Optical Communication

VIII Sem, ECE

Submitted By:Dimple Jhanwar Lecturer

(ECE Department)

INDEX
S No.
I. II III IV. Unit-IOPTICAL FIBERS 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 Introduction Overview of fiber communication Ray propogation Total internal Reflection Modes in Optical fiber Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cables Propagation of Light along the fiber Ray Theory Types of Optical Fibers : 1.9.1 Step index fibers : 1.9.2 Graded index fibers Attenuation in Optical Fibers 1.10..1 Linear scattering losses 1.10.2 Non linear scattering losses 1.10.3 Material Absorption losses . Bending Loss 1.11.1 Microbend losses 1.11.2 Macrobend losses

Name of Content
Resume Objective Syllabus Lecture Plan

Page No.
5 8 9 10

1.11

1.12.

Dispersion 1.12.1 Intramodal Dispersion 1.12.2 Intermodal Dispersion UNIT-II OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES & CONNECTION 2.1 2.2 Introduction Light Emitting Diode Structure 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3
2.2.4

Dome LED Planar LED Basic Layer by Layer Structure

Basic Layer by Layer Structure

2.2.5 2.2.6

Homo- and Hetro-Junction Edge Emitter 2

2.2.7 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Edge Emitter

Characteristics of LED Quantum efficiency Fiber Alignment Technique Fiber Optical Splicing 2.6.1 Fusion Splicing 2.6.2 Mechanical Splicing 2.7 Optical fiber connector UNIT-III OPTICAL DETECTORS 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Optical Detector Properties 3.3 Responsivity 3.4 Quantum efficiency 3.5 PIN Photo Diodes 3.5.1 Response Time 3.6 Avalanche Photo Diodes 3.7 Receiver Noise 3.7.1 Thermal Noise 3.7.2 Shot Noise 3.8 Photo Diode Materials UNIT-IV OPTICAL MEASUREMENT 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Measurement of Attenuation 4.1.1 Cut back Method Measurement of Cut-off wavelength Measurement of Dispersion Measurement of Diameter Measurement of Numerical Aperture

UNIT-V LASER 5.1 5.2 Principles of Laser Rate Equations and Population Inversion 5.2.1 Two- Level system 5.2.2 Three Level System 5.2.3 Four Level System

Optical feedback Lasing threshold Q-switching: 5.2.4 Principple 5.2.5 Active Switching 5.2.6 Passive Switching 5.2.7 Applications 5.3 Mode Locking 5.3.1 Laser active Mode Locking 5.3.2 Mode Locking Theory 5.3.3 Mode Locking Methods 5.4 Applications of LASER 5.4.1 Holography 5.4.2 Distance Measurement 5.4.3 Velocity Measurement V. VI. VII. VIII X XI XII
XIV XV XVI

Assignment-I Assignment-II Assignment-III Assignment-IV Class-Test-I Class-Test-II Class-Test-III Class-Test-V Tutorial-I Tutorial-II

XVII Tutorial-III XVIII Tutorial-IV XIX Tutorial-V XX I Mid Term Paper XXI II Mid Term Paper XXII Last Year Paper XXIII Evaluation sheet

Course Objective
1) This subject deals with the practical aspects of optical fiber communication by introducing optical fiber 2) This course aims to initiate an expose the newcomers to exciting area of optical communication. Technical concepts which are at the core of design, implementation and research will be discussed during this course in order that is conductive to understanding general concepts as well as latest development. 3)Basic optical networks and WDM will be studied. Students will do design calculation for a pointto-point optical fiber link and star networks. 4)To give the student understanding of working principle of optical fiber sourses(LEDs and LASERs) detectors(PIN, Avalance photodiodes) coupler,fiber connectors

SYLLABUS
UNIT 1 : OPTICAL FIBERS- Introduction, Ray theory, Optical fibers: multimode, single mode, step index,graded index, plastic & glass fibers.Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fibres -Introduction, Attenuation, Material absorption loss, Fibrebend loss, Dispersion (intermodal & intramodal) UNIT 2: OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES & CONNECTION - Light Emitting Diode - Structure, Material, Characteristics, Power & Efficiency.Fiber Alignment, Fiber splices, Fiber connectors, Expanded beam connectors, UNIT 3 : OPTICAL DETECTORS - Optical detection principles, quantum efficiency, responsivity, PIN photo diode, Avalanche photo diodes, Noise in Detectors, Photo Diode Materials. UNIT 4 : OPTICAL FIBER MEASUREMENTS - Measurements of Fiber Attenuation, Dispersion, Refractive Index Profile, Cut off Wave Length, Numerical Aperture & Diometer. UNIT 5 : LASER - Emission and absorption of radiation, Einstein relation, Absorption of radiation, Population inversion, Optical feed back, Threshold condition. Population inversion and threshold working of three level & four level laser. Basic idea of solid state, semiconductors, gas & liquid laser. Basic concept of Q-switching & mode locking. Laser applications for measurement of distance, Velocity, Holography.

ARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & I.T.

Lecture Plan

LECTURE PLAN
Name of Faculty: Dimple Jhanwar Subject: Optical Communication
S. No. Unit No. Date Name of Topic Proposed Lectures Required

Branch: ECE
Actual Lecture Taken Extra Activities % of Syllabus Covered By the Unit Reference Books

Sem.: VIII
Remarks

I. OPTICAL FIBERS

1. 2.

3.

4.

II. OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES

5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

Introduction, Ray theory Optical fibers: multimode, single mode, step index, graded index, plastic & glass fibers. Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fibres Introduction, Attenuation Material absorption loss, Fibre bend loss, Dispersion (intermodal & intramodal) Class Test-I Light Emitting Diode - Structure, Material, Characteristics, Power & Efficiency. Fiber Alignment, Fiber splices Fiber connectors, Expanded beam connectors Class Test-II

2 1 Numerical Problem 1. Jhon M Senior 2. Gred Kaser 1 Assignmet -I Easy Theoretical & Analytical

25%

1
2 1. Jhon M Senior

20%
2 2 Numerical Problem Assignment - II

2. Navneet Gupta

Easy Theoretical & Analytical

10

& CONNECTION

LECTURE PLAN
Name of Faculty: Dimple Jhanwar Subject: Optical Communication
III. OPTICAL DETECTORS 10. Optical detection principles, quantum efficiency, responsivity PIN photo diode, Avalanche photo diodes Noise in Detectors, Photo Diode Materials Mid Term I Measurements of Fiber Attenuation,Dispersi on, Refractive Index Profile ,Cut off Wave Length Numerical Aperture & Diometer Class test III 1 1. Jhon M Senior 15% 2 1 AssignmentIII 2. Navneet Gupta Moderate Theoretical & Analytical

Branch: ECE

Sem.: VIII

11. 12. 13. 14.

V. MEASUREMENTSIV. OPTICAL FIBER

2 15% 2 2 1 Numerical Problem AssignmentIV

1. Jhon M Senior 2. Gred Kaser

15. 16. 17.

Moderate Theoretical & Analytical

18.

Emission and absorption of radiation, Einstein

2 1. Jhon M Hard

11

LASER

19.

20. 21.

22.

relation Population inversion, Optical feed back, Threshold condition. Threshold Working of three level & four level laser Basic idea of solid state, semiconductors, gas & liquid laser Basic concept of Qswitching & mode locking.

Senior 1 25% 2 2 2. Gred Kaser 3. Navneet Gupta

Theoretical & Analytical

LECTURE PLAN
Name of Faculty: Dimple Jhanwar Subject: Optical Communication
23. Laser applications for measurement of distance, Velocity, Holography Mid Term II Total Lecture 2

Branch: ECE
Numerical Problem

Sem.: VIII

24. 25.

36

Proposed Lecture: 36

Actual Lecture Taken:

Signature of Faculty

12

Unit-I OPTICAL FIBERS

Introduction
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550 metres (1,800 ft).Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced

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together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. Special connectors are used to make removable connections.

GENERAL OVERVIEW OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM :

Like all other communication system, the primary objective of optical fiber communication system also is to transfer the signal containing information (voice, data, video) from the source to the destination. The source provides information in the form of electrical signal to the transmitter. The electrical stage of the transmitter drives an optical source to produce modulated light wave carrier. Semiconductor LASERs or LEDs are usually used as optical source here. The information carrying light wave then passes through the transmission medium i.e. optical fiber cables in this system. Now it reaches to the receiver stage where the optical detector demodulates the optical carrier and gives an electrical output signal to the electrical stage. The common types of optical detectors used are photodiodes (p-i-n, avalanche), phototransistors, photoconductors etc. Finally the electrical stage gets the real information back and gives it to the concerned destination.

It is notable that the optical carrier may be modulated by either analog or digital information signal. In digital optical fiber communication system the information is suitably encoded prior to the drive circuit stage of optical source. Similarly at the receiver end a decoder is used after amplifier and equalizer stage.

Principle of ray propagation :

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This is the most interesting thing about optical fiber cables. Such an indispensable part of modern day communication system works on an extremely simple property of light ray i.e. Total Internal Reflection. As we all know that when light ray is passing from denser (refractive index is higher) dielectric medium to a rarer (refractive index is lower) dielectric medium then from the point of incidence at the interface it bends away from the normal. When the incidence angle is sufficiently high such that the angle of refraction is 90 then it is called critical angle. Now if light ray falls at the interface of the two mediums at an angle greater than the critical angle then the light ray gets reflected back to the originating medium with high efficiency (around 99.9%) i.e. total internal reflection occurs. With the help of innumerable total internal reflections light waves are propagated along the fiber with low loss as shown in figure2. In this context, two parameters are very crucial namely Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle at which light may enter the fiber in order to be propagated and is denoted by a in figure3. The relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved-core, cladding and air, leads to the definition of Numerical Aperture which is given by NA = (n1-n2) = n0 sin a where n0 is the refractive index of air. The light ray shown in figure3 is known as a meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber. However, another category of ray exists which is transmitted without passing through the fiber axis and follows a helical path through the fiber.

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Total internal reflection When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA.

Optical Fiber

Modes in optical fibers :

The electromagnetic wave theory must be taken into account for getting an improved model for propagation of light through optical fibers. The optical waveguide can be considered to be either a planer guide or a cylindrical guide. Electromagnetic field comprises of a periodically varying electric field E and magnetic field

16

M which are oriented at right angle to each other. When the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation and hence Ez=0, but a corresponding magnetic field component is in the direction of propagation, that mode is known as Transverse Electric (TE) mode. But when the reverse thing happens then it is termed as Transverse Magnetic (TM) mode. Now when total field lies in the transverse plane, Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where both Ez and Hz are zero. The formation of modes in a planer dielectric guide and the interference of plane waves are shown in figure4. Here the stable field distribution in the x direction with only a periodic z dependence due to sinusoidally varying electric field in z direction is known as a mode. In a cylindrical fiber transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic (TM) modes are obtained which is bounded in two dimensions. Thus two integers (l & m) are necessary to specify the modes. Hybrid modes may also occur in the cylindrical fibers. These modes result from skew ray propagation and are designated by HElm when H makes a larger contribution to the transverse field and EHlm when E makes larger contribution to the transverse field.

Transmission Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cables: The transmission characteristics of optical fiber cables play a major role in determining the performance of the entire communication system. Attenuation and bandwidth are the two most important transmission characteristics when the suitability of optical fiber for communication is analysed. The various attenuation mechanisms are linear scattering, non linear scattering, material absorption and fiber bends etc. The bandwidth determines the number of bits of information transmitted in a given time period and is largely limited by signal dispersion within the fiber.

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT ALONG A FIBER

17

The concept of light propagation, the transmission of light along an optical fiber, can be described by two theories. According to the first theory, light is described as a simple ray. This theory is the ray theory, or geometrical optics, approach. The advantage of the ray approach is that you get a clearer picture of the propagation of light along a fiber. The ray theory is used to approximate the light acceptance and guiding properties of optical fibers. According to the second theory, light is described as an electromagnetic wave. This theory is the mode theory, or wave representation, approach. The mode theory describes the behavior of light within an optical fiber. The mode theory is useful in describing the optical fiber properties of absorption, attenuation, and dispersion. These fiber properties are discussed later in this chapter.

