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CITIES OF VESUVIUS: POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM Written Sources:

Pliny the Younger ( c. AD 6 1 - 112 ) Noted for his scientific accuracy of observations and logically of arguments, especially when discussing natural phenomena, suppositious and mythological explanations are notably absent. Strabo (64 BC AD 21 ) Greek geographer is a useful source for geographical setting and historical background of Pompeii. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC 65 AD) The Roman philosopher and statesman, also provides us with information of the earthquake of AD 62. Juvenal & Martial Mention the physical attributes of Vesuvian Region.

Epigraphic Sources:
Graffiti, election slogans, tombstones, advertisements, coins, inscriptions on everday objects such as measuring devices in shops, marble basins, inscriptions on major public monuments.

Archaeological Sources:
Human remain, which range from Forelli plaster casts and now resin casts found at Pompeii to skeletons of residence found huddled on the beach at Herculaneum.

Physical Environment of Pompeii

Pompeii was built on a volcanic plateau covering an area of 60 hectares. Well-placed between the river Sarnus in the south and the fertile slopes of Mount Vesuvius in the North. It connected the seaside area with the fertile agriculture region of the inland.

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Stages of Occupation of Pompeii

The indigenous inhabitants of the area were an Italic tribe called the Oscans. It is believed that the Ocans gave Pompeii its name in approximately the eighth century BC. Pompeii became rapidly became an important port and road junction and thus became the focus of outside powers such as the Greeks and Etruscans. After them it was held by the Etruscans and the Pelasgians,a dn later still by the Samnites who wer driven out by the Romans. 1. Oscans 2. Etruscans 3. Pelagians 4. Samnites 5. Romans

Stages of Occupation of Herculaneum

Thought to have been settled by the Oscans Dionysus of Halicarnassus, tells that the town was founded by Herakles (Roman Hercules), the Greek hero, who was the patron of the town from the earliest of times. Herculaneum was a minor suburban town where people settled to avoid the hustle and bustle of the Greek port. Influenced by the Etruscans, the Samnites and then came under Roman control.

The Eruption of AD 79
The Eruption took place in the 24th August AD 79, within 18 hours both cities had been covered. The eruption had not occurred for thousand of years and was an unknown phenomenon. Strabo the Greek geographer, had realized the danger but having climed Vesuviuss slopes declared it spent force. The region of Campainia was an unstable volcanic area prone to earth tremors.

Youstina Gorgey Phases of the Eruption

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1. Explosion thrust a great cloud of ash, pumice and gases 20 kilometer into the air. 2. Pumice fall out over Pompeii began with pebbles called lapilli. 3. Hours later there was a ground surge, which is a turbulent cloud of volcanic ash and hot gases, which hugged the ground and raced towards Pompeii at an estimated speed of 100/km per hour. 4. It was immediately followed by a pyrocrastic flow, a hot dry avalanche of pumice, ash and gases flowing at incredibly hugh speeds down the slopes of the volcano towards Pompeii to a depth of about four meters. 5. Pyrocrastic flow and surges are indentified in the geologic strata as thin black layer. Vesuvius is unique as there were six layers in the strata which means there were 6 pyrocrastic flows. An Eye Witness Account Pliny the younger, seventeen years old, was staying at Misenum (30 kilometers) with his uncle Pliny the Elder, the admiral of the fleet when the eruption occurred. He wrote this description to his friend Tacitus ( a Roman historian) about 25 years after the even. There appears to be exaggeration in Plinys letter eg. Making his uncle look heroic. Pliny fails to mention the day but he mentions the date, ninth day before the Kalends of September (24 August). The Event The event takes place on the 24th of August Pliny noted the first signs of the eruption is a pine shaped cloud. Pliny the Elder changed his plans as he received a letter from Rectina, a woman imploring him to save her. Pliny gives us information about : - places that were effected (stabie) - the description of the first stages of the eruption (the cloud) After sometime Pliny described the cloud rushing down the sides of the mountain and covered everything around it including the sea, this id known today as a pyroclastic flow.

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Pliny stated that several earth tremors were felt at the time of the Eruption and were followed by a very violent shaking of the earth. He noted the falling ash in thick sheets and his village had been evacuated.

Social Structure:

Citizens (cives) Freedmen (Liberti) Slaves (servi) Senators Served the empror in offices throughout the empire. Gained wealth from large estates. Position was hereditary.

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Distinguished by their clothing (toga with a stripe of purple) in Pompeii. They wore a pallium. Equestrians (Equites) Served the empror in being commanders of the fire service, grain supply and military offices. Pliny the elder was a commander of the fleet. Gained wealth from public offices, trade and banking. Position was hereditary. Wore a toga with purple stripe and gold finger ring. Freed men (Liberti) Were slaves who were given their freedom. Gained wealth from trade, banking, manufacturing and landownership. Cannot become senators. Slaves Preformed most of the work in agriculture and manufacturing , upper class Romans drew most of their wealth from exploiting slave labor. Romans saw the ownership of slaves as an expression of power. Slaves were those who had been defeated in the war or were free citizens who had solve themselves to pay debts. They worked and lived on the owners on the premises and were themselves considered as property. Slave owners could be both men & women. Slaves had no legal rights. They could not take action against an owner for mistreatment and they were not allowed their own family. Their marriages were not legitimate. Their children became the property of the owner and were considered part of the household. The owner had complete control over the life an death of the slave. Once a slave is freed they had to buy their children from the owner Slaves were looked down upon in ancient society even if a freedman gained great wealth, his servile origin was never forgotten. Slaves were sold and traded in business transactions. Evidence of these transactions have been found recorded on wax tablets preserved for the eruption. Slaves assumed the positions such as pedagogue, water carriers, treasurers, gold smiths, chamberlain, read, secretary, wet

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nurses, caterers, midwife, door keeper, baker masseuse, doctor, cupbearer, musician, and gardener. The work of a slave varied, an example of work done is found at Pompeii in the house of Gauius Rufus has a small statue of two slaves carrying a sedan chair through the streets. Certain areas of the house were hidden from general view. In the richest houses, servile areas were reserved strictly for lower status activities such as cooking and washing. Usually these are accessible down long narrow corridors. In richer households the design of the slaves living quarters was contrasted harshly decorated with black and white stripes, these were linked with toilets and hallways. The treatment of slaves varied from household, position and location.

