WORD-FORMATION IN THE PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH LANGUAGE 1.

Introduction
1.1. General
1.1.1. Aims of the course
The aim of the present course is to introduce students to the basic conceptual and terminological apparatus indispensable in a coherent and systematic description of word-formation processes in the present-day English language.

1.1.2. Organization
15 two-period sessions providing introduction to basic terms and their theoretical background, exposition of central problems and suggestions for their solution through a number of exercises and study questions. Assessment will be based on a 60' minute test at the end of the course and an interview if necessary.

1.1.3. Overview
1. Introduction 1.1. General 1.2. Types of word-formation processes 2. Concatenative word-formation processes 2.1. Affixation 2.1.1. Prefixation 2.1.2. Suffixation 2.2. Compounding 2.2.1. Introductory notes 2.2.2. Noun compounds 2.2.3. Adjective compounds 3. Non-concatenative word-formation processes 3.1. Conversion/Zero derivation 3.2. Back-formation 3.3. Reduplication 3.4. Clipping 3.5. Blending 3.6. Abbreviation 4. Productivity in word-formation 4.1. Productivity and creativity 4.2. Constraints on productivity of word-formation processes

1.1.4. Literature
Recommended: Bauer, Laurie, Rodney Huddleston (2002). Lexical word-formation. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, ed. by Rodney Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, 16211721. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, Appendix I: Word-formation, 1515-1585. London: Longman. Marchand, Hans (1965). The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word- Formation. A Synchronic-Diachronic Approach. Mnchen: Beck.

Further reading: Adams, Valerie (1973). An Introduction to Modern English Word Formation. London: Longman. Adams, Valerie (2001). Complex Words in English. Harlow: Pearson Educational/Longman. Aronoff, Mark (1976). Word Formation in Generative Grammar. (Linguistic Inquiry Monographs 1). Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press. Bauer, Lauri (1983). English Word-Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jespersen, Otto (1965). A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part IV: Morphology. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard. Plag, Ingo (2003). Word Formation in English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Szymanek, Bogdan (1993). Introduction to Morphological Analysis. Warszawa: Panstwowe Wydawnictvo Naukowe.

1.2. Types of word-formation processes INFLECTION and DERIVATION, two major types of morphological processes, are distinguished on the bases of morphemes that are involved. If a bound grammatical morpheme is involved, the process is called inflection (the morphemes in question are sometimes also called inflectional), if two or more lexical morphemes are involved we speak of derivation. Base is any morphological unit whatsoever (consisting of a single morpheme, or being itself a complex consiting or more than one morpheme, existing as an independent word, or just as a bound part of a word), to which affixes of any kind can be added aor which can be added to another base in compounding. Inflectional and derivational morphemes form words in different ways. Derivational ones form new words either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached, or by changing the word-class that a base belongs to.

Catenative vs non-concatenative word-formation processes This distinction is based on whether two or more distinct and overt lexical elements are joined in the course of a word-formation process in a more or less straightforward way not. The former are termed concatenative processes, the latter non-concatenative ones. In the case of non-catenative processes a single lexical element may be modified internally (i.e. a covert element may be added, or we witness subtractionsystematic elimination of parts of a lexeme, or a combination of these). Of course, new words can be output of the application of both types of processes. Generally speaking, concatenative processes happen to be most important ones in English in terms of their productivity. They belong therefore to major word formation processes in English. Most concatenative word formation processes have a minor role in English, but the correlation between the two classifications is not perfect (e.g. conversion is a major word-formation processes but it is cannot be characterized as a straightforward concatenative processes).

Major word formation processes in English 1. AFFIXATION: a process in which lexical affixes are added to the base, also called derivation. (1) [duck] + [-ling] [duckling] 2. CONVERSION: a word-formation strategy in which words are formed without modifying the form of the input words that serve as the bases, also called zero-derivation and subsumed under affixation. (2) a. The head of the village school has arrived. 3

b. She will head the village school. 3. COMPOUNDING: a process in which at least two bases, that are both words, or at any rate root morphemes, are combined. (3) [tea] + [pot] [teapot] [week] + [end] [week-end]

Minor word formation processes a. BACK-FORMATION: the formation of words by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in longer words, often accompanied by a change of word-class. (4) actor act b. CLIPPING: the process of shortening a word without changing its cognitive meaning or its part of speech, though frequently with the effect of making it stylistically less formal: (5) vegetable vs veg c. BLENDING: formation of new lexemes from parts of two or more other lexemes by telescoping them i.e. taking the extreme parts of the words involved, often by splitting morphemes. Blends are also called portmanteau words. (6) stagnation + inflation stagflation d. REDUPLICATION: the formation of new items by repeating some part of the base, specifically, i. the formation of new affixes by repeating some part of the base; ii. the formation of new words using affixes created in this manner. The term RE-DUPLICATIVE COMPOUND is applied to English words like helter-skelter, shilly-shally. e. formation of ABBREVIATIONs, i.e. ACRONYMs and ALPHABETSMs, from the initial letters of the words in a name, title or phrase The former being pronounced as if they were real words, the latter as strings of letters. (7) Teaching English as Foreign Language TEFL (8) Cable News Network CNN

2. Concatenative word formation processes

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2.1. Affixation The discussion of both prefixation and suffixation will be organized around some general semantic categories that affixes may be assigned to. A consequence of this is that one and the same affix, if polysemous, i.e. polyfunctional, will have to be discussed at various places. The presentation that follows is meant as an overview and not as an exhaustive statement: only the most important (i.e. frequent, productive) affixes will be discussed, providing only the most basic information on them.

2.1.1. Prefixation The following semantic categories can be established with prefixes in the modern-day English language: negative reversative pejorative privative repetitive causative prefixes of degree/size prefixes of orientation/attitude locative prefixes prefixes of time and order number prefixes

2.1.1.1. Negative prefixes Prefixal negation is chiefly characteristic of adjectives but we also find a number of nouns, verbs and adverbs as bases. The most important prefixes involved here are: UN-, IN- (with its variants), NON-, DIS- and A-. UNThis prefix meaning not, the converse of is the most productive means of deriving negative words. It combines with adjectival and participial bases. The former can be morphologically simple or complex, and of both native and Latinate origin): (1) a. unfair, unfit, unaware, unripe, untrue b. unable, uncertain, unjust, unsafe, unequal, unstable c. unhealthy, unshapely, untruthful, unexceptional, unattractive, unpredictable, 5

unforgettable (2) unending, unassuming, unfailing, unknown, unknown, unexpected, unsalted Although this prefix is fairly productive, it does however combine with certain (predominantly simple) adjectives. What do these bases that are not available for this type of prefixation have in common in semantic terms? More precisely speaking, there are a number of semantic groups: (3) *unbad, *unstupid, *unblue, *unred, *unlow, *ungood, *unhigh, *unnew, *unthin, *unhard INThe basic meaning of this prefix is not, the converse of. In addition to this base form, there are three other phonologically conditioned variants. IL- before bases beginning in [l], IMbefore bases beginning with labials (sounds involving lips in their pronunciation, such as [m], [p], or [b]), and IR- before bases beginning in [r]. Note that IL- and IR- are actually pronounced as [I], but there is doubling of l and r, respectively, in spelling. It combines with adjectives borrowed from Latin and French, but there are occasionally nouns as well (e.g. inattention): (4) a. inconsistent, inattentive, insufficient, intolerant b. illogical, illegal, illegitimate c. impossible, immodest, immoral, improbable, impolite d. irresponsible, irrespective, irrational This prefix is less productive than UN-, but it is worth noting that in some cases an existing negative in-adjective may block the coinage of un-adjectives. However, there are doublets occasionally: (5) unexact vs. inexact NONThe negation by this prefix, unlike with un-, seems to produce binary, non-gradable contrasts: (6) a. a rather unscientific approach b. *a rather non-scientific approach The prefix, which is often hyphenated, combines with nouns, adjectives and open-class adverbs: 6

(7) a. non-smoker, non-target, non-virtue b. non-perishable, non-effective, non-abstract, non-resident, non-verbal c. non-trivially, non-violently DISThis prefix, whose meaning can be paraphrased as not, the converse of combines with open-class items including verbs: (8) a. disobey, disagree, dislike b. disloyal, dishonest, discontinuous c. disorder, discontent AThere are in fact two pronunciations of this prefix [eI] and [], as well as a special allomorph AN-, chiefly used before bases beginning with vowels. This special variant has a more specific meaning lacking in/lack of, depending on whether it combines with adjectives or nouns: (8) a. amoral, asexual, anhydrous, apolitical, atrophied b. anarchy, atheist Look at the words below and write down their negative forms next to the appropriate prefix, or prefix variant. legal inclined happy agreement inimilirnondisaunsmoker obey responsible athletic capable septic alcoholic official harmony rational ability similar practical willingness nuclear tolerant

Comment on the meaning and usage of the following doublets (or triplets). interested uninterested disinterested 7

professional finite tonal human moral

non-professional non-finite non-tonal non-human non-moral

unprofessional infinite atonal inhuman amoral

unhuman immoral

Provide adjectives with negative prefixes that collocate with the following items so as to form well-known linguistic terms. _________________ apposition _________________ language _________________ noun _________________ article _________________ construction _________________ condition _________________ antecedent _________________ comparison _________________ adjectives _________________ verbs _________________ clause _________________ clause _________________ coordination _________________ syllable _________________ context _________________ speech _________________ word-formation _________________ relative clause _________________ style _________________ singular _________________ contrast _________________ participle

Provide as many nouns as possible that collocate with the following adjectives with negative prefixes. unknown: unspoiled: undreamed-of: unprovoked: non-standard: ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ____________________________________ ______________________________________ ____________________________________

Match the following adjectives with appropriate nouns so as to form established collocations. non-Euclidean non-empty non-commissioned non-stick non-skid non-stop non-slip non-iron non-crush non-shrink tyres soles geometry fabrics plaster fabric shirt pan set officer 8

non-crack

service

Insert the items from the list into appropriate sentences so as to complete the idiomatic expressions. Explain their meanings. unwritten unbowed unclouded non-starter untimely

I was perfectly content to remain a _____________ as a cricketer. His head is bloodied but ___________. I hope there is no _____________ law about what kind of wine you should drink with this. He came to an ____________ end. He leads a life of _____________ happiness.

Which of the following do not contain negative prefixes? disposition inbuilt atonal independent injustice disappoint indifferent unhelpful nonentity

Provide tree diagrams illustrating the structure of the following items. impurity unbreakable

dishonesty

inexpressive

Explain the difference between the members of the following pairs? i. a. She is not happy. b. She is unhappy. ii. a. She is not married. b. She is unmarried. iii. a. He is un-American. b. He is non-American.

2.1.1.2. Reversative or privative prefixes Some prefixes like un-, de- and dis- that combine mainly with verbs but also with nouns have reversative meaning, i.e. the derived words refer to undoing of a previous state of affairs. The same prefixes can also be used in a privative sense, i.e. the derived words can be paraphrased as to deprive or free of X. Privatives are chiefly denominal in a general sense, i.e. derived from nouns as bases or from denominal verbs. An isolated instance of be- with privative meaning is behead. Marginally, dis- and de- can have an ablative meaning, 'to remove, unload from X', e.g. displace, discage, detrain, debus. Both dis- and de- also appear in some words that already were prefixations at the time of their adoption into English. These are to be analyzed as simple words as far as the morphology of English is concerned. UNThis prefix which exhibits both reversative ((10) a.) and privative meaning ((10) b.) combines with verbs in both uses. It could be claimed that it is added limitedly to nouns in the latter meaning, but it would then belong to the small class of class-changing prefixes in English. As is well known, prefixes are normally class-maintaining, i.e. the base and the output belong to the same word class. The alternative to this would be to postulate an intermediate stage whereby nouns are converted to verbs: (10) a. undo, unzip, untie, unlock, unpack, undress, unwrap, unbend, unwind, uncover, b. unhorse, unmask, unsaddle, unbolt, unglue, unlace, unveil, unbuttoned, uncap, unlead The verbs as bases must be transitive and resultative and denote a potentially reversible action. This explains why the following are impossible: (11) a. *unwalk, *unsing, *unswim, *unwait b. *unbeat, *unkill, *unpoison, *unhit In the first set we have non-resultative, durative verbs, and in the second there are bases denoting normally irreversible actions. DE- [di:] As a reversative prefix it combines freely with verbs (particularly with deadjectival verbs) and deverbal nouns. Most of the verbal bases are causative verbs in -ize, or verbs in -ate: 10

(12) a. decentralize, decolonialize, dehumanize, decontaminate, deregulate b. denationalization, deactivation, demobilization (13) a. Word processors are likely to depersonalize working relationships. b. ... measures to deregulate the economy c. They tried to destabilize Saddam's regime. When used as a privative prefix de- is added to verbal and nominal bases: (14) a. decapitate, denude, decaffeinate b. de-ice, debug, debark, deworm, desalt, destarch DISThe reversative dis- combines mostly with Latinate verb bases (typically beginning with a vowel): (15) a. disaffiliate, disarrange, disassemble, disassimilate, disendow, disengage, disentangle, disinfect, disintegrate, disorganize, disunite b. disconnect, discharge, disjoin, disqualify, The prefix dis- is also found in a number of privative verbs: (16) disarm, disbranch, discourage, dislimb, dismast, disbud, disburden

Reversative or privative? Comment. disembody deflea dewool unlearn dematerialize degas

Negative, reversative or privative? Comment. disorder unman dispossess unwise disinterested unassuming

Establish several sets of privative prefixations below according to their semantic commonalities. deworm member debug behead delouse desalt deflea degrease degerm deice dislimb disunlead

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2.1.1.3. Pejorative prefixes There are four, more or less productive, prefixes that express disapproval in English. Two of these, mis- and mal- have the basic meaning wrongly/badly, whereas pseudo- and mockare used to refer to something not genuine but imitation or copy. Pejorative overtones may be found with some degree/size prefixes as well (arch-, hyper-, over- and under-. MISThis prefix meaning wrongly/badly/improperly/astray is attached to verbs, participles and abstract nouns: (17) a. miscalculate, mishear, misfire, misinform, misbehave, misapply b. misleading, misshapen, misbegotten, c. misconduct, misproportion, misbelief, miscarriage, misjudgement MALThis prefix meaning badly, bad occurs with verbs, participles, adjectives and abstract nouns: (18) a. maltreat, maladminister b. malformed, maladjusted c. malodorous d. malnutrition, malpractice, maladministration PSEUDOThis pejorative prefix, meaning false, imitation, combines with nouns and adjectives: (19) a. pseudo-friend, pseudo-fact, pseudo-creativity b. pseudo-classicism, pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-scientific MOCKLike pseudo-, mock- is attached to adjectives and nouns to express the fact that something is just a copy or imitation of something else: (20) a. mock-childish, mock-innocent, mock-Latin, mock-savage b. mock-attack, mock-aggression, mock-sadness 12

Look at the words below and write down corresponding pejorative forms next to the appropriate prefix. direct, surprise, science, Tudor, formation, hear, treatment, English, literary, quotation mismalpseudomock-

2.1.1.4. Repetitive prefix REThis is the only exponent of repetitive function in word formation in English. It combines freely with almost any transitive verbs, native or Latinate: (21) reanalyse, reassess, rediscover, regrind, reopen In addition to its repetitive function (to do something again), one may distinguish some further shades of meaning; to do again in a new/different way (repack, reorganize, rewrite); provide with something again (rearm, refuel, restock, retool)

2.1.1.5. Causative prefixes These have also been called conversion prefixes, because they are exceptional in being word class-changing. EN-/EMThere are two phonologically conditioned variants of this largely unproductive prefix converting nominal and adjectival bases to verbs. When it is added to adjectives to produce verbs, its meaning is to make X such as the base: (22) enfeeble, englad, engross, enrich, ensure, endear, ennoble, embitter, embrown When added to nouns, it means to cause X to be in, put into, cause to have: (23) empower, endanger, encage, entomb, emplain, embus, entrain, enflame, encrown, encourage

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BEIn its most productive use, be- is a causative prefix added to adjectival and nominal bases, with the meaning to make X such as the base: (24) bedim, befoul, belittle, benumb, befriend It can also mean to cause to have something, to provide with, to have/wear something, or it makes an intransitive verb a transitive one. Finally, it can also have an intensifying force: (25) a. becloud, begrime, bedew b. befogged, bedewed, bespectacled, bejewelled c. bemoan, bewail, d. bedazzle, bestir, besmear, besmirch, bespatter

2.1.1.6. Prefixes of degree/size/rank ARCHThis prefix attaches to nouns, notably human nouns, to express idea of being supreme, most, but very frequently has pejorative effect in some ad-hoc formations with hyphenation: (26) archduke, archbishop; arch-enemy, arch-hypocrite Archangel has a different pronunciation /a:k/ and the stress on the prefix. COThe bases to which this prefix (jointly/together/having in common) attaches include nouns, verbs and adjectives: (27) a. co-heir, co-pilot, co-author, co-driver, co- founder, co-existence b. co-operate, co-exist, co-write, coordinate, cohabit, co-edit c. cotidal, coextensive, coaxial Occasionally, the prefix is autostressed: 'co-driver. SUPER- /su:..., sju:.../ The meaning of the prefix is more than, very special when it combines with adjectives and nouns (where it is autostressed). Occasionally it combines with verbs and some nouns in the meaning on top, hierarchically superior: 14

(28) a. supernatural, supersensitive, superfine, superabundant, super-friendly b. superpower, superman, supermarket, superspeed, super-brain, supertanker, superbomb, superfilm, superstar c. superimpose d. superstructure, superstratum MEGARecently, this prefix, which has been used in technical language to denote size, has become very active in formation of words expressing extreme degree. Its bases are nouns: (29) a. megaton, megawatt, megahertz, megabyte b. megastar, megadeal, megabid, megaterrorism, megaproduction, mega-fantasy, megabucks HYPERThis prefix, meaning extreme, and sometimes pejorative too, is attached to adjectives: (30) hypersensitive, hypercritical, hypermodern, hypernatural, hyperactive, hyperaccurate, hypersentimental SURAs an autostressed prefix, it occurs only in a handful of nouns, verbs and adjectives in the meaning over and above, excess: (31) surcharge, surtax, surplus; surmount, surpass; surreal ULTRAThis prefix, meaning extreme, beyond combines with adjectives and nouns, either to form hyperboles or technical expressions, occasionally being autostressed: (32) a. ultra-ambitious, ultra-fashionable, ultra-liberal, ultra-modern, ultra-conservative, ultraviolet b. ultranationalism, ultra-distance, 'ultracentrifuge, 'ultrasound

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OVERCombining the size/degree meaning with pejorative meaning (excessive), this native prefix combines freely with verbs and adjectives. In a more restricted locative sense, which some-times fuses with a sense of power, it combines with verbs: (33) a. overeat, overreact, overestimate, overplay, oversimplify, overrate, overload, overdo b. over-eager, over-confident, over-protective, overdressed c. overflow, overshadow, overturn, overrule, overrun OUTThis native prefix, meaning surpassing, is very productive in formation of transitive verbs (from intransitive verbs, nouns and adjectives): (34) outnumber, outrun, outclass, outperform, outsell, outdistance, outgrow, outlive, outsmart, SUBThe prefix sub- denotes that something or someone is below, bordering, in the next category, subordinate/secondary/ deputy, nearly, not quite. There is also a locative prefix sub-. The prefix of size and degree combines with adjectives nouns and verbs: (35) a. subconscious, subnormal, subatomic, subsensible; subtropical, subarctic b. subacid, subcylindrical, subtransparent c. subagent, subdean, subcommissioner, sublieutenant d. subcategory, subclass, subdistrict e. subclassify, subdivide, sublet MINI-/MAXI- (and MIDI-) The bases to which mini- little, small version of, is added are exclusively nouns: (36) minibus, mini-skirt, mini-cab, mini-dress, mini-golf, mini-team, mini-tour, minisubmarine Note the contrasts with maxi- and midi-, which are far less frequently used: (37) maxi-length, midi-length

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MICRO-/MACROThis prefix, meaning infinitely small, dealing with something very small occurs only with nouns as bases in technical and scientific language: (38) microchip, microcomputer, microparticle, microfilm, micro-economics, microenvironment, microsurgery It contrasts sometimes with macro-: (39) macrostructure, macro-economics UNDERThis native prefix meaning insufficient, too little combines freely with verbs and -ed participles, as well as corresponding nouns. Less commonly, it attaches to nouns in the meaning subordinate: (40) a. undercharge, underplay, under-indulge, under-use b. undernourished, underdeveloped, underdone, underprivileged, undergrown c. underprovision, under-production d. undermanager, under-secretary, undersheriff

Choose a word from the list to complete the sentences below. hyperactive hyper-critical hypercreative hypermarket hyperinflation hypersensitive hypera-alert hyper-cautious hyper-devoted hyper-modern

The man became ________________ to the slightest movement around him. Boulogne and its ______________ are a popular destination for shoppers. He had a small, vicious, _________________ dog, always on the look-out for intruders. Teenagers tend to be _________________ of their own parents. Councillors outlined plans for a _______________ shopping precinct in the city centre. I found him to be much more lively than I expected, almost ______________. The Chancellor took steps to stabilize the economy and cut _____________. Many parents are _____________ and do not allow their children enough freedom.

