Chapter 2.

Physiological Basis of Psychology

Physiology - is anchored on how living organisms function with emphasis on the body process in relation with brain impulses that affects the behavior of an individual. Process 1. A sensation. 2. A perceived translation of the sensation in the form of an impulse. 3. Reaction in the form of a muscular or glandular operation. Impulse electrochemical transmission of a signal along a nerve fiber that produces an excitatory or inhibitory response at a target tissue, such as a muscle or another nerve. Senses Neurons serve to receive and transmit impulses from and to other neurons, but some of them do not. Instead, these sensory receptors react directly to stimulation from the environment and are located in highly specialized organs called sense organs. Qualities common to senses are: Transduction- the ability or the process by which receptors convert the energy of the stimulus into an electrical stimulus. Adaptation- the decreasing response of a sense organ the more they are exposed to a continuous level of stimulation. Stimulation and perception sensation are relatively meaningless bits of information sent to the brain from the sense organs. Perceptions are meaningful sensory experiences that result when the brain combines hundreds of senses. Specialization receptors are specialized for responding to each particular stimulus by sending impulses to the brain since nerve impulses are generally the same as millions of other impulses in

the whole system, the wiring of synapses (neural connections) make sure that the right information is sent to the appropriate brain center then you could see a picture but not hear or taste it Sensitivity along with sensing and perceiving, stimuli reacted upon by sense receptors based on how much of the stimuli they receive also, at the same time, the stimulus should be enough to be able to stimulate neurons for them to send an impulse. Types of stimulus they receive Photoreceptors (Rods or cones) these are special neurons that respond to variations in light through the release of impulses. Thermoreceptors special cells that responds to change in temperature. Mechanoreceptors responds to movement, pressure and tension in the muscle. Pain receptors are mainly nerve fibers close to the surface of the skin, which respond to tissue damage. Chemoreceptors responds to chemical contact and changes. Reactors Glands are muscles comprise the reacting mechanisms to which impulses from the brain end up in. Theses organs produce the various bodily functions and movements needed for daily living. Glands are specialized organs that secrete either directly or indirectly into the bloodstream or through specialized ducts. With greater importance, however, are those that secrete from ductless glands, collectively called the endocrine system. Partial Listing of the Endocrine //refer to table 2.1 pp. 22-23 Hormones and Endocrine Glands Endocrine glands are special organs whose purpose is to secrete special fluids or hormones directly into the bloodstream or ducts. Examples of hormones

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//refer to table 2.2 p.24 The pituitary gland is a small gland which is located just below the hypothalamus. The following table describes Anterior Pituitary Hormones by its target organs. //refer to table 2.3 p. 25 Muscles Mucles (contractile) tissue is composed of cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain actin filaments and myosin filaments that overlap and thus accounts for the movements we associate with animals. 1. Striated voluntary, are attached to skeletal muscles via tendons and contract faster than any other muscle types when exited by a neural impulse. 2. Cardiac Muscles which are found only in the walls of the heart, are responsible for producing heartbeats. These are, involuntary but are striated like skeletal muscles and thus have characteristic of both smooth and skeletal muscle. 3. Visceral muscles are also called smooth muscle because of its fibers lacks striations. Smooth muscle is not under voluntary control and is said to be involuntary. These are found in walls of viscera (the intestine, stomach, and other internal organs) as well as blood vessels and could continuously contract a lot longer but also a lot slower than other muscular fibers. Parts of the Nervous System Neuron charged, elongated cells that can communicate with other cells Parts of Neuron Cell Body / Soma large, egg-shaped structures that provides fuel, manufactures chemicals, maintains the entire neuron in working order and contains DNA Inside Neurites fibers projecting from cell body that is used in the transfer of information from cell to cell. Dendrites small branch-like projections Axons slim, tube-like extension Synapse endings to axons. Myelin Sheaths fatty lipid coverings of axons Nodes of Ranvier Interruptions in Myelin Sheath Types of Neurons Motor Neurons take impulses from the Central Nervous System and sends it to muscles and glands Sensory Neurons takes messages from Sensory receptors to the CNS Inter Neurons can be found within the Central Nervous System. Some lie in between Motor and Sensory Nerves Parts of Synapse Pre Synaptic Membrane Synaptic Cleft Post Synaptic Membrane

Neurotransmitters special chemical which traverses from Pre Synaptic Membrane to Post Synaptic Membrane Functions of nervous system: It receives sensory input It performs integration It stimulates motor output
Human nervous system Central Nervous System

Brain

Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System
Eyes, mouth, skin, palms, lungs , heart etc.

Muscles

Parasympath etic Nervous System

Ganglia collections of cell bodies found in the Peripheral Nervous System Reflexes automatic, involuntary responses to changes occurring inside or outside the body.