Ray Theory
Two types of rays can propagate along an optical fiber. The first type is called meridional rays. Meridional rays are rays that pass through the axis of the optical fiber. Meridional rays are used to illustrate the basic transmission properties of optical fibers. The second type is called skew rays. Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its axis. MERIDIONAL RAYS. - Meridional rays can be classified as bound or unbound rays. Bound rays remain in the core and propagate along the axis of the fiber. Bound rays propagate through the fiber by total internal reflection. Unbound rays are refracted out of the fiber core. Figure 2-10 shows a possible path taken by bound and unbound rays in a step-index fiber. The core of the step-index fiber has an index of refraction n1. The cladding of a step-index has an index of refraction n2, that is lower than n1. Figure 2-10 assumes the corecladding interface is perfect. However, imperfections at the core-cladding interface will cause part of the bound rays to be refracted out of the core into the cladding. The light rays refracted into the cladding will eventually escape from the fiber. In general, meridional rays follow the laws of reflection and refraction.

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It is known that bound rays propagate in fibers due to total internal reflection, but how do these light rays enter the fiber? Rays that enter the fiber must intersect the core-cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle (Θc). Only those rays that enter the fiber and strike the interface at these angles will propagate along the fiber. How a light ray is launched into a fiber is shown in figure 2-11. The incident ray I1 enters the fiber at the angle Θa. I1 is refracted upon entering the fiber and is transmitted to the core-cladding interface. The ray then strikes the core-cladding interface at the critical angle (Θ c). I1 is totally reflected back into the core and continues to propagate along the fiber. The incident ray I2 enters the fiber at an angle greater than Θa. Again, I2 is refracted upon entering the fiber and is transmitted to the core-cladding interface. I2 strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle less than the critical angle (Θc). I2 is refracted into the cladding and is eventually lost. The light ray incident on the fiber core must be within the acceptance cone defined by the angle Θa.

Types of Optical Fibers :

According to the refractive index profile optical fibers can be divided into two categories namely Step index fibers and Graded index fibers which are described below. 1 Step index fibers : If the refractive index profile of a fiber makes a step change at the core cladding interface then it is known as step index fiber. A multimode step index fiber is shown in figure7(a), the core diameter of which is around 50m. Some physical parameters like relative refractive index, index difference, core radius etc determines the

19

maximum number of guided modes possible in a multimode fiber. A single mode fiber has a core diameter of the order of 2 to 10m and the propagation of light wave is shown in figure7(b). It has the distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion over multimode step index fiber. On the other hand multimode step index fibers allow the use of spatially incoherent optical sources and low tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.

2 Graded index fibers : The graded index fibers have decreasing core index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the core radius a in the cladding as shown in figure8. The graded index fiber gives best results for multimode optical propagation for parabolic refractive index profile. Due to this special kind of refractive index profile multimode graded index fibers exhibit less intermodal dispersion than its counterpart i.e. multimode step index fibers

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Attenuation in Optical Fibers :

Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fiber with a lower attenuation, will allow more power to reach to the receiver than a fiber with higher attenuation. Signal attenuation within optical fiber is usually expressed in decibel per unit length (i.e. dB/km). Loss in decibel (dB) = 10 log(Pi/Po) where Pi and Po are the transmitted and output optical power respectively. Figure5 shows optical fiber attenuation as a function of wavelength. 1. Linear scattering losses : Through this mechanism a portion/total optical power within one propagating mode is transferred to another. Now when the transfer takes place to a leaky or radiation mode then the result is attenuation. It can be divided into two major categories namely Mie scattering and Rayleigh scattering. (a) Mie Scattering : Non perfect cylindrical structure of the fiber and imperfections like irregularities in the core-cladding interface, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles may create linear scattering which is termed as Mie scattering. (b) Rayleigh Scattering : The dominant reason behind Rayleigh scattering is refractive index fluctuations due to density and compositional variation in the core. It is the major intrinsic loss mechanism in the low impedance window. Rayleigh scattering can be reduced to a large extent by using longest possible wavelength. 2. Non linear scattering losses : Specially at high optical power levels scattering causes disproportionate attenuation, due to non linear behaviour. Because of this non linear scattering the optical power from one mode is transferred in either the forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at different frequencies. The two dominant types of non linear scattering are : a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering and b) Stimulated Raman Scattering.

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3. Material Absorption losses : When there happens to be some defect in the material composition and the fabrication process of optical fiber, there is dissipation of optical power in the form of heat in the waveguide. Here also there are two types of absorption losses in the fiber such as intrinsic absorption and extrinsic absorption. When the absorption is caused by interaction with one or more components of glass it is termed as intrinsic absorption whereas if it Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fiber. Absorption is defined as the portion of attenuation resulting from the conversion of optical power into another energy form, such as heat. Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:

Imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material The intrinsic or basic fiber-material properties The extrinsic (presence of impurities) fiber-material properties

Imperfections in the atomic structure induce absorption by the presence of missing molecules or oxygen defects. Absorption is also induced by the diffusion of hydrogen molecules into the glass fiber. Since intrinsic and extrinsic material properties are the main cause of absorption, they are discussed further. (a) Intrinsic Absorption. - Intrinsic absorption is caused by basic fiber-material properties. If an optical fiber were absolutely pure, with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of absorption. In fiber optics, silica (pure glass) fibers are used predominately. Silica fibers are used because of their low intrinsic material absorption at the wavelengths of operation. In silica glass, the wavelengths of operation range from 700 nanometers (nm) to 1600 nm. Figure 221 shows the level of attenuation at the wavelengths of operation. This wavelength of operation is between two

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intrinsic absorption regions. The first region is the ultraviolet region (below 400-nm wavelength). The second region is the infrared region (above 2000-nm wavelength).

Intrinsic absorption in the ultraviolet region is caused by electronic absorption bands. Basically, absorption occurs when a light particle (photon) interacts with an electron and excites it to a higher energy level. The tail of the ultraviolet absorption band is shown in figure 2-21. The main cause of intrinsic absorption in the infrared region is the characteristic vibration frequency of atomic bonds. In silica glass, absorption is caused by the vibration of silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bonds. The interaction between the vibrating bond and the electromagnetic field of the optical signal causes intrinsic absorption. Light energy is transferred from the electromagnetic field to the bond. The tail of the infrared absorption band is shown in figure 2-21. (b). Extrinsic Absorption. - Extrinsic absorption is caused by impurities introduced into the fiber material. Trace metal impurities, such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced into the fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one energy level to another. Extrinsic absorption also occurs when hydroxyl ions (OH-) are introduced into the fiber. Water in silica glass forms a silicon-hydroxyl (Si-OH) bond. This bond has a fundamental absorption at 2700 nm. However, the harmonics or overtones of the fundamental absorption occur in the region of operation. These harmonics 23

increase extrinsic absorption at 1383 nm, 1250 nm, and 950 nm. Figure 2-21 shows the presence of the three OH- harmonics. The level of the OH- harmonic absorption is also indicated. These absorption peaks define three regions or windows of preferred operation. The first window is centered at 850 nm. The second window is centered at 1300 nm. The third window is centered at 1550 nm. Fiber optic systems operate at wavelengths defined by one of these windows. The amount of water (OH-) impurities present in a fiber should be less than a few parts per billion. Fiber attenuation caused by extrinsic absorption is affected by the level of impurities (OH-) present in the fiber. If the amount of impurities in a fiber is reduced, then fiber attenuation is reduced. 3. BENDING LOSS. - Bending the fiber also causes attenuation. Bending loss is classified according to the bend radius of curvature: microbend loss or macrobend loss. Microbends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled. Macrobends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter. Microbend and macrobend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss caused by microbending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During installation, if fibers are bent too sharply, macrobend losses will occur. (a) Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections in the fiber. Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures increase microbend loss. External forces are also a source of microbends. An external force deforms the cabled jacket surrounding the fiber but causes only a small bend in the fiber. Microbends change the path that propagating modes take, as shown in figure 2-23. Microbend loss increases attenuation because low-order modes become coupled with high-order modes that are naturally lossy. Figure 2-23. - Microbend loss.

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(b) Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature is large compared to the fiber diameter. These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of curvature is less than several centimeters. Light propagating at the inner side of the bend travels a shorter distance than that on the outer side. To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must increase. When the fiber bend is less than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must increase to a speed greater than the speed of light. However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light. This condition causes some of the light within the fiber to be converted to high-order modes. These high-order modes are then lost or radiated out of the fiber. Fiber sensitivity to bending losses can be reduced. If the refractive index of the core is increased, then fiber sensitivity decreases. Sensitivity also decreases as the diameter of the overall fiber increases. However, increases in the fiber core diameter increase fiber sensitivity. Fibers with larger core size propagate more modes. These additional modes tend to be more lossy.

Dispersion
In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency,[1] or alternatively when the group velocity depends on the frequency. Media having such a property are termed dispersive media. Dispersion is sometimes called chromatic dispersion. There are generally two sources of dispersion: material dispersion and waveguide dispersion. Material dispersion comes from a frequencydependent response of a material to waves. (1) Intramodal Dispersion Intramodal, or chromatic, dispersion depends primarily on fiber materials. There are two types of intramodal dispersion. The first type is material dispersion. The second type is waveguide dispersion. Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds. (a)Material dispersion occurs because the spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction with the refractive index of the fiber core. Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fiber material. Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. Material dispersion is a function of the source spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can propagate in the fiber. Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths. (b)Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant (β) is a function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of operation. Waveguide dispersion also occurs because light propagates differently in the core than in the cladding. In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material

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dispersion are basically separate properties. Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to material dispersion. Waveguide dispersion is usually neglected. However, in single mode fibers, material and waveguide dispersion are interrelated. The total dispersion present in single mode fibers may be minimized by trading material and waveguide properties depending on the wavelength of operation.

2. Intermodal Dispersion Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread. The input light pulse is made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate along the fiber, light energy distributed among the modes is delayed by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the fiber at different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some modes travel longer distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode travels a different distance over the same time span, as shown in figure 2-25. The modes of a light pulse that enter the fiber at one time exit the fiber a different times. This condition causes the light pulse to spread. As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases. Figure 2-25. - Distance traveled by each mode over the same time span.

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Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers. Modal dispersion does not exist in single mode fibers. Single mode fibers propagate only the fundamental mode. Therefore, single mode fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total dispersion. Single mode fibers also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth

Unit-II OPTICAL FIBER SOURCES & CONNECTION

Light-emitting diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is an electronic light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many kinds of electronics and increasingly for lighting. LEDs work by the effect of electroluminescence, discovered by accident in 1907. The LED was introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962. [2] All early devices emitted low-intensity red light, but modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infra red wavelengths, with very high brightness.LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.[3]LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources.Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators but also for replacements for traditional light sources in general lighting, automotive lighting and traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology.

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Light Emitting Diode Structure

LEDs are p-n junction devices constructed of gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), or gallium phosphide (GaP). Silicon and germanium are not suitable because those junctions produce heat and no appreciable IR or visible light. The junction in an LED is forward biased and when electrons cross the junction from the n- to the p-type material, the electron-hole recombination process produces some photons in the IR or visible in a process called electroluminescence. An exposed semiconductor surface can then emit light

1. Dome LED
A hemisphere of n-type Ga As is formed around p-type dome. The diameter of dome is chosen to maximize the amount of internal emission reaching the surface within the critical angle. This device has high efficiency.

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2. Plannar LED

3. Basic Layer by Layer Structure

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4. Surface Emitter
In surface emitter the emitting area is defined by oxide isolation, with the metal contact area a circle of diameter ~ 10 m-15 m.The surface layer is kept as thin as possible (10-15 m) to minimise reabsorbtion

5. Homo- and Hetro-Junction

Homojunction = a p-n junction made out of two differently doped semiconductors that are of the same material (i.e having the same band gap). Heterojunction = junction formed between two different band gaps semiconductors. Heterostructure device = semiconductor device structure that has junctions between different bandgap materials

Double Heterojunction LED

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The double heterostructure is invariably used for optical sources for communication as seen in the figure in the pervious slide. Heterostucture can be used to increase:Efficiency by carrier confinement (band gap engineering)Efficiency by photon confinement (refractive index)The double heterostructure enables the source radiation to be much better defined, but further, the optical power generated per unit volume is much greater as well. If the central layer of a double heterostructure, the narrow band-gap region is made no more than 1 m wide.

