Georgios Rogdakis, s073726

Electromagnetic validation of fault-ride through capabilities of xed-speed wind turbines

Masters Thesis, September 2010

Georgios Rogdakis, s073726

Electromagnetic validation of fault-ride through capabilities of xed-speed wind turbines

Masters Thesis, September 2010

Electromagnetic validation of fault-ride through capabilities of xed-speed wind turbines

This report was prepared by Georgios Rogdakis, s073726

Supervisors Rodrigo Garcia-Valle Ivan Arana Aristi

CET DTU DONG Energy

Department of Electrical Engineering Centre for Electric Technology (CET) Technical University of Denmark Elektrovej building 325 2800 Kgs. Lyngby Denmark www.elektro.dtu.dk/cet Tel: (+45) 45 25 35 00 Fax: (+45) 45 88 61 11 E-mail: cet@elektro.dtu.dk

Release date: Category: Edition: Comments:

November 23, 2010 1 (public) First This report is part of the requirements to achieve the Master of Science in Engineering (M.Sc.Eng.) at the Technical University of Denmark. This report represents 30 ECTS points. Georgios Rogdakis, 2010

Rights:

Preface

This is report is the result of the work carried out by Georgios Rogdakis, student at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), in fulllment of the requirements for obtaining the degree of Master of Science in Wind Energy. The project has been completed in the period from February to September 2010 in cooperation with the Centre for Electric Technology at DTU and DONG Energy. The supervision has been undertaken by Rodrigo Garcia from CET DTU and Ivan Arana from DONG Energy.

I hereby declare that this thesis was composed by myself, that the work contained herein is my own except where explicitly stated otherwise.

November 23, 2010

Georgios Rogdakis

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisors Rodrigo and Ivan for giving me the opportunity to investigate a very interesting topic. I also appreciate their guidance, support and inspiration throughout the project. Their comments formulated useful inputs towards the solutions of the problems rising during the last months. I would also like to thank the employees of Electrical Department and Siemens Wind Power A/S that have been very helpful in all the inquiries I have had.

iii

Abstract

The scope of the present project is the development and validation of an electro-magnetic transient model of the xed-speed wind turbines. The research work will be focused on the development of a model of a xed-speed wind turbine with fault-ride through capabilities, simulating its behavior during island operation. Based on that, the behavior of the wind turbines during the island operation will be investigated. The developed model should be suitable for electro-magnetic transient studies and the software tool that will be used is PSCAD. In the rst stage of the project, data available from eld measurements acquired from switching operations in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm are studied. As it is unknown what exactly happens after the disconnection of the radial, in this part it will be attempted to understand the behavior of the wind turbines. In the second part of the project, the model of the wind turbine will be developed. The process of the model development is based on experience from previous research work, appropriate for switching transient studies. In the nal stage, the model will be validated with the voltage and current measurements. As some parameters of the model are unknown, a sensitivity analysis will be performed to investigate the eect of the parameters on the system behavior. Finally, the generic control model of the capacitor banks will be developed and the behavior of the wind turbines while they are on low- and high-level of production will be simulated.

vi

Contents

Contents List of Figures List of Tables Introduction 1 Introduction 1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Work by others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Wind Energy Systems 2.1 Wind turbine congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Technical regulations for the interconnection of Wind Farms to the grid . . . . 3 Measurement Analysis 3.1 Nysted Wind Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Measurement analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Preliminary analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Space Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Transformation into sequence components 3.3.4 FFT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Capacitor banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Nysted Oshore Wind Farm Modeling 4.1 Transmission and Collection Grid Modeling 4.2 Wind Turbine Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Shaft system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Induction Generator . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Capacitor banks . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii ix xv 1 1 1 1 5 5 7 11 11 11 12 12 17 22 27 28 31 33 34 35 35 37 39 42 43 45 46 49 49 54 57

5 Validation of the model 5.1 Comparison of the instantaneous values of currents 5.2 Sequence components analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Voltage and current at the three locations . 5.2.2 Active and reactive power comparison . . . 5.2.3 FFT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

and voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

5.3 5.4

Distributed cable model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57 62 65 66 66 69 71 74 76 76 79 81 84 88