Women The typical role of a women in Roman society was to perform tasks such a s running the house hold, bringing up the children and controlling finances. The women in Pompeii appear to have had more freedom than their counter parts in Rome. Although women could not vote, they made public declarations supporting particular candidates for election. They showed support for candidates with slogans on walls of shops and houses. Women worked as tavern owners, clothes trade, vegetable sellers, weavers, doctors and money lenders. Pompeii was a place where women could own property, do business, pay for construction, hold honorific and cultic office and go about in public life. Girls from privileged backgrounds were taught to read and write, either at school or by slave tutors in their own home. Lower class women who were of craftsmen and traders would run the business while the husband took care of other aspects of the business.

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Women could own property and were to free to administer it to themselves Some women worked independently in their homes making and mending clothes. Female slaves preformed ma wide range of duties depending in the needs of their owners. Some worked as household slaves, cooking and cleaning, or as nanny or wet nurses (nutrices). Freedwomen who often come from the east, sold luxury items or exotic merchandise, such as dyes and perfumes as well as clothes & food. Legally prostitution was treated as a business like any other. Prostitutes were required to register with the aediles. There were different types of prostitutes in Roman society, there were slaves, freedwomen an foreigners.

EUMACHIA A Latin inscription from the first century AD tells us that the vestibule, the covered gallery and porticoes made with her own money and dedicated in her own name and the name of her son Marcus Numistrius Fronto, in honor of the goddess CoNCORD & Augustan Piety. The inscription indicated that Eumachia was using her building program as a means of bolstering (to support) her sons political candidature. Here we have a example of a rich woman who had an important public role in the

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priesthood of Venus, using her wealth and social status for political purposes. The statue of Eumachia found in the collegium building of the fullers, Pompeii. She wears a tunic and stola. The long palla draped over her head represents her respectability and role as a priestess. Inscription under statue: to Eumachia, daughter of Lucius, public priestess: the fullers (set this up). We know from the information on Eumachia that the priestess was held in high esteem in Roman society. Patron client Relationship Families and individuals within the upper strata also acted as patrons to those lower in the social order. It was the responsibility of the client to support his patron at political elections and do any favors that might be required. In return, the patron might assist his client in legal matter or give him a small gift or a free meal. It was a feature of Roman life that each morning, clients would flock to their patrons house to pay their respects (salutio). By the first century AD tradition required that virtually every man of wealth and high status maintain clients who were prepared to serve him all hours of the day. The client was expected to arrive at the patrons house for the morning salutio and in return will receive the sportula (food, clothing, money and other favours). He also had to accompany his patron to the forum, support his political goals and vote for him. Clients were generally plebians ( common people, low in wealth and status) the poor citizens of low birth and former slaves. However , some plebians acquired wealth through trade and became partons in their own rights. The patron- client relationship between patricians and plebian classes was important to the Roman way of life because each needed the other.

Public and Private Buildings

Baths

Youstina Gorgey Apodyterium changing rooms Palaestra open exercise area Natatio main pool Pila and trigon ball games Tepidarium warm water room Caldarium hot water room Frigid Laconicum - sauna arium cold water pool Thermae baths

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Heating and Baths Hypocaust System Baths were heated to a high temperature by a hypocaust system located under the marble floor. The baths is raised on a pile of bricks and tiles. These piles of bricks were part of the hypocaust system which heated the floors of the baths. A furnace heated the water for the baths and the hot air from this circulated around the pillars of the tiles and up through the hollow tiles in the wall, in this way the water, walls and floors were all hot The hypocaust is a system whereby a furnace, fueled by wood located beneath the bathhouses, heated boilers that sent hot water in pipes to the baths. Pipes or flues under the floor were supported on stacks of tiles forming pillars, also directed the steam from the furnaces. The hot air circulated underneath the floor heating it up. Baths in Pompeii Forum Baths The forum baths are the smallest, but the most elegant of the thermae, despite their small size , they contain everything necessary for the full bathing ritual, dressing rooms, hot , tepid and cold rooms, exercise fields and toilets. These baths were also divided into separate facilities for men and women. They were the only baths still functioning in Pompeii after the earthquake of 62 AD. Central Baths At the intersection of two Pompeian main streets Via Stabiana and Via Di Nola. Most recent version of baths (thermae) in Pompeii. Constructed immediately after the earthquake of AD 62 and was not complete at the time of the 79 AD eruption.

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Bigger than all the other baths, they occupy the area of an entire insula (block) and are equipped with a large gymnasium, numerous baths and a room intended exclusively as a sudatorium (sweating room) designed to be more spacious compared with previous ones,a nd due to large windows which opened out are much lighter. At the time of the eruption the construction of the baths complex was still incomplete the swimming pool was unfinished and the gymnasium was not yet started. Stabian These baths are the oldest baths in Pompeii, being first built around the 4th century BC and restored and enlarged several time. These were not restored by the time Mt Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD. Building contains a large gymnasium with columns on three sides, a changing room, tepidarium, frigidarium and bath tubs. The oldest section contains various small rooms and an open air swimming pool, a side room for changing and oiling. Female sections is simpler and less decorated. A pool occupies the western side of the baths. The rooms are adorned with stuccos of fine workmanship and the most beautiful of Pompeian art. Looters had raided these baths in the years following the disaster. Baths in Herculaneum The Forum Baths The forum baths are the oldest baths in Herculaneum, they were about 100 years old when destroyed. Their position between two main streets made them conveniently close to public buildings and forums. They had separate sections for men and women. They had public toilets and magnificent mosaics of sea creatures. The forum baths were built between the period of 30 and 30 and 10 BC and follow the standard Roman design of baths. Five skeletons were discovered in the mens dressing room; four mena and a woman. Suburban Baths On the southern part of the waterfront, outside the city wall of Herculaneum the magnificent suburban baths were constructed. Bathers only needed to go down a flight of steps to reach the small beach and the ocean.