6.Edge Emitter
In edge emitter a double heterostructure band gap engineering is used to achieve carrier confinement and recombination in an active layer but in addition layers of relatively low refractive index are included to produce optical guide. A large fraction of the photons are therefore confined between two plates of material and emerge at the edge of the device as highly directional flux compatible with coupling to a fibre optic cable.

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9.Electroluminescence in LEDs

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When the applied forward voltage on the diode of the LED drives the electrons and holes into the active region between the n-type and p-type material, the energy can be converted into infrared or visible photons. This implies that the electron-hole pair drops into a more stable bound state, releasing energy on the order of electron volts by emission of a photon. The red extreme of the visible spectrum, 700 nm, requires an energy release of 1.77 eV to provide the quantum energy of the photon. At the other extreme, 400 nm in the violet, 3.1 eV is required.

Characteristics of LED
1. The energy of an emitted photon = to the size of the band gap 2. The energy of an emitted photon from LED is distributed appropriately according to the distribution of electrons on the conduction band and holes in the valance band. energy

Quantum efficiency
Internal quantum efficiency can of some LED approaches 100% but the external efficiencies are III-V materials have small critical angles therefore the radiation emitted suffers from TIR
Poutput (optical ) IV

much lower. This is due to reabsorption and TIR.

external =

x100 %

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Fiber Alignment Technique

ALIGNMENT of an optical fiber within an optoelectronicmodule is a continuing challenge in photonics packagingand often dominates module cost. Ultimately, passivealignment and packaging techniques would be preferred fortheir simplicity. Passive systems utilizing silicon waferboardshave reported alignment accuracies of 12 m [1], yet thisaccuracy is achieved by increasing process controls. Thesetight fabrication and assembly tolerances complicate fabricationand increase the demands on pick-and-place machines,severely limiting throughput. Relaxing placement tolerancesfrom the 1- m level to 20- m level could potentially increasethroughput of a pick-and-place machine by an order of magnitude[2], but a mechanism for optimizing alignment withinthe package is then required.

34

Fiber Optical Splicing

Two optical fiber splicing methods are available for permanent joining of two optical fibers. Both methods provide much lower insertion loss compared to fiber connectors. 1. Fiber optic cable fusion splicing Insertion loss < 0.1dB 2. Fiber mechanical splicing Insertion loss < 0.5dB Fiber optic cable fusion splicing Fiber optic cable fusion splicing provides the lowest-loss connection. Special equipment called fusion splicer is used to perform the fiber fusion splicing. The fusion splicer performs optical fiber fusion splicing in two steps. 1. Precisely align the two fibers 2. Generate a small electric arc to melt the fibers and weld them together

35

High precision fusion splicers are usually bulky and expensive. With proper training, a fiber splicing technician can routinely achieve less than 0.1dB insertion loss splicing for both single mode and multimode fiber cables.

Fusion splicing

36

37

Mechanical Splicing

38

Optical fiber connector

An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables quicker connection and disconnection than splicing. The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so that light can pass. Most optical fiber connectors are spring-loaded: The fiber endfaces of the two connectors are pressed together, resulting in a direct glass to glass or plastic to plastic, respectively, contact, avoiding any glass to air or plastic to air interfaces, which would result in higher connector losses. A variety of optical fiber connectors are available. The main differences among types of connectors are dimensions and methods of mechanical coupling. Generally, organizations will standardize on one kind of connector, depending on what equipment they commonly use, or per type of fiber (one for multimode, one for singlemode). In datacom and telecom applications nowadays small form factor connectors (e.g. LC) and multifiber connectors (e.g. MTP) are replacing the traditional connectors (e.g. SC), mainly to pack more connectors on the overcrowded faceplate, and thus reducing the footprint of the systems.

39

40

UNIT-III OPTICAL DETECTORS

Introduction
A transducer is a device that converts input energy of one form into output energy of another. An optical detector is a transducer that converts an optical signal into an electrical signal. It does this by generating an electrical current proportional to the intensity of incident optical radiation. The relationship between the input optical radiation and the output electrical current is given by the detector responsivity. Responsivity is discussed later in this chapter. OPTICAL DETECTOR PROPERTIES Fiber optic communications systems require that optical detectors meet specific performance and compatibility requirements. Many of the requirements are similar to those of an optical source. Fiber optic systems require that optical detectors:

Be compatible in size to low-loss optical fibers to allow for efficient coupling and easy Have a high sensitivity at the operating wavelength of the optical source. Have a sufficiently short response time (sufficiently wide bandwidth) to handle the system's Contribute low amounts of noise to the system. Maintain stable operation in changing environmental conditions, such as temperature.

packaging.

data rate.

Optical detectors that meet many of these requirements and are suitable for fiber optic systems are semiconductor photodiodes. The principal optical detectors used in fiber optic systems include semiconductor positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiodes and avalanche photodiodes (APDs).
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL AND DEVICE PROPERTIES The mechanism by which optical detectors convert optical power into electrical current requires knowledge of semiconductor material and device properties. As stated in chapter 6, providing a complete description of these properties is beyond the scope of this manual. In this chapter we only discuss the general properties of semiconductor PINs and APDs.

41

Semiconductor detectors are designed so that optical energy (photons) incident on the detector active area produces a current. This current is called a photocurrent. The particular properties of the semiconductor are determined by the materials used and the layering of the materials within the device. Silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), germanium (Ge), and indium phosphide (InP) are the most common semiconductor materials used in optical detectors. In some cases aluminum (Al) and indium (In) are used as dopants in the base semiconductor material.

Responsivity
Responsivity is the ratio of the optical detector's output photocurrent in amperes to the incident optical power in watts. The responsivity of a detector is a function of the wavelength of the incident light and the efficiency of the device in responding to that wavelength. For a particular material, only photons of certain wavelengths will generate a photocurrent when they are absorbed. Additionally, the detector material absorbs some wavelengths better than others. These two properties cause the wavelength dependence in the detector responsivity. Responsivity is a useful parameter for characterizing detector performance because it relates the photocurrent generated to the incident optical power.

Quantum efficiency
Internal quantum efficiency can of some LED approaches 100% but the external efficiencies are III-V materials have small critical angles therefore the radiation emitted suffers from TIR
Poutput (optical ) IV

much lower. This is due to reabsorption and TIR.

external =

x100 %

PIN PHOTODIODES
A PIN photodiode is a semiconductor positive-negative (p-n) structure with an intrinsic region sandwiched between the other two regions (see figure 7-2). It is normally operated by applying a reverse-bias voltage. The

42

magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage depends on the photodiode application, but typically is less than a few volts. When no light is incident on the photodiode, a current is still produced. This current is called the dark current. The dark current is the leakage current that flows when a reverse bias is applied and no light is incident on the photodiode. Dark current is dependent on temperature. While dark current may initially be low, it will increase as the device temperature increases.
Figure - The basic structure of a PIN photodiode.

Response Time
There are several factors that influence the response time of a photodiode and its output circuitry . The most important of these are the thickness of the detector active area and the detector RC time constant. The detector thickness is related to the amount of time required for the electrons generated to flow out of the detector active area. This time is referred to as the electron transit time. The thicker the detector active area, the longer the transit time will be.

43

Figure photodiode.

- A schematic representation of a
.

AVALANCHE PHOTODIODES
An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a photodiode that internally amplifies the photocurrent by an avalanche process. In APDs, a large reverse-bias voltage, typically over 100 volts, is applied across the active region. This voltage causes the electrons initially generated by the incident photons to accelerate as they move through the APD active region. As these electrons collide with other electrons in the semiconductor material, they cause a fraction of them to become part of the photocurrent. This process is known as avalanche multiplication. Avalanche multiplication continues to occur until the electrons move out of the active area of the APD. Figure The basic structure of an APD.

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The gain of the APD can be changed by changing the reverse-bias voltage. A larger reverse-bias voltage results in a larger gain. However, a larger reverse-bias voltage also results in increased noise levels. Excess noise resulting from the avalanche multiplication process places a limit on the useful gain of the APD. The avalanche process introduces excess noise because every photogenerated carrier does not undergo the same multiplication. The noise properties of an APD are affected by the materials that the APD is made of. Typical semiconductor materials used in the construction of low-noise APDs include silicon (Si), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), and germanium (Ge). Trade-offs are made in APD design to optimize responsivity and gain, dark current, response time, and linearity. This chapter does not attempt to discuss trade-offs in APD design in more detail. Many aspects of the discussion provided on responsivity, dark current, and response time provided in the PIN photodiodes section also relate to APDs. The response time of an APD and its output circuitry depends on the same factors as PIN photodiodes. The only additional factor affecting the response time of an APD is the additional time required to complete the process of avalanche multiplication. To learn more about APD design trade-offs and performance parameters.

45

RECEIVER NOISE
Noise corrupts the transmitted signal in a fiber optic system. This means that noise sets a lower limit on the amount of optical power required for proper receiver operation. There are many sources of noise in fiber optic systems. They include the following:

Noise from the light source Noise from the interaction of light with the optical fiber Noise from the receiver itself

Because the intent of this chapter is to discuss optical detector and receiver properties, only noise associated with the photodetection process is discussed. Receiver noise includes thermal noise, dark current noise, and quantum noise. Noise is the main factor that limits receiver sensitivity. Noise introduced by the receiver is either signal dependent or signal independent. Signal dependent noise results from the random generation of electrons by the incident optical power. Signal independent noise is independent of the incident optical power level. Thermal noise is the noise resulting from the random motion of electrons in a conducting medium. Thermal noise arises from both the photodetector and the load resistor. Amplifier noise also contributes to thermal noise. A reduction in thermal noise is possible by increasing the value of the load resistor. However, increasing the value of the load resistor to reduce thermal noise reduces the receiver bandwidth. In APDs, the thermal noise is unaffected by the internal carrier multiplication. Shot noise is noise caused by current fluctuations because of the discrete nature of charge carriers. Dark current and quantum noises are two types of noise that manifest themselves as shot noise. Dark current noise results from dark current that continues to flow in the photodiode when there is no incident light. Dark current noise is independent of the optical signal. In addition, the discrete nature of the photodetection process creates a signal dependent shot noise called quantum noise. Quantum noise results from the random generation of electrons by the incident optical radiation. In APDs, the random nature of the avalanche process introduces an additional shot noise called excess noise. For further information on the excess noise resulting from the avalanche process, refer to the avalanche photodiode section.

PHOTODIODE MATERIAL
46

The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents. Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include[2]:

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than approximately 1 m. Unwanted photodiodes Since transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors, and contain P-N junctions, almost every active component is potentially a photodiode. Many components, especially those sensitive to small currents, will not work correctly if illuminated, due to the induced photocurrents. In most components this is not desired, so they are placed in an opaque housing. Since housings are not completely opaque to X-rays or other high energy radiation, these can still cause many ICs to malfunction due to induced photo-currents.