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Homeostasis a state wherein the Autonomic Nervous System allows us to keep the bodys arousal at an optimum level. Fight / flight response a state of heightened physiological arousal. Structure of the Brain Brain System 1) Midbrain at the top of the brain stem, the midbrain acts as a switching and conduction center for impulses and also contain reflex centers for visual, auditory and tactile responses. 2) Pons contains bundles of axons that connect the cerebellum to the rest of the cerebral cortex. 3) Medulla Oblongata the part of the brainstem that controls heartbeat, blood pressure and respiration. 4) Reticular Formation its functions involve many of the essential functions of the body, such as the ability to obtain recuperative sleep, sexual arousal, and the ability to focus on tasks without being easily distracted. Corpus Collasum - carries massages between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Diencephalon Also called between brain, interbrain, thalamencephalon which contains the thalamus and hypothalamus: Thalamus - It acts as a director of information related to bodily functions such as seeing, sleeping, hearing, waking, tasting, and touching. Hypothalamus - helps govern the endocrine system (glands that produce hormones) using the pituitary gland, and is also involved in feeling emotions and perceiving things are rewarding (for example, being in love is perceived as a good and rewarding feeling/emotion and something worth trying to obtain more of). Pituitary Gland - This is a very influential gland releases hormones that affect your growth as well as influencing the activities of other glands. For this reason the pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland. Pons - act as a major pathway for motor and sensory information between the body and higher level brain functioning. Reticular Formation - Its functions can be classified into 4 categories: motor control, sensory control, visceral control, and control of consciousness. Motor control refers to physical movements or activities such as walking or running. Sensory control consists of all the senses including pain. Visceral control encompasses breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. Control of consciousness refers to alertness, sleeping, and various conscious

states. Therefore, people who have difficulties with pain, alertness, or physical coordination might have damage to their reticular formation. Cerebral Cortex - is crucial for creating new episodic memories, the fancier associations, and many new movement programs. Midbrain - is the input center for muscle movement. Cerebellum - helps control voluntary movements such as eye movement and tracking of moving objects, as well as coordination and balance in behaviors that are very fast (for example, running or sprinting). Limbic System is a group of structures in the brain near the pituitary and hypothalamus, which are collectively involved in emotion, memory and motivation. This structure includes the hippocampus and amygdala. Amygdala influences Emotions, Visceral Responses Emotions, Motivation, Mood and sensation of Pain and Pleasure. Visceral Responses Emotions - release of adrenaline, which activates your fight, or flight response to danger Hippocamus damage to that portion result in a loss of memory. Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex Convolutions or folds which ad in location certain areas of cortices. Gyri upholds Sulsci shallow downfolds Fissures deep folding Motor Cortex - refers to that part of the brain where nerve cells are engaged in planning and directing the actions of muscles and glands that are under conscious control. Frontal Lobes - necessary for motor control and more complex, high-end functioning like speech, decision making, and judgments. Lateral-Temporal Fissure - The area in the brain involved with hearing. Occipital Lobe - The occipital lobe is responsible for sight. Parietal Lobe - The area in the brain which plays a major part in touch, pressure and temperature. The development of the cerebral cortex Rhombencephalon or hindbrain- evolves into a secondary brain vesicle, which now comprises of the myelencephalon and the metencephalon. Mesencephalon- links the lower brain to the forebrain and is thus called the midbrain. Forebrain- is the one feature most developed in the mammalian, and particularly the human brain, eventually evolving into the cerebral cortex. Here is

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where the seat of consciousness and emotion would be found. The lobes of the brain Frontal lobes Responsible for controlling voluntary body movements, speech production, and such functions as thinking, motivation, planning for the future, impulse control, and emotional responses. a. Motor cortex- a strip of tissue at the rear of the frontal lobe that control voluntary body movements through coordination of specific muscle groups. b. Brocas area- an area in the frontal lobe that would usually be found in the left hemisphere that controls production of the speech sounds.

a. Primary visual cortex- the area at the rear occipital lobes where vision registers in the cerebral cortex from impulses coming from the eyes. b. Visual association area- responsible for functions of visual perception such as face recognition, reading, language, visual memory storage and bilateral vision. Temporal Lobes Contain the primary and the auditor cortex, Wernickes area, and associations areas for interpreting auditory information. a. Primary auditory cortex- the part of the temporal lobes where hearing registers in the cerebral cortex. b. Auditory association areas and the Wernickes area- the language area in the temporal lobe involved in comprehending the spoken word and in formulating coherent speech and written language. Wernickes aphasia- is a condition resulting from damage to the Wernickes area wherein the victims spoken language is fluent to himself, but the content is either vague or incomprehensible to the listener.

Aphasia- loss or impairment of the ability of a person to understand or communicate to the written or spoken words, which results from damage to the brain. Brocas aphasia- impairment in the ability of a person to physically produce the sounds, or in the extreme cases and an inability to speak at all. Parietal Lobes- contain the somatosensory cortex that is responsible for body awareness. A. Somatosensory cortex- the strip of tissue at the front of the parietal lobes where touch, pressure, temperature and pain register in the cortex B. Somatosensory association area- is where a person distinguishes which sensory information impulses into sensory perception. This area also contains the function for body awareness.

The Optical Lobe Lobes that contain the primary visual cortex where vision registers and association areas involved in the interpretation of visual information.

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