On Buddhism and Daoism

The Life of Buddha It was in the year 563 BCE when the queen of a ruling house in Nepal gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama, destined to be a respected leader of his land. When Siddhartha was only an infant, a wise scholar had noted of the 32 auspicious signs of an enlightened one that he had seen in the baby. Siddharthas father, knowing the dangers and hardships the life of an ascetic would have, made an effort to protect his son from the harsh realities of life. He had kept Siddhartha confined to his estate, away from pain, old age and death. With his confinement, Siddhartha was slowly being trained to be a leader, having lessons from various tutors and being doted on by many servants. (Brown & Clark, Brief History) There were a few occasions when Siddhartha had escaped from the estate to see what was on the other side of the fence, but what he witnessed changed the meaning of existence. He saw an old man, an ill woman and a corpse being burned during a Ghat ceremony. (Brown & Clark, Brief History) He was disturbed by the images but only realized its impact on him when he saw a Jain hermit begging for alms. He had realized that there was meaning beyond material existence. At age 29, Siddhartha Gautama, a prince, abandoned the luxuries of his home, the love of a wife and a young son in search for enlightenment, despite his fathers reluctance. At that time, it was not uncommon in India for many to seek a more personal religion during the rigidities of a priest-dominated Hinduism. (Gascoigne, 2001) What made him different from the others was that he had found asceticism is almost as unsatisfactory as luxury. (Gascoigne, 2001) According to the traditional accounts written in the 3rd Century BCE, Siddhartha studied under religious teachers and ascetics for six years. (Gascoigne, 2001) He tried fasting, hardship and marathon meditation, but they never gave him solace. He then realized that enduring those

On Buddhism and Daoism

difficult conditions would ultimately kill him before he found any answers, and he discovered that a middle path between mortification and indulgence of the body (Gascoigne, 2001) will help him lead to enlightenment. He resolved to meditate in moderate comfort until he sees the light. One evening, he sat under a bodhi tree at Buddh Gaya, a village in Bihar. By dawn, he was an enlightened one. It was not long before he began to gather disciples. He became known to them as the Buddha. (Gasciogne, 2001) Buddha then shared his wisdom to all those around him. He travelled around India and Nepal, preaching others about the way of moderation. (Clark and Brown) He preached his first sermon at Sarnath, about 5 miles north of the sacred Hindu city of Varanasi. In this sermon, he proposed a radical path to enlightenment. He stated that the path to enlightenment can be taken by understanding the Four Noble Truths, and that the pain of life can be avoided by following an Eightfold Path. (Gasciogne 2001) Buddhism is a practice of finding peace within oneself. It is a religion formulated to win happiness during the present life as well as in the next. Through the influence of Karma, the mechanism that determines how a person's acts will impact their next incarnation, Buddhists practice finding the good within everything. Their desire is to live happily, not harming others, working towards their ultimate goal of enlightenment. Buddhism acts as a philosophy that regulates a persons place in the world, and the universe. Dawn of the Dao The Dao (Pinyin), or Tao as it is widely known, is the natural order of things. It is a force that flows through every living and sentient being, and through the universe. (Brown & Clark, Taoism) To find perfect happiness, this force must be in balance.