UNIT-IV OPTICAL MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION

47

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. It is a result of absorption, scattering, bending, and other loss mechanisms as described in chapter 3. Each loss mechanism contributes to the total amount of fiber attenuation. End users measure the total attenuation of a fiber at the operating wavelength (&lambda;). The total attenuation (A) between an arbitrary point X and point Y located on the fiber is

Px is the power output at point X. P y is the power output at point Y. Point X is assumed to be closer to the optical source than point Y. The total amount of attenuation will vary with changes in wavelength &lambda;. The attenuation coefficient (&alpha;) or attenuation rate, is

L is the distance between points X and Y. &alpha; is a positive number because Px is always larger than Py. The attenuation coefficient will also vary with changes in &lambda;. CUTBACK METHOD. - In laboratory situations, end users perform the cutback method for measuring the total attenuation of an optical fiber. The cutback method involves comparing the optical power transmitted through a long piece of test fiber to the power present at the beginning of the fiber. The cutback method for measuring multimode fiber attenuation is EIA/TIA-455-46. The cutback method for measuring single mode fiber attenuation is EIA/TIA-455-78. The basic measurement process is the same for both of these procedures. The test method requires that the test fiber of known length (L) be cut back to an approximate 2-m length. This cut back causes the destruction of 2-m of fiber. This method requires access to both fiber ends. Each fiber end should be properly prepared to make measurements. EIA/TIA-455-57 describes how to properly prepare fiber ends for measurement purposes. The cutback method begins by measuring, with an optical power meter, the output power P1 of the test fiber of known length (L) (figure 5-1, view A). Without disturbing the input light conditions, the test fiber is cut back to an approximate 2-m length. The output power P2 of the shortened test fiber is then measured (figure 5-1, view B). The fiber attenuation AT and the attenuation coefficient &alpha; are then calculated. Figure Cutback method for measuring fiber attenuation: A. Test measurement; B. Cut-back measurement

48

LAUNCH CONDITIONS. - Measurement personnel must pay attention to how optical power is launched into the fiber when measuring fiber attenuation. Different distributions of launch power (launch conditions) can result in different attenuation measurements. This is more of a problem with multimode fiber than single mode fiber. For single mode fiber, optical power must be launched only into the fundamental mode. This is accomplished using a mode filter on the fiber. For multimode fiber, the distribution of power among the modes of the fiber must be controlled. This is accomplished by controlling the launch spot size and angular distribution. The launch spot size is the area of the fiber face illuminated by the light beam from the optical source. The diameter of the spot depends on the size of the optical source and the properties of the optical elements (lenses, and so on) between the source and the fiber end face. The angular distribution is the angular extent of the light beam from the optical source incident on the fiber end face. The launch angular distribution also depends on the size of the optical source and the properties of the optical elements between the optical source and the fiber end face. Multimode optical fiber launch conditions are typically characterized as being underfilled or overfilled. An underfilled launch concentrates most of the optical power in the center of the fiber. An underfilled launch results when the launch spot size and angular distribution are smaller than that of the fiber core. Underfilling the fiber excites mainly low-order modes. Overfilling the fiber excites both low-order and high-order modes. An overfilled

49

launch condition occurs when the launch spot size and angular distribution are larger than that of the fiber core. Incident light that falls outside the fiber core is lost. In addition, light that is incident at angles greater than the angle of acceptance of the fiber core is lost. Figure . - Overfilled launch condition.

In attenuation measurements, cladding-mode strippers and mode filters eliminate the effects that high-order modes have on attenuation results. A cladding-mode stripper is a device that removes any cladding mode power from the fiber. Most cladding-mode strippers consist of a material with a refractive index greater than that of the fiber cladding. For most fibers, the fiber coating acts as an excellent cladding-mode stripper. A mode filter is a device that attenuates specific modes propagating in the core of an optical fiber. Mode filters generally involve wrapping the test fiber around a mandrel. For multimode, tight bends tend to remove high-order modes from the fiber. This type of mode filter is known as a mandrel wrap mode filter. For multimode fibers, mode filters remove high-order propagating modes and are individually tailored and adjusted for a specific fiber type. For single mode fibers, a mode filter is used to eliminate the second-order mode from propagating along the fiber. The propagation of the second-order mode will affect attenuation measurements. Fiber attenuation caused by the second-order mode depends on the operating wavelength, the fiber bend radius and length. The two most common types of mode filters are free-form loops and mandrel wraps.. Mandrel wraps for multimode fibers consist of several wraps (approximately 4 or 5) around a mandrel. A 20-mm

50

diameter mandrel is typically used for 62.5 &mu;m fiber. Mandrel wraps for single mode fibers consist of a single wrap around a 30-mm diameter mandrel. Another common mode filter for single mode fibers is a 30mm diameter circular free-form loop. Additional information on multimode and single mode filters (and launch conditions) is available in EIA/TIA-455-50 and EIA/TIA-455-77, respectively. Figure - Types of mode filters: A. Free-form loop; B. Mandrel-wrap.

Launch conditions significantly affect the results of multimode fiber attenuation measurements. If the fiber is underfilled, high-order-mode power loss has minimal effect on the measurement results. If too much power is launched into high-order modes, the high-order-mode power loss will dominate the attenuation results. Generally, fiber attenuation measurements are performed using an underfilled launch condition. Power in highorder modes is eliminated by either controlling the input spot size and angular distribution or using mode filters to remove high-order mode power.

MEASUREMENT OF CUT_OFF WAVE LENGTH

The wavelength at which a mode ceases to propagate is called the cutoff wavelength for that mode. However, an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one mode, the fundamental mode. The fundamental mode can never be cut off. The cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber is the wavelength above which the fiber propagates only the fundamental mode.

51

Determining the cutoff wavelength of a single mode fiber involves finding the wavelength above which the power transmitted through the fiber decreased abruptly. This power decrease occurs when the second-order mode propagating in the fiber is cut off. The cutoff wavelength of single mode fibers depends on the fiber length and bend conditions. The effects of length and bending are different on different fibers depending on whether they are matched-clad or depressed-clad in design. The cutoff wavelength of matched-clad fibers is more sensitive to bends than the cuttoff wavelength of depressed-clad fibers. The cutoff wavelength of depressed-clad fibers is more sensitive to length than the cutoff wavelength of matched-clad fibers. Cutoff wavelength may be measured on uncabled or cabled single mode fibers. A slightly different procedure is used in each case, but the basic measurement process is the same. The test method for uncabled single mode fiber cutoff wavelength is EIA/TIA-455-80. The test method for cabled single mode fiber cutoff wavelength is EIA/TIA-455-170. The fiber cutoff wavelength (&lambda;cf) measured under EIA/TIA-455-80 will generally be higher than the cable cutoff wavelength (&lambda;cc) measured under EIA/TIA-455-170. The difference is due to the fiber bends introduced during the cable manufacturing process. Each test method describes the test equipment (input optics, mode filters, and cladding-mode strippers) necessary for the test. Cutoff wavelength measurements require an overfilled launch over the full range of test wavelengths. Since the procedures for measuring the cutoff wavelength of uncabled and cabled single mode fibers are essentially the same, only the test method for measuring the cutoff wavelength of uncabled fiber is discussed. Measuring the cutoff wavelength involves comparing the transmitted power from the test fiber with that of a reference fiber at different wavelengths. The reference fiber can be the same piece of single mode fiber with small bends introduced or a piece of multimode fiber. If the same fiber with small bends is used as the reference fiber, the technique is called the <emphasis type="b.GIF">bend-reference technique</emphasis>. If a piece of multimode fiber is used as the reference fiber, the technique is called the multimode-reference technique. For both techniques, the test fiber is loosely supported in a single-turn with a constant radius of 140 mm. Figure 55 shows this single-turn configuration. The transmitted signal power P s (&lambda;) is then recorded while scanning the wavelength range in increments of 10 nm or less. The launch and detection conditions are not changed while scanning over the range of wavelengths. The wavelength range scanned encompasses the expected cutoff wavelength.

52

The reference power measurement is then made. For the bend-reference technique, the launch and detection conditions are not changed, but an additional bend is added to the test fiber. The test fiber is bent to a radius of 30 mm or less to suppress the second-order mode at all the scanned wavelengths. For the multimode-reference technique, the single mode fiber is replaced with a 2-m length of multimode fiber. The transmitted signal power P r(&lambda;) is recorded while scanning the same wavelength range in the same increments of 10 nm or less. The attenuation A(&lambda;) at each wavelength is calculated as follows:

53

Fiber cutoff wavelength determined by the multimode-reference technique

MEASUREMENT OF DISPERSION
Chromatic, or intramodal, dispersion occurs in both single mode and multimode optical fibers. Chromatic dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through the fiber at different speeds. Since the different colors of light have different velocities, some colors arrive at the fiber end before others. This delay difference is called the differential group delay &tau;(&lambda;) per unit length. This differential group delay leads to pulse broadening. Chromatic dispersion is measured using EIA/TIA-455-168 in the time domain. Chromatic dispersion is also measured in the frequency domain using EIA/TIA-455-169 and EIA/TIA-455175. These methods measure the composite optical fiber material and waveguide dispersion. To understand the contribution that material and waveguide dispersive mechanisms have on multimode and single mode fiber dispersion, refer to chapter 2. In this chapter we limit the discussion on chromatic dispersion to the time domain method described in EIA/TIA-455-168. The chromatic dispersion of multimode graded-index and single mode fiber is obtained by measuring fiber group delays in the time domain. These measurements are made using multiwavelength sources or multiple sources of different wavelengths. A multiwavelength source

54

could be a wavelength-selectable laser. The pulse delay for both a long test sample fiber and a short reference fiber are measured over a range of wavelengths. The pulse delay for the reference fiber as a function of wavelength is &tgr;in(&lambda;). The pulse delay for the test fiber as a function of wavelength is &tgr;
out

(&lambda;). The group delay &tgr;(&lambda;). per unit length at each wavelength is

where Ls is the test sample fiber length in kilometers (km) and Lref is the reference sample length in km.The fiber chromatic dispersion is defined as the derivative, or slope, of the fiber group delay curve with respect to wavelength. Generally, the group delay as a function of wavelength is fit to a simple mathematical function and the derivative calculated. The range of wavelengths over which meaningful data is obtained depends on the wavelength range of optical source(s) used. The zero-dispersion wavelength (&lambda;0) and the zero-dispersion slope (S0) are determined from the chromatic dispersion curve.

MEASUREMENT OF DIAMETER
Core diameter is measured using EIA/TIA-455-58. The core diameter is defined from the refractive index profile n(r) or the output near-field radiation pattern. Our discussion is limited to measuring the core diameter directly from the output near-field radiation pattern obtained using EIA/TIA-455-43. The near-field power distribution is defined as the emitted power per unit area (radiance) for each position in the plane of the emitting surface. For this chapter, the emitting surface is the output area of a fiber-end face. Near-field power distributions describe the emitted power per unit area in the near-field region. The near-field region is the region close to the fiber-end face. In the near-field region, the distance between the fiber-end face and detector is in the micrometers (&mu;m) range. EIA/TIA-455-43 describes the procedure for measuring the near-field power distribution of optical waveguides. Output optics, such as lenses, magnify the fiber-end face and focus the fiber's image on a movable detector. Figure 5-8 shows an example setup for measuring the near-field power distribution. The image is scanned in a plane by the movable detector. The image may also be scanned by using a detector array. Detector arrays of known element size and spacing may provide a display of the power distribution on a video monitor. A record of the near-field power is kept as a function of scan position.

55

Figure:The measurement of the near-field power distribution

Near-field radiation pattern

56

The core diameter (D) is defined as the diameter at which the intensity is 2.5 percent of the maximum intensity (see figure 5-9). The 2.5 percent points, or the 0.025 level, intersects the normalized curve at radial positions -a and a. The core diameter is simply equal to 2a (D=2a).

MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE

The numerical aperture (NA) is a measurement of the ability of an optical fiber to capture light. The NA can be defined from the refractive index profile or the output far-field radiation pattern. Our discussion is limited to measuring the NA from the output far-field radiation pattern. The NA of a multimode fiber having a nearparabolic refractive index profile is measured the fiber NA is measured from the output far-field radiation pattern. The far-field power distribution describes the emitted power per unit area in the far-field region. The far-field region is the region far from the fiber-end face. The far-field power distribution describes the emitted power per unit area as a function of angle &Theta; some distance away from the fiber-end face. The distance between the fiber-end face and detector in the far-field region is in the centimeters (cm) range for multimode fibers and millimeters (mm) range for single mode fibers. These procedures involve either an angular or spacial scan. Figure illustrates an angular and spacial scan for measuring the far-field power distribution. Field measurements differ from laboratory measurements because they measure the transmission properties of installed fiber optic components. Laboratory measurements can only attempt to simulate the actual operating conditions of installed components. Fiber optic component properties measured in the laboratory can change after the installation of these components on board ship. End users must perform field measurements to evaluate those properties most likely affected by the installation or repair of fiber optic components or systems. The discussion on field measurements is limited to optical fiber and optical connection properties. Optical fiber and optical connection field measurements evaluate only the transmission properties affected by component or system installation or repair. Because optical fiber geometrical properties, such as core and cladding diameter and numerical aperture, are not expected to change, there is no need to remeasure these properties. The optical fiber properties that are likely to change include fiber attenuation (loss) and bandwidth. Bandwidth changes in the field tend to be beneficial, so field bandwidth measurement is generally not performed. If field bandwidth measurements are required, they are essentially the same as laboratory measurements so they will not be

57

repeated. The optical connection properties that are likely to change are connection insertion loss and reflectance and return loss. The installation and repair of fiber optic components on board ship can affect system operation. Microbends introduced during installation can increase fiber attenuation. Modal redistribution at fiber joints can increase fiber attenuation in the fiber after the joint. Fiber breaks or faults can prevent or severely disrupt system operation. Poor fiber connections can also increase insertion loss and degrade transmitter and receiver performance by increasing reflectance and return loss. End users should perform field measurements to verify that component performance is within allowable limits so system performance is not adversely affected. There are additional differences in measuring optical fiber and optical connection properties in the field than in the laboratory. Field measurements require rugged, portable test equipment, unlike the sophisticated test equipment used in the laboratory. Field test equipment must provide accurate measurements in extreme environmental conditions. Since electrical power sources may not always be available in the field, test equipment should allow battery operation. In addition, while both fiber ends are available for conducting laboratory measurements, only one fiber end may be readily available for field measurements. Even if both fiber ends are available for field measurements, the fiber ends are normally located some distance apart. Therefore, field measurements may require two people. The main field measurement technique involves optical time-domain reflectometry. An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is recommended for conducting field measurements on installed optical fibers or links of 50 meters or more in length. An OTDR requires access to only one fiber end. An OTDR measures the attenuation of installed optical fibers as a function of length. It also identifies and evaluates optical connection losses along a cable link and locates any fiber breaks or faults. End users can also measure fiber attenuation and cable plant transmission loss using an optical power meter and a stabilized light source. End users use this measurement technique when optical time-domain reflectometry is not recommended. Measurements obtained with a stabilized light source and power meter are more accurate than those obtained with an OTDR. Measuring fiber attenuation and transmission loss using a power meter and light source requires access to both ends of the fiber or link. An optical loss test set (OLTS) combines the power meter and source functions into one physical unit

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The backscattering method was invented by M. Barnoskim and M. Jensen in 1976 [1], in time when technology of the optical fiber manufacturing was at early stages. The precise and reliable measurement of local losses on the fiber was very important for further improvement of quality of fibers. In the paper cited above the authors describe a new method for the loss distribution along the fiber. The basic idea of the proposed method consisted in launching a rather short and high power optical impulse into the tested fiber and a consequent detection of back scattered optical power as a response of the fiber to the test impulse. The detected signal provides the detail picture about the local loss distribution or reflections along the fiber caused by any of the attenuation mechanisms or some other nonhomogeneities on the fiber. An important feature of the method is non-destructivity and the fact that the access to only input end of the fiber is needed.The measurement of the time delay of the detected signal from the fiber end or from any perturbation on the fiber allows to derive the information about the perturbation localization provided that the index of refraction in the fiber core or group velocity of light propagation is known. In any point on the fiber the magnitude of the backscattered optical power is proportional to the local transmitted optical power. Due to the nonzero losses this power is gradually attenuated along the fiber and consequently also the backscattered power is also attenuated. The measurement of the backscattered power as a function of time or position on the fiber gives the information about the local distribution of the attenuation coefficient along the fiber. In this way one can evaluate the space distribution and magnitude of various non-homogeneities along the fiber like optical connectors, splicings, micro- and macro-bend losses and others measurand-perturbances. The comparison of the losses closely before and after point of interest makes possible to evaluate insertion losses of the various optical components on the fiber link.

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UNIT-V LASER
Principles of Lasers Spontaneous Emission, Stimulated Absorption and Emission

Atoms at higher energy levels tend to, or spontaneously jump to lower energy levels, in the same time they give out the electromagnetic radiation having the energy equal to the difference between the two energy levels. This is called spontaneous decay or spontaneous emission. The emission frequency is decided by: hn = E2 - E1, E2>E1 All objects above absolute zero temperature have spontaneous emission. At thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms at different energy levels obeys the Boltzmann population distribution equation: N2= N1 exp[-(E2-E1)/kT] Where N2 and N1 are numbers of atoms at energy state E2 and E1 repectively. Since E2>E1, N2/N1 at thermal equilibrium will be less than one. This is the normal population distribution. If N2>N1, we say population inversion exists.

60

Spontaneous radiation is only one of the two forms of atomic relaxation or decay, the other is non-radiation relaxation processes like collision, thermal dissipation, etc. So the total decay time of E2 to E1 is composed of both radiative and non-radiative parts, T21=Trad,21+Tnr,21. Stimulated transitions are essential for lasers to work. Lets analyze the following experiment. We incident broadband light on a collection of atoms, and use the grating spectrometer to measure the light passing through the medium. We will find that the detected light energy distribution with wavelength has changed from a relative smooth curve to a curve with discrete absorption lines, see the figure below.

This indicates that the atoms absorb the incident energy at certain frequencies. When the atoms at lower energy levels absorb the incident energy with corresponding frequency, they jump to upper level states, this is called Stimulated Absorption. This process reduces the lower level population and increases the upper level population. In the same time, under the action of the incident electromagnetic field with the corresponding frequency, the atoms at upper level have the same possibility to jump to the corresponding lower levels, emitting electromagnetic waves or photons with the same frequency, direction and phase with the incident waves. This process is called Stimulated Emission. Stimulated emission reduces the upper level population, increases the lower level population. Another very important thing is that it also coherently increases the incident EM wave, it transfers the pumping or incident energy into light energy! One incident photon after stimulated emission becomes two photons with same frequency, direction and phase. If this process can dominate over absorption processes, the coherent light can be amplified, i.e., becomes more and more intense with time. Then the Laser Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation occurs. Arent you excited? But under normal conditions, we could not get laser. Why? The reason is: the lower level and upper level atoms have the same chance to jump upward or downward, the upward transition absorbs the incident energy,

61

downward transition amplifies the incident energy, so it is the population difference between the two levels that decides whether there can exist a net amplification of the incident energy. At thermal equilibrium of normal conditions, the upper level atom population is always less than the lower level atom population, so the stimulating radiation can only attenuate when it interacts with the medium. We must first make the upper level population larger than the lower level to generate laser light, i.e., we must create Population Inversion first.

Rate Equations and Population Inversion

Two-level Atomic System
Lets first examine the two-level atomic system. Pumping process provides the incident radiation satisfying hn = E2 - E1, E2>E1. Lets define W12 as the possibility of atoms jumping from E1 to E2 because of stimulated absorption, define W21 as the possibility of atoms jumping from E2 to E1 because of stimulated emission, define w12 and w21 as the corresponding relaxation or decay rate (including both spontaneous radiation rate and non-radiation decay rate). Then the rate equations for two-level atomic system are:

N is the total atom number, N=N1-N2 is the population difference. T1 is the population recovery time or energy relaxation time of the system. We also define N10 and N20 as the atom population at thermal equilibrium, N0=N10-N20 as the population difference at thermal equilibrium. Note also W12=W21. After some operation, we get:

At steady state, i.e., when N doesnt change with time, we get:

N0 is bigger than zero, W12 is closely related with the incident signal and the stronger the incident signal, the bigger the W12, W12>0. From the above equation we see, for a two-level atomic system, the incident signal will make the population difference N approach zero when the signal is bigger enough, but no population inversion occurs! The best it can go is at steady state or at saturation, the population difference becomes 0.1 62

The conclusion is: to get population inversion, we must use atomic systems with more than two related energy levels.

Three-level Laser System

Now lets examine the three level laser system.

For the three-level laser system, E1 is the ground state, lasing is between E2 and E1. Ruby laser is a typical three level laser system. Supposing the pumping process produces a stimulated transition probability between E1 and E3, W13=W31=Wp. Atoms at E3 have fast decay time T32, i.e., atoms at E3 decay to E2 in a very short time T32. Atoms at E2 have a relatively slow transition time T21, i.e., atoms at E2 will take a longer time to change to E1 than atoms from E3 to E2. Also we have N=N1+N2+N3. So we have rate equations for three level laser systems:

At steady state, the population difference between E2 and E1 is: 63

From above we see, for population inversion to occur, i.e., for N2-N1>0, the pumping rate Wp must satisfy: WpT21>1/(1-b ). If we assume the atoms at E3 decay to E2 immediately, thus b =0, then at steady state, we have:

Conclusion: population inversion is possible for a three level atomic system. The condition is: T32<<T21 and the pumping rate must be bigger than a positive threshold value. Because N1 is the ground level, N1 is always very big in the beginning. Population inversion starts after half of the ground level atoms being pumped to the E2 level. So three-level laser system is not very efficient, present lasers are usually four-level or more level systems. Now lets see what advantages the four-level laser systems have over three-level systems

Four-level Laser System

Nd:YAG laser is a four level laser system. Look at the four level laser model below.

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We have E1, N1 at the ground level, pumping process raise the atoms from E1 to E4, pumping rate is Wp=W14=W41. Atoms at E4 have fast decay to E3, decay time is T43. Lasing happens between E3 and E2, the transmission time is Trad. Atoms at E2 then decay very fast to E1, the decay time is T21. We have the relation: N=N1+N2+N3+N4. Then we have rate equations for four-level laser systems:

For simplification, we assume T43 is short enough that the pumped atoms to E4 immediately decay to E3, N4 is nearly 0. Also atoms at E2 decay so fast that we can say N2 is nearly zero. Lets examine population inversion between N3 and N2. We list the conclusion here:

Since b 0 for a four level system, N3-N2 is readily bigger than zero. There is almost no threshold for Wp to generate population conversion. The advantage of four-level laser system is very clear now. Up to now we have discussed population inversion conditions by analyzing the pumping rate equations. We have to make a statement here: we make some simplifications to make the material easily understood. The actual detailed rate equations are far more complex than we see here, we suggest the interested readers refer books on principles of lasers for further questions. When we get population inversion, our next step is to analyze the amplification of incident waves.

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Optical feedback
Optical feedback is the optical equivalent of acoustic feedback. The feedback occurs when a loop exists between an optical input, for example, a videocamera, and an optical output, for example, a television screen or monitor. (A simple example of optical feedback is an image cast between mirrors.)In this GIF movie, and the JPG still image examples (right), light from a candle is received by a videocamera, amplified and then sent by cable to a monitor projecting electron beams on the inside of the monitor screen. The image on the monitor is then captured by the videocamera again, and fed back to the monitor in a continuous loop.The original light source, in this case from the candle, can then be extinguished, while the feedback loop continues. For each loop the image is doubled and the image interferes with itself. The electronic loop moves with near light speed, but as the resulting image is projected onto the phosphor dots on the inside of the screen by the electron beam, the phosphor points take time to begin and stop glowing, and this creates a persistence which prevents the patterns changing too fast, and thus they survive long enough to be perceived.The resulting images depend on different camera and monitor settings, such as light amplification, contrast, distance, angle and physical vibrations. Optical feedback can be combined with music, or other sound sources, to influence the image loop.

Lasing threshold

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The lasing threshold is the lowest excitation level at which a laser's output is dominated by stimulated emission rather than by spontaneous emission. Below the threshold, the laser's output power rises slowly with increasing excitation. Above threshold, the slope of power vs. excitation is orders of magnitude greater. The linewidth of the laser's emission also becomes orders of magnitude smaller above the threshold than it is below. Above the threshold, the laser is said to be lasing. The term "lasing" is a back formation from "laser," which is an acronym, not an agent noun.

Q-switching:
Q-switching:sometimes known as giant pulse formation, is a technique by which a laser can be made to produce a pulsed output beam. The technique allows the production of light pulses with extremely high (gigawatt) peak power, much higher than would be produced by the same laser if it were operating in a continuous wave (constant output) mode. Compared to modelocking, another technique for pulse generation with lasers, Q-switching leads to much lower pulse repetition rates, much higher pulse energies, and much longer pulse durations. Both techniques are sometimes applied at once.

