Seismic Behaviour of Tailings Deposits and Alternatives for Use in the Post-Operation Stage

Lara, Jos Luis Project Engineer, Geotcnica Consultores S.A., Chile Barrera, Sergio Head of the Tailings Area, Geotcnica Consultores S.A., Chile ABSTRACT: Tailings deposits store the fine fraction (sandy silts) of the tailings that have previously been separated from the coarse fraction (silty sands) by means of classification processes. The sands are used for the construction of the contention walls for tailings deposits and the silts are the waste material that is finally deposited. During the operation stage tailings deposits are in a saturated state, poorly consolidated and have low shearing strengths, which means that as foundation soil they have scarce application; however, in the post-operation stage, geotechnical behaviour improves markedly as time passes, and there is a decrease in the moisture level, increased consolidation and greater static and cyclic strength is acquired, which means that in some cases these areas may be utilized. This fact signifies a great advantage in Andean countries with harsh topographies and limited flat areas close to the process plants. This article presents the deposition characteristics and geotechnical parameters of some Chilean tailings deposits both in the operation and the post-operation stage, presents the experiences in seismic behaviour of a few tailings deposits and finally some alternatives for use in the post-operation stage.

INTRODUCTION

The significant growth in mining activity experienced in the present decade, the increase in mineral production rates, the decrease in mineral grades and the abrupt topography typical of Andean countries, have all lead to the need to construct higher dams for tailings, capable of storing large volumes of them. Currently tailings constitute between 95 and 99% of the processed material. In Chile and the world, impoundments (dams) whose walls are constructed with tailings sands (coarse fraction of the tailings) and which store tailings slimes (fine fraction of the tailings) on the inside, are gaining acceptability due to their low cost. The sands for the wall are obtained by means of a hydraulic classification process (cycloning) of the tailings, and they constitute between 32 to 40% of the total tailings (with a 15 to 20% in fines). These sands are transported, deposited hydraulically and finally compacted, which allows for the safe construction of walls. The tailings slimes, on the contrary, are silty sandy materials deposited hydraulically as well but that remain in a very loose and saturated state. Tailings deposits thus formed, often require large deposition areas. In Chile, at least three tailings deposits surpass a volume of 500 Mm3: Talabre, Las Trtolas and Carn (ICOLD, 1996). The experience in high seismic countries associates tailings deposits to materials with an elevated liquefaction potential, and this is the fundamental reason why Chilean legislation does not permit the construction of tailings dams made with walls using the upstream system, and entirely rejects using tailings deposits as foundation grounds for tailings dams. Recent investigations demonstrate that years after tailings deposits conclude their operation stage, they experience a significant increase in their degree of consolidation, a decrease in permeability, decreases in the moisture level and acquire greater cyclic strength (Troncoso, 1996). All this is associated to complex phenomena such as the consolidation of tailings due to desiccation, superficial chemical processes that produce a certain type of cementation of the tailings and a decrease in saturation levels. This knowledge has opened the possibility that certain types of structures may be constructed above tailings deposits after closure, such as for example: low height tailings dams, leached gravel deposits, dumps, etc., all of which are of particular economic interest when there is scarcity of flat terrain close to the process plant.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF TAILINGS DEPOSITS Deposition characteristics

Tailings are waste materials from process plants, with a grain size distribution that depends on the characteristics of the mineralized rock mass and on the valuable metal extraction process. The size of particles varies between middle sized sands to clays. Tailings are usually transported from the process plant to the deposition area through flumes or pipes in the form of slurry with solids contents ranging from 35 to 60% (ICOLD, 1989). For the construction of walls made from tailings sands, the tailings are separated in cycloning stations into the coarse fraction (sands) for the construction of the wall, and into the fine fraction (slimes) which is the material that is finally deposited. The tailings slimes are deposited hydraulically in weight solids contents of about 18-30%, which means the contribution of water inside the deposit is significant, and explains the formation of the clear water pond. The points of discharge for the tailings slimes are on the crest of the dam and/or other points around the deposit, so as to distance the clear water pond from the wall to an adequate site inside the deposit. From there, clear water is reclaimed to the cycloning station and/or the process plant. Tailings deposits thus formed are of variable dimensions, with low gradient surfaces from 0.2 to 0.8%. Some deposits in Chile will surpass 1000 Mm3, such as for example: Collahuasi, Ovejera and Carn. Figure 1 shows the location of Chiles most important tailings deposits and Table 1 describes their general characteristics.