6 Sensitivity analysis 6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Scenario A1: Low inertia- Low shaft stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Scenario A2: Low inertia- High shaft stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Scenario A3: High inertia- Low shaft stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Scenario A4: High inertia- high shaft stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Scenario B1- The capacitor banks switching operations occur only in A01 and A09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Scenario B2- The capacitor banks have the same operation in all wind turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Scenario B3- The capacitor banks remain connected and disconnect at the 275 ms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Scenario B4- Dierent steps of the capacitor banks connecting at A01 . 6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Capacitor control and assessment of over-voltages levels 7.1 Capacitor bank control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Over-voltages during low-level production . . . . . . 7.3 Over-voltages during nominal power production . . . 7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in dierent production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89 . 89 . 91 . 96 . 101

8 Discussion and future work 103 8.1 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 8.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Bibliography Appendix A Appendix A-Measurement analysis B Appendix B-Validation C Appendix C-Dierent steps of the capacitor banks connecting at A01 107 111 111 115 123

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List of Figures

2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

Performance characteristics of wind rotors[1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind turbine congurations [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage prole after symmetric three-phase faults [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nysted Oshore Wind Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locations of the measuring system [4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage in the three measuring points. Upper plot: voltage at the platform. Middle plot: voltage at A01. Lower plot: voltage at A09 . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the three measuring points. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09 . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the three measuring points from 60ms to 120ms. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage in the three measuring points from 250ms to 330ms. Upper plot: voltage at the platform. Middle plot: voltage at A01. Lower plot: voltage at A09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current in the three measuring points from 250ms to 330ms. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active Power measurements, 10 min average [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reactive Power Measurements, 10 min average [5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active and reactive power at the transformer platform calculated through space vector transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active and reactive power at A01 calculated through space vector transformation Active and reactive power at A09 calculated through space vector transformation Active and reactive power at all three locations before the radial disconnection. Left upper plot: Active Power at the transformer platform. Right upper plot: Reactive Power at the transformer platform. Left middle plot: Active Power at A01. Right middle plot: Reactive Power at A01. Left lower plot: Active Power at A09. Right lower plot: Reactive Power at A09. . . . . . . . Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms . . . . . . . . . . . . Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms after the correction. . Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms . . . . . . . . . . . . Sequence components of the voltage at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sequence components of the current at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive sequence voltage at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive sequence voltage at the three locations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 6 8 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 16 18 18 19

3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20

19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25

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3.21 Power at the transformer platform calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22 Power at A01 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23 Power at A09 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.24 Power at A01 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation between 80 ms and 200 ms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25 Spectrogram of the current at A01 wind turbine from 0 ms to 500 ms. . . . . . 3.26 FFT analysis on phase B of the measured current at A01 and A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27 FFT analysis on phase B of the measured current at A01. The signal is divided in ve stages according to gure 3.19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.28 Voltage control set points [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 Generic block-diagram of the xed-speed wind turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simple transformer equivalent circuit with the secondary winding referred to the primary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model of the aerodynamics of the wind turbine rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two-mass model of the shaft implemented in PSCAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Induction generator model implemented in PSCAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit of a double squirrel-cage induction generator. . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit of a single squirrel-cage induction generator. . . . . . . . . . Model used for the representation of the capacitor banks included in the wind turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 34 35 36 39 40 41 41 42 46 47 47 48 48 49 49 50 50 50 52 52

Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.2 Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.3 Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.4 Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.5 Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.6 Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . 5.7 Measured and simulated current at A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Measured and simulated current at A09 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Measured and simulated current at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Measured and simulated current at A09 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11 Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . . 5.12 Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . .

5.13 Positive-sequence component of the voltage at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.14 Zero-sequence component of the current at A01 and A09. Upper plot: A01. Lower plot:A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.15 Active power production at the three measuring points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.16 Active power production at the three measuring points after the radial disconnection. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.17 Reactive power at the three measuring points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.18 FFT analysis on the current at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.19 Frequency-Dependent (Phase) model of the cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20 Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements . 5.21 Instantaneous current at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements . 5.22 Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements . 5.23 Instantaneous current at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements . 5.24 Positive sequence component of the voltage at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.25 FFT analysis at phase B of the voltage. Upper plot: FFT at A01. Lower plot: FFT at A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.26 FFT analysis at phase B of the current. Upper plot: FFT at A01. Lower plot: FFT at A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B1 . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B1 . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B2 . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B2 . . . . . . . Voltage at A01 from 250 ms to 330 ms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B3 . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B3 . . . . . . . Voltage at A01 from 250 ms to 330 ms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B4 . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B4 . . . . . . . Measured and simulated current at A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. The gure is from the simulation in Chapter 5. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage control set points [6]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voltage control logic implemented in PSCAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instantaneous voltages at A01. The control of the capacitor banks is enabled faster in the simulation that the reactive power is supplied to the grid. . . . . . Current at the capacitor banks at A01. Upper plot: Reactive power supplied to the grid. Lower plot: Reactive power absorbed from the grid. . . . . . . . . RMS voltage at A01 measured for the control of the capacitor banks. Upper plot: Reactive power supplied to the grid. Lower plot: Reactive power absorbed from the grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 59 59 60 61 61 62 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 90 91 92 93 93