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The entrance is through a long corridor which leads first to the dressing room (apodyterium), then finally to the hot water room, then the lukewarm room (tepidarium) with its vaulted ceiling and then finally to the hot water room (caldarium) In the dressing- room there are paintings of erotic scenes. Suburban baths apprear to have operated as an exclusive for the wealthy. It also contained a private dinning room inside the baths in the vestibule, the water flows into a fountain from a statue of Apollo. Basilicas Pompeii This was the home of the court of justice and the centre of the towns economic life, and thus one of the busiest civic places. The basilicas were used for commercial business as well as legal transactions. At the back of the basilica was the tribunal, a raised platform on which judges would sit so that they were separated from the other people in the building. Built during 190 -120 BC, the earthquake of 62 AD destroyed it, if it had not been rebuilt 79AD. The main entrance to the basilica was from the forum and a chalcidicum (un-roofed vestibule) with five doorways. At the entrance there were five ionic columns. It was built in the Hellenistic (Greek) style with ionic and Corinthian columns. A statue of August was placed at the tribunal. Herculaneum The basilica of Herculaneum was either damaged or entirely destroyed by the 62 AD earthquake and was rebuilt by Marcus Noius Balbus. Statues of himself and his family adorn the walls. Forum Pompeii The forum, centre of Pompeian life, was located in the Southwest it consisted of a large, rectangular, open space, as well as the important buildings that surrounded it, such as temples, commercial areas and civic buildings. Together they operated as a complex where the most important social, financial, political and business activities took place.

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In the middle of the western side of the forum archaeologist discovered the suggestum, the platform on which oratators stood when they spoke to the crowd. On a typical day the forum would have been crowded with people buying or selling goods, concluding business agreements, visiting temples, listening to political speeches, hearing news from Rome, making legal transaction and governing the town. It is also in the public space of the forum that the Romans unified religion and state. It was dominated by temples dedicated to various Roman gods and the cult of the emperor as a god. The forum was a large rectangular space measuring 137 meters by 47 meters surrounded by public buildings where political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place. The forum was the central core around which the city was arranged and it was built where two roads met. Herculaneum Part of the forum in Herculaneum has been located underneath the modern town of Resina, but yet not excavated, however the adjoining basilica has been uncovered. Palaestra Herculaneum The palaestra in Herculaneum was a large sporting complex that occupied a whole block. It had large, open grounds, a crossshaped swimming pool measuring almost 50 meters long, and a smaller, deeper pool as well. In the palaestra stood a grand statue of the towns patron her, Hercules. Surrounding the open grounds were temples to Hermes and Hygeia, meeting rooms and a spacious upper gallery. Pompeii The large palaestra was a large open space surrounded on three sides by a colonnade and had a swiiming pool in the middle. The open area was used for gymnastics. The Odeon The Odeon, or small theatre, was constructed around 80 - 75 BC. It was used for musical, mime and poetry performances. It had seating for about 100 people. Unlike the large theatre, it had a permanent roof made of wood. This would have improved the acoustics. An inscription tells us that the construction of the Odeon was paid by the duumviri. 12

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Amphitheatre Gladitorial shows took place in the Pompeian amphitheatre, one of the first buildings constructed after the town became a Roman colony in 80 BC. Oldest remaining gladiatorial amphitheatre in the world. Built entirely of stone, in a shape of an oval. The front seats were raised several meters above the sand and separated from it by a wall of polished stone. This was a safety feature as the wall stopped beasts or desperate victims from climbing into the crowd. The building had no roof, but a velarium (awning) be put up to provide shade for the audience. Built in 70 BC. Seats were numbered and local dignitaries sat at the front. A serious riot occurred in this amphitheatre in AD 59 between the Pompeians and Nuceria, the emperor Nero declared it closed for 10 years. Macellum The macellum or food market, stands in the north east corner of the forum, it was built aa covered market that selled food. Internal square measuring 37 x 27 meters had in the centre, a rotunda (round room) with twelve columns covered by a capola (a dome like structure that sits on top of the roof) containing a fish pond. The macellum had three entrances , the main one accessing off the forum. This entrance was divided into two passage ways by a aedicule (a small temple) set in the centre, containing a statue of a member of the imperial family. Specialized in the selling of fish, meat and possibly vegetables and fruits, lamb, beef, veal, pork and poultry for sale in the macellum. In the centre was a large covered market called the tholos bounded by twelve columns. A section that may have been used for sacrificial banquets or as an auction room and money changes booth. Streets Pompeii

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The main streets inside the towns were a continuation of the main roads that connected Pompeii and Rome as well as the surrounding towns such as Herculaneum, Nola and Stabiae. The main strrets of the town lead to the forum. The streets of Pompeii were paved with large slabs of volcanic stone. The road was raised slightly in the middle so that water could run off to the edges. Narrow footpaths were laid above the road level on either side. The fronts of buildings adjoined the foot paths. Stepping stones were placed along streets, especially in front of homes of the wealthy, to allow pedestrians to cross without getting their fleet and clothing dirty. Street surfaces display ruts, caused by continous scrapping of metal- rimmed wheel on Roman carts. Documani: main external roads, ran from east to east Cardini: minor roads, ran from north to south Formed a grid like pattern, which is a distinctive feature of Greek town planning. Herculaneum When compared with streets in Pompeii, there are fewer traces of traffic in Herculaneum, there are no marks worn into the road by traffic because Herculaneum was smaller and less populated than Pompeii.