Figure 1. Location of Chilean copper tailings deposits

Table 1. General characteristics of some deposits for tailings from copper mining in Chile Name of Dam Las Trtolas Torito Austral Talabre Carn Candelaria El Chinche (1) CCTS: (3) TPD: (5) Mm3: 2.2 Type of Dam CCTS (1) CCTS Earth CCTS Zoned earth Rock fill CCTS NOP (2) (TPD)(3) 37,000 16,000 33,000 160,000 110,000 28,000 5500 FDC (4) (Mm3) (5) 700 60 100 1703 2700 260 14.5 (2) NOP: (4) FDC: Deposition area (ha) 1,290 250 1,000 4,400 2,200 500 40 Raising rate (m/year) 7.2 2.4 1.1 1.3 0.4 6.0 2.9

Compacted cycloned tailings sand Tons per day Millions of cubic meters

Nominal ore production Final deposit capacity

Geotechnical Characterization

Gradation The grain size distribution of tailings inside tailings deposits varies with the distance from the point of discharge. The coarse particles tend to settle faster along the beach, so the coarse fraction is found adjacent to the points of discharge and the finer particles reach the pond area where they settle slowly. In the area of the clear water pond the particles sediment first and then go through a consolidation stage. In general tailings deposits in the Chilean copper mining industry, present similar grain size distribution characteristics, where the tailings slimes are silty to sandy silty soils, with a low to nil plasticity, a low clays content and have angular shaped particles. This is the reason why in many cases their behaviour is associated to that of sands, therefore making it possible to apply advances achieved in the study of sands to their study. Figure 2 shows grain size distribution curves for some Chilean tailings deposits and Table 2 presents their index properties.

Figure 2.

Chilean tailings gradation

Table 2. Index properties of tailings slimes Deposit Tranque N 8 El Chinche El Cobre N 4 U.S.C.S. : d50 : M.S. : U.S.C.S. d50 M.S. <Sieve 200 Specific (um) (mm) (%) Gravity ML <70 1.65 >60 3.05 ML <60 0.60 >70 2.60 ML <60 0.29 >80 2.72 Unified Standard Classification System Diameter representative of 50% of the material Maximum size of the particles Liquid Limit (%) 22 22 20 Plastic Limit (%) 18 NP NP

Consolidation and Permeability Tailings slimes are deposited in the form of slurry with a weight solids content from 18 to 30%, which represents a moisture of 300 to 150% respectively. The saturation moisture of the slimes ranges from 30 to 40% which is why the amount of water that is not retained by the slimes forms the clear water pond, from where it is usually reclaimed to the process plant and/or cycloning station. The consolidation process begins a few hours after the slimes are discharged (2 to 4 hrs.), beginning by effect of their own weight and of the overload produced by successive discharges of slimes. The consolidation process is influenced mainly by: (i) the free drainage surface (ii) the deposits rate of growth (iii) the deposition system. In general, the greater the drainage surface and the deposits rate of growth, the more consolidation and the less permeability. The deposition system can accelerate the consolidation process, because by increasing the number of points of discharge a larger drainage surface is generated, which increases the evaporation surface and makes it possible to achieve higher densities. The latter, in the case of large extension deposits and of high production rates, is not always feasible, due mainly to operational problems and to the greater costs that this implies (Barrera, 1998). The consolidation process is in general very complex, because inside the deposit areas of different characteristics coexist. The experience in Chilean tailings deposits indicates that there are zones with moisture levels close to saturation on the surface and pore overpressure zones to the interior of the deposit many years after the deposits operation has concluded. Table 3 present the consolidation and permeability parameters of a few Chilean tailings deposits. Table 3. Consolidation and permeability parameters of some tailings deposits &d w sat (t/m3) (%) Tranque N8 1.35 30 - 40 El Chinche 1.37 30 - 40 El Cobre N 4 1.34 25 - 35 Cc: Consolidation index &d:: Average dry density wsat:: Saturation moisture Deposit eo 1.21 1.16 1.16 Cv Permeability (cm2/s) (cm/s) 0.150 - 0.260 0.023 - 0.034 2*10-5 - 6*10-6 0.100 0.180 0.015 - 0.040 2*10-4 - 5*10-6 0.080 - 0.150 0.016 - 0.038 1*10-4 - 1*10-5 Cv: Consolidation coefficient eo:: Maximum average void ratio Cc