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

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7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17

Positive sequence component of the voltage at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Active power production in the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Total active power production. Middle plot: Active power production at A01. Lower plot: Active power production at A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Reactive power production in the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Total reactive power production. Middle plot: Reactive power production at A01. Lower plot: Reactive power production at A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Instantaneous voltage at A01. The radial disconnection occurs at 15 sec. . . . . 96 Instantaneous voltage at A01. The capacitor banks in case of the nominal power operation disconnect 50 ms later and they connect again at 15.2 sec. . . . . . . 97 Current at the capacitor banks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 RMS voltage at MV side of the transformer at A01. The measured voltage is used for the voltage control of the capacitor banks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Instantaneous voltage at A01. Connection of the capacitor banks at low-level power production occur at 15.655 sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Positive sequence voltage at A01. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Active power production at the three locations for the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Active power production at the transformer platform. Middel plot: Active power production at A01. Lower plot: Active power production at A09. 100 Reactive power production at the three locations for the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Reactive power at the transformer platform. Middle plot: Reactive power at A01. Lower plot: Reactive power at A09. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Positive sequence voltage at A01 for the three simulated cases. . . . . . . . . . . 101

A.1 Sequence components of the measured voltage at A01. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.2 Sequence components of the measured current at A01. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.3 Sequence components of the measured voltage at A09. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A.4 Sequence components of the measured current at A09. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 Measured and simulated voltage at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . B.2 Measured and simulated voltage at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . B.3 Measured and simulated voltage at the A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . B.4 Measured and simulated voltage at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . B.5 Measured and simulated voltage at A09 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . B.6 Measured and simulated voltage at the A09 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . B.7 Measured and simulated current at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . . B.8 Measured and simulated current at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . . . . . . . . .

111 112 112 113 115 116 116 116 117 117 117 118

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B.9 Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at A01. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.10 Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at A01. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.11 Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at A09. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.12 Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at A09. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.13 Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements. B.14 Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements. B.15 Instantaneous current at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements. C.1 Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms-Scenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . C.2 Instantaneous current comparison at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms-Scenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . C.3 Instantaneous voltage comparison at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms-Scenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . . C.4 Instantaneous current comparison at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms-Scenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C. . . . .

118 119 119 120 120 121 121 123 124 124 125

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xiv

List of Tables

3.1 5.1 6.1 6.2

Active and Reactive Power before disconnection of the radial

. . . . . . . . . .

15 45 66 66

Switching operations in the simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scenarios based on dierent values of HW T R and K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scenarios based on dierent times for the capacitor banks switching . . . . . . .

xv

Chapter

1 Introduction

The rate of electricity production from Wind Power is growing rapidly the last 25 years. Since the early 1970s when the rst organized attempt of introducing another way of electricity production besides oil and its subsidies, the technology related to wind turbines has been improved. By the end of 1990s wind energy had become one of the most important sustainable energy resources. The rst wind turbines introduced were of the size of several kW whereas nowadays the wind turbines are over 3 MW and their production is expected to grow even more the next few years. Furthermore, the goal set by European Union that by 2020 the rate of the electricity production should be at least 20%, led to the development of wind farms instead of individual wind turbines. From the early 2000s the development of oshore wind farms has grown rapidly and it is of a vital importance to achieve the goal from EU. Even though the cost of the development of an oshore wind farm could be even double in respect with an onshore wind farm according to the European Environment Agency [7], the advantage of higher average wind speed could make the investment more attractive. According to [8] the wind velocity at 15 meters from the shore could be even 20-25% higher. In addition, the lower turbulence levels in oshore comparing with the turbulence created by the landscape onshore could optimize the power production.