Private Houses
Roman Housing The quality of a familys housing depended on its financial situation. The roman house functioned as a microcosm (smaller scale) of the public world of business, politics, and civic duty. It was the space in which the wealth, power and hospitality of the dominus(wealthy Roman) was on display to impress visitors. Houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum came right up to the foot path with doorways that led directly into the main rooms of the house. The most elaborate houses were quite plain on the outside ,often simply painted red or white, however front doors were large and indicate wealth and status of the owner.

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The grandest houses were often situated on the most import commercial streets. Rich owners exploited the location by including shops on the street side of their properties. The atrium the atrium, a covered forecourt in which public nad private activities took place at different times. In the centre of the forecourt was a shallow pool called the impluvium for collecting rainwater, which came in through the compluvium, a hole in the roof that also produced light. Bedrooms Bedrooms were usually located near the atrium. Also close to the entrance was a room sometimes used to study or formal meeting room. This wood be closed off by a curtain or wooden partition. Dinning Rooms Often there were several dinning rooms in a Roman house, which would be used to accommodate a dinner party with a large number of guest. Wealthy Romans followed the Greek customs of reclining or lying on their sides to eat and talk at formal meals. Couches were set out in a U-shape around a low central table. In winter dinning rooms were heated by iron, bronze or terracotta braziers. In summer meals were often eaten out doors in the coolness provided by trees and fountains. The Peristyle garden A hallway next to the dinning room led to the peristyle (open courtyard or garden area surrounded by a portico), which usually featured a garden. Features include: floor mosaics, wall paintings, beautifully crafted furnishings, statues, fountains and pools of running waters. Some Pompeian gardens were elaborated and contained fruit tree, trellises, flowers, statues, ponds and fountains. Toilets and Sewage Common practise was to use chamberpots in their homes. However, many private houses had toilets, most were single-seaters or double seaters. Some toilets were located upstairs, most were on the ground floor in the 15

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kitchen. This was so that they could dispose off rubbish in them as well. Kitchen Very few houses had kitchens. The kitchens and pantry were usually located furthest from the entrance, but with convienient access to street sides. They contained a bench with a hearth (fire place) for cooking and a sink with a drain pipe that fled in to the drain of the adjoining toilet. Private Baths Excavations revealed that from the second century BC onwards some of the houses of the very wealthy in Pompeii had private baths. However, wealthy Romans not only bathed at home at home, but also went to the public baths for social interaction. House of Julia Felix: Pompeii Julia Felix was a wealthy heiress, daughter of Spurius Felix and owner of a large establishment that was made up of two insulae joined together. The property one of the largest in Pompeii with orchards and garden occupying most of the space. It is fameous for its magnificent artist decoration and attractive garden The house of Julia Felix provides us with information about various aspects of Pompeian life such as the muli- purpose nature of hosuing, artistic decoration, commercial activities, religion, the role of women and the use of water features in gardens. The house contained private quarters, bathing establishments, vegetable garden and an orchard. The exclusive private baths contained a tepidarium (warm room), frigidarium (cold room), Laconium (sweeting room) and a callidarium (hot room). They had an outdoor pool, toilets and a food and drink bar. The frescos painted on walls throughout the house, depict scenes of everyday Pompeian life and luxury items enjoyed by the household The garden contained a small shrine to the Egyptian goddess Isis and an open air dinning room, because of this shrine Julia Felix may have been involved in the worship of this religion. Despite her large estate, her wealthy and luxurious lifestyle and experience in running a business, there is no evidence to

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suggest that Julia Felix took an active role in the economic life of Pompeii. Villa of Papyri: Herculaneum In 1735 Karl Webber a Swiss archaeologist , uncovered a circular marble floor. It was the beginning of the many years of excavation of the Villa of Papyri. A small room was discovered that was infact an ancient library. On shelves around the room was approximately 2000 blackened carbonized cylindrical papyrus scrolls. This villa provided one of the best examples of the luxurious lifestyle enjoyed by the wealthy citizens of the day. The magnificent of the villa is reflected in the water features, the pool and the fountains. The impluvium in the atrium displays the ornate use of statues and water works. A copy of the head of Doryphorus the lance bearer adapted as a herm. A copy of the head of Amazon, also a herm A portrait bust in bronze of Scipio Africanus The Resting Herms, a bronze sculptured perhaps by Lysippos. A specialist from the Vatican invented a contraption that was succefully in unwinding the scrolls and not destroying them. All the scrolls were written by Philodemus. In 2002 emergency restoration was carried out huge pumps drawing water from the Villa and surrounding area (3.65 under sea level). Guzzo (superintendent) believes that conservation of this villa takes precedence over excavation. Wallace Hadrill agrees with Guzzo and says we have to preserve what weve got. Temple of Apollo( Pompeii) Description Constructed in a italic style, with a flight of steps leading upto a high base. At the far end of the temple wall, were painted scenes from the Iliad. Statues of Apollo and Diana face opposite each other while statues of Venus and Hermaphrodius were placed in bases of the entrance portico. Discovery 17

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Discovered in the 18th century. Constructed Constructed by the Samnites. Used for A place of worship for the god Apollo. Temple of Isis (Pompeii) Description Beautifully painted, on a raised platform and facing east to illuminate its interior from the rising sun. Inside, the open cella held the instruments and symbols sacred to the cult and was used during the ceremonial rituals. The sacred water from the Nile was kept in an underground passage. Constructed It dates the pre-Roman age and was almost entirely rebuilt after the earthquake of 62 AD. Used for Dedicated to the worship of Isis, a goddess from the Egyptian trait, it was a cult that was quickly spreading through out the Roman Empire. The cult of Isis was very popular in Pompeii

Religion
Private religion The Roman goddess Vesta was worshipped with three other deities. The lares were household deities associated with the home. they had their own shrine, ina cupboard. Any food dropped at a meal was offered to the lares. It was believed that they bought fertility to the fields and protected the family. The genius was the god of the male line decent. The god was worshiped on the birthday of ther paterfamilias. Sometimes the genius was represented as a snake. The Penates were the gods of the lader (pantry) or food store, Their statuettes were placed on the table at meal times. Every home had their own shrine or laraium where the whole family carried out daily worship. Prominent families kept was masks images of portraits of their ancestors, and their family duty was to honor these.