Principle of Q-switching Q-switching is achieved by putting some type of variable attenuator inside the laser's optical resonator. When the attenuator is functioning, light which leaves the gain medium does not return, and lasing cannot begin. This attenuation inside the cavity corresponds to a decrease in the Q factor or quality factor of the optical resonator. A high Q factor corresponds to low resonator losses per roundtrip, and vice versa. The variable attenuator is commonly called a "Q-switch", when used for this purpose. Initially the laser medium is pumped while the Q-switch is set to prevent feedback of light into the gain medium (producing an optical resonator with low Q). This produces a population inversion, but laser operation cannot yet occur since there is no feedback from the resonator. Since the rate of stimulated emission is dependent on the amount of light entering the medium, the amount of energy stored in the gain medium increases as the medium is pumped. Due to losses from spontaneous emission and other processes, after a certain time the stored energy will reach some maximum level; the medium is said to be gain saturated. At this point, the Q-switch device is quickly changed from low to high Q, allowing feedback and the process of optical amplification by stimulated emission to begin. Because of the large amount of energy already stored in the gain medium, the intensity of light in the laser resonator builds up very quickly; this also causes the energy stored in 67

the medium to be depleted almost as quickly. The net result is a short pulse of light output from the laser, known as a giant pulse, which may have a very high peak intensity. There are two main types of Q-switching: Active Q-switching Here, the Q-switch is an externally-controlled variable attenuator. This may be a mechanical device such as a shutter, chopper wheel or spinning mirror placed inside the cavity, or (more commonly) it may be some form of modulator such as an acousto-optic device or an electro-optic device a Pockels cell or Kerr cell. The reduction of losses (increase of Q) is triggered by an external event, typically an electrical signal. The pulse repetition rate can therefore be externally controlled. Modulators generally allow a faster transition from low to high Q, and provide better control. An additional advantage of modulators is that the rejected light may be coupled out of the cavity and can be used for something else. Alternatively, when the modulator is in its low-Q state, an externally-generated beam can be coupled into the cavity through the modulator. This can be used to "seed" the cavity with a beam that has desired characteristics (such as transverse mode or wavelength). When the Q is raised, lasing builds up from the initial seed, producing a Q-switched pulse that has characteristics inherited from the seed. Passive Q-switching In this case, the Q-switch is a saturable absorber, a material whose transmission increases when the intensity of light exceeds some threshold. The material may be an ion-doped crystal like Cr:YAG, which is used for Qswitching of Nd:YAG lasers, a bleachable dye, or a passive semiconductor device. Initially, the loss of the absorber is high, but still low enough to permit some lasing once a large amount of energy is stored in the gain medium. As the laser power increases, it saturates the absorber, i.e., rapidly reduces the resonator loss, so that the power can increase even faster. Ideally, this brings the absorber into a state with low losses to allow efficient extraction of the stored energy by the laser pulse. After the pulse, the absorber recovers to its highloss state before the gain recovers, so that the next pulse is delayed until the energy in the gain medium is fully replenished. The pulse repetition rate can only indirectly be controlled, e.g. by varying the laser's pump power and the amount of saturable absorber in the cavity. Direct control of the repetition rate can be achieved by using a pulsed pump source as well as passive Q-switching.

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Applications
Q-switched lasers are often used in applications which demand high laser intensities in nanosecond pulses, such metal cutting or pulsed holography. Nonlinear optics often takes advantage of the high peak powers of these lasers, offering applications such as 3D optical data storage and 3D microfabrication. However, Qswitched lasers can also be used for measurement purposes, such as for distance measurements (range finding) by measuring the time it takes for the pulse to get to some target and the reflected light to get back to the sender. Q-switched lasers are also used to remove tattoos. They are used to shatter tattoo pigment into particles that are cleared by the body's lymphatic system. Full removal takes an average of eight treatments, spaced at least a month apart, using different wavelengths for different colored inks.

Mode-locking

Mode-locking is a technique in optics by which a laser can be made to produce pulses of light of extremely short duration, on the order of picoseconds (10-12s) or femtoseconds (10-15s).The basis of the technique is to induce a fixed phase relationship between the modes of the laser's resonant cavity. The laser is then said to be phase-locked or mode-locked. Interference between these modes causes the laser light to be produced as a train of pulses. Depending on the properties of the laser, these pulses may be of extremely brief duration, as short as a few femtoseconds.

Laser cavity modes

Although laser light is perhaps the purest form of light, it is not of a single, pure frequency or wavelength. All lasers produce light over some natural bandwidth or range of frequencies. A laser's bandwidth of operation is determined primarily by the gain medium that the laser is constructed from, and the range of frequencies that a laser may operate over is known as the gain bandwidth. For example, a typical helium-neon (HeNe) gas laser has a gain bandwidth of approximately 1.5 GHz (a wavelength range of about 0.002 nm at a central wavelength of 633 nm), whereas a titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:Sapphire) solid-state laser has a bandwidth of about 128 THz (a 300 nm wavelength range centred around 800 nm).The second factor that determines a laser's emission frequencies is the optical cavity or resonant cavity of the laser. In the simplest case, this

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consists of two plane (flat) mirrors facing each other, surrounding the gain medium of the laser (this arrangement is known as a Fabry-Perot cavity). Since light is a wave, when bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity the light will constructively and destructively interfere with itself, leading to the formation of standing waves between the mirrors.

These standing waves form a discrete set of frequencies, known as the longitudinal modes of the cavity. These modes are the only frequencies of light which are self-regenerating and allowed to oscillate by the resonant cavity; all other frequencies of light are suppressed by destructive interference. For a simple plane-mirror cavity, the allowed modes are those for which the separation distance of the mirrors L is an exact multiple of half the wavelength of the light , such that L = q /2, when q is an integer known as the mode order. In practice, the separation distance of the mirrors L is usually much greater than the wavelength of light , so the relevant values of q are large (around 105 to 106). Of more interest is the frequency separation between any two adjacent modes q and q+1; this is given (for an empty linear resonator of length L) by : where c is the speed of light (3108 ms1).

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Mode-locking theory
In a simple laser, each of these modes will oscillate independently, with no fixed relationship between each other, in essence like a set of independent lasers all emitting light at slightly different frequencies. The individual phase of the light waves in each mode is not fixed, and may vary randomly due to such things as thermal changes in materials of the laser. In lasers with only a few oscillating modes, interference between the modes can cause beating effects in the laser output, leading to random fluctuations in intensity; in lasers with many thousands of modes, these interference effects tend to average to a near-constant output intensity, and the laser operation is known as a c.w. or continuous wave.If instead of oscillating independently, each mode operates with a fixed phase between it and the other modes, the laser output behaves quite differently. Instead of a random or constant output intensity, the modes of the laser will periodically all constructively interfere with one another, producing an intense burst or pulse of light. Such a laser is said to be mode-locked or phaselocked. These pulses occur separated in time by = 2L/c, where is the time taken for the light to make exactly one round trip of the laser cavity. This time corresponds to a frequency exactly equal to the mode spacing of the laser, = 1/.

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The duration of each pulse of light is determined by the number of modes which are oscillating in phase (in a real laser, it is not necessarily true that all of the laser's modes will be phase-locked). If there are N modes locked with a frequency separation , the overall mode-locked bandwidth is N, and the wider this bandwidth, the shorter the pulse duration from the laser. In practice, the actual pulse duration is determined by the shape of each pulse, which is in turn determined by the exact amplitude and phase relationship of each longitudinal mode. For example, for a laser producing pulses with a Gaussian temporal shape, the minimum possible pulse duration t is given byThe value 0.44 is known as the time-bandwidth product of the pulse, and varies depending on the pulse shape. For ultrashort pulse lasers, a hyperbolic-secant-squared (sech2) pulse shape is often assumed, giving a time-bandwidth product of 0.315.Using this equation, we can calculate the minimum pulse duration which can be produced by a laser. For the HeNe laser with a 1.5 GHz bandwidth, the shortest Gaussian pulse which can be produced would be around 300 picoseconds; for the 128 THz bandwidth Ti:sapphire laser, this duration would be only 3.4 femtoseconds. These values represent the shortest possible Gaussian pulses supported by the laser's bandwidth; in a real mode-locked laser, the actual pulse duration depends on many other factors, such as the actual pulse shape, and the overall dispersion of the cavity.

Mode-locking methods
Methods for producing mode-locking in a laser may be classified as either active or passive. Active methods typically involve using an external signal to induce a modulation of the intra-cavity light. Passive methods do not use an external signal, but rely on placing some element into the laser cavity which causes self-modulation of the light. Active mode-locking The most common active mode-locking technique places an electro-optic modulator into the laser cavity. When driven with an electrical signal, this produces a sinusoidal phase modulation of the light in the cavity. Considering this in the frequency domain, if a mode has optical frequency , and is phase-modulated at a frequency f, the resulting signal has sidebands at optical frequencies -f and +f. If the modulator is driven at the same frequency as the cavity-mode spacing , then these sidebands correspond to the two cavity modes adjacent to the original mode. Since the sidebands are driven in-phase, the central mode and the adjacent modes will be phase-locked together. Further operation of the modulator on the sidebands produces phaselocking of the -2f and +2f modes, and so on until all modes in the gain bandwidth are locked. As said above, typical lasers are multi-mode and not seeded by a root mode. So multiple modes need to work out which phase to use. In a passive cavity with this locking applied there is no way to dump the entropy given by the original independent phases. This locking is better described as a coupling, leading to a complicated behavior and not

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clean pulses. The coupling is only dissipative because of the dissipative nature of the amplitude modulation. Otherwise the phase modulation would not work.Related to this amplitude modulation (AM) active modelocking is frequency modulation (FM) mode-locking, which uses a standing wave modulator device based on the acousto-optic effect. This device, when placed in a laser cavity and driven with an electrical signal, induces a small, sinusoidally varying frequency shift in the light passing through it. If the frequency of modulation is matched to the round-trip time of the cavity, then some light in the cavity sees repeated up-shifts in frequency, and some repeated down-shifts. After many repetitions, the up-shifted and down-shifted light is swept out of the gain bandwidth of the laser. The only light which is unaffected is that which passes through the modulator when the induced frequency shift is zero, which forms a narrow pulse of light. This process can also be considered in the time domain. The amplitude modulator acts as a weak shutter to the light bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity, attenuating the light when it is "closed", and letting it through when it is "open". If the modulation rate f is synchronised to the cavity round-trip time , then a single pulse of light will bounce back and forth in the cavity. The actual strength of the modulation does not have to be large; a modulator that attenuates 1% of the light when "closed" will mode-lock a laser, since the same part of the light is repeatedly attenuated as it traverses the cavity. The third method of active mode-locking is synchronous mode-locking, or synchronous pumping. In this, the pump source (energy source) for the laser is itself modulated, effectively turning the laser on and off to produce pulses. Typically, the pump source is itself another mode-locked laser. This technique requires accurately matching the cavity lengths of the pump laser and the driven laser.

Passive mode-locking Passive mode-locking techniques are those that do not require a signal external to the laser (such as the driving signal of a modulator) to produce pulses. Rather, they use the light in the cavity to cause a change in some intracavity element, which will then itself produce a change in the intracavity light. The most common type of device which will do this is a saturable absorber.A saturable absorber is an optical device that exhibits an intensity-dependent transmission. What this means is that the device behaves differently depending on the intensity of the light passing through it. For passive mode-locking, ideally a saturable absorber will selectively absorb low-intensity light, and transmit ligh t which is of sufficiently high intensity.When placed in a laser cavity, a saturable absorber will attenuate low73

intensity constant wave light (pulse wings). However, because of the somewhat random intensity fluctuations experienced by an un-mode-locked laser, any random, intense spike will be transmitted preferenti ally by the saturable absorber. As the light in the cavity oscillates, this process repeats, leading to the selective amplification of the high-intensity spikes, and the absorption of the low-intensity light. After many round trips, this leads to a train of pulses and mode-locking of the laser.Considering this in the frequency domain, if a mode has optical frequency , and is amplitude-modulated at a frequency n f, the resulting signal has sidebands at optical frequencies - n f and + n f and enables much stronger mode-locking for shorter pulses and more stability than active mode-locking, but has startup problems. Saturable absorbers are commonly liquid organic dyes, but they can also be made from doped crystals and semiconductors. Semiconductor absorbers tend to exhibit very fast response times (~100 fs), which is one of the factors that determines the final duration of the pulses in a passively mode-locked laser. In a collidingpulse mode-locked laser the absorber steepens the leading edge while the lasing medium steepens the trailing edge of the pulse. There are also passive mode-locking schemes that do not rely on materials that directly display an intensity dependent absorption. In these methods, nonlinear optical effects in intra-cavity components are used to provide a method of selectively amplifying high-intensity light in the cavity, and attenuation of low-intensity light. One of the most successful schemes is called Kerr-lens mode-locking (KLM), also sometimes called "self mode-locking". This uses a nonlinear optical process, the optical Kerr effect, which results in high-intensity light being focussed differently than low-intensity light. By careful arrangement of an aperture in the laser cavity, this effect can be exploited to produce the equivalent of an ultra-fast response time saturable absorber.