Put the words in the list into the following lists according to their meaning. over-anxious overdo EXCESS overhang overawe overhead overcharge POSITION 17 over-emphasize

The following sentences all contain words beginning with super-. The sentences have been divided in two and mixed up. Read both parts of all the sentences and decide which halves go together. Write the appropriate letter next to the numbers at the bottom. 1 The vast supertankers we have nowadays 2 Jumping over that wall 3 A new superstore has just opened. 4 My aunt loves watching wrestling and boxing. 5 The new office blocks were built to a A must have been a superhuman feat. B especially the super-heavyweights. C super-modern design. D are a danger to the environment. E and you can get almost anything you need there.

2.1.1.7. Prefixes of orientation/attitude These prefixes have either a general meaning of for or against something/someone denoted by the base. All the four prefixes, pro-, counter-, contra- and anti-, are nonnative. PROWhen combining with denominal adjectives and nouns (to form premodifying adjectives) it has the general meaning for, on the side of, supporting. It has the meaning on behalf of when attached to nouns: (41) a. pro-American, educational; pro-Nazi, pro-Israel, pro-communist, pro-liberal b. pro-consul, pro-provost ANTI- /ntI/ or /ntaI/ This fairly frequent prefix, meaning against, opposed to, combines with denominal adjectives and nouns (functioning as premodifiers): (42) a. anti-social, anti-clockwise, antitraditional, anti-American, anti-Semitic, antifascist b. anti-war (campaign), anti-Thatcher (coalition), anti-slavery (movement), antiaircraft (gun) When it means prevent, destroy it combines with verbs and nouns denoting some adverse physical and social processes as well as with denominal adjectives denoting diseases and their causes: (43) a. anti-freeze (solution), antiknock, antiroll, antiskid 18

b. anti-rust, anti-pollution, anti-inflation, c. antibacterial, anti-allergic, anti-fungal, COUNTERVerbs, abstract nouns and some denominal adjectives can be preceded by counter-, meaning against, in opposition to: (44) counteract, countervote; counteraccusation, counterattack, counterrevolution, counter-offensive; counter-clockwise CONTRAIts bases include nouns, verbs, and denominal adjectives. The meaning of the prefix is opposite, contrasting: (45) contradistinction, contraindicate, contradict, contradiction, contrafactual

Anti- can be used with two different meanings. Write A after the example if it means that one thing opposes another. Write B if if means that one thing prevents another from happening. 1 Following the appalling behaviour of the English football fans in Italy many people were anti-English. 2 Anti-seasickness tablets should be taken two hours before starting a journey. 3 After fitting the anti-theft device to her car, she hoped it would not be stolen again. 4 The anti-apartheid movement in South Africa gained a lot of publicity when Nelson Mandela was released. 5 Although it is more than two years since his wife died, he is still taking anti-depressants. 6 Put anti-freeze in your radiator to prevent the water from freezing overnight. 7 It was the first serious anti-war demonstration for fifteen years. 8 Toothpastes containing fluoride and anti-bacterial properties should be able to virtually eradicate tooth-decay. 9 The General took control of the army at the height of the anti-Ceausescu protests. 10 The Church is managing to survive in the face of a great deal of anti-religious propaganda.

2.1.1.8. Locative prefixes In addition to spatial relationships, these prefixes may extend their meaning metaphorically to include locations in an abstract, figurative sense. 19

FOREThis prefix combines with nouns to denote front, front part of: (46) foreleg, forehead, forelimb, forearms, foreground, forename, foredeck INTERDenominal adjectives, verbs and nouns are the bases of this prefix meaning between, among: (47) international, interlienar, inter-continental; intertwine, inter-marry, interweave, interdependent, interlink; inter-war (years), SUBIn addition to degree/size/rank meaning, sub- also has a more literal locative meaning of under, in which it is prefixed to adjectives, nouns, and verbs: (48) a. subway, substructure, subsurface, subtitle b. subabdominal, subcentral, suboceanic c. submerge SUPERThis prefix, expressing concepts above, situated above X, combines with some nouns and denominal adjectives: (49) a. superscript, superstructure b. superglottal, superorbital TRANSThis locative prefix, meaning across, from one place to another, combines freely with denominal adjectives, nouns and with some verbs: (50) a. transatlantic, trans-Siberian b. trans-America, trans-Alaska c. transplant, transship 20

Other prefixes with locative meaning include extra-, intra-, over-, in- and out-: (51) a. extralinguistic, extra-parliamentary, extra-marital, extraterritorial b. intravenous, intra-racial, intra-party c. overhead, overhang d. input, inhouse e. outhouse, outstation

2.1.1.9. Prefixes of time and order FOREWhen it has temporal meaning before, fore- attaches to verbs and nouns: (52) a. foretell, forewarn, foreshadow, foresee b. foreknowledge, foresight, forethought POSTTemporal prefix post- after combines with nouns (chiefly premodifiers) and denominal adjectives: (53) a. post-war (euphoria), post-election (time), post-ceremony (luncheon) b. post-communism, post-modernism, post-impressionism c. post-Darwinian, post-Elizabethan, post-dilluvian PREThe antonymic counterpart of post-, this prefix, meaning before, in advance, combines productively with nouns (as premodifiers) and denominal adjectives, but also, less frequently, with verbs: (54) a. pre-war (period), pre-school (children) b. premarital, pre-industrial, prefabricated c. pre-cook, pre-heat, pre-select, EXThis prefix, meaning former, combines with human nouns: (55) ex-president, ex-serviceman, ex-champion, ex-husband 21

Write A after the sentence if the prefix pre- means that something happens before something else, and B if it means that something has already been done: 1 I hate the pre-Christmas panic that seems to hit my family in the middle of December. 2 Eventually the pre-paid envelopes were sent from the mail order company. 3 His preconceived ideas made it impossible for anyone to get him to listen to their side of the argument. 4 There were many pre-fourteenth century portraits in the exhibition. 5 The jury unanimously reached the decision that the killing was premeditated. 6 He married late and his wife predeceased him. 7 Bake the cake in a pre-heated oven for twenty minutes. 8 Zoe had invited us round early for a pre-dinner drink. 9 Some football players develop a special routine to cope with pre-match nerves. 10 We had been given tickets to a preview of the film.

2.1.1.10. Number prefixes Number prefixes discussed here are of Greek or Latin origin. They combine relatively freely with nouns and denominal adjectives. UNI-, MONO(56) a. unisex, unilateral, unidirectional b. monoplane, monosyllabic, monoculture BI-, DIThe basic meaning is two, but there are several shades of meaning: having two X, occurring every two Xs or occurring twice in an X, so that items in (57) b. are ambiguous: (57) a. bilingual, bisexual, bipolar, bifocal b. bimonthly, biweekly, biyearly, bicentennial, biannual SEMI-, DEMI-, (HEMI-) half (58) a. semicircle, semivowel, semi-detached b. demi-god, demi-devil, demi-world c. hemisphere, hemimorphic TRI- three 22

(59) trimaran, tricycle, trimester, tripartite, trinomial POLY-, MULTI- many (60) a. polytechnic, polysyllabic b. multilingual, multiracial, multi-lateral, multi-purpose

2.1.1.11. Residual prefixes Native prefixes AOriginally a preposition added to verbs to mark the progressive aspect, this item has become a prefix combining mainly with verbs (but also to nouns and adjectives) to produce predicative adjectives, meaning to be in a state of V-ing, or to produce adverbs: (61) a. asleep, astride, awash, atremble, aglow, agape, ablush, b. aloud, afire, aflame, aground, ashore, aside,

MIDThis native prefix is added to nouns to form nouns denoting a certain position in space or in a period of time, viz. in the middle of: (62) a. mid-air, mid-ocean, mid-channel, mid-court b. midnight, midmorning, mid-hour, mid-teens

Classical and neo-classical AUTOThis prefix, meaning self, combines with nouns and adjectives, resulting in complex words on the boundary towards compounds: (63) autosuggestion, autobiography NEO- new, revived 23

There are combinations with nouns and adjectives, particularly those referring to political, artistic, etc. movements and styles: (64) neo-classicism, neo-Gothic, neo-Nazi, neo-colonialism, neo-Aristotelian PAN- all, world-wide This prefix combines with nouns and premodifying denominal adjectives: (65) pan-African, pan-American, pan-Anglican, pan-German, pan-Indian TELE- distant This prefix is added to classical bases to form nouns: (66) telecommunications, telephoto, telecommuter VICE- deputy This prefix combines with nouns: (67) vice-chairman, vice-admiral, vice-governer, vice-consul

Select from the first column the prefix that best completes each of the given root words so as to obtain the meaning on the right: anteantibicocomconcontradedidisemenexextrahyperhypo-agree -tension -liven -natal -muscular -title 7. -miserate 8. -room 9. -lingual 10. -thesis 11. -president 12. -bustible 13. -chotomous 14. -curricular 15. -date 16. -used 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. have unlike opinions low blood pressure make active and cheerful hapenning before birth within a muscle give a chair or right to sympathize with small waiting room leading to larger one able to speak twolanguages fluently the direct opposite former executive easily burned divided into two parts outside regular course of study precede in time not being in service 24

intra-

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30 31. 32.

-contaminate -exist -locate -mobilize -education -dote -hydrate -band -catenate -critical -lateral -hale -continue -mute -vention -clude

remove dangerous substances from exist at the same time or palce put out of place send back fromthe army educating boys and girls together substance to stop poison working remove water from concerning goods imported against the law join together too ready to see faults between or concerning two parties breathe out to stop or end travel regularly between one`s home and work a formal organized meeting of a very large group shut out, keep out, refuse entrance to

Select from the listed words the one which best completes each of the sentences below: proclaim postoperative posterity mistreat coexist anonymous postcript submerge apathetic predict misquote infinite prematurely proposition illegal denounce

1 He was ______________ for helping the enemies of his country. 2 Have you ever gone out ot the country on a summer night and looked up at the ____________________ number of stars? 3 A ________________ born baby must receive special treatment. 4 Almost everyone _______________ that the population of India will continue to increase. 5 The child`s sickness made him _________________: he did not even look at the toys his father brought him. 6 An _______________ letter is often the product of a sick mind. 7 The rivers and trees of the world do not belong only to us, they belong to ____________. 8 Some doctors believe that the success of an operation depends on ______________ care received by the patient. 9 She added a short __________________ to the letter. 10 In many countries private business companies and government controlled companies ____________________. 11 In the old days news was ________________ by a town crier as he walked thorugh the streets. 12 They were not interested in her _________________ to buy their farm. 13 The senator was angry when a speaker ________________ the answer he had given to a question. 14 The British are famous for their quick anger if they see an animal ____________. 15 In the fog, the little rowboat collided with alarge passenger ship and instantly ________________. 25

16 Driving a car through a red light is ____________________.

26

2.1.2. Suffixation
2.1.2.1. Introduction The discussion of suffixation will be based on a mixture of formal or grammatical and semantic criteria. The former concerns the word class of the derived word, so that we can distinguish between verb suffixes, viz. suffixes added to form derived verbs, noun suffixes, viz. suffixed added to form derived nouns, etc. The latter has to do with the semantic categories that the suffixed word belongs to. Combining the two, we end up with categories such as agent nouns, similitudinal adjectives, relational adjectives, causative verbs, etc. Combinability of suffixes with bases is frequently severely restricted in a number of ways. Like prefixes, suffixes also come either as native or foreign, i.e. borrowed. Some originally foreign suffixes require originally foreign bases, i.e. they cannot combine with native bases: (1) a. mind - mental b. nose - nasal - *mindal - *nosal

Further, suffixes may be classified as deadjectival, denominal, deverbal, etc., according to whether they require adjectives, verbs or nouns as their bases. The labels have often been extended to derived words themselves, so that there are deadjectival verbs, viz. verbs derived from adjectives, etc. Suffixation with originally foreign suffixes is sometimes accompanied by certain phonological effects, such as change of the stress pattern: (2) 'photograph - pho'tography - photo'graphic or, more radically, the phonological makeup of the base. Such suffixes are called nonneutral. Suffixes effecting no such changes, either native or foreign, are called neutral: (3) a. conclude - conclusion b. able - ability (4) a. mind - mindless b. nation - nationhood In the overview that follows only the most important suffixes will be given a detailed analysis.

2.1.2.2. Noun suffixation The following semantically based categories can be established: 27

act nominalizations/nomina actionis state nouns/nomina essendi place names/nomina loci agent nominalizations instrument nominalizations patient nominalizations result nominalizations collective names female names diminutives

Act nominalizations/Nomina actionis This category clusters around the concept of 'act(ion) or process of V-ing'. The suffixed nouns belonging to this category are frequently idiosyncratic with respect to their semantics, morphology and phonology. As for their meaning, they tend to be ambiguous in a number of ways, which is in part due to the polysemy of verbal bases that serve as input. Collection can thus refer to the activity of collecting in general and to one particular instance of the activity, i.e. the act of being collected, to a group of objects that have been collected and that belong together, or more idiosyncratically to the amount of money collected at a church service. It can also refer to a heap of materials or objects that have come together (perhaps in a more of less incidental way): (5) a. Collection of letters is regulated centrally. b. How many collections of letters are there every day? c. She has got a nice collection of postcards. d. The collection will be taken after the sermon. e. We found an impressive collection of rubbish. As for their morphology and phonology, there are often restrictions on their combinability with certain bases and a great deal of allomorphy. The suffixes to be discussed here in more detail include: -ing, -ation, -ment, -al, -ance/ence, -age, -ure, -y. -ING Nouns formed by this suffix are frequently difficult to keep apart from forms with verbal force. It is extremely productive in this use and attaches to nouns (denoting activity connected with N) and verbs (denoting an occasion of V-ing): (6) a. farming, cricketing, blackberrying b. christening, wedding, 28

-ATION The nomina actionis forming suffix -ation (as well as its variants) is the most important and most productive in the whole set. In addition to the underlier -ation, there are four other allomorphs: -tion, -ion, -ition, and -ution. The underlier -ation does not appear to be sensitive to any well-defined phonological constraints, i.e. it can be added to verbal bases ending in any coronal (articulatory defined sounds produced with the blade of the tongue raised from its neutral position: alveolar, dental and palato-alveolar consonants) or labial and velar consonant (the latter are noncoronals). This full suffix is particularly productive with verbal bases ending in -ize. With bases terminating in -ate, there appears necessary to assume previous truncating of -at sequences: (7) neutralization, derivation, adaptation, condensation, evocation, exploitation, starvtion, examination, celebration, imitation Verbal bases ending in -fy and -ply exhibit special adaptation of these endings before the suffix -ation: (8) a. amplify - amplification, codify - codification, qualify - qualification b. imply - implication The terminations -ion and -tion are subject to severe restrictions. They both combine with certain Latinate bases, among them such bound roots like -ceive, -crete, -duce, etc. The variant -tion is selected if the roots end in noncoronal consonants (labials and velars), and ion attaches after bases in coronal consonants, including liquids and nasals. Both variants may bring about certain phonological changes in the root: (9) a. ascribe - ascription receive - reception reduce - reduction resume - resumption b. rebel - rebellion commune - communion adhere - adhesion insert - insertion connect - connection confess - confession Finally, terminations -ition and -ution seem to occur only in some cases: (10) a. add - addition define - definition expose - exposition compete - competition 29

b. revolve - revolution resolve - resolution dissolve - dissolution solve - solution -MENT This prefix is found only with verbal bases, and is nowadays only mildly productive, although the number of attested formations is relatively large. It appears to be in a complementary distribution with -ation. Among the bases, there are many verbs with prefixes en/em- and be-, and verbs ending in //, /t/ and /d3/: (11) a. embarrassment, embezzlement, enforcement, enlargement, enrollment b. bedazzlement, beseechment, besiegement, bewilderment c. accomplishment, astonishment, establishment, refreshment, d. attachment e. acknowledgment, management, arrangement -AL The attachment of this weakly productive suffix is conditioned by the stress pattern of the verbal base. Only end-stressed verbs can be nominalized by means of this suffix. The stressed vowel may be followed by an optional sonorant, followed by an anterior consonant. The bases are usually resultative-transitive verbs (but cf. exceptions such as arrive): (12) arrival, betrayal, denial, dismissal, disposal, portrayal, proposal, refusal, removal, revival, withdrawal

-ANCE/-ENCE The distribution of these two variants is hard to capture from a synchronic point of view. The bases are verbal, mostly end-stressed. The suffix may cause some adaptation of the base: (13) a. attendance, conference, confidence, deference, disturbance, guidance, inference, residence, reference, abstinence b. acceptance, assistance, divergence, existence, interference b. entrance, utterance -AGE This suffix is found in this function with only a couple of deverbal formations:

30

(14) assemblage, carriage, leakage, cleavage, coinage, drainage, shrinkage, storage, usage -URE This largely unproductive suffix occurs only in a handful of attested nominalizations in this meaning: (15) departure, disclosure, enclosure, erasure, exposure, failure, pressure, seizure -ERY Suffix -ery is attached to nouns to form nouns that refer to acts/utterances characteristic of N, and are often found in plural in this meaning: (16) buffooneries, fooleries, knavery, snobberies -Y The handful of deverbal formations in -y take bases ending in /r/ but there are other bases as well: (17) a. delivery, discovery, entry, flattery, injury, inquiry, entreaty b. cookery, robbery

Which of the suffixes from the list may be added to the bases below? -ation excavate occur specialize involve refuse mock disclose attend leak bribe assemble cajole accept -ment -al -ance/ence -age -ure -y

Complete the following sentences with appropriate words derived by means of suffixation from the following bases: 31

derive

insist

depart

cross

adapt

deport

bury

attend

Civil right activists tried to halt ________________ of immigrants. Her _____________ at school was sporadic. Most living creatures are capable of _______________ when compelled to do so. He made the _________________ from Cape Town to Sydney in just over twenty-six days. She had attended an interview, at her boyfriends _________________. Our _______________ was delayed due to fog. _____________ is one of the most important morphological processes. The priest prepared the body for the ________________.