1.1

Objectives

The main objective of the thesis was the development of a model of the xed-speed wind turbines suitable for electro-magnetic transient simulations. The model was validated with real measurements from the disconnection of a radial in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm. During the switching operation the wind turbines were in operation. Once the model of the wind turbine was validated, the eect of the radial disconnection on the over-voltages will be assessed while the wind turbines are in dierent production level. As the behavior of the wind turbines after the radial disconnection was not known, part of the thesis was dedicated on the measurement analysis in order to extract as much information as possible. Under this scope, dierent approaches were adopted and the results were discussed.

1.2

Work by others

The development of wind turbine models has been described in literature [9], [10]. The main concepts that need to be taken into consideration while modeling mathematically the components of a wind turbine were described. In addition, according to the phenomenon investigated dierent modeling approach should be adopted. In cases of voltage stability investigation of

1.2 Work by others

power systems with large wind farms an aggregated model could be more appropriate instead of the representation of the whole wind farm [11], [12]. Furthermore, the degree of complexity regarding the components of the model has a signicant impact on the results and dierent models regarding the shaft system and the generator were presented [9], [13]. Similar work for xed-speed wind turbines has been done in [13]. The study was related to the investigation of the behavior of the wind turbine during a voltage dip. The model of the wind turbine the mechanical part of the wind turbine corresponding to the shaft system and the induction generator. For each of the components two approaches were adopted; the detailed and the simplied models. The behavior of the dierent models was investigated and compared with eld measurements acquired from a voltage dip event in a wind turbine. The study was performed in two transient stability simulation tools, PSS/E and Power Factory. In [14], the comparison of the simplied and the detailed model of the induction generator is performed in PSS/E, but both models are compared as well with the model available in PSCAD. The results showed an agreement between the fth order model in PSS/E and the model in PSCAD. Even though the modeling of the wind turbines and the dierent aspects on that have been investigated, there are not many studies regarding transient or temporary over-voltages. Temporary over-voltages could occur during island operation of a wind farm. Although an event such as the disconnection of a wind farm while it is operating is rare, it could happen. In [15] the disconnection of a wind farm was analyzed and the simulation of similar events in wind farms was performed. The investigation has shown that after similar switching operations the level of active power production would aect the voltage increase rate. Therefore, the active power supply of the wind turbines to the collection grid of the wind farm should be interrupted as soon as possible. In addition, reactive power compensation should be interrupted as well or act accordingly for preventing over-voltages. The island operation of wind turbines is also described in [16] and [17]. The work is based on the same experiment of island operation of a wind farm at Rejsby Hede in Denmark. In [16], the experiment was described and the preliminary analysis is presented. In addition, dierent methods of estimating the frequency of the system were used to show that dierent methods give consistent results. In [17], the model of the wind farm was developed and validated with the available measurements. The induction generator was represented by a fourth order model while the mechanical part by the two-mass model. The simulation tool used for the simulation of the model was the PSS/E and the results were validated with the measurements presented in [16]. The two-mass model representation of the shaft system of xed-speed wind turbines is based on [11], where it has been shown that for xed-speed wind turbines there is electromechanical interaction between the shaft and the grid. Consequently, the studies involving a model of xed-speed wind turbine, apart from the generator model, the aerodynamic model and the blade-angle control model, must include the shaft model. In [13], as it was mentioned before, two dierent modeling approaches for the mechanical model were studied; the two-mass and the simple mass model. It was veried as well that the two-mass model was necessary to simulate accurately enough the electromechanical oscillations. The aim of the present project is that the model of the wind turbine developed will be in good agreement with instantaneous voltage and current measurements following a switching operation. However, switching transient studies in large oshore wind farms focus mainly on the energizing of the cables of the collection grid [5], [18]. In [5], the collection grid of Nysted was modeled and validated with eld measurements. The events studied were the energizing of the rst and the second radial, with dierent switching moment and the energize of the transformer in the last wind turbine of the rst radial while seven wind turbines were under production. Even though, it was not under the scope of the present project, the modeling of the collection grid of the wind farm was based on the considerations presented in [5]. As the measurement available were from the disconnection of one radial of the wind farm, the wind turbines were in island operation. Similar work has been done in [19] and in [20]. In [19], the model of the wind farm was developed in both PSCAD and DIgSILENT Power Factory and the results were compared with the measurements. However, the island operation

