Or again, the amount of angular momentum proportional to the projection of the circular area of the disc which is visible to a person looking from a distance at Thus, if the axis were to its centre along the axis in question.
on the wheel
begin to be tilted up, a person looking vertically down would begin to see some of the flat side of the wheel. will find this a convenient method of following with estimating the development of angular momentum about
145
Analogy between steady Precession and uniform Motion in a Circle. To maintain the uniform motion of a particle along a circular arc requires, as we saw on p. Ill,
momentum, alters the direction but not the magnitude of that momentum. Similarly, for the maintenance of a steady precession, we must have a couple always
to the existing
generating angiilar
momentum
in a direction perpendicular
alter-
momentum.
We
showed
with
the
axle
Let I be the
spin.
moment
Let
fl
of inertia of the
Then
the angular
momentum
of the
wheel about an
pivots, the
spin
unaltered.
1
The student
reminded that, on account of the already existing momentum about the axle of spin would not axle were not also a principal axis, and at right-angles
is (see p. 132).
14^
Dynamics of Rotation.
momentum
Ifl
about
when in the position OA by the length OP measured along OA. Then the angular momentum about the axle when in the position OB is represented by an equal
length
OQ
time con-
OB
is
is
PQ
OA.
angular
momentum
the
added,
external
is
and therefore
perpendicular
called
then
in time
(d(), i.e.
" 0P~
But
..
.
^=angle TOQ,=<^{dt)
external couple
this result
for the
following form
'
To
momentum mv with
angular velocity
Bodies.
147
momentum
of magni-
tude
'While
'
To
momentum
of
Ii2
the angular
Since then
momentum,
magnitude
Iflcu.'
L=I!2a)
L
or the rate of precession
is
mag-
angular
momentum
of spin.
5 and
when
is
precession
indefinitely great,
To make
that our investigation, which has just led to the result that
0)=^
from
rest.
Assumis
more
when
precessing especially
with In
its
frame, than
fact, if i
be the
when spinning with axle of spin at rest. moment of inertia of the whole apparatus
round which
is
about the
increased
by the
Hence,
amount
^o)',
and
148
Dynamics of Rotation.
must yield somewhat
to
Observation of the 'Wabble.' This yielding may be if, when the wheel is spinning, comparatively slowly, about axis (1), we apply and then remove a couple about axis (2) in an impulsive manner, for example by a sharp tap given to the frame at 0. The whole instrument will be observed to wriggle or wabble, and if close attention
easily observed
be paid,
it will
oscillating about a
mean
position.
the framework
CD
comes to
rest,
fast as
may
discern only
shiver
'
of the axle.
may
is
and
that the
its
phenomenon
is
attached frame,
etc.,
axis of precession.
of a tilting couple, and for a given angular momentum of spin about axis (1), there must be, as we have seen, so long as the couple is
Bodies.
149
or altered.
The
of precession enables
sion,
them
as
ments 6 and
obeys the
that
when
angular
But the
parts that
in
maximum
same
we have
is
also seen in
Experiment
6,
that
tilt
to produce a (precessional)
The wabble
is
seen to be
'We can now see in a general way in what manner our equation must be modified if it is to represent the connection between the The applied couple and the rate of precession during the wabble. yielding under the applied couple implies that this is generating angular momentum about its own axis by the ordinary process of
generating angular acceleration of the whole object aboilt that axis, and thus less is left unbalanced to work the alternative process of In fact, if our equation is to rotating the angular momentum of spin. hold, we must write (in an obvious notation)
L-l2W2=<<)X angular
momentum about
before, the angular momentum about the horizontal axis that is being rotated can no longer be so simply expressed. As we liave seen, it is not inde-
pendent of
(ij.
150
the result of
Dynamics of Rotation.
forces
tending
first
to
accelerate precession, a
observed.
But
to observe one
is
and
it is still
and mce
Explanation
of the
Starting
of
Precession.
by the airow
is
applied to
it
make
with the
rotation that such a couple produces about axle (2), forces are
called into play
about
(3).
(2),
and therefore
(2),
(see pp.
them lying
effect
as loose cores),
by reason
of a force
applied at some
point
in the quadrant.
momentum
(3),
which the
from axis
(2),
they exert
about
(2),
exerted
at
A,
similarly
situated to A.
in
Again,
(4)
quadrant
the
force is
observer, is equal to
point
D.
no.
o.
'
a couple which
(2),
precession
is
we
see,
by dealing
in precisely the
same way
from axis
(3),
is
opposed to and
about axis
(3).
when
opposing couple
of
is
the
particles initiates
by causing
rotation
about
(2).i
Some
readers
may
tMs explanation by
152
Dynamics of Rotation.
Gyroscope with Axle of Spin Inclined.It will be observed that we have limited our study of the motion of the
spinning gyroscope under
the
action
to
all,
of
a tilting
simplest
couple
case of
the
viz.,
that in
is
axle,
which
there-
fore
axis of precession.