APPLICATION OF LASER
Holography (from the Greek, -hlos whole + -graf writing, drawing) is a technique that allows the light scattered from an object to be recorded and later reconstructed so that it appears as if the object is in the same position relative to the recording medium as it was when recorded. The image changes as the position and orientation of the viewing system changes in exactly the same way as if the object were still present, thus making the recorded image (hologram) appear three dimensional.In holography, some of the light scattered from an object or a set of objects falls on the recording medium. A second light beam, known as the reference beam, also illuminates the recording medium, so that interference occurs between the two beams. The resulting light field is an apparently random pattern of varying intensity which is the hologram. It can be shown that if the hologram is illuminated by the original reference beam, a light field is diffracted by the reference beam

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which is identical to the light field which was scattered by the object or objects. Thus, someone looking into the hologram 'sees' the objects even though it may no longer be present. There are a variety of recording materials which can be used, including photographic film.

Point sources

Holographic reconstruction process

A slightly more complicated hologram can be made using a point source of light as object beam and a plane wave as reference beam to illuminate the photographic plate. An interference pattern is formed which in this case is in the form of curves of decreasing separation with increasing distance from the centre.The photographic plate is developed giving a complicated pattern which can be considered to be made up of a diffraction pattern of varying spacing. When the plate is illuminated by the reference beam alone, it is diffracted by the grating into different angles which depend on the local spacing of the pattern on the plate. It can be shown that the net effect of this is to reconstruct the object beam, so that it appears that light is coming from a point source behind the plate, even when the source has been removed. The light emerging from the photographic plate is identical to the light that emerged from the point source that used to be there. An observer looking into the plate from the other side will "see" a point source of light whether the original source of light is there or not.This sort of hologram is effectively a concave lens, since it "converts" a plane wavefront

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into a divergent wavefront. It will also increase the divergence of any wave which is incident on it in exactly the same way as a normal lens does. Its focal length is the distance between the point source and the plate

Distance Measurements with Lasers

The prevalent method to determine distance to an object or surface is to use laser pulses. The primary difference between lidar and radar is lidar uses much shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically in the ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared range. In general it is possible to image a feature or object only about the same size as the wavelength, or larger. Thus lidar is highly sensitive to aerosols and cloud particles and has many applications in atmospheric research and meteorology[1]. general there are two kinds of lidar detection schema: "incoherent" or direct energy detection (which is principally an amplitude measurement) and Coherent detection (which is best for doppler, or phase sensitive measurements). Coherent systems generally use Optical heterodyne detection which being more sensitive than direct detection allows them to operate a much lower power but at the expense of more complex transceiver requirements.

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In both coherent and incoherent LIDAR, there are two types of pulse models: micropulse lidar systems and high energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a result of the ever increasing amount of computer power available combined with advances in laser technology. They use considerably less energy in the laser, typically on the order of one microjoule, and are often "eye-safe," meaning they can be used without safety precautions. High-power systems are common in atmospheric research, where they are widely used for measuring many atmospheric parameters: the height, layering and densities of clouds, cloud particle properties (extinction coefficient, backscatter coefficient, depolarization), temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, trace gas concentration (ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.)[1]. There are several major components to a lidar system: 1. Laser 600-1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. They are

inexpensive but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the maximum power is limited by the need to make them eye-safe. Eye-safety is often a requirement for most applications. A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe at much higher power levels since this wavelength is not focused by the eye, but the detector technology is less advanced and so these wavelengths are generally used at longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also used for military applications as 1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the shorter 1000 nm infrared laser. Airborne topographic mapping lidars generally use 1064 nm diode pumped YAG lasers, while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm frequency doubled diode pumped YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with much less attenuation than does 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate (which controls the data collection speed). Pulse length is generally an attribute of the laser cavity length, the number of passes required through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.), and Q-switch speed. Better target resolution is achieved with shorter pulses, provided the Lidar receiver detectors and electronics have sufficient bandwidth[1]. 2. Scanner and optics How fast images can be developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating plane mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution and range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are options to collect a return signal. 3. Photodetector and receiver electronics Two main photodetector technologies are used in lidars: solid state photodetectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the receiver is another parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design. 4. Position and navigation systems Lidar sensors that are mounted on mobile platforms such as airplanes or satellites require instrumentation to determine the absolute position and orientation of the

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sensor. Such devices generally include a Global Positioning System receiver and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).

Velocity Measurement using Laser Doppler Velocimeter

Introduction
Measurement of instantaneous point velocities in water is of very importance in two types of studies in hydraulics viz. (i) boundary layer studies, in which point velocities are measured close to a solid boundary and, (ii) turbulence studies, in which the random fluctuations of velocity at a point are to be measured. Only two types of instrument are used for the measurement of instantaneous point velocities in such fields: (i) Hot film anemometer; and (ii) Laser Doppler velocimeter.

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The Hot film anemometer represents a complicated technique of measurement, which often gives erroneous results as the measurement is affected by changes in ambient temperature, turbidity of water etc. For this reason, the simple and more reliable technique represented by the Laser Doppler velocimeter is generally used. The Laser Doppler velocimeter represents a unique no-probe technique of measuring the instantaneous point velocities in a fluid flow. It was developed around the year 1968 as a result of research work carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, U.S.A. The instrument in the Hydraulic and Water Resource Engineering Laboratory IIT Madras was locally built in 1974 by Jayaraman and later on it was modified in 1995 1997. Principle of the Instrument The instrument measures the velocity at a point in the fluid, flowing in a glass walled conduit or channel, by detecting the Doppler shift in the frequency of the scattered light originating from minute suspended particles in the flow that happen to cross the point of measurement defined by two intersecting laser beams. The laser source is used as it gives a narrow, intense and truly parallel (i.e. highly collimated) light beam of high spectral purity (i.e. very low spectral bandwidth). The salient features of this instrument are (i) No physical probe is required, to obstruct the flow. (ii) Excellent spatial resolution, (the measuring volume is of the order of 0.02 mm3 (iii) No transfer function is involved, the output voltage is linearly related to the Doppler frequency which in turn, is linearly related to flow velocity. (iv) Very fast response to fluctuating velocities, the typical frequency response going upto 50 kHz for a Doppler frequency of 1 MHz. (v) Can be used in both gas and liquid flows.

Theory of Measurement
Consider a light beam of wavelength crossing a flow stream at an angle with direction of flow (Figure). When illuminated by the light beam suspended particles in the flow will scatter light in all directions. This scattered behaves as though it originated from moving particles, and hence is Doppler-shifted with reference to the frequency ofthe incident light.

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can be shown that if the scattered light is picked up at an angle with the direction of the incident light beam, the Doppler shift fD is given by D ( ) f = v cos -1 cos - sin sin in which v is the flow velocity. It may be noted that when = 0, fD= 0 . For small values of (i.e., less than 10 degrees), increases as increases.

Instrumental set-up
The instrument can be set up in either of two modes of measurements, namely, the Reference beam mode and the interference fringe mode. Fig. 2 shows the set-up in the reference beam mode.

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The instrument has four components (i) Laser source Helium-neon, (ii) Beam splitter; (iii) Light pick-up unit; and (iv) Signalprocessor. By means of a Beam splitter the light from a 2 mill watt Helium-Neon laser issplit up into a strong (95% power) scattering beam and a weak (5% power) referencebeam. The beam inclination could be raised using adjustment scale (provided inbeam splitter) and also the intensity of reference beam could be attenuated by means ofa lens in the beam splitterThe two beams, which are kept equally inclined to the flowdirection, are made to intersect at the point of velocity measurement in the channel.When illuminated by the strong scattered beam minute suspended particles in the flowmicrons. Too fine particles will lead to Brownian motion, whereas too large particles willncrease the system noise by excessive masking of the light picked up. Ordinary tapwater contains adequate fine suspended particles to provide enough scattering. Thepresence of large particles, (which is not desirable) in water is indicated by theintermittent glittering of the laser beam. The light scattered by suspended particles inDoppler-shifted. The magnitude of the shift depends on the direction in which it is pickedup. On the other side of the channel, the light pick-up unit is so positioned, and itselescope so focused, that it picks up the reference beam as well as scattered light inthe same direction originating from the point of intersection of the two beams. The lightis focused on ta tiny electronic device called P.I.N. photodiode, where optical mixing takes place and a weak electrical signal, (the Doppler signal) emerges, having afrequency equal to the Doppler shift. The Light pick-up unit contains a built-ipreamplifier to boost the Doppler signal to a more appropriate level for transmission tothe Signal processor unit. In the Signal processor unit, the Doppler signal is first passedthrough one of a set of three sharp band-pass filters to reduce the noise content of theDoppler signal. It is then further amplified. The frequency of the Doppler signal is thenconverted to a proportional voltage by an f-V converter. The converter has fastresponse which enables it to track closely the Doppler frequency.

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Solid-state lasers
Solid-state laser materials are commonly made by "doping" a crystalline solid host with ions that provide the required energy states. For example, the first working laser was a ruby laser, made from ruby (chromium-doped corundum). The population inversion is actually maintained in the "dopant", such as chromium or neodymium. Formally, the class of solid-state lasers includes also fiber laser, as the active medium (fiber) is in the solid state. Practically, in the scientific literature, solid-state laser usually means a laser with bulk active medium, while wave-guide lasers are caller fiber lasers. "Semiconductor lasers" are also solid-state lasers, but in the customary laser terminology, "solid-state laser" excludes semiconductor lasers, which have their own name. Neodymium is a common "dopant" in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4), yttrium lithium fluoride (Nd:YLF) and yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG). All these lasers can produce high powers in the infrared spectrum at 1064 nm. They are used for cutting, welding and marking of metals and other materials, and also in spectroscopy and for pumping dye lasers. These lasers are also commonly frequency doubled, tripled or quadrupled to produce 532 nm (green, visible), 355 nm (UV) and 266 nm (UV) light when those wavelengths are needed.Ytterbium, holmium, thulium, and erbium are other common "dopants" in solid-state lasers. Ytterbium is used in crystals such as Yb:YAG, Yb:KGW, Yb:KYW, Yb:SYS, Yb:BOYS, Yb:CaF2, typically operating around 1020-1050 nm. They are potentially very efficient and high powered due to a small quantum defect. Extremely high powers in ultrashort pulses can be achieved with Yb:YAG. Holmium-doped YAG crystals emit at 2097 nm and form an efficient laser operating at infrared wavelengths strongly absorbed by water-bearing tissues. The Ho-YAG is usually operated in a pulsed mode, and passed through optical fiber surgical devices to resurface joints, remove rot from teeth, vaporize cancers, and pulverize kidney and gall stones. Titanium-doped sapphire (Ti:sapphire) produces a highly tunable infrared laser, commonly used for spectroscopy as well as the most common ultrashort pulse laser. Thermal limitations in solid-state lasers arise from unconverted pump power that manifests itself as heat and phonon energy. This heat, when coupled with a high thermo-optic coefficient (dn/dT) can give rise to thermal lensing as well as reduced quantum efficiency. These types of issues can be overcome by another novel diode-pumped solid-state laser, the diode-pumped thin disk laser. The thermal limitations in this laser type are mitigated by using a laser medium geometry in which the thickness is

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much smaller than the diameter of the pump beam. This allows for a more even thermal gradient in the material. Thin disk lasers have been shown to produce up to kilowatt levels of power.[18

Semiconductor lasers
Semiconductor lasers are also solid-state lasers but have a different mode of laser

operation.Commercial laser diodes emit at wavelengths from 375 nm to 1800 nm, and wavelengths of over 3 m have been demonstrated. Low power laser diodes are used in laser printers and CD/DVD players. More powerful laser diodes are frequently used to optically pump other lasers with high efficiency. The highest power industrial laser diodes, with power up to 10 kW (70dBm), are used in industry for cutting and welding. External-cavity semiconductor lasers have a semiconductor active medium in a larger cavity. These devices can generate high power outputs with good beam quality, wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth radiation, or ultrashort laser pulses.