According to the data on Table 3, we can conclude that on average the dry density of tailings deposits is low, 1.35 t/m3; there is a high initial void ratio, >1.0; a low permeability, <10-5 cm/s, and a high consolidation index, >0.100. Static shear strength The parameters that most influence the static shear strength of the tailings is the void ratio (density), the confining pressure and the pore pressure. In order to estimate the geomechanical properties of the tailings, the main difficulty lies in accessing the study area, in the case of deposits in operation, and in the loose and fine nature of the tailings, which allows for a limited number of tests to be taken. In situ tests using the Dutch cone for the measurement of pore pressure (CPTU) and the vane test are the ones most commonly used and the most advisable for the study of the properties of deposited tailings. In the case of laboratory tests, the greatest difficulty lies in obtaining unaltered samples. For this reason the method used in the preparation of the sample greatly influences the results obtained, and it is therefore convenient to reproduce in situ conditions; the most commonly used test is the isotropically consolidated monotonic test with measurement of pore pressure (CIU).

Table 4 presents the results of monotonic triaxial tests on tailings both for effective and for total strengths. Table 4. Shear strength parameters obtained from CIU triaxial tests Deposit ' () Candelaria 34 35 El Chinche 34 36 Las Trtolas 34 37 ': Effective strength friction angle c': Effective strength cohesion Cyclic strength Deposited tailings are materials that have a cyclic strength that is mainly a function of the void ratio (density), confining pressure, degree of saturation and plasticity. In general, the cyclic strength of tailings is lower than that of tailings sands. For practical effects, it is considered that in tailings with sands contents below 30%, the sands do not make a significant contribution towards cyclic strength (Singh, 1995). Figure 3 shows that the cyclic strength of tailings is lower than that of sands up to void ratio of 0.9, and that for higher void ratio cyclic strength is practically the same. On the other hand, Figure 3 also shows a significant increase in the cyclic strength of tailings when high plasticity is present (IP>15). Shear strength parameters c' (kg/cm2) c (kg/cm2) () 0 14 - 16 0 0 18 - 20 0 0 : Total strength friction angle c: Total strength cohesion

Figure 3. Cyclic strength versus void ratio of tailings slimes and tailings sands (Ishihara, Troncoso, and Kawase, 1980) Residual strength When soils experience great deformations (>20%) they develop their residual strength (steady state), which depends entirely on the void ratio. In a tailings deposit, soils slightly increase their density in depth which makes the residual strength increase in the same proportion. Table 5 presents some results obtained in Chilean tailings deposits. Table 5. Variation in the residual strength with depth in tailings deposits (Castro and Troncoso, 1989). Deposit Undrained steady state strength ratio Sus/'v 0.07 0.11 0.08 Residual shearing strength Effective vertical stress

Cerro Negro Veta de Agua El Cobre N 4 Sus : 'v :

Residual strength is a parameter that is extensively applied in the post-earthquake analysis of tailings dams. This parameter shows that soils present some level of residual strength even if they experience a significant decrease of their cyclic strength in association with seismic activity. However, these soils may experience high levels of deformation, and it is this factor that generates the greatest damage to structures founded on such materials. 3 3.1 SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF DEPOSITS AFTER CLOSURE Seismic behaviour experiences in tailings deposits

Tailings slimes are materials with an elevated liquefaction potential when they present a low density and are saturated. Most failures in tailings dams have been reported in dams founded above tailings deposits still in operation, something that is common in dams constructed using the upstream method. Well documented cases include Moshikoshi (Ishihara, 1984), El Cobre (Dobry and Alvarez, 1967) and Barahona (Troncoso et al, 1993). As a result, the Chilean code for the design and construction of tailings dams does not allow the construction of tailings dams by means of the upstream method. During the March 3, 1985 earthquake that took place in central Chile (Ms=7.8), tailings deposits in operation in a radius of 150 km from the epicenter all showed evidence of superficial liquefaction of the tailings slimes in the form of water runoff towards the surface, superficial settlements and the presence of small volcanos (craters). In the El Cobre N 4 tailings deposit (located 160 km North of Santiago), after the main seismic event and the March 4 aftershocks took place, craters were observed in the deposits saturated areas. The craters were up to 40 cm in diameter and 5 cm high, there was an extensive 15 cm settlement of the surface, appearance of water at the surface up to 10 minutes after the earthquake was over, including the sound of flow with bubbles towards the exterior (Troncoso, 1985). All the above cited effects are characteristic of soil deposits that have experienced liquefaction, and it is this phenomenon that generates instabilities in structures founded above these materials. The majority of failures in tailings dams that have caused losses in human lives and generated environmental damage have taken place in tailings dams in operation, and there are only a few cases of failures in abandoned deposits worldwide. In Chile, in about one hundred abandoned deposits located in high seismic areas, there have been no reports of dams that have failed after closure (Troncoso, 1997). 3.2 Geotechnics of abandoned deposits