On Buddhism and Daoism

The most common representation of the Daoist theology is the image of Yin and Yang. It represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equal, all is well and calm, but when one is outweighed by the other, chaos ensues. The Yin and Yang serves as a model for Daoists to live by. Daoism promotes working with natural forces, not against them, by teaching the path of wu-wei, the technique of mastering, not controlling, circumstances. (Brown & Clark, Taoism) Taoists are encouraged to work with their problems, instead of fighting them off. There are a few tenets that Daoists believe in. One would be the ever famous quote, The only constant in this world is change. They believe that nature is constantly in flux. When people learn that change is natural and necessary, they can become balanced. (Brown & Clark, Taoism) Another tenet is the term Pu, or the uncarved block. (Brown & Clark, Taoism) It is an individual, a student (of Daoism), who looks at the world as it is, seeing the world without prejudice. Daoism also has renowned religious figures. Two of them are Chuang Tzu and Lao Zi, or Lao Tzu, two scholars who dedicated their lives to Daoism. Lao Zi claimed that the Dao defines translation, that it simply is. (Brown & Clark, Taoism; Hodge, 2002) It is a common misconception that Lao Zi, the author of Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), is the founding father of Daoism. In reality, Daoism emerged from a shamanic tradition that existed in China since the Ice Age. (Seymour, n.d.) One of the shamans then, King Fu Hsi, in 2800 BCE, was the first to create a system to express the underlying structure of the universe. This system was the tri-grams of the Classic of Change, I Ching, and became a tool of divination. King Fu Hsi was considered mythical by many scholars due to the unbelievable stories about him. But Daoists passed down their knowledge and lineage from generations to generations, and know of King Fu Hsis existence and role on Daoism.

On Buddhism and Daoism

Following Fu His was Yu, another shaman, in 2070 BCE. He was given responsibility by his king, Shun, to save people from the rising flood system. He then designed a system of canals to save the kingdom from disaster, and lead it to prosperity. Fu Hsi may have discovered the underlying structure of the universe, but it was Yu who revealed its nature of continuous flux. (Seymour) Yu was held in such a high honor that he replaced Shun as king when Shun died. In circa 1100 BCE, King Wen took these two systems and produced the sixty-four hexagrams of the modern I Ching. The next coming centuries were filled with battles and feuds. During this period, the kings relied on their advisers, who travel from state to state offering their services. One of these advisers is Lao Zi. Lao Zi grew up in the state of Chu, whose culture is heavily influenced by shamanism. Lao Zis greatest book, the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) or the Classic of the Tao and the Virtue, reflects the influence of shamanism on Lao Zi. He called for a return to shamanic values such as harmonizing with nature. Lao Zi, however, is active in society, applying Dao principles to everyday life, to restore peace and harmony. (Seymour, n.d.) The Dao De Jing is the first philosophical work of Daoism and the second most translated book after the Bible. (Seymour, n.d.) Lao Zi was not its only writer, but its original version is lost to us for centuries. Chuang Tzu is another father of Daoism. His work, the Chuang Tzu, is similar to the Dao De Jing but differs in a lot of ways. For one, Chuang Tzu wants nothing to do with politics. He believed that in order to maintain his spiritual integrity, he must leave the world of chaos and corruption. (Seymour, n.d.) Confucius, or Kung Fu Tzu is different from the two. He viewed the way to peace and prosperity had more to do with a rigid guide to social and moral behaviour that strictly governed all areas of life.

On Buddhism and Daoism

Eventually, peace came to China, and Daoism thrived and spread across the country. The sages and advisers, no longer needed by the kings, became a social class of their own, the fangshih. The fang-shih imparted their knowledge of the universe, medicine and health to everyone. Daoism asks that each person focuses on the world for them to understand the inner harmonies of the universe. It is a religion focused on meditation and reflection. The Dao is around us, and one must listen to it to find enlightenment.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: BUDDHISM VS. DAOISM The two thriving Eastern philosophies are very much unlike the Western philosophies that dominate much of the world. These eastern philosophies were never a theoretical structure that sprung from the curiosity of how the world works. (Thomas, 1997) Both partake in meditation and contemplation, and are a way of life, rather than thought, for their followers, although there are still some differences in some aspects of the two philosophies. Concept and Development of Knowledge Buddhism recognizes that the views of the nature of self and of the world are products of two primary sources: reason and experience. (Kalupahana, 1992) However, the empiricists and rationalists have rejected an important aspect of these two sources: yogic insight and the dependence of experience on it. The Buddha claimed that these two sources of information, along with yogic insight, are basis for metaphysical speculations, or what he called adhivuttipada, meaning overstatement. (Kalupahana, 1992) These overstatements raised many philosophical issues that Buddha tried to delve into. Buddhism does not completely agree with most of theories of the four major schools of taught before Buddha: Brahmanism, Materialism, Ajtvikism and Jainism, all of which are