A 5.6 mm 'closed can' commercial laser diode, probably from a CD or DVD player. Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) are semiconductor lasers whose emission direction is perpendicular to the surface of the wafer. VCSEL devices typically have a more circular output beam than conventional laser diodes, and potentially could be much cheaper to manufacture. As of 2005, only 850 nm VCSELs are widely available, with 1300 nm VCSELs beginning to be commercialized,[19] and 1550 nm devices an area of research. VECSELs are external-cavity VCSELs. Quantum cascade lasers are semiconductor lasers that have an active transition between energy sub-bands of an electron in a structure containing several quantum wells.The development of a silicon laser is important in the field of optical computing. Silicon is the material of choice for integrated circuits, and so electronic and silicon photonic components (such as optical interconnects) could be fabricated on the same chip. Unfortunately, silicon is a difficult lasing material to deal with, since it has certain properties which block lasing. However, recently teams have produced silicon lasers through methods such as fabricating the lasing material from silicon and other semiconductor materials, such as indium(III) phosphide or gallium(III) arsenide, materials which allow coherent light to be produced from silicon. These are

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called hybrid silicon laser. Another type is a Raman laser, which takes advantage of Raman scattering to produce a laser from materials such as silicon.

Gas lasers
Gas lasers using many gases have been built and used for many purposes.The helium-neon laser (HeNe) emits at a variety of wavelengths and units operating at 633 nm are very common in education because of its low cost.Carbon dioxide lasers can emit hundreds of kilowatts[14] at 9.6 m and 10.6 m, and are often used in industry for cutting and welding. The efficiency of a CO 2 laser is over 10%.Argon-ion lasers emit light in the range 351-528.7 nm. Depending on the optics and the laser tube a different number of lines is usable but the most commonly used lines are 458 nm, 488 nm and 514.5 nm.A nitrogen transverse electrical discharge in gas at atmospheric pressure (TEA) laser is an inexpensive gas laser producing UV light at 337.1 nm.[15]Metal ion lasers are gas lasers that generate deep ultraviolet wavelengths. Helium-silver (HeAg) 224 nm and neon-copper (NeCu) 248 nm are two examples. These lasers have particularly narrow oscillation linewidths of less than 3 GHz (0.5 picometers),[16] making them candidates for use in fluorescence suppressed Raman spectroscopy.

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Holography
Holography (from the Greek, -hlos whole + -graf writing, drawing) is a technique that allows the light scattered from an object to be recorded and later reconstructed so that it appears as if the object is in the same position relative to the recording medium as it was when recorded. The image changes as the position and orientation of the viewing system changes in exactly the same way as if the object were still present, thus making the recorded image (hologram) appear three dimensional. In holography, some of the light scattered from an object or a set of objects falls on the recording medium. A second light beam, known as the reference beam, also illuminates the recording medium, so that interference occurs between the two beams. The resulting light field is an apparently random pattern of varying intensity which is the hologram. It can be shown that if the hologram is illuminated by the original reference beam, a light field is diffracted by the reference beam which is identical to the light field which was scattered by the object or objects. Thus, someone looking into the hologram 'sees' the objects even though it may no longer be present. There are a variety of recording materials which can be used, including photographic film.

Point sources

Holographic reconstruction process

A slightly more complicated hologram can be made using a point source of light as object beam and a plane wave as reference beam to illuminate the photographic plate. An interference pattern is formed which in this case is in the form of curves of decreasing separation with increasing distance from the centre.

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The photographic plate is developed giving a complicated pattern which can be considered to be made up of a diffraction pattern of varying spacing. When the plate is illuminated by the reference beam alone, it is diffracted by the grating into different angles which depend on the local spacing of the pattern on the plate. It can be shown that the net effect of this is to reconstruct the object beam, so that it appears that light is coming from a point source behind the plate, even when the source has been removed. The light emerging from the photographic plate is identical to the light that emerged from the point source that used to be there. An observer looking into the plate from the other side will "see" a point source of light whether the original source of light is there or not. This sort of hologram is effectively a concave lens, since it "converts" a plane wavefront into a divergent wavefront. It will also increase the divergence of any wave which is incident on it in exactly the same way as a normal lens does. Its focal length is the distance between the point source and the plate

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Assignment-I Q1. Explain Snells Law. What is total iinternal reflection? Q2. Discuss the structure of an optical fiber. What are various types of fibers? Q3. Differentiate betwwen meridonial and skew rays Q4. Explain concept of wave optics and ray optics

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Assignment-II

Q1. Explain the characteristics of LED. Q2. Describe the various fiber alignment technique used in optical fibers. Q3. Explain the LED edge emitter and surface emitter pattern Q4. Define the term iinternal quantum efficiency.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Assignment-III

Q1. What is an optical Detectors? Q2 Define Quantum efficiency. Derive expression for respositivity. Q3. Explain the impact ionization in Avalanche photodiodes Q4. give the definition and explain the term Noise equivalent temperature

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VII Sem EIC Subject- Fiber Optic Instrumentation Assignment-IV Q1. Discuss with the help of suitable diagram the cut- back technique for total attenuation Q2. Explain under filled and overfilled conditions Q3. Discuss the techniques used for measurement of Numerical Aperture. Q4. Explain Optical Time Domain Reflectometry.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VII Sem EIC Subject- Fiber Optic Instrumentation Assignment-V

Q1. What is LASER? Discuss anyone type of it in detail. Q2. Explain various characteristics of a semiconductor LASER. Q3. Explain the principle of operation of a quantum well laser diode Q4. Explain the basic construction of a LASER diode.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Class Test-I MM-10 Note: attempt any three question Time:1 hr

Q1. Explain how glass fiber guides light from one end to other. Q2. What is meant by acceptance angle for an optical fiber? Q3. Derive an expression for NA. Q4. Discuss basic law of ray optics.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Class Test-II MM-10 Note: attempt any three question Time:1 hr

Q1. Describe the mechanism of emission of light from one LED. Q2. Define the term external Quantum efficiency and internal quantum efficiency. Q3. What is LED? List out the main advantages of LED. Q4. What is meant by a double hetero structure?

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Class Test-III MM-10 Note: attempt any three question Q1. What is an optical detector? What are the required feature to be a detector? Q2. Briefly explain the mechanism Avalanche photodiode/ Q3. Discuss the types of noise that comes in action with an optical detector. Q4. Describe p-i-n Photodiode. Time:1 hr

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Class Test-IV MM-10 Note: attempt any three question Time:1 hr

Q1. What are optical splicing? Describe briefly the different types of optical splicing. Q2 Explain the four basic components used in optical connectors. Q3. Does underfilling a multimode optical fiber exite mainly high order or low order modes..? Q4. In multimode fiber how do fiber joints increase finer attenuation following the joints.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Class Test-V MM-10 Note: attempt any three question Time:1 hr

Q1. With the aid of suitable diagram discuss the priciples of operation of the injection LASER. Q2. Compare LED and LASER as optical sources. Q3. How does a DFB laser diode operate? Q4. Explain the charaterstics of emitted light by LASER diodes.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Tutorial Class- I Q1. A silica ooptical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray thoey analysis has a refractive index of 1.5 and a cladding refractive index of 1.45. Deternmine the critical angle at the cor-cladding interface. Q2. A multiple step index fiber has a relative refractive index of 1 % and core refractive index of 1.5. The no. of modes propagating a wavelength 1.3 m is 1100/ Estimate the diameter of fiber core Q3. Calculate the refractive index of the core and cladding material of a fiber from NA=0.22, Step index profile=.012.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Tutorial Class- II Q1. From the stand point of a pn junction how does light radiation occur in a semiconductor diode. Q2. Explain the different constructions of index guided lasers Q3. A laser beam has a power of 50MW., It has an aperture of .005 meter and wavelength of 7000 angstrom. A beam is focuses with a lense of focal length 0.2m. Calculate the areal spread and intensity of the image.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Tutorial Class- III Q1. Compute the responsitivity of a detector having a quantum efficiency of 1% at 0.8um. Q2. Compute the current amplification ini a photo multipliers tube if the gain at each diode is 5 and there are 9 diodes. Q3. estimate the minimum detectable power for a PIN diode, whose responsitivity is 0.5A/W, and whose dark current is 1 nA

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Tutorial Class- IV Q1. The Fresnel reflection at a butt joint with an air gap in multimode SI fiber is 0.46dB.Determine the refractive index of the fiber core. Q2. An ideal four port directional coupler has a 4:1 splitting ratio. What refraction of the input power goes to each of its port. Q3. A laser diode feeding a glass fiber may be separated from it by a small air gap. Compute the return loss at the air to fiber interface.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Tutorial Class- V

Q1. A frersnel reflection at a butt joint with an air gap in a multimode SI0.46dB. Determine the RI of fiber core. Q2. A GiI fiber has a characteristics RI profile of 1.85 and a core diameter of 16um . Estimate the insertion loss due to 5um lateral offset of an index matched fiber joint assuming the uniform illumination of all guided modes. Q3. Two mm SI fiber have NA 0.15 and 0.35 respectively and both have the same core RI, which is 1.45. Estimate the insertion loss at a joint.

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Subject- Fiber Optic Instrumentation MM-20 Note: Attempt any four question. All question carry equal marks Q1 What is meant by acceptance angle? Show that it is related to NA. Q2. Explain the fusion splicing. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of it. Q3. Draw the block diagram of OFC system and describe the function of each componenet. Q4. What are intermodal and intramodal dispersion? Q5. What is internal efficiency oa a LED? Derive it and describe construction of edge emitter LED. Time-1.30hr

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ARYA College of Engineering & IT VIII Sem ECE Subject- Optical Communication Subject- Fiber Optic Instrumentation MM-20 Note: Attempt any four question. All question carry equal marks Q1. Explain the optical time domain reflectometry method used for measurement of attenuation. Q2. What is Mach-Zehender interferomter ? How it is useful for optical phase modulation Q3.Define quantum efficiency. And compute the respositivity of a detector having quantum efficiency of 1% at 0.8micrometer. Q4. Give a brief overview of Avalanche photodiode. Q5. How does population inversion can be achieved in LASER? Also explain the threshold condition of a LASER Time-1.30hr

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Previous Year Questions Q1. Explain detection process in pin diode as compare to avalanche photodiode. Q2. What are the direct band and indirct band gap semiconductor? Give atleast two examples of each. Which of these are suitable for fabricating LEDs and why? Q3. Define quantum efficiency. And compute the respositivity of a detector having quantum efficiency of 1% at 0.8micrometer Q4. What do you understand by the term splicing? Explain the types of splices and steps involved in splicing a fiber. Q5. Expalin the mechanism associated with noise in OFC: (a). Quantum Noise (b) Shot Noise Q6. What is Mach-Zehender interferomter ? How it is useful for optical phase modulation? Q7. Give the techniques used for measurement of refractive index. Q8. List two major types of optical couplers. Describe construction and working of simple coupler. Q9. Explain the losses in optical fibers. Q10. Explain the basic principle of photo detection in an optical system. Q11What are stimulated emission and spontaneous emission? Q12. Explain the principle of avalanche photodiode. Q13. What are the advantages of stimulating LASER over LED for communication? Q14. Explain the advantages of optical communication. Q15. Define step index and graded index fiber. Q16. Explain different types of losses in optical fiber. Q17. What are the general requirement for a source in optical fiber communication? Discuss. Q18. Define quantum efficiency. Q19. Differentiate between single mode and multimode optical fiber. Q20. Explain pin photo diode. 104

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