Once tailings deposits seize to operate, the clear water pond begins to progressively disappear in areas where the annual water balance is negative (losses from evaporation and infiltration are greater than the runoff and precipitation that enters the deposit). Depending on the weather conditions of the region, the existence of superficial water diversion works and the extension of the pond, this process may take several years. As a form of reference the El Chinche dam is located in a semiarid area with a negative annual water balance, its clear water pond at the end of the deposits operation covered 5 ha, and one year later it had become reduced to 0.3 ha. Once the clear water pond disappears, the moisture and saturation levels at the deposit slowly decrease, and the amount of time this takes depends on the deposits drainage surface (area of permeable foundation soil and/or existence of drains inside the deposit), the fineness of the deposited material, and pore overpressure still remaining inside the deposit. As the level of saturation decreases, the tailings slimes experience changes associated to effects caused by the consolidation of the surface from desiccation and consolidation at greater depths caused, in turn, by a decrease in the overpressure of pores inside the deposit. In addition, it is possible to expect that in some cases some kind of chemical reaction associated to oxidation phenomena and the generation of acid, something that is made more auspicious by the fineness of the tailings slimes, the different mineral components that they contain and the greater amount of oxygen in sectors that were previously saturated. All these changes that take place in tailings deposits over time, translate into soils with shearing and rigidity strengths that are higher than during the operational stage. The experience gained from cone penetration tests CPT carried out in tailings deposits during operation indicates that qc, or point resistance, values vary from 2 to 10 kg/cm2. Figure 4 presents measurements taken in CPTU tests in two tailings deposits 2, 5 and 7 years after their closure. These results show a tendency towards increase in point resistance levels from 10 to 25 kg/cm2 on average. In general the strength of abandoned deposits tends to increase the more time passes since the end of operation, and the most significant changes take place on the surface. In general the saturation level may decrease with time, and for reference Figure 4c shows an actual case, where the level of the saturated area has decreased 8 m in 5 years since the closure of operations.

This deepening of the saturation level causes that liquefaction of deposited tailings slimes can only happen at greater depths, with limited superficial effects.

Figure 4. Shear strength of tailings slimes measured in-situ with CPTU test (Troncoso, 1996; GC, 1997(a)) 4 ALTERNATIVES FOR USING TAILINGS DEPOSITS AFTER CLOSURE

In Chile the only tailings deposits that have been used in the post-operation stage have been tailings dams with walls made from tailings sands constructed using the downstream and the centerline method, because they are dams that are seismically more stable compared to those raised with the upstream construction method. In seismically stable dams, tailings deposits are confined and have a very small likelihood of undergoing important landslides and, in case an important seismic event takes place that generates soil liquefaction, only vertical settlements are expected. The damage caused on structures located above the tailings deposits is variable, and depends on the depth of the water table, the stiffness of the tailings deposit and of the structure to be built, and on the magnitude and nature of the earthquake (Seed et al, 1987) Currently in Chile, tailings deposits that have concluded operation have only been used as disposal areas (dumps) for waste material and/or leached gravels. In both cases the following aspects have been taken into consideration: Tailings deposits in the post-operation stage cover relatively extensive areas (>50 ha), with an almost flat surface (<1%), a medium consistency (N(SPT)>5 to 10), low permeability (<10-5 cm/s) and a saturation level that decreases the more time passes after the deposits closure. By using these areas as dumps, the tailings consolidation process is accelerated, meaning these deposits acquire greater static and cyclic shearing strengths, which in turn makes them less permeable. This implies that water that is leached through these dumps encounters a surface that is less permeable, thus decreasing the risk of transporting contaminants towards the deposits foundations. Figure 5 shows a typical section of a leached gravels deposit above a tailings deposit. Tailings deposits are normally located in areas close to the process plant, and once the deposits go into the post-operation stage they may be used as mine waste dump areas, as long as the corresponding environmental safeguards are taken. This means that once the deposits are fully covered they may enter the closure stage, which signifies economic advantages and fewer contamination risks for the tailings deposits. Figure 6 shows a typical section of a waste dump above a tailings slimes deposit.

It is important to bear in mind that Chilean experience in the use of tailings deposits in the post-operation stage has been obtained from deposits located in semiarid and arid zones where the annual water balance is negative inside the deposit. It is important to understand that the final surface of the deposit may be used as long as it is not flooded, which implies the need to anticipate pertinent diversion and evacuation works in all cases.