Odd man out. Which word does not fit in with the rest in the following sets? Comment. leakage failure personal abandonment seepage procedure signal instrument outrage departure renewal payment coverage feature verbal assessent usage seizure editorial agreement

Are the suffixes in the following derivations transpositional or not? addition management foolery utterance cookery farming acceptance coinage

Provide tree diagrams illustrating the structure of the following items and label the nodes in terms of word class they belong to. butchery forgery

collection

investment

32

State nouns/Nomina essendi This traditional term is often used to refer to a class of abstract deadjectival suffixations denoting quality/state of being X. All the productive suffixes in this relatively large set involved are word-class changing or transpositional: -ness, -ity (-ty, -y), -(anc)y/-(enc)y/ance/-ence,-(ac)y, -(it)ude, -hood, -ship. -NESS This is an extremely productive suffix that can be attached to both native and foreign bases. The adjectival bases may be simple or complex (including participial adjectives), and occasionally even phrases: (18) a. frankness, sadness, freshness, openness, shyness, softness b. thoughtfulness, selfishness, carelessness, lengthiness, orderliness c. preparedness, tiredness, relatedness, drunkenness d. black-and-blueness, free-and easiness, matter-of-factness, up-to-dateness -ITY (-TY, -Y) This suffix, with its variants, comes second, after -ness, in this category with respect to its productivity. It combines exclusively with Latinate bases, most of them ending in able/ible, -al, -ar, -ic, -ive, -ile, -ous. It may effect phonological adaptation of the bases. (19) a. acceptability, adaptability, distinguishability, nameability, predictability, reversibility, compatibility, visibility b. brutality, cordiality, impartiality, originality c. familiarity, peculiarity, popularity, regularity, similarity, singularity, vulgarity d. authenticity, eccentricity, specificity, elasticity e. collectivity, creativity, transitivity f. docility, fertility, futility, sterility, versatility g. curiousity, generosity, monstrosity, ambiguity, vacuity h. avidity, intensity, falsity, stupidity, purity The suffix often appears to be reduced to -ty or just -y: (20) a. certainty, cruelty, novelty, loyalty, safety, sovereignty, surety b. difficulty, honesty, modesty It sometimes competes with -ness, forming doublets: (21) falseness - falsity, morbidness - morbidity, singularness - singularity, accurateness - accuracy

33

-(ANC)Y/-(ENC)Y/-ANCE/-ENCE There is a large number of Latinate adjectives terminating in -and/-ent that have corresponding nouns derived by means of the above. The form of the suffix and its identity are difficult to establish. (22) a. discrepancy, militancy, redundancy, vacancy b. adjacency, decency, frequency, urgency c. elegance, exuberance, importance, reluctance, resistance d. persistence, patience, intelligence Occasionally, there are doublets: (23) a. complacence - complacency b. consistence - consistency c. stridence - stridency d. vehemence - vehemency e. abundance - abundancy f. recalcitrant - recalcitrancy Is there any difference in meaning between members of such pairs? There are some cases in which the suffixation is denominal and has a slightly more specific meaning state/office of N: (24) accountancy, agency, presidency

-(AC)Y This suffix may be added to adjectival bases ending in -ate. Marchand (1965: 232) stipulates here truncation of the final /t/, to which /si/ is added. Alternatively, one could posit spirantization /t - s/ caused by the suffix -y, which underlyingly contains a glide. (25) adequacy, delicacy, immediacy, intimacy, intricacy, legitimacy, literacy Two groups of adjectives terminating in -ate do not take this suffix: (26) a. moderate - *moderacy appropriate - *appropriacy deliberate - *deliberacy considerate - *consideracy b. proportionate - *proportionacy passionate - *passionacy affection - *affectionacy Which suffixes are attached to these bases to form nomina essendi? 34

This suffix may be attached to nominal bases ending in -ate, to form nouns denoting state of being N, or, somewhat more specifically, rank/office of N: (27) advocacy, candidacy, curacy, prelacy -(IT)UDE This suffix is unproductive because only a handful of bases are found to combine with it syn-chronically. In all these cases, there are also more common or preferred nominalizations with -ness: (28) aptitude, exactitude, promptitude, certitude, gratitude, similitude, decrepitude, quietude Note the difference in meaning between aptitude and aptness. These suffixations may be stylistically marked, e.g. vastitude (jocular). A number of words terminating in -tude cannot be analysed morphologically in English because they lack appropriate bases: (29) latitude, fortitude, solitude, plenitude -ISM This polyfunctional suffix may also be attached to some adjectival bases to form state nominalizations: (30) cynicism, exoticism, lyricism, romanticism -HOOD The suffix can denote state of being X when it combines with nouns and adjectives, or, more specifically, rank of N or period of time in which a state obtains: (31) a. fatherhood, manhood, widowhood b. falsehood, hardihood, likelihood, idlehood c. knighthood, d. babyhood, childhood

-DOM This polyfunctional but not too productive suffix can combine with nominal and adjectival bases to denote state/condition or rank of being X. Some of the nouns with this suffix are 35

ambiguous because they can also refer to localities, viz. realms or territories controlled by what is denoted in the nominal base, or they can refer to persons collectively: (32) a. bachelordom, chiefdom, dukedom, earldom, hippiedom, martyrdom, serfdom, stardom b. boredom, wisdom -AGE There are only a handful of nouns denoting state/rank that are formed by means of this suffix from nouns, but all these nouns allow different interpretations as well (place, collectivity): (33) baronage, companionage, knightage, orphanage, peerage, vassalage -SHIP Nomina essendi formed by this suffix all have nominal bases: (34) citizenship, directorship, leadership, ownership, premiership, rectorship, stewardship, studentship They also allow other interpretations as well, such as collectivity or, more specifically the art/skill of N (X+man), or relation between people: (35) a. craftsmanship, horsemanship, salesmanship, showmanship, sportsmanship b. acquaintanceship, comradeship, friendship, kinship, partnership -(E)RY With nominal bases this suffix can express the concept of state/quality of being N, but also more specific but related concepts such as art of being N (X+er), collectivity, etc. Note that some state nouns have a derogatory overtone: (36) a. foolery, knavery, rivalry, slavery, snobbery b. carpentry, pottery, saddlery Nouns in (35) a. can also refer to acts/utterances characteristic of N, and are often found in plural in this meaning.

-TH This suffix is found in only a couple of deadjectival formations: (37) a. coolth, truth, warmth 36

b. depth, length, strength, width, youth

Which of the suffixes from the list may be added to the bases below? -ness -ity -(anc)y/(enc)y -(it)ude -hood -ship -ance/ence impartial fair brilliant conscious important guest arrogant headmaster pregnant apt persist deaf

Complete the following sentences with appropriate words derived by means of suffixation from the following bases: brutal blind selfish mother helpless cordial arrogant

He took advantage of my __________________. They regretted atrocities and ________________ of a former regime. Many women successfully combine work and __________ The ______________ and ________________ of some interest groups never ceases to amaze me. Our country wants to solve the problem in an atmosphere of _______________. He criticized _______________ in government policy to the very existence of the unemployed.

Odd man out. Which word does not fit in with the rest in the following sets? Comment. repugnance ambience fatherhood decrepitude instance audience neighbourhood latitude fragrance influence widowhood similitude elegance coherence adulthood gratitude

37

Provide tree diagrams illustrating the structure of the following items and label the nodes in terms of word class they belong to. youthfulness reversibility

widowerhood

irregularity

romanticism

salesmanship

Place names/Nomina loci Place names or nomina loci are another traditional derivational category used to cover suffixed nouns denoting various localities, from a rather general sense to fairly specialized senses of place. All the suffixes are polyfunctional, i.e. express other nominal concepts as well. There are also some combining forms, items that originally were free morphemes or parts of complex words containing a suffix and a portion of base that came to be reanalysed as suffix-like units. -DOM As a locative suffix -dom is attached to nouns to denote areas, countries, parts of countries, etc. controlled or dominated by what is denoted by the base: (38) Christendom, dukedom, earldom, fiefdom, kingdom, princedom, sheikhdom, -AGE One of the functions of this suffix is to form denominal and deverbal nouns denoting: i. place/house where N lives/works, ii. place for V-ing: (39) a. cooperage, orphanage, parsonage, vicarage b. anchorage, storage -ERY 38

As a locative suffix, -ery combines with nominal and verbal bases. It expresses a cluster of locative meanings: i. place where N works, ii. place where N lives, iii. place where N is raised, iv. place where N is made/sold, v. place where one V-s: (40) i. ii. iii. iv. v. -ING One of the many functions of this suffix is to form deverbal nouns denoting place where one V-s/place for V-ing: (41) crossing, landing, lodging(s), parking In addition to the above suffixing there are some combining forms that occur in place names, such as -eteria or -scape: (42) a. basketeria, caketeria, candyteria, drugteria, lunchteria, shoeteria b. landscape, moonscape, waterscape, seascape, townscape pottery, saddlery, bakery nunnery, rookery swannery, orangery, nursery creamery, perfumery, pottery, winery, bakery, bindery, distillery, refinery, brewery, tannery, eatery

What are the names for the places described below? ______________ place where milk, butter, cream, and cheese are produced ______________ a coal mine and the buildings, machinery, etc. connected with mining ______________ place where children without parents live and are looked after ______________ a pig farm ______________ a place where two roads meet ______________ a plant where oil or metals are processed

Agent and instrument nominalizations Agent nouns (nomina agentis) and instrument nouns (nomina instrumenti) have occasionally been treated together within a supercategory labelled subject nominalizations. One of the reasons for this is that many suffixes forming these nouns exhibit a great deal of functional overlap in the sense that they form both agent nouns and instrument nouns. What is more, with some suffixes, one and the same nominalization can be either agent noun or instrument noun, the reading in depending on whether the derived word exhibits feature [+ animate] or [- animate], the former is found with agent nouns, the latter with instrument nouns. (43) conductor, printer, receiver, stopper, washer 39

Agent nouns can exhibit semantic feature [+ professional]. Another reason for the two categories being lumped together is the fact that some words can hardly be construed as agent nouns properly speaking, since their verbal bases rather subcategorize experiencer or patients (e.g. sleeper, lover, etc.) A typical instrument noun denotes a more or less complex tool or machine, but in a figurative sense also substances used by agents (e.g. lubricant, fertilizer). In what follows individual suffixes will be discussed in turn as agent noun forming devices first, and then as instrument noun forming affixes. -ER This suffix is the most important agent noun forming suffix in English, and it is often claimed that it can be attached to practically any verb, including the majority of recently coined verbs: (44) baker, brewer, challenger, invader, printer, retriever, teacher, welder, wader, winner, xeroxer These agent nouns refer to humans or animals. However, there are certain restrictions of its productivity. Cf. the following data and try to formulate the restrictions: (45) a. *maker vs shoemaker, (*)teller vs story-teller b. *getter, *knower, *seer, *stealer c. *dier, *faller, d. *letter, *meeter, *leaver, *shutter e. *comer vs newcomer, *layer vs bricklayer, *stander vs by-stander There are nominal bases as well, agent nouns denoting here persons making/selling N professionally, or working in/at N and/or owns N: (46) a. confectioner, hatter, potter, saddler b. banker, docker, miller, miner As an instrument noun forming suffix, -er combines with transitive verbs, both native and Latinate, infrequently with intransitive verbs: (47) a. blotter, booster, borer, copier, curler, freezer, knocker, lighter, opener, printer, scraper, stopper b. computer, condenser, container, converter, decoder, eraser, receiver, recorder, transformer, transmitter c. atomizer, fertilizer, ionizer, sterilizer, synthesizer d. buzzer, hooter 40

-OR Virtually all verbal bases, with this agent noun forming suffix are non-native, except sail sailor: (48) a. actor, contributor, conqueror, inheritor, inspector, investor, visitor b. agitator, collaborator, coordinator, demonstrator, imitator, narrator, operator, translator c. commentator, competitor, successor As an instrument nouns forming suffix, -or is found chiefly with bases terminating in -ate, but there are some other bases as well: (49) a. accelerator, calculator, detonator, duplicator, elevator, generator, illuminator, insulator, perforator, radiator b. collector, compressor, conductor, reflector, injector, processor -ANT/-ENT This suffix is attached chiefly to Latinate bases in both functions: (50) a. celebrant, emigrant, participant b. aspirant, assistant, attendant, claimant, consultant, informant, inhabitant, servant c. adherent, correspondent, president, resident, respondent d. opponent, student Most instrument nouns here denote substances and not tools or machines. Note the frequent truncation of base-final suffixes, e.g. irritate - irritant: (51) contaminant, lubricant, saturant, absorbant, pollutant, repellent/repellant The remaining suffixes form agent nouns only and not instrument nouns. -EE This autostressed suffix is found with intransitive verbal bases as an agent noun forming device: (52) adaptee, attendee, divorcee, embarkee, escapee, resignee, retiree, returnee, waitee -EER Denominal suffixations with this suffix denote 'persons concerned with N' and often have derogatory conotations: 41

(53) auctioneer, gadgeteer, mountaineer, pamphleteer, profiteer, racketeer, sonneteer -AR This suffix is sometimes considered a spelling variant of -er. There are only a handful of de-verbal agent nouns that are formed by means of this suffix: (54) beggar, burglar, bursar, liar, pedlar -IST Suffix -ist can be attached to verbs and nouns to form nouns denoting persons doing something, or more specifically, persons driving, playing, producing, selling N, and it also produces nouns correlating with nouns in -ology, denoting persons involved in a certain field of study: (55) a. rapist, typist b. motorist, scooterist, cyclist, parachutist c. guitarist, violinist, harpist d. cartoonist, novelist, satirist, dramatist e. tobacconist, druggist f. biologist, physicist, ecologist, graphologist, zoologist In a more general sense, nouns in -ist related to nouns in -ism may be considered agent nouns (adherents of particular theory, ideology, religion, etc. denoted by N): (56) atheist, hedonist, imperialist, realist, Darwinist, nationalist, Buddhist -IAN Taking agent nouns in a broader sense, denominal suffixations in -ian denoting persons connected with a trade, profession of habit denoted by the base: (57) logician, magician, musician, mathematician, physician

Make agent nouns that correspond to the following definitions: 1. rival, person who competes 2. person who leads or guides 3. person who owes something to another 4. lawyer for a town, city or state 5. person who possesses or owns 6. person who lives by begging 7. person who breaks into a house to steal 8. a learned person 9. a regular shopper at a store 42

10. a buyer for a company 11. person in charge of finances or a corporation 12. person holding an office before another 13. person who puts out money for later benefit 14. person who intervenes between others for the purpose of effecting reconciliation

Using endings -ist, -er, -or, -ian, and ant give the names of people who do the jobs connected with these words. Changes of spelling are necessary in some cases. drum engine physics violin drama supervise technology trumpet instruct football economics library law telephone attend cello comedy flute

Agents or instruments, or both? Comment. determinant informant detector mower advisor aspirator cooker rider sealant baker runner mixer calculator blender recorder hanger

Slang is rich in -er words. Explain the following: rasper squaler popper smeller clomper swallower creepers ticker kickers bouncer pickers smasher

Patient and result nominalizations Patient and result nominalization are two related categories (resembling agent nouns and instrument nouns) for which a supercategory Object nominalization has been suggested. Basically, the distinction rests on the pair of semantic roles that objects can have, affected and effected participant. They are deverbal suffixations, and the bases are usually transitive. -EE Unlike agentive -ee, this suffix requires transitive bases and the derived word denotes a person that has been V-ed: 43

(58) addressee, appointee, depositee, detainee, draftee, examinee, expellee, grantee, interviewee, nominee, payee, promisee, trainee Some of these having ditransitive bases taking indirect object denote recipients, but there are also prepositinal verbs as bases (flirt with someone - flirtee, experiment on somebody experimentee). -ANT This is a marginal patient noun forming suffix found in only a couple of nouns denoting persons or objects: (59) inhalant, arrestant, insurant The remaining suffixes are found only marginally to form patient/result nouns, or have other primary meanings: -ARY: (60) depositary -ER: (61) cooker 'fruit suitable for cooking', reader -ING: (62) carving, cutting, drawing, painting, earnings, findings, savings, winnings

-AGE: (63) coinage, wreckage, wastage -AL: (64) proposal, -(A)TION: (65) alteration, publication, quotation, transcription -MENT: 44

(66) arrangement, establishment, investment, replacement, shipment, statement,

Collective names There is a number of suffix that convey the idea of collectivity, viz. referring to a group of people or things. Most bases are nominal but there are also some adjectives (youth). -DOM This suffix is relatively productive in this function in colloquial language. Bases are personal or nonpersonal nouns, the latter standing for the people producing N, working in N: (67) artistdom, bachelordom, beggardom, cockneydom, fandom, gangsterdom; newspaperdom, officialdom, filmdom, theatredom -AGE This suffix forms several collective nouns from both personal and nonpersonal nouns: (68) a. baronage, clientage, knightage, readerage, b. branchage, flowerage, fruitage, leafage, pipage -(E)RY The bases to which this suffix is added are personal or nonpersonal nouns: (69) a. citizenry, merchantry, peasantry, vassalry, yeomanry b. machinery, gadgetry, crockery, pottery, spicery, branchery, rocketry -(AC)Y This suffix is used to form only a handful of nouns denoting bodies of people, mainly from army ranks: (70) colonelcy, generalcy, marshalcy The remaining suffixes are found only marginally to form collective nouns, and have other primary meanings: -ING (71) carpeting, panelling, planking, plating 45