Chapter 1

of two wind turbines was simulated only in PSCAD. The results have shown discrepancies between simulated and measured voltages, as the transients after the islanding are higher in the simulation results. However, the simulated currents show a closer to the measured currents behavior. In [20], the impact of wind farm integration in the power quality of weak grids was studied. Among other experiments, the over-voltages during island operation were simulated. Several simulations were performed, with the capacitors connecting to the grid and the capacitors disconnecting from the islanded grid in dierent moments. The transient overvoltages were higher if the capacitors were connecting in the grid at maximum voltage. It was concluded that when the wind farm was in island operation the capacitors should disconnect as soon as possible to avoid high over-voltages.

1.2 Work by others

Chapter

2 Wind Energy Systems

2.1

Wind turbine congurations

The rst wind turbines used for producing electricity were simple and not always eective. The growth of the wind turbines market led to the development of the wind turbine industry and the design of more reliable wind turbines. Also, the need for higher electricity production from renewable energy sources along with the development of wind farms resulted in new designs of the control of wind turbines that could extract more wind power. Based on the constructional design, wind turbines could be classied into those that their rotor has a vertical axis of rotation and those that their rotor has an horizontal axis of rotation [1]. The dominant design is the the horizontal axis wind turbines and the main reason is their eciency in respect with the eciency of the vertical axis wind turbines. A comparison between the performance characteristics of wind rotors can be seen in gure 2.1. The comparison is based on the Cp curve and as it can be seen the three-bladed horizontal axis rotor is the most ecient among the other designs.

Figure 2.1: Performance characteristics of wind rotors[1] Wind turbines can be also classied based on the generator that they are equipped with

2.1 Wind turbine congurations

and also based on their ability to control their speed. Related to the latter there are mainly two categories, the xed-speed and the variable speed wind turbines. As denoted by the names, variable speed wind turbines have the ability to adjust their rotational speed while the xed-speed have almost the same speed indierent from the wind speed. The generators used in wind turbines are either induction (asynchronous) or synchronous generators. The typical wind turbine congurations are illustrated in gure 2.2. In gure 2.2, type A, B and C are equipped with induction generators. More specically, type A has a squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG) while type B and C have a wound rotor induction generator (WRIG). Type D wind turbines could be equipped with a WRIG or a synchronous generator; either permanent magnet (PMSG) or a wound rotor synchronous generator. Usually, xed-speed wind turbines use squirrel cage induction generators (type A) and variable speed use the other three congurations of gure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Wind turbine congurations [2]

Wind turbine designs can be also dierentiated from the way that they perform the blade control. There are three dierent types; the stall, the active stall and the pitch control. The stall and the active stall control are normally associated with the xed-speed wind turbines whereas the pitch control is used in the variable speed wind turbines. With stall control

Chapter 2

wind turbines, which is the most simple and low-cost design, there is no control of the power output. They are designed in such way that they optimize their production in a certain wind speed, after which due to the aerodynamic stall occurring at the blades the power output is limited [1]. Even though stall controlled wind turbines were very popular during 1980s and 1990s, nowadays is mainly used in small wind turbines that normally do not have blade pitch adjustment [1]. Active stall control is a more complex design than the stall control but maintains the power characteristics of a stall-regulated wind turbine [2]. Active stall wind turbines are also known as "Danish concept" as it was mostly implemented by the danish wind turbine manufacturers until the early 2000 [11]. The operation of active stall wind turbines can be divided into two modes. The rst mode is for wind speeds higher than the rated where the pitch angle is adjusted so that the power output remains constant and equal to the rated. If the wind speed is higher than the rated speed, the pitch angle changes in the way that the angle of attack of the wind increases [21]. As angle of attack is dened the angle between the chord line and the wind direction [22]. The second mode of operation is for wind speeds less than the rated speed. In this case, the power of the wind turbine should be optimized which can be done through the appropriate pitch angle. According to the aerodynamic design of the wind turbine, at a given wind speed corresponds a pitch angle that the power output is the maximum. As mentioned before, xed-speed wind turbines are operating with a rotational speed that is almost constant. Variable speed wind turbines can vary their rotational speed and adjust it according to the desirable power output. Variable speed wind turbines are equipped with synchronous generators, doubly-fed induction generators or asynchronous generators. For those equipped with synchronous generators, the turbine is totally decoupled from the power system through converters. This is a common practice as wind uctuations cause dierent operational speed and as a result the output voltage and the frequency will vary [1]. Using converters, the power quality produced from these wind turbines is improved. In the case of doubly fed induction generators, the stator of the generator is directly connected to the grid but the rotor is connected to a converter. Through this converter the torque or the speed of the machine can be controlled [23]. Normally, variable speed wind turbines are pitch controlled. In pitch controlled wind turbines, for wind speeds below rated the pitch angle of the blades is adjusted so that it maximizes the power output. For wind speed above rated, the pitch angle varies so that the angle of attack is decreased and the power output is at its rated [23].