On Buddhism and Daoism

searching for objectivity in explaining phenomena. The Buddha found out that the descriptions of phenomena were based on faith, preferences, traditions, reflections on form and delight in views. (Kalupahana, 1992) Buddha however disagreed that these descriptions are in fact knowledge. If one believes something to be true, even if it may not be true in reality, one should not come to the conclusion that such alone is true, and whatever else is false. Buddha analyzed the two major steps to arrive at the knowledge humans seek. The first would be sensory perception. There are three concepts that surround sensory perception, as Buddha revealed. First is that there is dependence between the visual organ, or the perceiver, and the visual object, or the perceived. One must also keep in mind that both the visual organ and the object have equal importance to one another. From these two, arises visual consciousness. (Kalupahana, 1992) But even when this perception happens, there is still no attempt at discerning what the object is. The coming together of these three parts is called the contact, since everything is connected through the particles or awareness that surrounds us. The result of this contact is feeling, which introduced the emotive element in sensory perception. (Kalupahana, 1992). The emotions one feels after contact enables him to ground moral decisions in the world, instead of arbitrary decisions unrelated to the factual world (of experience). The next step of the process is yogic experience, through reflection and investigation. Cognitive awareness requires not only sensory perception, but also bodily, verbal and mental dispositions. (Kalupahana, 1992) As taught through the dominating philosophies at his time, there were higher forms of knowledge: psychokinesis, clairaudience, telepathy, retrocognition and clairvoyance. However, Buddhas contemplations led to rediscovering the highest form of knowledge, advaya or the nondual. From there, the Buddha introduces the consciousness as an inalienable part of the human

On Buddhism and Daoism

personality. The consciousness is invariably associated with dispositions, accounts for knowledge and understanding. (Kalupahana, 1992) Buddha believed that we can have knowledge of only those that can be directly experienced, not only through sensory perception but also through yogic experience. This yogic experience then gives everyone direct contact with other minds, even from a great distance, thus one can acquire knowledge. Daoism is quite different from the Buddhist point of view on knowledge. While Buddhism asserts that knowledge is reached through the consciousness that surround us, Daoism stresses that human knowledge is always partial. It is limited. It is affected by the beliefs, perceptions and preferences of the person claiming the knowledge. The knowledge we think we know is always biased by our own opinions. There is never, and never can be, a single true knowledge. The knowledge that we possess is only the aggregate of different viewpoints we have encountered one way or the other. Because the universe is always changing, so knowledge is always changing. (Concepts within Taoism, 2009) The closest one can get to true knowledge is knowledge that is consistent with the Dao, but that cannot be since the Dao that can be known is not the Dao. True knowledge cannot be known, but can be understood or lived. In order to understand life, universe and existence is to live, observe and learn through wisdom and intuition. What is most important is wisdom, not knowledge; intuition, not logic. Moral Teachings In Buddhism, there are several books that present moral instructions to their followers. These moral instructions are either read in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition.