-HOOD (72) knighthood, manhood, brotherhood, priesthood -SHIP (73) acquaintanceship, leadership, membership, readership

Female names English relatively seldom overtly marks personal and impersonal animate nouns for gender, but there are, however, some suffixes that perform this job. Their productivity has been further diminished by such sociolinguistic factors as the impact of the feminist movements denouncement of sexism. -ESS The following are nouns actually attested in common usage as more or less neutral counterparts of nouns denoting males: (74) a. actress, adulteress, countess, hostess, empress, goddess, heiress, murderess, princesss, sorceress, stewardess, waitress b. lioness, pantheress, tigress In addition, there are suffixations that are listed in dictionaries but are now obsolete or facetious: (75) authoress, poetess, editress, entertainess, paintress, professoress, spectatress, teacheress As obvious from the above examples, there is some phonological adaptation of the stem, the final schwa is often dropped, as well as -er- in nouns ending in -er + er in front of -ess. -ETTE This suffix has recently been activated (especially in AmE) as a feminizing suffix but except for usherette, they mainly fall outside the standard vocabulary: (76) usherette, announcerette, chaufferette, conductorette, farmerette, proette, sailorette, undergraduette,

46

-TRIX Some Latinate legal terms in -(t)or denoting male persons have feminine counterparts in -trix: (77) executrix, interlocutrix, prosecutrix, spectatorix, testatrix

Diminutives None of the three major suffixes used to derive diminutives appears to enjoy anything near full productivity. These denominal suffixations tend to be stylistically marked as informal and/or pejorative: -LET The new words formed by adding suffix -let have informal colouring: (78) booklet, coverlet, cutlet, droplet, flatlet, leaflet, playlet, rivulet, starlet, streamlet, wavelet When they denote a person, these suffixations have pejorative meaning 'petty': (79) kinglet, princelet, bosslet, dukelet, lordlet Some established forms denote young animals: (80) piglet, goslet, crablet, dovelet, froglet, owlet, birdlet, fishlet There is also a homonymous suffix used to denote ornaments and pieces of jewellery: (81) bracelet, leglet, anklet, armlet, wristlet -LING In addition to being diminutive suffix, -ling often carries pejorative overtones. It may be used with nominal bases in the meaning small/petty or adherent of N, with adjectival bases it expresses the idea that the referent is characterized by the inherently negative property denoted by the adjective. Finally, it can also refer to young animals and plants. (82) a. kingling, lordling, squireling, courtlling, manling b. softling, weakling, tenderling c. seedling, fatling, porkling, kidling, rockling, nestling -ETTE 47

This was the original function of this suffix, nowadays restricted to nonpersonal bases: (83) featurette, kitchenette, leaderette, novelette, statuette, dinette

Residual nominal suffixes -ISM and -IST The former of these two suffixes denote religious/philosophical/political/scientific belief/ behaviour and the latter denotes persons holding these beliefs or exhibiting behaviour. The bases for -ism may be nominal or verbal. The latter suffix, which often also correlates with nouns in -logy, takes nouns as bases. Words in -ist can also be adjectives. (84) a. Catholicism, Darwinism, behaviourism, idealism, symbolism, terrorism, fanaticism b. colonialism, vulgarism, Americanism -ITE This suffix is added to nouns, either personal nouns (denoting persons believing/supporting the principles, etc. of N) or geographical names (denoting inhabitants, citizens): (85) a. Luddite, Thatcherite, Benthamite b. Brookylinite, Durhamite, Manhattanite These suffixations, while primarily nouns, can also be used as adjectives. -ESE This suffix combines with nouns denoting places or countries to refer to inhabitants of these places/countries and to their language or the style. These suffixations can be used both as nouns and as adjectives: (86) Chinese, Viennese, Portuguese, Cantonese, Maltese, Balinese, Johnsonese, motherese Some suffixations have attained pejorative overtones: (87) officialese, journalese, computerese, Americanese -FUL This suffix combines fairly productively with nouns denoting things that can contain or carry things. The suffixed words refer to the amount that the container mentioned can hold: 48

(88) armful, bagful, bottleful, boxful, handful, mouthful, roomful, spoonful, thimbleful -ETTE In addition to functioning as gender marker and diminutive suffix, -ette is also added to nouns denoting materials to express the idea that something is not original but fake, imitation: (89) leatherette, flannelette, satinette -STER This suffix attached to nouns denotes a person involved in N, often pejoratively: (90) trickster, gamester, gangster

Make nouns from the words in the first column and write them next to their definitions: acquire admit amplify concede consume contuse discrete Egypt exempt ignite innovate initrude music oppress optical politics prosecute realize recess remiss retract submit Venice 1. a bruise 2. an addition to the existing group 3. using up, amount used up 4. native or inhabitant of Egypt 5. great carefulness in speech 6. a granting or yielding 7. act of making stronger or larger 8. allowing to enter 9. a letting off, forgivenness 10. change made in established way 11. party instituting legal proceedings 12. person active in politics 13. a clear or unjust treatment 14. native or inhabitant of Venice 15. a clear understanding, perception 16. withdrawal of statement or promise 17. a person skilled in music 18. yiedlding to power of another 19. period of temporary business reduction 20. a setting on fire 21. maker or seller of eyeglasses 22. coming unasked and unwanted 23. freedom from duty or obligation __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

Fill in the spaces below with nouns that are related in form to the words given on the left. 49

perfect stupid

We all admired the _______________ of the artist`s work. We have lost the opportunity of having an excellent lecture because of your _____________. vacant The firm has a _______________ in the research section. complete The inhabitants of the fishing town were overwhelmed by the ______________ of the disaster. fertile The visitors were astonished at the _______________ of the valley. scarce The _______________ of wheat was due to hoarding by profiteers. jealous He was a victim of his brother`s _____________. tidy I was surprised at the _______________ of the student`s room. proud His failure to receive a prize for his picture was a great blow to his _________. analyse The ____________ revealed that the food contained arsenic. absent He sent a letter to the secretary apologizing for his ________________. clean The hotel keeper always insisted on absolute ____________ in his kitchen. careless Most of your mistakes are due to _______________. fluent The examiners were amazed at the boy`s _____________ in three languages. fragrant The garden is full of the ______________ of innumerable flowers. correspond Do you always get immediate replies to your ________________?

Supply in each of these sentences a noun which is related to the word printed on the left. Invade detain pretend propel suspend obey abound suspect conspire proceed depart reduce abolish extend collide solve join They had been the victims of countless _____________ through the centuries. The inspector asked who had been responsible for the _____________ of the goods by the Customs. Its no use keeping up with this _______________ any longer; let us tell him that we haven`t understood a word he has said. Most of big new airliners are driven by jet-______________. The management announced the _______________ of two men who had repeatedly arrived late for work. He insisted on absolute ____________ his followers. We were amazed at the _______________ of flowers in such a cold country. I have a ________________ that he is not telling the truth. Several prominent people were involved in the ____________ to overthrow the government. He is spending a year in England studying legal ____________. The _______________ of their train was delayed by two hours as the result of an accident on the line. Is there any _______________ in the fares for children under fourteen. Many people are in favour of the ______________ of all weapons of war. The ____________ of the sports ground as far as the canal has been decided upon. People rushed out into the street when they heard the ___________ of the two lorries. Although he worked for several hours, he was unable to find the ___________ to the problem. Let us meet at the railway ______________ tomorrow at midday. 50

hinder allow decent __________. brave brief wise my intervene ing embarrass infant suck recognize maintain defy

He knows so little about mechanics that he will be more of a ______________ than a help if we take him with us. He has a weekly _____________ of a pound from his father. His noisy behaviour at the funeral shows that he has no sense of He was decorated for his ______________. Everyone was pleased with the ___________ and wit of his speech. For all his ______________, he was unable to advise me how to deal with problems. The timely _____________ of the police prevented the fight from developinto a riot. Some ________________ was caused when it was found that two of the guests hated each other. The science of nuclear physics is no longer in its ________________. The electric cleaner works by ___________________. He looked at me but gave no sign of __________________. The man was made to pay a weekly sum of money towards the ______________ of his wife and children, whom he had abandoned. He joined the climbing expedition in _____________ of his fathers orders.

Assign the following suffixations to appropriate semantic categories. acquaintanceship, fatherhood, kingdom, trasncription, usherette, involvement, streamlet, executrix, leafage, delivery, piglet, bakery, baptism, alcoholism, filmdom, tigress, dullness, aviatrix, warmth, intimidation, frankness, assignment, symbolism, storage, peasantry, eviction, stoppage nomina actionis: nomina essendi: agent nouns: instrument nouns: nomina loci: patient/result nouns: collective: diminutives: feminine nouns:

2.1.2.3. Adjective suffixes

Possessional The suffixes in this large group form denominal adjectives which express the concept of possession in its various aspects. They can be paraphrased as having N/characterized by N, although sometimes the paraphrase can be more specific, e.g. covered with N, having a large N, etc. 51

-Y This suffix is probably the most productive one in this conceptual category. It attaches to concrete nouns (chiefly monosyllabic) in this meaning (having/showing much/many N, covered with N). Some suffixations are ambiguous between possessional and similitudinal interpretation. (1) angry, bloody, bony, bumpy, dirty, edgy, fatty, faulty, furry, greasy, guilty, horny, hungry, icy, juicy, knotty, leady, muddy, roomy, rusty, spotty, wealthy, zesty -ED This is another very productive suffix in this category: (2) bearded, experienced, gifted, helmeted, hinged, iced, kerchiefed, keyed, leisured, lidded, moneyed, pebbled, roofed, skilled, stemmed, striped, talented, uncarpeted, wooded It also attaches to predominantly concrete nouns and there is some overlapping with -y. There are doublets, but frequently there is difference in meaning between the two derivations (cf. haired vs hairy). Suffix -ed is preferred with nouns denoting inalienably possessed body parts. In some cases the suffix is syllabic /Id/, e.g. in ragged man. The forms in (2) should be distinguished from similarly looking synthetic compounds, i.e. derivations from word groups: (3) three-legged, hump-backed, long-haired, simple-minded, club-footed, flat-footed, blue-eyed -FUL Although, the meaning of derivations with this suffix is usually paraphrased by 'full of', its meaning is rather something like 'having/showing much N, characterized by N'. This suffix attaches to abstract nouns to form gradable adjectives: (4) beautiful, colourful, doubtful, faithful, forceful, graceful, hopeful, powerful, prideful, respectful, skilful, sorrowful, tactful, zestful -OUS Most English adjectives terminating in -ous or its variant -ious, are morphologically unanalyzable in synchronic terms. Where -ous can be treated as a suffix, it often has possessional meaning:

52

(5) courageous, famous, glamorous, joyous, mountainous, poisonous, porous, sulfurous, -ABLE Possessional meaning obtains with some -able adjectives derived from abstract nouns: (6) companionable, knowledgeable, peacable, reasonable, sizeable Finally, some adjectives in -al and -(at)ic may also convey possessional meaning: (7) a. emotional, sentimental, angular b. aromatic, charismatic,

Complete the following sentences with the appropriate adjective derived by ending -ed to the the words italicized in the first sentence of each pair. Which of these derived adjectives are possessional? 1 Give me all the details. Please give me a _______________ description of your trip. 2 The church windows were a variety of colours. The ______________ glass windows were very attractive. 3 Her skirt had stripes printed on it. She wore a ______________ skirt. 4 This blouse has short sleeves. I`d prefer a long-_______________ one please. 5 I need paper with lines on it. Could you get me some _____________ paper, please? 6 Im going to put up a fence. I like the privacy of a _____________ garden. 7 I prefer buying vegetables that are protected by a package. Do you have any _____________ tomatoes? 8 She uses herbs and spices in her cooking. Her _______________ apples are delicious. 9 She was in a tremendous hurry to catch the train. We had a _____________ conversation before she left the house. 10 Some people coat things in bread crumbs before frying them. ____________ veal cutlet is popular.

Complete the following sentences with the adjective formed by adding -ous to the italicized nouns. 1 The author achieved fame for his stories. He is ______________ for his stories. 2 Ive been reading a mystery story. Many ______________ events take place in this story. 53

3 The country had many mountains. It was very _____________. 4 Dont place your life in danger. Driving a car when you are tired can be __________________. 5 He was given a medal for his courage in the face of danger. He was a ______________ soldier. 6 He had a reputation for courtesy. His behaviour was always _______________, even when he was annoyed. 7 The flood was a disaster. The loss of crops was _______________. 8 The song had a pleasant melody. It was __________________. 9 The children are full of mischief, always seeking to attract attention. Tommy was particularly _______________. 10 The comedy was filled with humour. The audience laughed at the ________________ situations.

Privative This category is a negative counterpart of the above, the denominal adjectives formed by this -less (and -free) can be paraphrased as 'not having N'. -LESS This very productive suffix combines with abstract and concrete nouns (chiefly monosyllabic and simplex): (8) careless, childless, emotionless, endless, fearless, featureless, friendless, hairless, homeless, jobless, painless, restless, tactless, useless -FREE The element -free found in such complex words as salt-free or sugar-free appears to be different from -free in prototypical copmpounds and can be considered a 'semi-suffix'. This element is used in above examples to denote that something detrimental or undesirable that is denoted by the base is absent from the referent modified by the suffixed adjective: (9) accident-free, additive-free, crime-free, drug-free, error-free, fat-free, ice-free, interest-free, meat-free, pain-free, pollution-free, tax-free, trouble-free

Look at the statements below. Are they true or false? Comment. 1 A person who is careless is unable to love or care for others. 2 If you are expressionless, it is difficult for people to see how you are feeling. 54

3 It is possible to become breathless when you are feverish. 4 A tuneless piece of music has not been tuned to a particular radio station. 5 If someone is spineless, they do not have a spine.

Choose the words from the list that combine with -free and best complete the sentences below. fat, care, ice, rent, duty, tuition, salt, dust, emission It was possible now to build a totaly _____________-free auto engine. They tried to make smoke 99 percent ___________-free. Kansas La Lygne Lake is kept ________-free by the warmth of Kansas City Power and Light Generating Station. Begin with a __________-free and _________-free diet. He lived in the apartment ___________-free. They succeeded in providing _____________-free teaching. He sometimes missed those ____________free evenings. After a while she felt like opening the __________-free whisky.

Relational These suffixed adjectives have traditionally been referred to as transpositional adjectives. The semantic contribution of these suffixes is very vague, rather they signal that the words in question are adjectives that may be paraphrased as 'pertaining to/connected with N'. -AL An interesting constraint on the productivity of this suffix may be observed: -al cannot be suffixed to nouns ending in -ment, derived from verbs (exceptions being governmental and developmental. (10) a. employment - *employmental, *disernment - discernmental, b. ornament - ornamental, regiment - regimental, fragment - fragmental (11) accompanimental, environmental, The suffix may be added to simple bases: (12) clausal, digital, fluidal, modal, orbital, oriental, zonal With bases ending in -ce /s/, the suffix appears in its extended form -ial: (12) deferential, differential, inferential, financial, residential, confidential After bases containing /l/, particularly in the final position, the suffix appears as -ar: 55

(13) molecular, scalar, tonsilar, linear The suffix is often found after bases ending in -ic(s), but there are many doublets in -ical: (14) arithmetic(al), logical, magic(al), rhetoric(al), tactical -IC/-ICAL/-ATIC/-ISTIC The choice of this suffix, as opposed to -al, is determined by historical factors. As for its bases, we find both simplex and complex words. Among the latter group, there are certain characteristic foreign terminations (-chrony, -demy, gamy, -geny, -gogy, -graphy, -logy, -metry, -morphy, -pathy, -scopy, -sophy -tomy, -trophy; -ia; -sis; -itis, -ite; -ist, -m(a)): (15) a. acidic, cyclic, organic, phonemic, psalmic, rhombic, melodic(al), periodic(al), symbolic(al), indexical, quizzical b. diachronic, epidemic, monogamic, phylogenic, pedagogogic(al), geographical, hematologic(al), geometric(al), allomorphic, homoepathic, microscopic, theosophic, anatomic, hypetrophic c. agraphic, phantasmagoric, encyclopedic, nostalgic, onomatopoeic d. emphatic, mimetic, sclerotic, ontogenetic e. bronchitic, tonsilitic f. dolomitic, anthracitic, limonitic g. idealistic, imperialistic, moralistic, realistic h. aromatic, asthmatic, dramatic, schematic, idomatic

-ARY/-ORY Both these suffixes are weakly productive and exhibit irregularity and unpredictability with respect to their semantics. The first of these tends to attach to lexicalized nouns in ion and -ment: (16) a. expansionary, reactionary, revoultionary, b. elementary, fragmentary, ligamentary, rudimentary Adjectives with the other suffix, -ory, can be paraphrased as 'destined to, serving for, tending to N(V+ation)': (17) classificatory, modificatory, satisfactory, implicatory, articulatory, compensatory, segregatory, confirmatory, declaratory, exploratory,

Potentiality (Subjective and objective potentiality) This very prominent semantically based derivational category subsumes mainly deverbal but also some denominal adjectives that express the idea of possibility or potentiality, which can be active or passive, viz. subjective or objective potentiality. With the former, 56

the noun of which the derived adjective is predicated or which it modifies functions as the subject of the verb(s) in the paraphrase, 'given to V-ing/tending to V/apt to V/likely to V'. (18) a. changeable weather b. weather apt to change (19) a. perishable goods b. goods that tend to perish easily The subjective potentiality may be merged with causativity, 'capable of giving/bringing N': (20) a. pleasurable b. capable of giving pleasure With the passive or objective potentiality the noun modified, functions as the subject of the passive paraphrase, 'of the kind that can be V-ed/able to be V-ed/fit to be V-ed': (21) a. washable material b. material that can be washed -ABLE/-IBLE/-UBLE This fairly productive suffix attaches to verbs and nouns/denominal verbs derived by conversion to convey the concept of objective potentiality. The verbs that serve as bases must be transitive. In many adopted words the suffix was already present, which accounts for the variants -ible and -uble. (22) a. adjusatble, attainable, bribeable, leadable, singable, stoppable, adaptable, removable, shakeable, disposable, polishable, reachable, claimable, ruinable, sellable, buyable, doable, corruptible, reducible, communicable, separable, soluble b. marriagable, fissionable, objectionable, saleable This suffix can occasionally attain a sligthly more specific meaning, e.g. 'worthy of being V-ed': (23) acceptable, readable, likeable The same suffix can also convey the idea of active or subjective potentiality, also with an element of causativity: (24) a. changeable, suitable, perishable, variable b. comfortable, creditable, pleasurable, profitable All the other suffixes attach to nominal or verbal bases and convey the idea of active potentiality, with or without causativity:

57

-IVE 'tending to V' (25) suggestive, explosive, expansive, talkative, instructive -SOME 'given to V-ing/tending to V-ing', 'causing N' (26) a. meddlesome, tiresome, wearisome b. troublesome, fearsome, awesome -Y 'given to V-ing/tending to V-ing' (27) crumbly, runny, shaky, sticky, weepy -FUL 'given to V-ing/tending to V-ing', 'causing N' (28) a. forgetful, mournful, resentful b. delightful, fearful -LESS 'not giving/causing N' (29) harmless, hopeless, noiseless, painless

Complete the sentences with adjectives in -able, -ible or -uble, derived from or related to the words given in brackets. In some cases the negative form of the adjective is required. 1 Most people would agree that the greatest of poets are _______________. (translate) 2 Only a limited number of types of fungi are ______________. (eat) 3 You wont persuade him to change his mind. His decision is _______________. (revoke) 4 His moods are very ________________. (change) 5 Ive never met such a man. His energy seems ________________. (exhaust) 6 Mozarts style has been found to be _________________. (imitate) 7 He is in the _______________ position of being completely independent. (envy) 8 Though once friends, they are now the most _______________ of enemies. (placate) 9 Floods having carried away the bridge, the river was ___________. (pass) 10 Many fabrics are specially treated so as to be ______________. (shrink) 11 Men may die, but their words are ________________. (destroy) 12 Unfortunately, the problem of recurring inflation appears to be ____________. (solve) 13 Extra police were called in when it appeared that the crowd might become ________________. (control) 14 It was a _________________ day when peace was declared. (remember) 15 Britain has many miles of ___________________ waterways. (navigate) 16 Cheques are generally ____________________. (negotiate) 58

17 He returned to his university after twenty years absence to find that _____________ changes had taken place. (number) 18 The residents complained of the _________________ smell produced by the tanning factory. (objection) 19 Many currencies are now freely ________________. (convert) 20 In the poorer parts of undeveloped countries many people live in a _____________ state. (pity) 21 We spent a very ________________ evening talking about old times. (enjoy) 22 The goods were so badly damaged in transit that they were found to be ___________. (sell) 23 The problem of slum clearance is _______________ from the problem of building new houses. (separate) 24 Since his bad habits were never broken when he was a child, they are now _______________. (correct) 25 The English now regard free education as an ___________________ right. (alienate) 26 Childrens minds are very ________________. (impress) 27 How a nail came to be in the meat pie is quite ______________. (explain) 28 Day changes tonight by almost _____________ stages. (perceive) 29 My first sight of mountains made an ______________ impression on my memeory. (de lete) 30 Employers claimed that yet another strike would do _____________ harm to the public image of Trade Unions. (repair)

Complete the following sentences with the adjective formed by adding -ful to the italicized nouns and verbs. Determine the semantic category of derived adjectives. 1 I had little success when I started studying a new language. I was not _______________. 2 The child told the truth when he said he hadn`t broken the window. He was _____________. 3 I use my pen every day. It is a very _______________ object. 4 A Presidents power is very strong. He is the most _____________ executive in the nation. 5 You are always forgetting your assignment. Youre a very _______________ person. 6 I hope to get a raise this month. I am very _____________. 7 The whole nation mourned the death of its leader. It was a ____________ day. 8 He always cheers me up. Hes such a ____________ person.

Replace each group of italicized words by one of the adjectives given at the head of the exercises, making any necessary changes in word order. abortive defective excessive lucrative 59 submissive

abusive acquisitive evasive

defensive formative pervasive successive discursive indicative plaintive deceptive intensive repulsive

1 Present-day English society is often labelled wanting to gain things for itself. 2 Would you prefer to be thought obedient or merely humble and meekly unassertive? 3 The measures the Government has already taken are some sign of the seriousness with which it views the present crisis. 4 The child had come under bad influence during the years of his life that were decisive in shaping his character. 5 The police charged the man with using language that was meant to be insulting. 6 Picasso has exerted an influence that has had a widespread effect on the art of this cen tury. 7 We had almost given up hope of finding our cat, when we heard a mournful and sorrow ful miaou from the branch of a nearby tree. 8 The Companys profits have increased by 5 per cent in each of the last three years. 9 The machine that didnt work properly had to be returned to the makers. 10 Efforts to put the scheme into practice proved such that they ended in failure. 11 When we asked the boy who knocked on the door what the money he was collecting was for, he gave an answer that was intended to avoid being a direct reply. 12 He does a trade that brings in a lot of money by selling vegetables grown in his back garden. 13 Most students found the lecture useless because it was too prone to wander from one point to another without plan. 14 Appearances can often be liable to mislead.

Similitudinal The suffix involved in deriving adjectives in this semantic category express the idea of similarity or resemblance (`like X`). This meaning is often difficult to keep apart from other concepts such as possession or attenuation, etc. The bases are nominal, mostly comon nouns denoting concrete objects, substances, animals or people. If the bases denote persons the paraphrase is slightly more specific, `befitting N/in the manner of N/in the style of N`. -LIKE This word formation element may be considered semi-suffix, occupying an intermediate position between suffixes and constituents of compounds. It combines fairly productively with common nonabstract nouns: (30) a. beastlike, bell-like, catlike, cowlike, daggerlike, doll-like eel-like, grasslike, hook-like, jail-like, jewel-like, knoblike, pearl-like, rodlike, snakelike, spiderlike, sugarlike, tigerlike b. babylike, childlike, daughterlike, frindlike, fatherlike, husbandlike, knightlike, ladylike, manlike, motherlike, peasantlike, priestlike, saintlike, sonlike, wifelike, womanlike 60

-LY The bases to which this similitudinal suffix is attached are typically personal nouns ending in conronal consonants. The expressive value of these suffixations can be positive or negative (pejorative effect): (31) a. daughterly, fatherly, ladlyly, knightly, motherly, priestly, princely, queenly, sisterly, widowly, wifely b. beggarly, cowardly, miserly, niggardly, rascally, ruffianly, scoundrelly, slovenly, sluggardly, swindlerly There are frequently counterparts in -like which lack this expressive touch. When it combines with nonpersonal concrete nouns, the suffix has the meaning `of the nature of N/connected with N, like N`, but there is no expressive meaning attached: (32) bodily, earthly, heavenly, worldly -Y Unlike -ly, which is chiefly attached to personal nouns as bases, this suffix is like -like in that it combines with simplex nouns denoting objects or substances and animals. Its similitudinal meaning is difficult to keep apart from the possessional one. (33) a. baggy, beady, beery, brassy, chalky, corky, cottony, fluffy, foamy, fruity, leathery, marbly, milky, skinny, spongy, swampy, syrupy b. catty, doggy, fishy, foxy, piggy, snaky -ISH When combined with nouns, this suffix is primarily similitudinal, but it can also be attentuative. The bases are in semantic terms very frequently animal names or nouns denoting persons. In the latter case the derived forms normally exhibit pejorative meaning: (34) a. apish, bearish, boarish, cowish, goatish, hawkish, hoggish, monkeyish, mulish, sheepish, tigerish, toadish, wolfish b. amateurish, caddish, clown, dandyish, foolish, foppish, freakish, knave, snobbish, thievish There are two other suffixes that also appear to marginally form similitudinal adjectives, both polyfunctional. -EN like N/resembling N (esp. in colour) (35) ashen, flaxen, golden, leaden, wooden 61

-ESQUE like N/resembling N or in the manner/style of Pers.N (36) a. gardenesque, sculpturesque, statuesque b. Daliesque, Dantesque, Haydnesque, Kafkaesque, Rembrandtesque,

Attenuative Attenuatives are also known in literature as adjective diminutives. The semantic contribution of these suffix added to adjectival bases may be paraphrased as somewhat A/nearing A, but not exactly A. The derivation of attenuatives is in English constrained in that only simplex (quite short, monosyllabic) adjectives serve as bases. These bases fall into two semantic groups: colour adjectives and primary qualitative adjectives. -ISH This suffix combines with colour adjectives and qualitative adjectives mostly denoting physical properties of people or things that can be arranged into pairs of gradable antonyms, but there are adjectival bases that do not partake of any sort of transparent antonymy relationship, as well as some nominal bases (including numbers): (37) a. blackish, bluish, brownish, darkish, greenish, greyish, pinkish, reddish, whitish, yellowish b. biggish - smallish, longish - shortish, widish - narrowish, goodish - badish, thickish - thinnish, oldish - youngish/newish, fattish - leanish/slimmish, strongish - weakish, warmish - coolish, wettish - dryish c. baldish, dimmish, flattish, sourish, steepish, sickish d. glueish, waterish, nine-ish, tenish, fortyish In some cases only one member of the antonymic pair, the negatively-marked one, is found to allow the attachment of this suffix: (38) lowish - *highish, shallowish - *deepish, lightish - *heavyish, poorish - *richish, slowish - *fastish/*quickish -Y Adjective diminutives can be marginally formed by adding the suffix -y: (39) blacky, bleaky, bluey, crispy, paly, pinky, reddy, yellowy

Look at the list below and divide the adjectives into various categories according to the meaning of -ish in each case, and label these categories. 62

Spanish latish

snobbish blackish

tallish boyish six-thirtyish roundish

foolish fattish

devilish Finnish Flemish greenish

youngish sixtyish

Complete the sentences using a word form the list above. He just retired from work so he must be ________________. How would I describe her? Well, shes got a __________ face, and shes _____________ cant be more than 20 years old. You wouldnt think he was an adult - his behaviour is so ______________. She lives in Belgium so perhaps she speaks _______________. Ill see you in front of the theatre - shall we say ___________. Hes so ___________ that he wont even talk to anyone he thinks is inferior.

Residual adjective forming suffixes -ISH and -ESE (origin/ethnicity) coming from GeoN/belonging to GeoN (40) British, Cornish, Finnish, Irish, Jewish, Kentish, Spanish, Swedish, Polish, Turkish, (41) Viennese, Vietnamese, Chinese, Senegalese, Balinese -EN (material) made of N (42) earthen, golden, leaden, silken, wheaten, waxen, wooden, woollen

Look at the verbs, adjectives or nouns printed in bold and insert the appropriate adjective derived by one of the suffixes in the list into the following sentences. -able -ary 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 -ible -ic -ed -ish -ful -like -ive -ly -al -ous -y

Mr Quckwater has a great many ________________ qualities. admirable He made himself __________________ by handing round the coffee cups. use Deaths caused by reckless driving are ___________________. avoid He felt very _______________ towards her and loved her dearly. protect The coat was ______________ in shades of blue and green. pattern She slept on a _______________ bed with rough, prickly sheets. collapse ________________ paper tissues are more hygienic that handkerchiefs. dispose The photoes made him look quite _____________. attract The time seemed to stretch out in a ______________ manner. dream There is the danger of an ________________ explosion that could be caused by gas leak. accident 12 She thought how _______________ he`d been and was not angry any more. fool 13 The newspapers printed a shocking and ________________ story. shame 63

14 15 16 17 18

The sky was ______________ and light rain was falling. cloud The hotel was large and __________________. comfort Judy was very _________________ about my work. compliment Most tinned fruits contain ______________ amounts of sugar. excess She is such a ________________ sweet-tempered child that everyone just naturally loves her. friend 19 There were two letters from Michael, warm, ____________, and full of information. humour

Supply in each of the these sentences an adjective related in form to the word on the left. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NERVE DANGER CAUTION SPACE ENVY MISCHIEF CONTEMPT VIRTUE INSTANT He felt very _______________ when his turn came to be interviewed by the commitee. It is _______________ to lean out of the window of a moving train. The boy was _____________ by nature and did not take any unnecessary risks while he was climbing the rock. The house was ____________ enough, but it was in such a bad state that they decided not to buy it. They were _________ of the young man`s newly won prosperity. The little boy way extremely ________________; he was always doing something he shouldn`t, but he neverd did any real harm. The prisoner gave the judge a ______________ look before being led away to his cell. Although he knew her to be _______________, he did his best to destroy her reputation. They were travelling at such a speed when their car hit the tree that their death must have been ________________. They were _______________ to discover the truth about the matter, as they could not bear to remain in doubt about their friends loyalty. It is true that his worl has been ______________ throughout his three years at the College, but the fact remains that I do not like him. He was successful because he always paid ____________ attention to details. I was _______________ when I found that the goods were nothing like the sample I had been shown. The general was given a ______________ reception when he returned to his country at the end of the war. His mills were so successful that within five years he had acquired a _____________ wealth. Even while the politicians were talking of peace, ___________ movements of troops were taking place. All the characters in his novels are entirely _______________.

10 ANXIETY 11 MERIT 12 SCRUPLE 13 FURY 14 TUMULT 15 FABLE 16 OMEN 17 FICTION

64

18 CALAMITY 19 TEMPEST 20 EXAMPLE 21 CHAOS 22 SPECTACLE 23 DOUBT 24 DOUBT 25 NEED 26 27 28 29 TRIUMPH FANCY FANCY ANGEL

30 EXTENT 31 SUICIDE 32 LUXURY 33 APPETITE 34 TYRANT 35 LABOUR 36 CUSTOM 37 NONSENSE 38 HABIT 39 COMMERCE 40 CLIMATE 41 DUTY 42 OWL 43 INFANT 44 ASH 45 TREACHERY

Year after year the people living on the plain were the victims of _________________ floods. Their married life was short and _______________. His conduct has been _______________ throughout his service in the army. The constant attacks from the air left the enemy`s lines of communication in a ______________ state. The celebrations ended with a _____________ firework display. It is _____________ whether we can come to see you next week. It is a rather ______________ advantage to have Simkins on our side in the debate. There must be some _____________ old man who would be glad of this coat. He made a ______________ entry into the captured city. Hans Andersens writings are full of __________ ideas. Thats rather a ____________ tie youre wearing. Dont be misled by the ______________ expression on the boys face; he has probably laid some horrible trap for you. From my window I had an ______________ view of the country. It would be _______________ to try to swim across the river while it is in flood. We were shown into a _______________ hall where we were asked to wait. An ____________ smell greeted them as they walked into the house. A _____________ ruler is always in danger of assassination. He found the marking of a thousand papers a very ____________ task. He prepared his lecture for the Conference with his ___________ thoroughness. To offer a man of his talent such a low salary is quite _____________. For many years he has been a _______________ drunkard. He has _______________ interests in several European countries. The _______________ conditions made it impossible for him to work any longer so near the equator. He has always been a very _____________ son and his father is very fond of him. His large eyes and hooked nose gave him a peculiarly _______________ appearance. The poor man was crippled by _______________ paralysis when he was in his early twenties. Only when we saw his ________________ complexion did we realize how ill he must have been. The _______________ behaviour of the young officer led to the death of many of his friends.

65

2.1.2.4. Verb suffixes Suffixes that form verbs can be described as belonging to three semantic categories. Causative verbs, formed by suffixes -ize, -fy, -en and -ate, can be paraphrased as cause to be/become as X. Inchoative verbs, paraphrased as `to become X`, are formed by -en and ize, while ornative verbs, paraphrased as to provide with, are formed by -ize and -ate. Most of these suffixes used to derive complex verbs in English are polyfunctional. One and the same suffix, e.g. -ize may be used to form causative, inchoative or ornative verbs.

Causative verbs The term causative verb is used here to denote deadjectival verbs whose meaning may be roughly paraphrased as make something/someone A(comp). These causative verbs are in syntactic terms transitive. -IZE This suffix is a fairly productive means of deriving causative verbs from di- and polysllabic Latinate adjectives which often end in -al, -an, -ar, -ic and -ile, but other bases are possible as well. The suffix is non-neutral because it may effect the velar Softening, turning the base-final /k/ into /s/, and it may aloso require modification of the base (systematic - systematize, fraternal - fraternize). (1) a. centralize, formalize, generalize, industrialize, legalize, nationalize, neutralize, personalize, pluralize b. Americanize, Balkanize, Christianize, humanize, urbanize c. familiarize, polarize, popularize, regularize, secularize, velarize, vulgarize d. fanaticize, plasticize, publicize, rhythmicize e. fertilize, mobilize, senilize, sterilize, f. modernize, glamorize, concretize, immunize, tranquilize Derivation from native adjectival bases is exceptional: (2) slenderize, tenderize Bases may occasionally be nominal (`make N of/convert into N`): (3) categorize, dieselize, crytallize, fluidize, itemize, victimize, vapourize Causation may merge with locative meaning: (4) hospitalize (`put into N`)

66

-(I)FY Verbs derived by means of this suffix, whether causative or not, always have stress on the antepenultimate (third-last) syllable. The bases are Latinate adjectives or, less frequently, native adjectives or nouns: (5) a. amplify, clarify, classifiy, diversify, falsify, glorify, grossify, humidify, intensify, purify, qualify, simplify, solidify b. cockneyfy, dandify, gasify, happify, jollify, muddifiy, prettify, tipsify, townify, uglify, -EN This verb-forming suffix is attached to native adjectival bases. The base must be monosyllabic and end in and obstruent preceded by an optional sonorant: (6) blacken, brighten, broaden, coarsen, dampen, darken, deaden, deepen, freshen, harden, loosen, quieten, sharpen, shorten, smoothen, tighten, toughen, weaken, worsen Exceptionally, the base may be nominal: (7) lengthen, strengthen As a derivational curiosity in English, there is a prefixal-suffixal formation of causative verbs from adjectival and nominal bases by means of en- + -en: (8) embrighten, embolden, enfasten, engladden, engolden, enliven, enwisen This process could also be treated as addition of a circumfix. -ATE There are just a handful of causative verbs fromed by this suffix from adjectives: (9) activate, domesticate, Italianate, validate

Inchoative verbs The existence of this derivational category is undermined by the fact that there is no monofunctional inchoative suffix. Alternatively, these inchoative verbs may be considered as dederived by conversion from causative verbs. -EN Most of the verbs in (6-7) may also be used intransitively, i.e. as inchoative verbs (become A), but there are some verbs that appear to be primarily inchoative: 67

(10) quicken, ripen -IZE A number of the verbs listed in (1) above can also be used as inchoative verbs in the sense of become A: (11) a. The situation normalized quickly. b. As the car renatl industry polarizes, business will go to the bigger companies.

Ornative verbs Ornative verbal suffixes combine with nominal bases (chiefly denoting chemical substances), but are not extremely productive. -IZE (12) alcoholize, aromatize, sulphurize, vitaminaze, -ATE (13) camphorate, chlorinate, hyphenate, vaccinate

Add suffixes -ify, -ize or -en to the following nouns and adjectives to form corresponding verbs. hard modern deep intense false fat sterile __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ horror __________________ memory __________________ beauty __________________ sympathy __________________ apology __________________ glory __________________ length __________________

Complete the following sentences by supplying the correct form of the verbs above. 1 He _________________ for interrupting her. 2 She tried to ________________ her room with posters and plants. 3 A study has been ordered into the feasibility of ________________ the airport` main runway by two hundred metres.