2.2

Technical regulations for the interconnection of Wind Farms to the grid

The wind turbines used in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm are active stall xed-speed wind turbines with induction generator. The term xed-speed comes from the fact that the rotational speed of the wind turbine in normal operation is almost constant. This is due to the stator of the generator connected to the power system while the rotor of the generator is coupled to the rotor of the wind turbine. As a result, the rotational speed of the wind turbine varies according to the variations in the slip of the induction generator. As those variations are small, not more than 2% , the speed is considered to be xed [9]. As xed-speed wind turbines are designed to operate more eectively in their rated wind speed, a dierent design could be applied. In this design, known as multi-speed generator system, two constant speeds are chosen [1]. It is an intermediate design between the xed and variable speed wind turbines and even though it does not have the advantages of variable speed operation it can increase the energy production for the xed-speed wind turbines. The lower speed is used for low wind speeds while the higher is used for medium and high wind speeds that the wind turbine can operate at its nominal power. Two dierent constant speeds of the generator can be achieved with the use of a pole-changing induction generator, where two windings with dierent number of poles are used. For the wind turbines used in Nysted, the low wind speed winding has 6 poles while the medium and high wind speed winding has 4 poles. For the operation of the induction generators, reactive power absorption is required. De-

2.2 Technical regulations for the interconnection of Wind Farms to the grid

pending on the level of the active power production, the required amount of reactive power will be dierent. Higher power production means that the induction generator is operating with higher slip and consequently the reactive power needed will be higher. If the wind turbines are connected to the grid, the reactive power needed will be absorbed from the power system. However, in order to improve the power factor, reactive power compensation is a common practice. This can be achieved either with the use of capacitor banks for each wind turbine or with reactive power compensation through STATCOMs or VSCs. The advantage of the xed-speed wind turbines is that they are simple, reliable and wellproven. On the contrary, the uncontrollable reactive power consumption and the limited power quality control are the main disadvantages of the specic conguration [2]. It is easily understandable that the eects of the limited power control on the power system would be even more severe in case of a large wind farm. To prevent power quality problems and also to determine the behavior of the wind turbine during dierent faults in the power system, system operators have introduced severe restrictions in the grid codes [3][24][25]. The grid codes describe the active and reactive power regulation during steady state operation and set the limits on the impact of the wind farm on the voltage quality. In addition, they describe the behavior of the wind turbines in case that a fault occurs in the grid. Under this scope, the wind turbines are not allowed to disconnect from the network if the fault is of a certain duration and the voltage remain within specied limits. The operation during and after a fault is known as fault-ride through. Especially in the danish grid code gure 2.3 illustrates the voltage prole during symmetric three-phase fault. It is stated that if during a fault the voltage is above a certain level (0.25 per unit), then the wind turbine must remain connected and try to support the voltage [3]. After the fault, if the voltage remain above the curve in gure 2.3 the wind turbines must remain connected to the grid. As long as they are connected, they should supply reactive power to the grid and support the voltage. If the wind turbine is equipped with power electronics, then the control of the reactive power will be performed through them. Otherwise, the reactive power needed will be provided by the capacitor banks.

Figure 2.3: Voltage prole after symmetric three-phase faults [3].