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A imprint of a cross in al wall in a n apartment in Herculaneum is evidence for a Christian cult. The new religion was certainly gaining followers. Meetings were kept secret as the religion was illegal. Public religion Roman religion is not based on faith or believes, but rather on ritual. Romans did not have a personal relationship with their gods. They were polytheistic; that is they worshopped many gods, based to a large extended on the twelve Olyimpian Greek gods. The Romans saw their gods as spirits at work in every aspect of life. Religion was considered to be important to the extent were it was included in their social and political life. worship took the form of offering, sacrifices, festivals, games and rituals. Telling the will of the gods by omens such as reading entrails. Every aspect of life was controlled by religion. It was all times necessary to carry out the proper rites so that the peace of the gods (or divine order) should be preserved. The gods were the patrons and the people were the patrons and other people were the clients. Roman Dieties As well as the household deities some of the goals who were worshipped by the people of Pompeii and Herculaneum were Jupite, Juno, Bacchus, Apollo, Cybele, Diana, Prippus, Eros, Minerva, Venus, Mars, Vesta, Neptune, Mercury and Vulcan. Hercules was a god at Herculaneum he was the towns founder Hercules was famous for his famous journeys. Apollo was the god of light Venus the goddess of love is shown to be nude and lying down in a sea shell. Venus was regarded extremely high and became a patron goddess. Omens The Romans believed in good and bad omens.

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An auspice originally was a means of divination by bird watching. Imperial cults in the east, political rulers were thought of as a descendants of gods. This idea was abhorrent to the Roman, but they conquered the east infiltrated their system. Romans worshipped their emperors as gods. Cult of Isis Foreign Cults The cult of Egyptian goddess Isis appealed to women slaves. The temple if Isis was situated near the theatre of Pompeii. It was built on a high platform and enclosed with a sacred area. Isis was seen as a mother goddess who promoted fertility , healed the sick and offered her followers immorality. Isis was an Egyptian godess but was introduces by Greeks in around 100 BC. Other Foreign Cults Another cult was the worship of the Thracian fertility god Sabazius who was equated with Dionysos/ Bacchus. In 1945 a shrine to this god was unearthed. The shrine consisted of a simple stone altar with two terracotta vases that probably contained offerings. In the house of Four Styles an ivory statuette of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi was unearthed. She was the goddess of beauty, fertility and wealth.

Influences of Greek and Egyptian Cultures

Greek Influences Architecture Layout of Pompeian streets Odeon (drama theatre, Greek construction) Ionic columns Baths gymnasium Culture Colonization and occupation of Campania Herculaneum was named after Greek Hercules Clothing, pallium preferred by people of Pompeii

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Greek philosophy (Epicuraneanism) Religion Similar deities e.g Dionysus Egyptian Influences Religion Worship of the Egyptian Goddess Isis Art Roman painting of the Nile, connection with Egypt. Culture Both Romans and Egyptian worse fashion wigs to depict their status and wealth.

Local Government
Structure of Government in Pompeii Duumviri x 2 Literally two men. They operated as co-mayors of Pompeii and could only serve for one year. Election took place each year in the spring. They were also in charge of justice. Chief officals responsible for law, administration and residency of the ordo decurionum (city council). Every five years they organized a census and revised the list of people eligible for the ordo decutrionum. They were elected by the contium (peoples assembly of male citizens), they were two people only. Aediles x 2 Served for one year Took care of streets, public buildings, temples, markets and organization of games, maintained public order. Assisted by one scribe, four public slaves, a town-crier, a flute player and a priest who read entrails of animals (harupex). They could only hold the office for one year; they are elected by the commitium (peoples assembly of male citizens). Decuriones x 100 Had to be wealthy Have considerable status Be prepared to spend money on the town Be a member of the ordo decuriones 21

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Chosen from eligibility list (adlecto) Membership of the ordo was for life, the list was reorganized every fifve years. Responsibilities: city councilor senate, city finance, religious authority and oversee public business. Local Government Pompeii had a constitution The city was divided into (vici) wards and there were voting districts Pompeii was basically governed by a group of wealthy aristocrats. Imperial government did not interfere unless things went very wrong. As well as the magistrates there were influential trade guilds eg. Fullers, bankers and religious associations. Only male citizens could vote and citizenship was not open to all. Elected administered the city, assisted by the ordo decurionum, a council of about 100 mainly ex-magistrates. Elections were held in March; pairs of elected magistrates took offices in July and served for one year. Whilst in office, magistrates were expected to administer public finance judiciously, but they were also expected to spend their own money on such things as processions and games and the constitution and maintenance of buildings and public amenities. Politics and religion were an integral parts of citizenship in Roman society and many who were magistrates also held priesthoods. The Augustales were priests involved in emperor worship, this cult began when Augustus was deified in AD 14, although he had been worshiped in Pompeii while he was still living. Even the wealthiest women could not enter politics or hold political office, but at Pompeii they could lead prominent public lives as priestesses of the cult of Venus or Ceres. Mamia and Eumachia were priestesses of the cult of Venus. Woman could not vote but never the less wrote political slogans endorsing candidates including their relatives. Herculaneum was a Roman municipium, governed by elected officals and a town council, but not much evidence has come to light about the political system or those involved in it. Inscriptions and statues suggest the several families were prominent there, particularly proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus. Political buildings

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In Pompeii, The city council met in a lavishly decorated curia chamber on the southern side of the forum adjacent to the comitium (peoples assembly) in the southern eastern corner. The comitium was a roofless building where town meetings were held during which citizens could question the members of the government. The basilica was the largest seat of the judiciary and law courts, as well as a centre for business activities. It was one of the finest buildings- if not the finest, in both towns. Basilicas usually followed a standard plan: a long rectangular central hall, flanked either by a colonnade aisle and an apse at one end.