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4 However much they _______________, they all felt it was her fault. 5 Soya is excellent food for _______________ cattle. 6 She laughed and that seemd to _______________ her voice. 7 40,000 had been spent on ________________ the station. 8 _______________ the bottles by immersing them in boiling water for fifteen minutes. Reconstruct each of the following sentences, using a verb formed from the words italicized and making any other changes that may be necessary. All the verbs required are formed by the use of affixes below: beenem-en -ify -ize -ate

1 We made a friend of the lonely old man. 2 His carelessness with gas put all our lives in danger. 3 The blacksmith is making the piece of metal straight. 4 The present of several pounds worth of books meant that he was able to study at home. 5 The Town Council decided to increase the width of the main street by ten yards. 6 Can you tell me how to make this soup thick? 7 No, but I can tell you how to make it thinner. 8 There is no need to make little of your rivals achievments. 9 You could make the foundations stronger by using more cement. 10 The arrival of half a dozen young man put some life into the party. 11 The king made slaves of his captives. 12 He gave his men orders to cut off the heads of all the prisoners. 13 The noise of the explosion was enough to make anyone deaf. 14 It made him sad to think of all the children wh had lost their parents for one reason of another. 15 He made himself rich at the expense of hundreds of poor people. 16 How long will it take the cement to go hard? 17 His employers repeated refusal to promote him had made him bitter. 18 His condition has become worse since you last saw him. 19 The enemys resistence became stiffer as we advanced towards their capital. 20 The sight of so much blood made him feel sick. 21 Before they set out to burgle the house they made their faces black with soot. 22 The blackmailer became bold enough to double his demands when he saw how terrified his victim was. 23 They made the roadsweepers task lighter by giving him a battery-driven cart. 24 I wish you could make this problem simpler for me. 25 This radio is made with transistors. 26 The rivalry of the two towns became more intense as the years went by. 27 They tried to make the gas pure by putting it through a number of processes. 28 The cement became solid soon after it had been mixed. 29 The news of the mine disaster filled the whole population with horror. 30 Some of the rooms in the palace have been made more beautiful for the distinguished guests.

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2.1.2.5. Adverb suffixes Suffixes used to derive morphologicaly complex adverbs are not numerous but some of these seem to be polyfunctional in semantic terms: they all help express more than one concept. Adverbs can also be formed by means of items such as -fashion or -style, chiefly added to nouns (dog-fashion, Indian-style). Such complex words are on the boundary line between suffixations and compounds. -LY This suffix is sometimes considered to be inflectional because it can be added to many adjectives where the context requires and adverb meaning in Adj manner/fashion, to Adj degree, or in Adj respect: (1) a. He did it calmly. b. She looks extremelly well. c. Personally, I wouldn`t recommend it. (2) actually, badly, cheaply, clearly, directly, easily, eventually, exactly, finally, gradually, happily, hastily, naturally, normally, properly, quickly, rapidly, recently, suddenly, usually However, the suffix is not totally productive and there are certain restrictions. Tthe suffix is not added to adjectives ending in -ly or /l/, although there are occasionally some counterexamples: (3) a. *friendlily, *cowardlily b. silily (4) a. *hostilely b. wholly, solely In addition, there are some adjectives with no special adverb form (hard, fast, etc.). In colloquial language, the suffix may be added to phrasal bases: (5) She spoke matter-of-factly about the issue. -WARDS This suffix is added to nouns or adverbs to form directional adverbs: (6) a. earthwards, floorward(s), homeward, seaward, shoreward, skyward, b. backward(s), downward, inward(s), outward(s), upward(s)

70

The forms without -s are more frequent in printed AmE, those with it are usual in BrE and spoken AmE. Forms without -s can be used as premodifying adjectives: (7) a. It suddenly moved inwards. b. That was a sign of inward concentration. -WISE This suffix forms denominal adverbs meaning: i. in the manner of N, ii.in relation to dimension, and iii. as far as N is concerned: (8) a. clockwise, crab-wise, hammer-wise, sailor-wise, sleepwalker-wise b. lengthwise c. caloriewise, comfort-wise, drinkwise, menu-wise, newswise, status-wise, timewise,

2.2. Compounding
2.2.1. Introductory notes
2.2.1.1. Defining and identifying compounds A compound may be defined as a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word: (1) a. dogfish b. dog-collar

In principle, any number of bases may be involved, but in English, except for a relatively minor class of items (normally abbreviated), compounds usually comprise two bases only, however internally complex each may be. Compounding is readily recursive, one compound itself becoming a constituent in a larger one; cf the following example: (2) [[motor + cycle] + factory].

Much scholarly effort has focused on establishing the truly defining features of compounds. The following three properties have received attention as possibly criterial for compound status: (3) a. meaning b. stress c. spelling 71

Meaning and lexicalization conditions of compounds Unlike affixation, in which a base is normally altered in terms of certain set of very broad semantic or grammatical categories by the use of an effectively closed set of items, compounding operates on bases drawn from the whole lexicon in a wide range of semantic relations. Although both bases in a compound are in principle equally open, they are frequently in a relation whereby the first is determining the second, so that compounding can be considered as a special case of prefixation with open-class items. However, this does not mean that a compound can be formed by placing any lexical item in front of another. Consider the following: (4) a. Look at that dog in the street. b. She put the glass on the table. c. I heard an owl from my study last night. Except on a nonce basis, we cannot in response speak of another street dog or another table glass or Do you work much in your owl study? The general condition for lexicalization of the relations between bases in compounding must be such that it is reasonable and useful to classify the second element in terms of the first. Thus a compound XY will be such a Y as may have X essentially predicated of it, whereas the same XY sequence as a noun phrase is more likely to be a certain Y that happens to have X predicated of it. In terms of theme and focus, we expect to find that the second constituent in a compound is thematic, with focus on the first constituent (as salient and categorizing), whereas the converse is true of premodifier and head in a noun phrase. This distinction is endorsed by the widespread use of initial stress in compounds: (5) a 'blackbird vs. a , grey 'bird The relations frequently involved in compounding are resemblance, function, or some other salient or defining characteristic. For example, darkroom is a lexicalization of something we might paraphrase as `a room for [ = purpose] photographic processing'. The item dark is used in the lexicalization not because such rooms happen to be dark, still less because one such room happens to be dark, but because the facility to make such rooms dark is a salient characteristic. We cannot expect the meaning of darkroom to be implicit in the meanings of the separate items (there are many `dark rooms' which are not `darkrooms' nor need darkrooms always be in darkness).

Stress and prominence in compounds Since the semantic structure of compounds tends to entail a focal first constituent it is no wonder that there is a contrast between the prosodic pattern of a noun phrase and that of a compound, the latter having primary stress on the first constituent: (6) a. a ,dark 'room b. a ,hot 'house c. a ,black 'bird a 'dark,room a 'hot,house a 'black,bird 72

d. a ,baby'girl e. ,motor'transport

a'baby-,sitter 'motor ,cars

Almost all compounds have this accentual pattern, regardless of whether they are nouns, adjectives, or verbs. Exceptions lend themselves to explication in terms of thematization. Cf.: (7) ,ash-'blonde ,bottle-'green

Here the focus is on blonde and green since the premodifiers merely denote degrees or shades. The same pragmatic explanation applies to `combining-form' compounds, and coordinate compounds like: (8) ,socio-eco'nomic (9) ,Swedish-A'merican The referent of the head is an admixture with that of the `premodifier'.

Spelling of compounds Spelling, like prosody, also tends to reflect the semantic structure. The semantic unity of a compound is reflected in its orthographic unity: (10) a black bird but a blackbird

Spelling conventions are however less dependable than prosody. Practice varies in many words and some compounds may even occur in three different forms, solid, hyphenated, and open ; eg : (11) a flower pot a flower-pot a flowerpot

Generally, there is a progression from open to solid as a given compound becomes established, and hence widely recognized and accepted as a permanent lexical item. In AmE, hyphenation is less common than in BrE, and instead we find the items open or solid (more usually the latter) where BrE may use a hyphen : (12) a. language retarded (esp AmE) b. psychosomatic (esp AmE) language-retarded (esp BrE) psycho-somatic (esp BrE)

The open option does not normally occur with combining-forms (psychosomatic, psychosomatic), and where these are in compounds of proper names the initial capital of the second constituent inhibits solid spelling; hence even in AmE we find a hyphen in examples like Sino-Russian, Anglo-American (though even these may appear solid, with lower case for the second element: Angloamerican, and always in Amerindian). In both AmE and BrE, hyphens are usual for ad hoc premodifying compounds: (13) a. a much-needed rest 73

b. his higher-than-average wages c. their come-and-fight-me attitude d. nineteenth-century novels With coordinate compounds, there is sometimes an oblique stroke instead of a hyphen in rather technical (as well as in rather informal) writing: (14) a. an aural/oral approach b. the in/out motion

2.2.1.2. Types of compounds Compounding can take place within any of the word classes, but we shall in be dealing here only with the productivity of compounds resulting in new nouns and, to a lesser extent, adjectives. These may involve the combination of the unchanged base (as in taxfree); or the first element may be in its special combining form (as in the noun trouserleg or the adjective socioeconomic); or the second element may have a suflix required by the compound type (as in the noun theatre-goer or the adjective blue-eyed). Compounds which belong to word classes other than the three major classes include prepositions such as into, instead of, by dint, pronouns such as each other, anybody, himself, and adverbs such as country-style, headlong, upside down, inside out. Although not all compounds are directly derived from the clause-structure functions of the items concerned, we adopt a mode of presentation which (where possible) links compounds to sentential or clausal paraphrases. As an example of this approach, we may take the two compounds glowworm and punch-card, which are superficially similar, consisting of verb + noun. Yet the relations of their constituents, and hence the `grammatical' meanings of the two compounds, are different : (15) glow-worm ~ The worm glows verb + subject [Some worms glow] (16) punch-card ~ X punches the card verb + object Within each of the major categories subsets will be distinguished on the basis of a grammatical analysis of the elements involved in a canonical example, together with an informal indication of the relationship between them in terms of a syntactic paraphrase.

Noun compounds Type subject and verb [A] 'SUN,RISE: subject + deverbal noun (cr `The sun rises'). This is a very productive type: 74

(17) bee-sting frostbite nightfall

catcall daybreak headache heartbeat rainfall sound change

earthquake landslide toothache

[B] 'RATTLE ,SNAKE: verb + subject (cf `The snake rattles'). This type is only weakly productive: (18) crybaby driftwood drip coffee glowworm hangman playboy stinkweed tugboat turntable flashlight popcorn watchdog

[C] 'DANCING,GIRL: verbal noun in -ing + subject (cf `The girl dances'); very productive: (19) cleaning woman firing squad investigating committee wading bird working party flying machine washing machine

Sequences with converse stress pattern (,flying'saucer, ,working'man) show a lesser degree of institutionalization as compounds. Type `verb and object' [A] 'BLOOD,TEST: object + deverbal noun (cf `X tests blood'). This is a moderately productive type. Self is a common first constituent. Some compounds denote an activity (handshake), some the result of an activity (book review), and some could be either (meat delivery): (20) birth-control dress-design word-formation book review self destruction crime report tax cut meat delivery haircut handshake self-control office management suicide attempt

[B] 'FAULT-,FINDING: object + verbal noun in -ing (cf `X finds fault(s)`). This type is very productive: (21) air-conditioning dressmaking sightseeing book-keeping housekeeping story-telling book-reviewing letter-writing town-planning brainwashing oath-taking

[C] 'TAX-,PAYER: object + agential noun in -er (cf `X pays tax(es)'). This is a very productive type, and designates concrete (usually human) agents; note however dishwasher, lawn-mower, penholder, record player: (22) cigar smoker gamekeeper matchmaker stockholder computer-designer crime reporter hair-splitter language teacher radio-operator songwriter window-cleaner 75

[D] 'PUNCH,CARD: verb + object (cf `X punches the card'): (23) call-girl drawbridge push-button scarecrow pin-up girl treadmill punchball

[E] 'CHEWING,GUM: verbal noun in -ing + object (cf `X chews gum'); very productive: (24) cooking apple drinking-water eating apple Type `verb and adverbial' [A] 'SWIMMING,POOL: verbal noun in -ing + adverbial (consisting of a prepositional phrase; cf `X swims in the pool'). This is a very productive type. Several adverbial relations are involved: PLACE: (25) diving board hiding-place INSTRUMENTAL: (26) adding machine walking stick baking powder carving knife washing machine sewing machine drinking cup living-room freezing point typing paper frying pan <BrE~ waiting room boiling fowl <BrE reading material spending money roasting joint braising steak

[B] 'DAY,DREAMING: adverbial + verbal noun in -ing (cf `X dreams during the day'). This is a moderately productive type: PLACE: (27) churchgoing horse riding tight-rope walking TIME: (28) sleepwalking INSTRUMENTAL: (29) fly-fishing handwriting OTHER: (30) shadow-boxing sun-bathing

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[C] 'BABY,SITTER: adverbial + agential noun in -er (cf `X sits with the baby'). This is a moderately productive type: PLACE: (31) backswimmer playgoer TIME: (32) daydreamer [D] 'HOME,WORK: adverbial + deverbal noun (cf `X works at home'). This is also a moderately productive type: PLACE: (33) boat-ride TIME: (34) daydream INSTRUMENTAL: (35) gunfight OTHER: (36) smallpox vaccination tax-exemption telephone call night flight field-work table talk moon walk city-dweller factory-worker gate-crasher tight-rope walker sun-bather theatre-goer housebreaker

[E] 'SEARCH,LIGHT: verb + adverbial (cf `X searches with a light'). There are several adverbial relations involved here: PLACE: (37) dance hall INSTRUMENTAL: (38) grindstone plaything springboard workbench

`Verbless` compounds: Type `subject and object` [A] 'WIND,MILL: noun1 + noun2 (cf `noun1 [powers/operates] noun2`; `the wind powers the mill'): (39) air-brake air rifle steam engine gas cooker cable car coal fire hydrogen bomb 77 motor-cycle

[B] `TOY ,FACTORY: noun1 + noun2 (cf `noun2 [produces/yields] noun1', `the factory produces toys'): (40) honey-bee oil well tear gas textile mill power plant water pistol silkworm gold mine

[C] 'BLOOD,STAIN: noun1 + noun2 (cf `noun1 [produces/yields] noun2', `the blood produces stains'): (41) bloodstain hay fever cane sugar sawdust food poisoning tortoise-shell gaslight whalebone

[D] 'DOOR,KNOB: noun1 + noun2 (noun1 [has] noun2, the door has a knob). This is a very productive type. Noun1 is inanimate. With animate nouns, a noncompound genitive phrase is used (the 'table ,leg vs the ,boy's 'leg): (42) arrowhead bedpost shirt-sleeves table leg bottleneck telephone receiver cartwheel piano keys television screen window-pane

(E] SE'CURITY,OFFICER: noun1 + noun2 (noun2 [controls/works in connection with] noun1, cf The officer looks after security): (43) chairperson deckhand motorman police-officer fireman postman gasman

This is a very productive type. Since the second element, always a human agent, is so often man, it frequnetly has a reduced vowel, as in postman, draughtsman, fireman, workman, businessman. This item and its gender-free alternative person might in fact be viewed as a suffix. Type subject and complement [A] 'GIRL,FRIEND: noun1 + noun2 (cf noun2 [is] noun1, the friend is a girl). Noun1 often refers to a subset of the class denoted by noun2: (44) blinker light manservant drummer boy oak tree feeder bus pine tree killer shark tape-measure

Numerous sequences of this appositional type occur with phrasal prosody: ,woman 'writer, ,toy factory [the factory is a toy]. [B] 'DARK,ROOM: adjective + noun (cf noun [is] adjective, the room is dark): (45) blackboard dry dock highchair blackbird greyhound hothouse blueprint grey matter longboat double-talk handyman madman

78

The initial constituents in knitwear and mincemeat were originally -ed participle adjectives. Along with this type should be considered many sequences with phrasal prosody: (46) ,fancy'dress ,hot'dog (' ~,- in AmE) ,ill'wind ,risen'costs ,ill'omen ,ill re'pute

Semantically, some of these examples have a high degree of lexicalization, e.g. hot dog. [C] 'FROG,MAN: noun1 + noun2 (cf noun2 [is like] noun1, the man is like a frog). This is a very productive type: (47) butter-bean kettledrum catfish sandwich man dragonfly goldfish tissue paper

[D] 'SNOW,FLAKE: noun1 + noun2 (cf noun2 [is of, consists of] noun1, a flake of snow): (48) breadcrumb chocolate bar dustheap raindrop sand dune soap flake

[E] 'ASH,TRAY: noun1 + noun2 (cf noun2 [is for] noun1, the tray is for ash). This is a highly productive type expressing purpose: (49) birdcage flowerbed fire engine breakfast time tearoom flypaper cowshed coffee time safety belt doghouse fish-pond cough drops facecloth

Bahuvrihi compounds The term bahuvrihi comes from ancient Sanskrit grammatical tradition. Compounds of this type have also been called exocentric. All of these compounds are formed on one or other of the patterns already described. Most of them are like 'dark,room, others are like, for example, frog,man or 'snow,flake. The term `bahuvrihi' refers not to their pattern of formation but to the relation they have with their referents. Neither constituent of such a compound refers to the entity named but, with a semantic movement that may be considered metonymic, the whole refers to a separate entity (usually a person) that is claimed to be characterized by the compound, in its literal or figurative meaning. Thus a 'high,brow means `an intellectual', on the basis of the traditional claim that people of intellectual interest and cultivated tastes are likely to have a lofty expanse of forehead. Similarly 'heart,throb (cf also its non-bahuvrihi use) is someone who causes the heart to throb in a person of the opposite sex; ie `a sexually attractive person'. Many bahuvrihi compounds are (like highbrow) somewhat disparaging in tone and are used chiefly in informal style. Some further examples: (50) birdbrain fathead blockhead bluebell featherbrain featherweight 79 butterfingers hardback egghead hardtop

heavyweight hunchback pot-belly redcap

loudmouth scarecrow

paleface shellback

paperback

Adjective compounds Type verb and object 'MAN-,EATING: object + -ing participle (cf X eats men). This is a very productive type. Self is a frequent first constituent but takes secondary stress. (51) breathtaking fact-finding heart-breaking ,self de'feating ,self 'justifying life-giving record-breaking

In mouth-watering, there is a causative relation: X makes the mouth water. In informal AmE we have such a compound used to premodify an adjective in finger-licking good. Type verb and adverbial [A] 'OCEAN-,GOING: adverbia] + -ing participle (cf X goes across oceans): (52) fist-fighting law-abiding lip-sucking

[B] 'HEART,FELT: adverbial + -ed participle (cf X feels it in the heart). The type is particularly productive when the noun has agential meaning and consists of self: self styled, self appointed, self employed, self taught (but a self addressed envelope is one that is addressed to oneself): (53) airborne home-made town-bred cost-led language-retarded handmade custom-built typewritten suntanned home-brewed thunder-struck weather-beaten

[C] ,HARD-'WORKING: adverb/adjective + -ing participle (cf X works hard): (54) easy-going everlasting far-reaching high-sounding sweet-smelling well-meaning good-looking

[D] ,QUICK-'FROZEN: adjective/adverb + -ed participle (cf X was frozen quickly): (55) dry-cleaned far-fetched long-awaited fresh-baked 'new-,laid true-born 'wide,spread well-meant

The superficially similar adjective compounds well-meant, well-spoken of on the one hand and well-behaved, well-spoken on the other differ in respect of voice: a well-meant remark ~ a remark that is meant well, She is well spoken of ~ People speak well of her [passive], but a well-behaved person ~ a person that behaves well, a well-spoken boy ~ a boy who speaks well [active]. 80

Type verbless [A] ,FOOT',SORE: noun-based adverbial of respect + adjective (sore in respect to (ones) feet). This pattern is very productive, particularly with some adjectives that exhibit complementation by PPs: (56) airsick fireproof air-tight camera-ready foolproof homesick carsick dustproof duty-free oven-ready tax-free war-weary

There are some items with phrasal stress, as ,class-'conscious, ,cost-effective, ,labourin'tensive. [B] ,GRASS-'GREEN: noun (denoting basis of comparison) + adjective (cf as green as grass). This is a fairly productive type and the items formed can usually be used also as nouns: stress is variable, but phrasal stress is usual: (57) age-old jet black ash-blonde midnight blue bottle-green rock-hard brick red sea-green

[C] ,GREY-'GREEN: adjective + adjective in a coordinating relation but where the phrasal stress pattern implies that the first is relatively thematic, the second focal and hence semantically dominant. Cf The colour is basically green but with a greyish tint. Informally, this can be reflected in the first adjective having the suffix -y or -ish, as in reddish-brown, greenygrey. Coordinate compounds are, however, widely used with reference to international relations where (despite the phrasal stress) parity is theoretically fundamental: (58) A Japanese-American trade pact is about to be signed. In many coordinate compounds the first element assumes a combining form. Some examples of various types: (59) Anglo-Polish deaf-mute psychosomatic Sino-Italian tragi-comic auditory-visual Franco-German Russo-Chinese socio-economic aural-oral phonetic-syntactic sensori-neural Swedish-Brazilian

In compounds as premodifiers of dictionary, the first adjective indicates the language which is the basis or starting-point, hence again justifying the phrasal stressing in terms of thematization. For example, an ,English-'French Dictionary is one that translates English words into French, a ,French-'English one translates from French to English; but an ,Anglo-'French dictionary would be one produced by a joint Anglo-French enterprise. Coordinating compounds are sometimes referred to by the Sanskrit term dvandva.