Nysted Oshore Wind Farm consists of xed-speed wind turbines equipped with induction generators. For the reactive power compensation, each wind turbine is connected with capacitor banks that are able to provide full load compensation. The capacitor banks are separated in steps and depending on the reactive power demand steps could connect or disconnect. As mentioned before, in case of fault in the grid the wind turbines need to remain connected and provide reactive power to the grid. To comply with this norm of the grid codes, the capacitor banks should connect as soon as the fault is detected and provide the reactive power needed from the grid. The experiment that will be analyzed in Chapter 3 is the island operation of a radial of

Chapter 2

Nysted Oshore Wind Farm. Previous work has shown that when the wind farm is disconnected from the grid the voltage will increase if the reactive power in the isolated grid is higher than the necessary [20]. In [3] is described that the temporary over-voltages should be limited to 1.3 per unit of the output voltage and reduced to 1.2 per unit after 100 ms. In case of over-compensation of the isolated grid, the decrease of the voltage occurs by disconnecting the capacitor banks that provide reactive power to the induction generators. In general, when islanding occurs the reactive power supply should disconnect as soon as possible to avoid over-voltages [2], [20].

10

2.2 Technical regulations for the interconnection of Wind Farms to the grid

Chapter

3 Measurement Analysis

3.1

Nysted Wind Farm

Nysted Oshore Wind Farm is consisted of 72 wind turbines with rated power 2,3 MW. The wind farm was commissioned in December 2003. The arrangement of the wind farm is illustrated in 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Nysted Oshore Wind Farm The wind turbines are connected in 8 radials (from A to H). The radials are connected to the platform where the park transformer is situated. Each radial has 9 wind turbines and the cable of the radial is of 36 kV. The park transformer is 3-winding (180/90/90 MVA;132/33/33 kV). Each wind turbine has a transformer (2.5 MVA; 33/0.69 kV) and is connected to the radial through a switch on the Medium Voltage (MV).

3.2

Measurements

In 2007 eld measurements were done in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm. Three GPS synchronised measuring systems were developed and installed in the Wind Farm [4]. The measurement

12

3.3 Measurement analysis

system could monitor high frequency transients; the voltage and the current in three dierent locations in the network of the Wind Farm were recorded simultaneously with sampling rate 2.5 MHz. The three points in the network that the measuring system was located can be seen in gure 3.2 and they are in: The main transformer on the oshore platform, after the circuit breaker of the radial A The rst wind turbine of the radial A, A01 The last wind turbine of the radial A, A09

Figure 3.2: Locations of the measuring system [4]

For the eld measurements several switching transients were generated and recorded. However, only the disconnection of the radial feeder is investigated in the present work.

3.3
3.3.1

Measurement analysis
Preliminary analysis

The switching operation that will be simulated in PSCAD will be the disconnection of the line breaker of the radial A. An overall view of the voltage and current measurements in the three locations are depicted in gure 3.3 and 3.4 respectively. On each location, the measurement on each phase are plotted as "-a-", "-b" and "-c-" respectively. Observing carefully gure 3.3 and gure 3.4 useful information can be extracted. In gure 3.4, the current in the transformer platform drops to zero at t=0.08s that denotes that this is the time of the switching operation. In the same gure it can be seen that after the radial disconnection, the current in A01 and A09 does not drop to zero. This can be veried in gure 3.5. This implies that the wind turbines remain connected after the radial disconnection and the capacitive current is fed into the isolated radial. In gure 3.5 the time of the switching operation can be also seen clearly as the current at the transformer platform drops to zero. In gure 3.3 at t=0.275s there is a second switching operation that caused high transient over-voltages. The transients in the voltages and the currents in the three locations provoked by the second switching operation can be seen in gures 3.6 and 3.7 respectively. The origin of the transients at this time is unknown and will be investigated later in the report. Apart from the voltage and current measurements, the active and reactive power production of all the wind turbines of the radial are available and presented in gures 3.8 and 3.9. Even

Chapter 3

13

Figure 3.3: Voltage in the three measuring points. Upper plot: voltage at the platform. Middle plot: voltage at A01. Lower plot: voltage at A09

Figure 3.4: Current in the three measuring points. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09

14

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.5: Current in the three measuring points from 60ms to 120ms. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09

Figure 3.6: Voltage in the three measuring points from 250ms to 330ms. Upper plot: voltage at the platform. Middle plot: voltage at A01. Lower plot: voltage at A09

though they are prsented in 10 minutes average, it is clear enough that the wind turbines were in operation before the radial disconnection. The active and reactive power of A01 wind turbine, A09 wind turbine and the total power transmitted through the radial are presented in Table 3.1. As it is expected, after the radial disconnection there is no active power transmission to the grid. However, as shown earlier, there is a small current at A01 and A09. This is due to the fact that the wind turbines are still connected and feed current to the isolated radial [19].