Figure 5. Leached gravel deposit above tailings deposit

Figure 6. Mine waste dump above tailings deposit. Other possible uses for tailings deposits that to date have not been considered are: Construction of a dike upstream of the existing dam, founded above the post-operational tailings deposit (Troncoso et al, 1996). Emergency ponds or temporary water impoundments, the latter of which may be associated to operational requirements of the processing plant. Tailings deposits may be used as construction material for tailings dams in areas where there is shortage of nearby borrow material, something that is typical of the western Andes. Compacted tailings slimes adequately reach cyclic strengths similar to those of sands with a high content of fines, between 15 to 30% in silty fines (Singh, 1995). The main inconvenient is protecting the slopes from erosion caused mostly by wind and rain. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Chilean experience in pursuing alternatives for using tailings deposits during the post-operation stage, has been possible under the following conditionals:

5 1.

2.

3.

4.

Tailings deposits are practically flat areas (gradient <1%), covering considerable extensions (>50 ha) and usually close to the processing plant. The sites where the deposits are located are in semiarid and arid areas where the annual water balance is negative. The deposits are contained by walls made of tailings sands constructed with the downstream or central line method, which limits the level of deformations the tailings slimes may experience if liquefaction occurs and facilitates tailings consolidation. The main deformations are vertical and their magnitude is a function of the depth of the saturation level, the density of the soil and the level of deformations induced by the seismic activity. The geotechnical behaviour of a deposit during operation is significantly different to that of a deposit after closure. It is known that as time passes and if loss of water inside the deposit is continuous, the materials experience an increase in their strength and rigidity. This must be validated through in situ and laboratory research. In tailings deposits it is common to carry out in situ CPTU testing. Even though abandoned tailings deposits present a greater stability than deposits during operation, it is always necessary to validate their seismic stability using dynamic analyses to estimate permanent displacements associated to liquefaction phenomena. It is important to note that because these deposits are stiffer, amplification problems at the surface level will be greater. It is therefore necessary to evaluate the impact on the structures to be founded in these deposits and avoid amplification problems. Even though Chilean experience in the use of deposits during the post-operation stage has developed in areas with semiarid to arid climates this does not invalidate its application in areas with positive annual balances as is the case in most of Per. The final surface of the deposit may be used as long as it does not become flooded, which means that in no case can the pertinent diversion and evacuation works be obviated. The proposed applications can only be executed based on an adequate program of geotechnical and hydrological investigations, and will in large part depend on the experience of the consultant in similar works and on the operational capacity of the mine.

REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Barrera, Sergio (1998), Deposition Densities of Tailings in Chilean Deposits, Tailings and Mine Waste 98, Colorado, USA. Castro, G. and Troncoso, J. (1989), Effects of 1985 Chilean Earthquake on Three Tailing Dams, 5 Jornada Chilena de Sismologa e Ingeniera Ssmica, Chile. Dobry, R. and Alvarez, L. (1967), Seismic Failures of Chilean Tailings Dams, Soil Mechanics Foundation Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, SM6, pp. 237-260, USA. ICOLD (1989), Tailings Dams Safety - Guidelines, Bulletin N 74, Paris. ICOLD (1996), Large Dams in Chile, Chilean National Committee on Large Dams, Santiago, Chile. Ishihara K., Troncoso J., Kawase Y. and Takahashi Y. (1980), Cyclic Strength Characteristics of Tailings Materials, Soils and Foundations, Vol. 20, Japan. Ishihara K. (1984), Post-earthquake Failure of a Tailings Dam due to Liquefaction of the Pond Deposit, Proceedings First International Conference on Case Histories, St. Louis, USA. Seed, H. and Hon, M. (1987), Design Problems in Soil Liquefaction, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 113, N 8, USA. Singh, Sukhmander (1995), Re-examination of the Effects of Fine Contents on the Liquefaction Characteristics of Sands, Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering, Japan. Troncoso, Jorge (1985), Seismic Stability Analysis of the El Cobre N4 Tailings Dam, Prepared for Ca. Disputada de Las Condes, Chile. Troncoso, J., Vergara, A. and Avendao, A. (1993), The Seismic Failure of Barahona Tailings Dam, Proceedings Third International Conference on Case Histories, St. Louis, USA. Troncoso, Jorge (1996), Geotechnics of Tailings Dams and Sediments, Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, Osaka, Japan. Troncoso, Jorge (1997), Seismic Design of Tailings Deposits for Abandonment Conditions, Seminario de Ingeniera Ssmica, Santiago, Chile.