Give the noun compound that corresponds to each of the dictionary definitions. 81

1 the amount of rain that falls in an area in acertain time 2 a sudden fall of earth or rocks down a slope 3 the round spinning surface on which a record is placed to be played 4 an easy and defenseless target for attack 5 a wealthy young man who lives mainly for pleasure 6 a door in sections that can be folded back 7 an object to keep birds aways from crops. 8 an attempt to keep pay from rising 9 anyone who gets most of the blame or punishment 10 a key that can open different locks 11 a guide dog trained to lead the blind 12 subject of argument or conversation 13 a type of American bird that copies the songs of other birds 14 a toy gun that fires small objects with a loud noise 15 a wooden horse for a child to ride on 16 a small machine used for spoinning thread 17 a watch that can be stopped and started at any time 18 an act of stopping fighting for a short or long period 19 front part of a missile 20 a word or phrase difficult to pronounce quickly 21 the bar above the front wheel of a bicycle which controls the direction 22 smaller peaceful country between two large ones, serving to lessen the chance of war between them 23 a type of insect that gives out a greenish light from the end of its tail 24 a child who regularly copies the work of otehr children at school 25 a metal wire bar that protects the building from damage by lightning 26 strong-smeling chemical, formerly carried for curing faintness 27 boat fitted with everything necessary for living there 28 a group of soldiers with the duty of putting an offender to death by shooting 29 the circular centre of a target that people try to hit when shooting 30 a pigeon that has been trained to carry small messages 31 a written record kept by doctors, police, etc. of the cases they have dealt with 32 a children disease marked by spots on the skin 33 a narrow space in a road which slows down cars 34 a container made of beeswax in which honey is stored 35 special soft paper used to dry wet ink marks 36 light cake made from eggs, sugar and flour, usually no fat 37 a condition in which the skin is raised up in small points where the hairs grow out, as when a person is cold 38 the greatest part of , most of 39 a piece of glass which makes what is seen thorugh it look bigger 40 a round stone which is turned to sharpen tools, knives, etc. Make compound words according to the definitions, using the word given as the first part of the compound. doga. having the corners of the pages bent down with use b. the hottest days of the year c. very tired d. a neckband for a dog 82

e. a quick easy way of moving along, faster than walking and slower than running cata. a loud whistle or cry expressing disapproval b. a game played with string wound round the fingers c. a small object fixed in the road that shines when lit by car lights d. strong cord made from the bowel skin of animals e. a large-headed fish f. flowers that grow on certain trees like willows g. a very short light sleep h. a narrow raised way or passage as along a bridge or round a large machine i. a thief who enters and leaves a building by climbing up walls and pipes a. a large fly that stings horses and cattle b. it is used to fill the inside of furniture c. a plant whose root is used to make a strong-tasting sauce d. a film about horses and gunfighters a. a powerful machine used for pushing heavy objects, earth, etc. b. the centre of a target in shooting c. a circular place for bullfights d. obstinate a. a very long time b. a hard uninteresting part of work a. a tool that can be adjusted for turning things of different widths b. behaviour that causes trouble or is intended to deceive

horse-

bull-

donkeymonkey-

3. Non-concatenative word-formation processes

3.1. Conversion/Zero derivation
3.1.1. Introduction
Conversion is traditionally taken to cover the morphological process linking words such as: (1) a. a pilot - to pilot b. to cook - a cook c. empty - to empty Although here a more or less clearly definable semantic and syntactic change on the content level cannot be matched with any change on the expression plane, i.e. no extra mate83

rial is attached to the base, such examples are seen as parallelling affixation. It has therefore been assumed that conversion is the attachment of a special derivation morpheme, a so-called zero-morpheme to the base, which causes the change of the word class. Conversion usually goes hand in hand with semantic shifts: a converted word normally does not exhibit the whole semantic range of the source word.

3.1.2. Full vs partial conversion

In addition to the full conversion in the sense of transposing a word from one word class into another as described above, some linguists have introduced the concept of partial conversion, where a word of one class appears in a function characteristic of another word class, but do not exhibit the required syntactic and morphological features, e.g. so-called abstract and personal adjectival heads: (2) a. The wealthy are always with us. b. *The wealthies are our friends. c. *I met a wealthy. Another special type of conversion recognized by some authors is the change of secondary word class, e.g. when an intransitive verb is converted to the class of transitive verbs, or noncount nouns converted to count ones: (3) a. to run the water, march the prisoners, slide the bolt back b. two coffees, two huge cheeses Neither of these special cases is a word formation process properly speaking, both appear to have to do with syntactic processes (ellipsis) and semantic phenomena (metaphorical extensions, reclassification, etc.), and will not be treated here in any detail.

3.1.3. Types of conversion according to target and source word

The words produced by conversion are typically nouns, adjectives and verbs. The same these word classes are also the most frequent source words, denominal verbs and deverbal nouns being the most productive categories. Within these categories, it is sometimes possible to establish finer subgroups according to the semantics of the derived word.

3.1.3.1. Conversion to noun Deverbal Nouns produced by conversion from verbs (either simple or multiword verbs) can be classified in terms of the semantic relationship that obtains between the target word and the source word in the paraphrase as follows: 84

Subject of V: These are frquently derived from verbs that denote inherently negative activities or activities performed professionally. These conversions usually denote persons: (4) bore, cheat, coach, tease, guide, help, flirt, sneak, runaway, drop-out, go-between, show-off, stand-in Object of V: (5) a. award, catch, cut, bet, find, grant, toast, hand-out, left-overs, pin-up, pullover, slipover, write-up b. convert, pervert, suspect Instrument of V: (6) cover, paper, wrap, wrench, hoist, rattle, stamp, dye, garnish, polish; cut-out, pickup, fill-up, make-up Place where X V-s: (7) dump, hide, lick, stop, check-out, hang-out, lock-up State (of mind, of sensation), process: (8) desire, dismay, doubt, love, smell, taste, daze, decay, glow, puzzle, worry, mix-up (on) standby, tie-up Event/activity of V-ing: (9) attempt, call, clean, draw, fall, hit, laugh, look, move, nod, release, search, swim; shut-down, walk-out, blow-out, breakthrough, come-back, cook-out, get-together, lock-out, play-off, take-off, walk-out

De-adjectival This is not very productive process. Nouns derived by conversion from adjectives denote persons, things or abstract entities that exhibit properties referred to by the adjective. In the paraphrase, X <person, thing> is A, the source word functions as subject complement. Many of the examples that denote things usually occur in the plural, others lend themselves to alternative analyses involving ellipsis. 85

(10) a. black, imbecile, intellectual, progressive, red, white, young, married(s), coloureds b. As a football player, he's a natural. [a naturally talented player] (11) a. empties, heavies, chemical, weekly, monthly b. A pint of bitter, please! (12) documentary, final(s), musical

Minor conversion types to nouns From closed-class words and affixes: (13) a. His arguments contain too many ifs and buts. b. This book is a must for the student of aerodynamics. c. It tells you about the how and the why of flight. d. Patriotism, nationalism, and any other isms you'd like to name. From phrases: (14) a. have-nots, wanna-be, has-been, free-for-all, b. Whenever I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans.

3.1.3.2. Conversion to verb

Denominal Verbal conversions from nouns take predominantly simple bases, but there are suffixations as bases as well (to profiteer, to package), or from compound nouns (to sandpaper, to blue-pencil). They exhibit a whole range of semantic interpretations. Ornative (to provide with/to put on; cover with; surround; flavour with; fill with): (15) a. label, cushion, muzzle, saddle b. asphalt, butter, grease, plaster, plate, tar, varnish c. fence, hedge, rail, wall d. butter, cream, curry, pepper, salt, sugar e. anger, awe, panic Privative (to deprive of/remove from): (16) core, cream, dust, gut, husk, louse, peel, skin, stone, weed 86

Resultative: (17) a. ditch, hole, tunnel, beam, flame, smoke, steam, spark b. campaign, compromise, counterattack, experiment, journey, lecture, tour Causative: i. make N of X/make X into N (18) beggar, cripple, cuckold, orphan, widow ii. convert into N: (19) coke, compost, cash iii. form into: (20) ball, bundle, corral, package, terrace iv. make N of X, represent X in N: (21) caricature, cartoon, film, picture Locative/Directional (to put in/on N, go into N, be in N, keep/store in N): (22) bottle, carpet, corner, catalogue, list, blacklist, floor, garage, position, shelve, dock, land, jail, pocket, camp, tent, kennel, stable Ascriptive (be/act as N, act like N): (23) a. captain, censor, chaperon, father, model, mother, nurse, profiteer, pilot, referee, star, witness b. ape, fox, hawk, parrot c. bolt, dart, flake, rocket, telescope Instrument (use N): (24) a. comb, hammer, iron, mop, saw, towel b. elbow, finger, shoulder, hand c. belt, button, clasp, nail , pin, screw, tack d. cane, bayonnet, knife, bomb, gun, machine-gun, mortar, stone e. bicycle, canoe, parachute, motor, ship skate, ski, sledge, yacht f. drum, fiddle, harp, trumpet

87

De-adjectival Conversion to verbs from adjectival bases can be interpreted inchoatively (to become A/A-er) or causatively (to make A/A-er): (25) dry, empty, grey, narrow, sour, tense, thin, warm, yellow (26) blind, clean, dirty, empty, grey, humble, lower, narrow, soundproof

Minor conversion types to verbs Closed-class items and nonlexical items may be sources in informal language: (27) a. They downed tools in protest. b. She will off and do her own thing. c. If you uh-uh again, I won't go on with my story.

3.1.3.3. Conversion to adjective

Denominal Nouns used as adjectives can be considered conversions only when the item in question occurs in both predicative and attributive position: (28) a. a brick garage - The garage is brick. b. reproduction furniture - This furniture is reproduction. c. Worcester porcelain - This porcelain is Worcester.

Minor types of conversion to adjective From closed-class items: (29) Thats how the Fieldings next door do it, but its not quite us. From phrases: (30) a. an up-in-the-air feeling b. an upper-class manner

88

3.1.3.4. Conversion with formal modification Occasionally, conversion is accompanied by certain phonological changes affecting pronunciation (and/or spelling) or stress pattern. The most important kinds of alteration are: a. voicing of final consonants, and b. shift of stress Both types of change are idiosyncratic though they follow certain clear patterns.

Voicing of final consonants The voiceless fricative consonants /s/, /f/, and / / in some nouns are voiced to /z/, /v/, and // respectively in the corresponding verb forms : (31) NOUN ~ house /-s/ advice /-s/ use /-s/ abuse /-s/ grief /-f/ shelf /-f/ half /-f/ VERB house /-z/ advise /-z/ use /-z/ abuse /-z/ grieve /-v/ shelve /-v/ halve /-v/ NOUN ~ thief /-f/ belief /-f/ relief /-f/ mouth /-/ sheath /-/ wreath /-/ VERB thieve /-v/ believe /-v/ relieve /-v/ mouth /-/ sheathe /-/ wreathe /-/

It should be noted that, especially in BrE, the difference between licence (n) and license (v), like that between practice (n) and practise (v), is one of spelling only, both noun and verb being pronounced with a final /s/. In AmE, both noun and verb can have the same spellings (license, practice, respectively). A substantial change of pronunciation, including modification of the final vowel, takes place in pairs such as: breath /e/ ~ breathe /i:/ ; bath, glass (/ae/ in AmE, /a:/ in RP BrE) ~ bathe, glaze /eI/; cf also blood ~ bleed, food ~ feed.

Shift of stress When disyllablic verbs are converted into nouns, the stress may be sometimes affected in that it is shifted from the second to the first syllable. The first syllable, typically a Latinate prefix, often has a reduced vowel // in the verb but a full vowel in the noun: (32) He was con'victed (/kn/) of theft, and so became a 'convict (/kn/). 89

The following is a fairly full list of words having end-stress as verbs but initial stress as nouns in BrE (in AmE, many have initial stress as verbs also): (33) abstract, accent, combine, compound, compress, concert, conduct, confine (the noun is plural only), conftict, conscript, consort, construct, contest, contrast, convert, convict, decrease, dictate, digest, discard, discount, discourse, escort, export, extract, ferment, import, impress, incline, increase, insult, misprint, perfume, permit, pervert, present, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refill, refit, refund, regress, reject, resit, retail, segment, survey, suspect, torment, transfer, transform, transplant, transport, upset Occasionally, a word of more than two syllables varies in this way: over'flow (v) ~ 'overflow (n). Cf also en'velop (v), 'envelope (n). There are many examples of disyllabic noun-verb pairs which do not differ in stress (de'bate (v) and de'bate (n) both have end-stress, and 'contact (v} and 'contact (n) both have initial stress (as is usual where the verb is derived from the noun). Note that dis'count means `to disregard', 'discount `to give a discount'.

3.1.4. Direction of conversion

Many difficulties may arise in discussing conversion because it is a derivational process that involves no overt affixes and there are therefore no clues as to what is derived from what. The idea explicit in most discussions of the phenomenon is that the verb is derived from the noun and not the other way round. How do we know that this is a correct assumption? This question is called in theory the DIRECTIONALITY PROBLEM. Typically, the process of conversion adds an extra dimension of meaning. According to Marchand (1969), semantic considerations are paramount in determining the direction of conversion. The more basic memeber of the pair is the one whose semantic priority is implied by the other, i.e. it forms the basis of the semantic definition of the other member: (34) to head 'to function as the head of' The conversion process adds the semantic dimension 'to function as' to the basic meaning of head. How plausible is this semantic line of argumentation in the case of sleep? What about drink? The model of lexical phonology and morphology can throw some light on the phenomenon of conversion. We know that: (i) all lexical words are required by a well-formedness condition to bear stress (there are no unstressed words in English), and (ii) some stratum 1 non-neutral suffixes like -ee, -ity, and -ic may cause stress to move around in a word. Since these non-neutral, + boundary type suffixes are attached at stratum 1, stress must be pre-

90

sent at stratum 1 prior to their attachment, so that they can move it. Lexical stress must be assigned and shifted at stratum 1. The difference in stress placement displayed by nouns and verbs formed by conversion can be accounted for if we assume that: (i) some nouns are formed from verbs, and that (ii) some verbs are formed from nouns. The conversion of verbs into nouns takes place at stratum 1 while the conversion of nouns into verbs occurs at stratum 2. Evidence for these claims comes from stress placement. When nouns are derived by conversion from verbs at stratum 1, this conversion is nonneutral: morphological conversion feeds the derived nouns to the stratum 1 phonological rule that places stress on the first syllable in nouns: (35) verb sur'vey tor'ment pro'test noun 'survey 'torment 'protest

But when verbs are formed from nouns by conversion at stratum 2, this conversion is neutral. Stress does not shift from the first syllable to the second: (36) noun 'pattern 'advocate 'patent verb 'pattern (*pat'tern) 'advocate (*ad'vocate) 'patent (*pa'tent)

Derived verbs excape the stratum 1 rule that places stress on the second syllable because they are formed, not at stratum 1, but at stratum 2. The hypothesis that the lexicon contains strata that are arranged in a hierarchy not only captures the stress facts, but also matches the differences in productivity between deverbal nouns (i.e. nouns-from-verbs) as opposed to denominal verbs (i.e. verbs-from-nouns) that are formed by conversion. The formation of nouns form verbs (followed by the stress shift) is less common than the formation of verbs from nouns. The majority of nouns can have a verb formed from them by conversion but the reverse is not true. Another piece of evidence that pairs with homogenic stress are cases of verbs derived from nouns at stratum 2 is their inflection. Recall that irregular inflection takes place at stratum 1. Cf.: (37) a. V: ring, rang, rung b. N: ring V: ring 'put ring on X', ringed, ringed (*rang, *rung) Finally, a special case of this relation between level 1 and level 2 derivation is that V -> N -> zero derivations are possible, while N -> V -> N zero derivations are not. (38) a. pro'testV 'protestN 'protestV b. 'patternN *pat'ternV 'patternN 91

Explain the difference in meaning between the following verb pairs by contrasting them with nouns and inserting them into sentences below as appropriate: a. di'gest - 'digest b. dis'count - 'discount c. com'pound - 'compound a. When you ______________ food, the food passes through your stomach. b. He is reading Readers' _______________. c. The report contained too much information to_________ at once. d. He _____________ all the long reports that we had rceived. a. The shop assistant told me that they would give me a big _______________. b. We can ____________ Liverpool - they have three injured players. c. If we have to _____________ our prices we are not going to make profit. a. His jokes have been described as a ____________ of fears, anxieties and insecurities. b. Most tyres are are made of rubber ____________ed with other chemicals. c. Severe drought has further ___________ed the food shortages in the region.