If
we
we have
seen,
must
always be perpendicular
to the axis of spin, would
have been
itself inclined,
it
manner
axle.
in
CD
is
attached to the
could be
The former
precessional rotation
still
prevented.
that the effect of impeding the preces-
imagining the disc as a liollow massless shell or case, inaide which each massive particle whirls round the axis at the end of a fine string, and to think of the way in which the particles would strike the flat sides of the case if this were given the sudden turn about axle 3.
153
sudden
more marked wabble of the axle of spin than would be produced by an equal torque suddenly applied when the axle of spin
hanging on of a weight, as in the
figure, will cause a
was horizontal.
ment.
This
may be abundantly
if
verified
by
experi-
It will be
found that
now
and
acts
if
on
moment
of the tap
is
greater
other
be applied,
it will
when spinning
is
is
notably dimini.e.
when the
axle of spin
nearly vertical,
when
impeded.
and
this produces
and
which
(as
we show
in the
The
precession also
is
is
now
which
and on
this account
body
i.e.
more
is
vertical,
if
the weight
hung
at the lower
end of the
if
but
to diminish the
couple
the weight
upper end.
must be remembered, however, that the disc of a gyroscope can only precess in company with its frame, CD, and the
It
to a sphere.
154
Dynamics of Rotation.
common
and frame.
will obviously
ac-
count.
With a
of the centri-
with a flattened or
oblate
top
it.
like
teetotum,
to
diminish
of the steady
AND
will be
Explanation of the Effects of Impeding or Hurrying Precession. Though we have throughout referred
planation
is
very simple.
precession
impeded,
is
simply a
Eefer-
by the impeding
torque.
(p.
139) will
is
effect either of
impeding or hurrying
at once
The Rising
of a Spinning
Top.We
have already
'
155
142) seen that this phenomenon would follow from the Action of a torque hurrying the precession, and have intimated
fp.
it is by the friction of the peg with the ground or table on which the top spins that the requisite torque is provided.
that
We shall now explain how this frictional force comes into play.
The top
ing with
clined
is
its
as indicated in
Fig. 93.
The
spin,
is
relation
and
pre-
cession
obtained by
and
is
shown by the
~~Jk>,
Fio. 94.
The extremity
peg
is
of the
it is,
the
farther from the axis of spin will be the part that at any instant
sional
is
On
is
So long
as there is relative
motion of the
by the
increase the
while
if
156
to the spin
is
Dynamics of Rotation.
the greater, then the peg will skid as
friction will
it
sweeps
will rise to a
more
vertical position.
When
circle
:
then no relative motion of the parts in conthe table, and the friction
zero.
tact, parallel to
may be
in either
direction,
and may be
peg, of
so that such a top will less readily recover its erect position
may
easily be seen
is
spinning and
tray, to
on a smooth
move
de-
on to an
artificially
roughened
part.
given,
his
charming
is
little
and
attributed by
him
to Sir William
Thomson.
We will
surfaces of different roughness, such bodies as an egg (hardboiled), a sphere eccentrically loaded within,
and
to observe
does not
rise.
he should
observe,
ditions.
now be
what he
will
Bodies.
is
157
Experiments 9 and
'
10, that
when
precession
prevented
an
effort to precess
'
is
it.
of the spinning
If
0)
wheel on
its
bearings.
is
being forcibly
turned into a
angular
new
direction, then
is
tolfl
is
momentum
and
to that of 0, and
is
therefore
of the
Example
foot* units)
(1).
A
(Z(
feet) and a moment of inertia I( = 18500 Ib.rounds a curve of radius r( = 528 feet) at a speed ( = 30 Find the effort to precess due to the two wheels., miles per hour).
each a diameter
=V
Solviion
Q = -T = 12'57
a>
44 1 = = r^TT: = 777 r
528
12
.'.
Moment
of couple required
= 2lQia
absolute units.
(very nearly).
by the
rolling, pitching,
and turn-
158
Dynamics of Rotation.
by the
rolling.
There appear to be no
maximum
value of
o)
likely
As
which the data employed were taken from actual measurements, shows that the stresses produced are not likely in any
actual case to be large
enough to be important.
270 revolu84 seconds. The moment of inertia of the propeller was found, by dismounting it and observing the time of a small oscillation, under gravity, about a horizontal and eccentric axis, to be almost exactly 1 ton-foot^. Kequired the processional torque on the propeller shaft.
(2).
Example
Solution
Q^270x2j^2g.3
60
(
jg^g^^g ^
second.
= -^ = - radians
84
147
per second.
*^
.'.
=2240 X
28-3 x
ii
poundal-foot units,
Miscellaneous Examples.
159
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
1.
Find
momentum,
(c)
(6)
the position of th
momentum,
following cases
(i)
uniform thin circular disc of mass and radius r, rotating with angular velocity w about an axis making an angle &
disc.
sides
2a.,
2&,
and
2c,
about a diagonal.
2.