On Buddhism and Daoism

However, there are books of Primitive Buddhism that exhibit a higher moral tone than found in the works that succeeded them. (Edkins, 2007) One such book is the Book of Forty-two Sections, which was translated in the 1st Century, speaks of Ten Vices and Ten Virtues belonging to mankind. The vices are killing, stealing, adultery, slandering, reviling, lying, flattery (with a vicious intention), jealousy, hatred, folly, not beliving in the Honored Three (Buddha, Dharma, Sanga) and holding erroneous opinions. The opposite of these are the Ten Virtues. (Edkins 2007) Meanwhile, Buddhist monks and nuns take more vows in the Vinaya, based on the texts Vinaya Pitaka. Buddhas teachings are divided into two categories: Dharma or doctrine, and Vinaya or discipline. Perhaps the most known of Buddhas teachings is the Four Noble Truths, which contain the essence of his teachings. These were the principles that Buddha realized during his meditation under the bodhi tree. 1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha) 2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudya) 3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha) 4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga) (Religions: Buddhism, 2009) The First Noble Truth is that suffering is part of mankinds everyday life. The Second is that our desires of all kinds lead to suffering. The Third is that to rid of suffering means to free from all desires. The Fourth Noble Truth is that this can be achieved through the Eightfold Path. The Path urges mankind to do the right course of action in eight contexts: Right Understanding, Thought, Speech, Action, Livelihood, Effort, Mindfulness and Concentration. (Gasciogne, 2001) The seven steps are seen in other religions as well, but what is central to

On Buddhism and Daoism

Buddhism is the eighth step, Right Concentration. Right Concentration is said to be concentration on a single object as to induce a special state of consciousness through deep meditation. In this way, one can reach complete purity of thought and experience nirvana or enlightenment. Another important teaching in Buddhism is the concept of karma. The word karma means action. Karma is determined by our own actions, particularly our motives behind these actions. Our past actions affect us either positively or negatively, and our present actions affect the future as well. On a larger perspective, karma determines whether a person will be reborn and their status in the next life. Good actions lead to being reborn in one of the heavenly realms. Bad actions in a previous life can follow the person in their next life. One can be reborn as an animal, or in a hell realm. Actions that lead to good karma are based on motives of generosity, compassion, sympathy, mindfulness and wisdom. Motives of greed, hatred and delusion lead to bad karma. Buddhists try to develop good karma and avoid the bad, though the aim of Buddhism is to escape the cycle of rebirth and reach enlightenment. (Religions: Buddhism, 2009) In Daoism, Daoists are encouraged to live with detachment and calmness. Through the ages, Daoists have developed various forms of communities and sets of behavioural guidelines, that cover both ethics and morality, ranging from the basic moral rules against killing stealing, lying and sexual misconduct, to suggestions of altruistic thinking, social interaction and the unfolding of universal ethics that teach people to think like the Dao itself. (Religions: Taoism, 2009) Unlike Buddhism, Daoist ethics are concerned less with doing good acts, and more with becoming a good person in harmony with the world. Their ethics and spirituality are inseparable. They are one and the same. If a Daoist wants to live well, they should make their decision in

On Buddhism and Daoism

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accordance to the Dao, thinking what will best fit with the natural order and balance of things. Daoists always do what is required by events, but nothing more. Daoism, like other religions, condemns killing, stealing, lying and promiscuity. It promotes altruistic, generous and compassionate behaviour. Daoists believe that good behaviour is an essential part of selfimprovemet, and of improving the world as a whole. (Religions: Taoism, 2009)

CONCLUSION Buddhism and Daoism have different approaches to the understanding of the world, and have different sets of moral teachings. However, both philosophies have a similarity that is not shared with the philosophies of the West. Both philosophies are meditative. Rather than justifying the existence of such an object, these Eastern philosophies seek answers through contemplation and meditation. Their differences lie greatly in what they perceive as knowledge. One asserts that knowledge is within reach, that it surrounds us through the consciousness of people around us. The other recognizing that knowledge is limited and biased. Both do somehow agree that knowledge is the aggregate of everyones thoughts. I, for one, am leaning towards Daoism in this respect. Knowledge can only bring us so far, and it is always under the influence of our perceptions, not matter how hard we try to detach ourselves from it There are also huge differences in their moral teachings. Buddhism focuses on doing good deeds, but Daoism would rather focus on developing a good person. Still, both philosophies do have good intentions for their followers. There exists a difference, but ultimately, both philosophies promote the same virtues: compassion, generosity, sympathy and mindfulness.