The Economy
Trade Situated near the bay of Naples trade was a vital aspect of society. Even within the society, some women independently worked in their homes making and mending clothes to earn a little money. Evidence from graffiti suggests that Pompeii had a large population of foreigners involved in trade. Freedwomen frequently sold luxury items or exotic merchandise, such as dyes, perfumes, clothes and food. Commerce 600 excavated of privately owned shops, workshops, bars, taverns and inns. Markets around the forum Epigraphic evidence of guilds of tradesmen and retailers Twenty or so maritime houses containing objects charachterised by port area and building lined with jars. The basilica, fronting into the forum was only a law court but an exchange where businessmen or speculators met clients and signed contracts. Industries Markets On both sides of the Pompeian forum were markets which were the property of the city, administered by two aediles who made sure that the market market ran smoothly , goods

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were measured by price acuratly, quality was maintained, city regulations were upheld. The macellum , on the north-eastern side of the forum, was a busy market specializing in the sale of fish and meat possibly fish and vegetables. Hotels Visiting traders could find a bed for the night in one of the many hotels to the port or the city. A hotel near the forum could sleep fifty people, four to a room, while two just inside Herculaneum and Stabian gates had dinning roomd, bedrooms, stables, a water trough and garage for wagons. It appears the owners also provided their guests with entertainment with upstairs room accessed by a side door for discreet entry of local women. The Wine & Oil Industries Wine and olives were a principle source of income for people in the Vesuvian region. Vine yards and olive groves could only be owned by wealthy landowners because of the cost of the long wait between planting and the first harvest and the cost of wine and olive presses. Generally wine does not appear to have been stored in large quantities in taverns and bars but brought from the farms and villas. These villas had rooms for pressing grapes, for fermentation and storage. Most of the oil pressing was done on the estates even though oil presses were found in Pompeian houses and the forum granary. It is believed that there may have been an olive market near or in the forum. Granary oil was used for cooking, perfumes and body oiling in baths. The Manufacture of Garum Pompeii was known for its garum, fish sauce which was one of the main condiments used for flavoring Roman cuisine. Prominent manufacturers may have obtained their fish more directly . Garum was a potent mix, made from the guts of fish and other parts that otherwise would be considered refuse. Clothes Manufacture & Treatment

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Wool was the basis of one of the most important industries in Pompeii, the washing and dyeing of wool and the manufacture of cloth. Associated with this was laudering, bleaching and recolouring of clothes. Both these activities were carried out in workshops at the fullonicae or laundries. The raw wool was first sent to an officina lanifiricarae where it was degreased by boiling in leaden boilers. It was taken to the spinners and weavers, in private homes or officinae textoriae. The cloth was next sent to the officinae tincloriae for dyeing, often in bright colours such as purple or saffron. The finished product was distributed to clth merchants. Human urine was used for its ammonia content. Male passer bys were urged to supply their urine by filling the jugs hanging outside. Bakeries (Pistrina) Thirty or so bakeries have been identified in Pompeii Bread was basic foodstuff. Because of the poor quality of the the flour , the bread was very hard and due to the lack of yeast, deteriorated quickly. Bakeries did not own their own refining of the grain in lava stone mills, usually three or four set in a paved courtyard with a table for kneading the dough and a brick oven. Ovens were heated by burning vine sticks and once hot enough were cleaned out for baking the small round loaves of bread. These were dispatched to various small shops and stalls in surrounding streets. A few bakeries had an area for selling their own break, but most did not. Occupations: Artist,Metal-workers, carpenters, silversmiths, goldsmiths, wheelwrights, tanners, tinkers, ironmongers, marble-workers, stone masons, gem cutters, glass makers, bakers, farmers, inn keepers, tavern owners, shop owners, prostitutes, slaves, fullers, merchants, politicians, priest, priestesses.

Beliefs and Burials

Burial practices The Romans believed that the dead went to the underworld (hades), on the journey there the body had to be ferried over the

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river Styx, the boundary between this world and hades. The ferryman Charon had to be paid for his services , a coin was placed in the mouth, this custom came from the Greeks. During the first and second century AD, the dead were cremated (disposed by burning) , the ashes gathered and put in urns depending on the wealth and status of the person, the urn was placed inside a columbarium (underground vault where urns were placed in holes in the wall) or buried in individual tombs in the necropolis (cemetery city of the end). The burial spot was marked by a symbol of tombstone. A coin was placed in the urn to pay for the souls passage to the underworld; few people practiced inhumation at this time. Burials were considered so important that the emperors even provided funeral allowances to poor people so that they could be properly buried. Lowere class people joined burial collegium to ensure that they would be buried with proper funeral rituals. For the purpose of health and hygine, Roman law forbade anyone to be buried inside the city walls.