A wheel of
moments
of inertia
and
B, inclined at a constant angle {&) to the horizon roUs over a horizontal plane, describing on it a circle of radius E, in T sec. Find (1) the
position at
velocity about it
angular
(2) the angular momentum about this axis (3) momentum ; (4) the position of the axis of total momentum (5) the magnitude of the external couple
;
if
the
moment
of inertia of the
about CD is 3000 gram-cm.^ units, and in CD = 10 cm. and the value of the weight hung at D = 50 grams, and the rate of precession is observed to be 1 turn in 25 seconds, find the rate of spin of the gyroscope^
spinning gyroscope
4.
What would be
if
the axis of
spin
an angle of
moment
EF being
inertia of the
APPENDIX
(1)
Enunciation.
point
is
If
may
the
is fixed
at
any
OA
the
and
OB mth
two simultaneous
OA
and
OB
then, at
instant
in
question,
and
represented
by
OD,
the
diagonal of the
parallelogram
Proof.
AB.
(right-
q
fiq. 95.
about OB.
Then the
linear velocities of
on account
DM.o)^
-DN.eoj,
(where
K is a constant depend-
The point
160
is
at rest,
i.e.
OD
Appendix.
rotation in direction.
OD
is
Also the actual angular velocity w about represented in magnitude by OD, for
The
but also
A = wAP
A=(Oj,AN'.
.-.
(AP=o,j,AN'
=K.OB.AN'
o>=K.OD
i.e. OD represents the resultant angular velocity on the same scale. The Parallelogram of angular accelerations and the Parallelogram of angular momenta follow at once as corollaries, and thus angular velocity, angular acceleration, and angular momentum are each shown to be a vector
~
quantity.
It is important,
realise
that angular displacements, if of finite magnitude, are not vector quantities, for the resultant of two simultaneous or successive
finite
not given by the parallelogram finite displacements not even independent of the order in which they are
angular displacements
is
two successive
effected.
To convince
book on
its
himself of
this, let
edge on the table before him, and keeping one corner fixed let him give it a right-handed rotation of 90, first about a vertical axis through this corner, and then about a horizontal axis, and let him note the position to which this Then let him repeat the process, changing brings the book.
the order of the rotations. He will find the resulting position to be now quite different, and each is different also from the
position which would have been reached
by rotation about
from that
we
can
62
Dynamics of Rotation.
ments.
(2)
The
value
((u)
is inclined at an angle d to the vertical, where an external tilting couple of moment L is applied about the axis EF (see Fig. 91) may be found as follows.
Eeferring
still
and the axis EF of the couple, {^, and the horisame plane as the axle of spin (iK). Let C be the moment of inertia of the disc about the axle of spin, A its moment about a perpendicular axis, and let Q. be the
be called
(^)
moving frame.
Let the dimensions of the ring have been adjusted in the way mentioned on p. 153 so that the rotation about y introduces no centrifugal couple. Then the value of the angular momentum about (a;) is simply Cfl sin d, and to rotate this about (y) with angular velocity (w) will require a couple (L)
about
(z)
6.
Whence
u>=_-^--,_^. Cil sm 6
precession produced by a weight hung on as in Fig. 91 will be the same whether the axis be inclined or horizontal for the length of the arm on which the weight acts, and therefore
the couple L,
is itself
proportional to sin
o)
9.
N.B.
The
is
resolute of
EF and CD
(2)
tioned,
Let the ring and disc not have the adjustment menand let the least and greatest moments of inertia of
Appendix.
the ring be
163
C
its
spinning in
frame,
and A' respectively. If the disc were not i.. if fl were zero, we should require
122) equal to
On account
is
of
momentum
GO. sin 6
added
about
%,
to
rotate
(oOfl sin Q.
Whence the
==L=CJ2(o sin
e-(A-C-A'-CV sin
cose,
which gives us o). In the case of a top precessing in the manner indicated in Fig. 96, the tilting couple is mgl^va.Q, and the only differ^
But
it will
Q.
that our
tive
means
the velocity of spin relato an imaginary frame swinging round with the top. The quadratic equation for
(mg)
o)
thus
becomes
mgl
= Oflw
if
(A-CKcos^.
We
FIG. 96.
might,
it,
we had
by
preferred
resolution the total angular
in each case
momentum about
by
u,
(a;)
after the
manner of page
have obtained
the value of the couple about z. But by looking at the matter in the way suggested the student will better realise the fact
that the centripetal couple
is
which is required to rotate the angular momentum buted about X by the precessional rotation itself.
164
Dynamics of Rotation.
NOTE ON EXAMPLE
(3)
(4) p. 86.
is
the following
Let a long, fine string be hung from the ceiling, the lower end being at a convenient height to take hold of, and let a bullet or other small heavy object be fastened to the middle of the string. Holding the lower end vertically below the point of suspension let the string be slackened and the bullet
caused to rotate in a horizontal circle. On now tightening the string the diameter of this circle will contract and the
rate of revolution will increase
;
Momentum].
The
by the body during the tightening is equivalent to the work done by the hand + a very small amount of work done by gravity, since the smaller circle is in a rather lower plane than the larger.
Edinburgh
Printed
by T. and A. Constable-
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