Nouns and adjectives in the following list have corresponding verbs which are formed either by the addition of affixes or by conversion. Under each word write the corresponding verb, broad relief dead flat captive moist trust identity circle advance modern force grief mad weak ripe power aim haste fresh domestic just trap critic 92 siege sweet scandal rage less white strife quick loose courage terror sad large mystery lose tough

3.2. Back-formation

Pairs of words like advise ~ advisor, burgle ~ burglar, inspect ~ inspector, edit ~ editor, suggest a derivational relationship between the constituents such that the second word is derived by suffixation from the firstl, which from the synchronic viewpoint of the ordinary speaker is perfectly justifiable. But as a matter of historical fact, while advisor and inspector were indeed derived from advise and inspect by suffixation, burgle and edit are historically speaking derived from burglar and editor. This word formation process is known as backformation, and in addition to well-estabIished items, whether from long ago (like laze from lazy) or more recently (like televize from television), new formations of this kind continue to be made. The process is particularly productive in creating denominal verbs. It should be noted that new formations tend to be used with some hesitation, especially in respect of the full range of verbal inflections and base forms are used before inflected forms. (1) a. ?The organization self destructed in 1985. b. Will you baby-sit for me? c. He baby-sat for them. Many back-formations continue to display their lack of established acceptability: (2) a. *(They) sight-saw b. *(She) housekept. A particularly productive type of back-formation relates to the noun compounds in -ing and -er: (3) bottle-feed dry-clean lip-read window-shop brain-wash fire-watch sight-see chain-smoke house-hunt sleep-walk day-dream house-keep spring-clean

Less commonly, there are nouns from adjectives by back-formation: eg polymer from polymeric. It is likely that regularizations of inflection result from that process of linguistic analogy known as metanalysis (word segmentation counter to etymology), of which back-formation may be seen as a special case: (4) a. The fridge needs regular defreezing. b. They defreezed/defroze the fridge that evening.

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3.3. Reduplication
Some compound-like complex words have two or more constituents which are either identical or only slightly different: (1) goody-goody (chiefly noun, `a self-consciously virtuous person', informal) The difference between the two constituents may be: a. in the initial consonants, as in: (2) walkie-talkie b. or in the medial vowels: (3) criss-cross Most of the reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many belong to the sphere of child-parent talk, eg: (4) din-din [dinner] The most common uses of reduplicatives (sometimes called `jingles') are: i. to imitate sounds, eg: (5) a. rat-a-tat [knocking on door] b. tick-tock [of clock] c. ha ha [of laughter] d. bow-wow [of dog] ii. to suggest alternating movements: (6) a. seesaw b. flip-flop c. ping-pong iii. to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation, etc:

(7) a. higgledy piggledy b. hocus pocus c. wishy-washy d. dilly-dally e. shilly-shally iv. to intensify, eg:

94

(8) a. teeny-weeny b. tip-top.

3.4. Clipping
Very frequently, in informal usage speakers tend to show their familiarity with polysyllabic words (especially nouns), by shortening them, often to a single syllable. The `clipping' seems often to start from the graphic form, since the surviving fragment is usually initial and need not constitute either prosodically or semantically the salient part of the original: (1) ad advert (BrE) 'cosec /'kausek/ 'demo from ad'vertisement (also adver'tisement in AmE)

from cosecant /kau'si:kant/ (in trigonometry) from demon'stration (but in BrE chiefty in the political sense; in AmE a demonstration car) e'xam from (academic) exami'nation (but not the verb e'xamine or exami'nation in the medical sense French fries (esp AmE) from French fried potatoes (esp AmE) gents from gentlemen's (especially = gentlemen'slavatory) lab from la'boratory (BrE),'labora,tory (AmE) lib from libe'ration (but only in lexicalizations like Women's Liberation Movement) 'memo from memo'randum mike from 'micro,phone 'photo from 'photograph (but not pho'tography) prof from pro'fessor pseud (BrE) from ,pseudo- (,intel'lectual) pub from ,public'house 'stereo from ,stereo'phonic telly (BrE) from ,tele'vision

Less commonly, the clipped form has resulted from discarding the initial part of a word, as in: (2) phone plane from 'telephone from 'airplane, 'aeroplane

Occasionahy, syllables have been discarded at both ends of a word, as in: (3) flu fridge (esp BrE) from ,influ'enza from re'frigerator

Stress patterns have been indicated to show that the shortened form is not necessarily (indeed not usually) the stressed part of the word concerned and that it is given an independent stress pattern of its own (as in 'demo). Even stronger evidence for lexical independence 95

of clipped forms of a quite specific lexicalization is indicated by the parenthesized restrictions we have shown where relevant. Thus lib is not an abbreviated form of the word liberation as such, still less of the verb liberate, but only of very specific uses of liberation. The examination of a patient by a doctor is not an exam.

3.5. Blending
The term blending is used to refer to a process of (usually intentional) non-linear, nonconcatentaive method of word coining in which phonetic fragments of two or more words are merged to make a single new word. This process has also been called contamination or telescoping. Cf. the following examples: (1) a. breathalyser b. smaze c. elecrocute d. heliport e. Oxbridge from from from from from breath + analyse smoke + haze electro + execute helicopter + airport Oxford + Cambridge

In fact, two subtypes could be distinguished: blends proper and clipped compounds. In semantic terms, the product of blending proper is an amalgamation of the input froms, its product often having a meaning that is a conjunction of the concepts expressed by the contributing lexemes. In structural terms, blending is a result of curtailing a copulative compound. With clipped compounds, the input is a determinative compound or a word group (with modifier-head structure).

Provide the input for the following blends: workaholic swimsation plumcot transceiver multiversity seascape whiskoda

What are the cross-breeds of the following animals called? a. b. c. d. e. cattle + buffalo lion + tiger tiger + lion zebra + ass zebra + mule

3.6. Abbreviations
3.6.1. Acronymy
Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words that make up a name which are pronounced as real words, often not knowing what the letters stand for. New acronyms 96

are freely produced, especially by scientists and administrators, and particularly for names of organizations. (1) laser NATO radar UNESCO WASP lightwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation the North Atlantic Treaty Organization radio detecting and ranging the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (AmE, informal)

Initial syllables as well as initial letters may be involved, as in binac (`binary automatic computer').

3.6.2. Alphabetisms
Abbreviations which are pronounced as sequences of letters (also called `alphabetisms'), eg C.O.D. /,si: au 'di:/, are most like ordinary abbreviations and hence most peripheral to word-formation. In writing, the more institutionalized formations have no periods between the letters. The use of capital letters is not determined solely by whether the items abbreviated are proper nouns. i. The letters may represent full words: (2) c/o C.O.D. DIY (informaI BrE) EEC eg ESP FBI ie MIT PC VIP (in) care of [used on envelopes] cash on delivery do-it-yourself [used of self help repairs, etc] European Economic Community exempli gratia [Latin, for example] extra-sensory perception Federal Bureau of Investigation id est [Latin, `that is`] Massachusetts Institute of Technology personal computer very important person

ii. The letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: (3) GHQ ID TB TV General Headquarters identification (card) tuberculosis television

Alphabetisms are sometimes given a quasi-phonetic written form: (4) a. b. M.C. vs Emcee DJ vs deejay [Master ef Ceremonies] [Disc Jockey]

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4. Productivity in word formation

4.1. Productivity vs creativity
PRODUCTIVITY is a general term used in linguistics to refer to the creative capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number of linguistic constructions. However, a distinction may be drawn between productivity and CREATIVITY. Productivity may be defined as one ofthe defining features of human language which allows a native speaker to produce an infinitely large number of sentences, or other constructions, many (or most) of which have never been produced before. It is assumed that productivity is RULE-GOVERNED. Creativity, on the other hand, is the native speaker's ability to extend the language system in a motivated, but unpredictable (NON-RULEGOVERNED) way. (1) headhunter 'a member of a tribe which keeps and preserves the heads of its human victims' 'one who recruits executives for a large corporation' Productivity, as a term, may be contrasted with the term UNPRODUCTIVE or NONPRODUCTIVE. Patterns are said to be unproductive if they are not used to produce further instances (or tokens) of the same type. But productivity seems to be a gradable concept. SEMI-PRODUCTIVE patterns or rules are those where there is a limited or occasional potential for the production of further instances of the same type.

4.2. Constraints on productivity of word-formation processes

4.2.1. Syntactic constraints on productivity
A syntactic restriction on the productivity of word formation rules may be defined as one affecting the rules, configurations and/or features which lead to the generation of a string made up of a base and an affix or process marker (in the case of conversion), or which, in the case of compounding, lead to a string made up of two or more stems. An example of a most general syntactic constraint is: (1) The Word-Based Hypothesis (Aronoff, 1976: 21) All regular word-formation processes are word-based. A new word is formed by applying a regular rule to a single already existing word. Both the new word and the existing one are members of major lexical categories [defined as verb, noun, adjective, and adverb]. 98

This hypothesis implies a number of more specific constraints. Cf.: (2) The No Phrase Constraint (Botha, 1981: 18) Morphologically complex words cannot be formed by word-formation rules on the basis of syntactic phrases. (3) a. wash slowly b. *washslowlyable (4) a. a dont-tell-me-what-to-do-look b. an oh-what-a-wicked-world-this-is-and-how-I-wish-I-could-do-something-tomake-it-better-and-nobler expression c. stick-to-it-iveness d. cut-down-ness e. I feel particularly sit-around-and-do-nothing-ish today. A derivative of the above general hypothesis is: (5) The Unitary Base Hypothesis (Aronoff 1976: 47f) The base is always specified syntactically. A WFR will never operate on either this or that. (6) a. Adj + #ness, foolishness, redness, porousness, sameness b. *N + #ness *foolness Very frequently syntactic and semantic factors work in unison in limiting the productivity of WFRs, e.g. the suffix +ee is added to transitive verbs, not to intransitive ones: (7) employee, payee, *travelee Another syntactic constraint on the productivity of word formation rules is: (8) The First Sister Principle (Roeper and Siegel 1978) All verbal compounds are formed by incorporation of a word in first sister position of the verb. (9) a. She makes peace quickly. b. peace-maker c. *quick(ly)-maker 99

4.2.2. Pragmatic constraints

As a rule a lexeme will not be coined to denote an item/action/ quality which does not exist. Existence must be interpreted here in a very wide sense to allow for fictional existence as well as well as observable existence in the world as the speaker knows it. There is, for example, no word magpie-brake because there is nothing in the real world which could be thus described. But this is a fact about the real word, and not a fact about language. If a fairy story were written in which flying pumpkins were brought to a standstill by having magpies to pull against them, then the word magpie-brake would become perfectly acceptable. The lexeme must denote something which is nameable. We would not expect to find regularly derived denominal verbs in any language with the meaning like 'grasp X in the left hand and shake vigorously while standing in a galvanized pail of cornmeal-mush'. Some linguists see the reason for this in the fact that the relationships that are expressed derivationally are, as a rule, simple and general. Unfortunately, they need not always be so.

4.2.3. Semantic constraints

Semantic limitations can be described as requiring the presence or absence of certain semantic properties. There are numerous examples of this type of constraints, some of which also involve properties that are both semantic and syntactic, or combinations of such properties. Suffix +ee is added only to certain transitive verbs, i.e. to transitive verbs that take animate direct or indirect objects. Cf.: (10) a. indictee, evacuee, examinee, meetee, consultee, toastee, promisee b. *tearee, *watchee A combination of a syntactic restriction working together with a highly specific semantic restriction is exemplified by the prefix re#. This prefix can be attached to transitive verbs whose meaning entails some change of the state, generally in the object of the verb: (11) a. rewire, repunch, repaint b. *resleep, *rewatch (12) a. John punched Bill. b. *John repunched Bill. (13) a. John punched holes in the paper. b. John repunched holes in the paper. d. *unpessimistic - unoptimistic 100

4.2.4. Lexical constraints

Certain word-formation processes are triggered or limited by the individual roots: (14) a. bishop - bishopric b. curious - curiosity vs voracious - voracity BLOCKING (BY SYNONYMY) is the name given by Aronoff (1976: 43) to the phenomenon of the non-occurence of a complex lexical form because of the existence of another form. The form that causes the blocking may itself be complex or simplex. Cf.: (15) a. work - worker b. manage - manager c. thief - steal - *stealer (16) a. ripe - unripe b. bad - good - *ungood c. small - big - *unbig Blocking may be seen not only as the non-occurence of a complex lexical form because of the previous existence of lexeme, but also an extension of the pragmatic factor: not only does there have to be something for a lexeme to denote, there also has to be a need for a new lexeme to denote that something before a new lexeme will be produced and accepted by the linguistic community. In short, blocking prevents unnecessary proliferation of linguistic labels for extralinguistic objects.

Provide the lexical items that block the application of the suf-fix -er in the following cases. (17) cycle type study raper deliver assist attend

4.2.5. Morphological constraints

It is a well-known feature of morphological systems that roots and formatives may behave differently with respect to the presence of other roots or formatives or with respect to certain morphological processes. It has long been recognizedthat the vocabulary of English is divided, for purposes of morphology, into two distinct parts, native and Latinate (but there are further subdivisons, into Romance, Greek, etc.). There are many rules that are sensitive to this distinction. Thus, the suffix +ity seems to be restricted to Latinate bases, the only exception being oddity: (18) a. audacity, brutality, curiosity, brevity, clarity, b. *boldity, *roughity 101

4.2.6. Phonological constraints on the productivity

In addition to the above discussed constraints and conditions on the productivity of wordformation processes, one should recognize phonological conditioning of word-formation processes, as it is often the case that the attachment of a particular affix is determined by certain phonological properties of the potential base or the derivative, such as, for instance, base-final segments and clusters, syllable structure and stress contour. Phonological conditions affecting the processes of word-formation may be analysed and described from several perspectives. One possibility is to distinguish the phonological conditions or constraints which are universal from those which are language-specific, i.e. which are valid for the derivational component of a particular language. As far as the latter type is concerned, one may further distinguish conditions which in general affect all word formation rules of a language (rule-independent constraints) from those which are apparently confined to one word formation rule (rule-particular constraints): (19) The linguistic status (domain) of a constraint

universal constraints

language-specific constraints

rule-independent rule-particular constraints constraints Another dichotomic division is based on formal considerations, viz. on the way constraints are formulated. This may happen in two ways. We may speak of positive conditions if they take on the following shape: (20) Xaffix attaches (only) to bases of the type ___________ [phon. inf.] Conversely, a negative condition may be formulated as: (21) Xaffix does not attach to bases of the type ___________ [phon. inf.] Finally, there is a distinction that is directly related to the phonological substance of the potential base and/or the derivative. We may thus juxtapose INPUT CONSTRAINTs or CONDITIONs, which affect the phonology of the base, and OUTPUT CONSTRAINTs or 102

CONDITIONs, which have access to the phonetic manifestations of the derivative. The above discussed constraints on the productivity may be classified as either constraints on the input or as constraints on the output, e.g. semantic constraints requiring the presence of certain semantic features in the base are input conditions, blocking, on the other hand, appears to have to do with output. It should be borne in mind that phonological conditions on the operation of word formation rules are usually inextricably interwoven with conditions of a different nature (morphological, semantic, etc.), i.e. that they often work in unison. It is occasionally difficult to establish whether a given derivational gap, i.e. decreased productivity should be attributed to an input constraint or to an output contraint. Generally, input conditions are stated on the phonology of the base (i.e. concern its segmental phonology and stress at the word level), while output conditions tend to be stated on the phonetics of the derivative (i.e. boil down to phonotactic constraints prohibiting certain segments to appear adjacent to each other), less frequently on the phonology of the derivative (its syllable structure). Output constraints tend to be exclusively negative.

4.2.6.1. Constraints on the input of word formation processes The stress-sensitivity of the nominalizing suffixes -al and -ance/ence Word-level conditions on the input are those which make reference to stress placement of potential bases. Among the suffixes which are stress-sensitive in English are -al and ance/-ence. The suf-fix -al occurs after a stressed vowel which may be either base-final or be followed by an optional sonorant followed by an optional anterior consonant: (22) V [+stressed] (C [-obstruent]) (C [+ant]) + -al (23) a. try deny refse reharse arrve b. construct rganize resst resmble - trial - denial - refusal - rehearsal - arrival - *constructal - *organizal - *resistal - *resemblal

c. bry - burial Notice that the phonological limitation in question obviously does not hold for the homophonous suffix -al which is used to derive adjectives, even though stress-shift occurs in some such derivations. This proves that we are dealing here with an input condition and not with an output condition. (24) msic - musical 103

rchestra - orchestral perphery - peripheral That is to say, the scope of the stress requirement is restricted to just those occurences of al where this suffix is deverbal and noun-forming.

Prefix mal- and suffix -ize: syllable structure These two attach to bases that must have more than just one syllable, although there are some exceptions: (25) a. malfunction, malnutrition, malpractice (26) a. apologize, criticize, jeopardize, legalize b. filmize, Grecize

A negative input constraint on the segmental phonology: the adjectival suffix -ful It has been noted (Dressler 1977: 46, Siegel 1974) that this adjectival suffix apparently cannot be added to nouns ending in labio-dental spirants /f, v/: (27) *love-ful (vs. love-less) *grief-ful (vs grief-less) *leaf-ful (vs leaf-less)

4.2.6.2. Constraints on the output of word formation processes

Horror Aequi, or: A near-universal negative output constraint This constraint, dubbed Haplology Constraint by Dressler (1977: 41), and Horror Aequi by Plank (1981: 149), forbids (28) ... the immediate repetition of VC, if the repeated sequence first terminates a morpheme and immediately afterwards introduces a derivational suffix. This is the constraint responsible for pairs like: (29) murderer - murderess adventurer - adventuress It is, no doubt, involved in blocking the derivation of adverbs by -ly from adjectives ending in -ly: 104

(30) kind - kindly fierce - fiercely serious - seriously (31) silly - ?sillily (OED) friendly - ?friendlily (OED) miserly - *miserlily elderly - *elderlily Note, however, the following examples: (32) oil - oily - oilily wiles - wily - wilily Horror Aequi appears to be slightly more general than Haplology Constraint, it applies to prefixes as well. Bases that begin with /in/ or /im/ select negative prefix un- rather than inor any of its allomorphs in order to avoid the two identical sequences of VC, inin- or inim-. (33) intelligible - *in-/un-intelligible important - *in-/un-important

105