Funeral processions The conclamatio was the practise of loudly calling the dead person by name to recall the dead or reawaken the bodys powers. When there was no response, the body was said to be conclamatio (beyond recall). The body would then be prepared for burial. Professional undertakers (libitinarii) preformed many of the same duties that modern undertakers do. They hired dancers, clowns and mummers, who joked and mimmiced the dead. The body was burned on its pyre at the family burial spot. A close relative lit the torch and offering of garments and spices were thrown onto the pyre. The ash was cooled with wine, gathered and placed in an urn which would then be placed in the tomb. The relatives of the dead remained in a state of impurity until burial had taken place. After nine days the period of mourning ended with an offering of food and wine at the tomb.

Everyday Life
Food and Dining

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One of the Romans faviourite leisure activities was holding lavish, may coursed banquets and feasts. Poorer people ate in taverns that also served as brothels and gamming houses. Romans ate 3 meals a day. Breakfast and lunch were meals but dinner or cena was the most important meal of the day. Begging at around 4 pm and lasting for many hours into the night. Poorer classes ate modest meals consisting of black bread, vegetables and cheap wine. Gustatio : the first course, like our entre course. Primae mensae: the main course or fercula, that is dishes that are carried. This part of the meal included: meat, fish, poultry and dessert secundae Mensae. Wine was served at these meals; the Romans mixed it with honey and called mulsum. Food types: dates, figs, prunes, almonds, chestnuts, walnuts, olives, myrtle berry, pomegrantes, bread, meats include pork, beef, lamb, goat, rabbit, salted meats, cured ham, seafood includes fish, oyster clam, squid, octopus and prawns. Poultry includes pigeon, duck, cranes, geese and chicken. Fruits include figd, grapes, quinces, plums, pears, blackberries. Vegetables include turnips, tuffles, olives, beetroot, celery, mushrooms, asparagus, marrow, cucumber, cabbage, leeks, radishes, lettuce, artichokes and carrots. Herbs and spices include cumin, mint, caramon, parsley, coriander, pepper, bay leaf, dill, thyme, ginger, honey was used as a sweetner and meats often roated with honey. Garum: the Romans liked to flavour their food with a thick, salty sish sauce called garum. This was made of a fermented mixture of small fish such as sprats and anchovies with the entrails (guts) of larger fish such as mackerel. Dinner parties Dinner parties required a great deal of preparation. This was done by a lrge number of slaves and meals were prepared in unhygienic kitchens, cooken on charcoal stoves, on iron grilling plates an in bronze and lead cooking pots and pans. Dinner parties usually began around 4pm and lasted for many hours into the night. Having spent time before hand at the baths guests would start arriving after mid-afternoon, carrying their own toothpick and napkin. As they stepped into the dinning room, guests made sure their right foot entered first, otherwise it would be considered unlucky.

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Some Roman houses had more than one dinning room (trinclinium). In summer guests dinned ina dinning room opening onto the peristyle. In winter the dinning room was enclosed to give protection from the weather. The dinning rooms were lavishly furnished and decorated with inlaid furniture, beautiful floor mosaics, frescos and wall paintings. The tableware was often made of silver, gold or electrum. The Roman word for dinning room (trinclinium) came from the Greek word Triklinos meaning bed for three, and refers to the way in which Romans ate, reclining on couches around a small centre table. The guests lay on their left elbow. The plate was held with the left hand and the right had was free to reach and hold food. The main aim of these feasts was to gain or maintain a reputable social position. Entertainment was provided and took form of dice games, board games, performances by acrobats, musicians and dancers and literary discussions. After the meal, the serious drinking began. Water Supply Originally, Pompeii received its water from the river Sarno and from wells and rain collecting cisterns for their water supply. An aqueduct was built when the needs of the city increased. Water from the channel flowed into a main tank or water tower (castellum aquae) , it was shared into 3 ain pipes that fed different areas of the city. The sloping terrain aided the water pressure that dispersed the water to various tanks all over Pompeii. Many private homes in Pompeii were connected directly to this source of fresh running water. One of the 3 pipes supplied the 42 public fountains found all over the ity. Poorer people gained water from the fountains. The water flowed through lead pipes but the people of the time were unaware of the hazards. Catellum plumbeum which were lead pillar that acted as pressure taps and ensured equal water pressure throughout the town. The fountains (Nymphaeum) were quadrangular stone basins often decorated with gargoyles. Sanitation: Toilets and sewage 28

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The common practice from Romans was to use a chamber pot in their homes. The floor of the toilet was sloped downwards so that urine and faeces could be washed away from a bucket. Seats were made of wood and were placed on top pf an open drain. Some toilets were located upstairs some were downstairs usually in the kitchen so rubbish could be disposed in them as well. In a public latrine people sat side by side on benches above the flowing channel. There was no toilet paper only a sponge on a stick. The town was noisy, smelly, and generally unhygienic with rubbish in the streets. Health In Roman society it was said that the rich got sick from eating and the poor got sick from not eating. Afflictions that are minor problems today were life threatening to the ancient Romans. The cause of diease was not understood and remedies were primitive. People turned to magic charms, healing herbs, prayers and religion for cures. Most Roman bodies reveal a high level of lead content. They used lead in cooking pots and their water was flushed through lead pipes. The people were poisoning themselves, the high lead content may have caused infertility and contributed toa high rate of infant mortality. Dr Estelle Lazer concluded that the Pompeians were healthy in their childhood. She conducted a research on dental health and found that: gum disease and tooth decay on a number of teeth. Many teeth had calcified plaque. It is likely the Pompeians had bad breath. Many of the teeth were worn flat as a result of eating bread that contained minute fragmwnts of grindstone used to mill flour. This may have caused painful infections.

Clothing Indoors Roman men or boys wore the tunic this was a loose woolen shirt, with short sleeves held up by a girdle at the waist. But when a man was in public he put on his toga which was a 29

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long heavy white cloak wrapped around the body. The togas of men who held important offices were marked by a broad purple stripe on the boarder. When a boy was old enough to wear a toga there was a special ceremony held. The Romans wore shoes and boots, in the house they often worse sandals. Work men had caps and hats but wealthy went bareheaded. Women wore three garments. Inner tunic then a longer outer covering and a cloak or mantle much like a toga.

Leisure Activities Judging by the number of graffiti relating to gambling, drinking, sex,celebrity gladiators and actors, as well as the number of buildings associated with sport, entertainment and relaxation, people in Pompeii enjoyed their time and pleasure came easy. Visiting the baths or thermae Visiting a municipal or privately owned baths (thermae) was a social occasion as well as an opportunity to satisfy not only the wellbeing of the body but also the sprit. As well as enjoying the benefits of the warm, hot or cold baths, visitors could practice physical exercise and play sport, indulge in the range of therapies such as a message and oiling, stroll in the gardens, listen to music and poetry recitals and read in the library, graffiti suggests that sexual activities may have taken place in the baths. Attending the Theatre The great theatre had a seating capacity of 5000 for the performance of comedies, tragedies and farces (a comedy in which the humor depends on a ridiculous and unlikely situation). Small or covered theatres or Odeon for concerts, lectures and poetry recitals. Spacious open foyer where spectators could stroll between performances. Later, this believed to have become the site of the gladiators barracks. The horse-shoe shaped auditorium was divided into three horizontal areas (cavea) with the section nearedt the stage 30

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reserved for dignitaries and the highest section probably occupied by women. A coloured awning (velarium) was sometimes stretched across the auditorium for shade, and perfumed showers of water (sparsiones) were often sprayed from a tank located at the theatre to cool the audience. There were generally no female actors (males played female roles) women did seem to take part in mimes and pantomimes (singers and musicians, no words) Theatres were certainly noisy. Audiences, particularly at performances of comic farces and pantomimes, were excitable and often impatient. Amphitheatre This great gladiatorial venue could hold 20,000 people. It was built in the south-east of the city to take advantage of the embankment that ran along the back of the fortification and wall and avoid congestion. The spectacle began with a procession (pompa) featuring a variety of musicians and all the participants dressed in ornate garments. The morning session was often devotes to venationes (animal hunts). The venatores and bestiarii would fight against wild exotic animal or animals would be pitted against animal. Gladiators warmed up in front of the crowd and they subjected themselves to a weapon check.

Ancient Wonders : Modern Problems

Important Dates 1995 Vesuvian National park officially opened 1997 Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and the Villa at Oplontis declared World Heritage sites. 1997 Italian parliament passes law stating that Pompeii and Herculaneum receive all money collected from entry fees. 1996 Excavations at Villa of Papyri. 1998 Excavation halted at Villa of Papyri. 2004 Conserved and restored sections of Villa of Papyri open to public.

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The Custodian and Management of the Site Although Pompeii and Herculaneum are the property of the republic of Italy, there is a general feeling amoungst visitors that these sites are so important that they belong to everyone. The popularity of Pompeii and Herculaneum has ensured that the Italians have become the custodian of a global human heritage. Positive Steps Towards the Protection of the Sites The current superintendent of Pompeii is Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Professor Guzzo has implemented a number of changes designed to protect and conserve the fragile nature of the sites. One of professor Guzzos first action was to declare a moratorium (a halt in excavation) on any new excavations; only conservation and restoration activities are allowed. Other positive steps towards the protection of the site: 1995 Vesuvian National park officially opened to protect the natural, cultural and historical heritage of the area. World Monuments Watch contributed $ US600 000 over there years to fund a general assessment and state of the site and to draft detailed plans for restoration work. These are now bwing implemented. 1997 Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and the Villa at Oplontis declared World Heritage sites by UNESCO. 1997 Italian parliament passes law stating that Pompeii and Herculaneum receive all money collected from entry fees. 2003 two international philanthropic organizations, the Worlds Monuments Fund and the Kress Foundation, sponsored a meeting that brought together archaelogists, conservators, archiatects and ot her specialists in Pomepii to discuss conservation of the site that will be implemented over the next decade. Problems that affect the site Theft (looting of mosaics and other valuables) Sun (heat causes cracking) Rain (moisture cause decay) Animals (pigeons, dogs) Plants (weeds wreck frescos and walls) 32

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Tourists (touching, damaging and stealing the artifacts) The Anglo American Project in Pompeii (AAPP) In Pompeii The Anglo- American Project in Pompeii (AAPP) is an international team working in inslua VI, on the House of the Surgeon, for example. The entire insula is being studied as well as conserved. The investigation process involved: - removal of soil - screening for artifacts and ecofacts - sorting and recording of finds - drawing of plans and sections - creating a complete photographic record - using infrared camera to explore the cesspit - analysis of shreds A team of international scholars then analysed and studied the finds. Artefacts and ecofacts, such as red slip bowls, lamps, pitchers, coins, vessels, animal bones, fish bones and scales, were identified and analysed. Re-contextualising Works of Art An initiative at Herculaneum is the insertation of copies and casts of original paintings and sculpture held in Naples Museum at the sites of their original discoveries. This has greatly enhanced the appearance of buildings such as the house of the Deer. The display of Human Remains The ancient Romans believed that for the soul to rest peacefully in the afterlife, the bosy had to be given a proper burial. The people that were killed in the eruption were not buried by their loved ones or community. There are some people who feel that it is disrespectful to have the victims of the 79AD eruption on display , either on site or in a museum. Is it respectful to display human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or in a museum ? Is it less disrespectful to have the casts of the human victims displayed ? Should the skeletons be given proper burial ? What sort of burial would be considered proper? An ancient Roman ? Italian Christian ? non-denominational ? which type of ritual should be preformed ?

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if the skeletons were to be buried, where should they be buried? In the ancient cemeteries where they died ?

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