Chapter 3

15

Figure 3.7: Current in the three measuring points from 250ms to 330ms. Upper plot: current at the platform. Middle plot: current at A01. Lower plot: current at A09 Table 3.1: Active and Reactive Power before disconnection of the radial

Nysted Total First Last P [MW] 17.19 1.79 2.10 Q [MVAr] 1.86 0.16 0.16

In gure 3.9 it should be also mentioned that A01 wind turbine has a dierent behavior from the rest. After the switching operation, some of the capacitor banks in A01 remain connected as there is reactive power transmission. This is not the case with the other wind turbines of the radial. The measurements were acquired in 2007 and there is no information whether the phase sequence of the voltages is associated with the phase sequence of the currents in each location. To avoid any misinterpretation of the results this will be investigated. The active and reactive power will be calculated from the measurements and then validated with the data presented in gures 3.8, 3.9 and in table 3.1. The active and reactive power can be calculated through equations 3.1, 3.2.
3

p(t) =
i=1

ui (t) ii (t)

(3.1)

q(t) = (u1 (t) u2 (t)) i1 (t) + (u2 (t) u1 (t)) i2 (t) + (u3 (t) u1 (t)) i3 (t)

(3.2)

The calculation of the reactive power in 3.2 is only valid for fundamental components. In this

16

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.8: Active Power measurements, 10 min average [5]

Figure 3.9: Reactive Power Measurements, 10 min average [5]

Chapter 3

17

case, the harmonic contents due to the switching operation will lead to insucient results for the calculation of the instantaneous reactive power. For this reason, other ways to calculate both active and reactive power are investigated.

3.3.2

Space Vectors

Space vectors have been used for the control of the induction machines and the converters but they can also be used for the representation of the instantaneous values of the voltage and the current [16], [26]. However, it was found out afterwards, that the space vector transformation should be applied only in balanced power systems where the zero sequence component is zero [27]. It is unknown whether the system after the radial disconnection is balanced, so for the time being only the steady state before the islanding will be considered as valid. After the space vector transformation of the voltage and the active and the reactive power will be calculated to verify that it is in accordance with the measurements. The equation used for the space vector transformation is: x (t) = 1 1 2 (xa (t) xb (t) xc (t)) 3 2 2 3 2 3 xb (t) xc (t)) x (t) = ( 3 2 2 (3.3) (3.4)

where xa , xb and xc are the three phases of the current and the voltage, while x and x are the space vectors. For the calculation of active and reactive power equation 3.5 and equation 3.6 will be used. 3 (e (t)i (t) + e (t)i (t)) 2 3 q(t) = (e (t)i (t) + e (t)i (t)) 2 p(t) = (3.5) (3.6)

After implementing equations 3.3 and 3.5 in MATLAB the results are presented in gures 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12 and are compared with the measurements presented in gures 3.8, 3.9 and in table 3.1. As mentioned earlier, the measurement presented in the gures are 10 minutes averaged. The data presented in the table are before the radial disconnection but it is unknown exactly when they were recorded. The results from the active power calculation are in accordance with both the 10 minutes averaged data and the table 3.1. However, in the reactive power calculation some discrepancies can be seen. According to table 3.1 only the reactive power absorbed at A09 seems to agree with the measurements. In gure 3.11 it could be derived that after the radial disconnection, reactive power is supplied to the system. However, this changes at 200 ms and the reactive power is oscillating around zero. In gure 3.12, A09 absorbs reactive power but after the 200 ms it starts supplying reactive power to the grid. Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, there are some uncertainties regarding this method after the radial disconnection. A closer view of the calculated active and reactive power before the disconnection are shown in gure 3.13. As one can observe in gure 3.13, there are oscillations in active and reactive power at the transformer platform. These oscillation are quite large and they might be present due to measurement or calculation errors. However, as the same oscillations are in gure 3.10 even after the radial disconnection leads to the hypothesis that this is mainly due to measurement errors. In gure 3.14, if only the current at the transformer platform is plotted it can be seen that after the disconnection the current is not zero as it should be. Figure 3.14 implies that the oscillations in the power are due to a measurement error. Through MATLAB the component of the current after the disconnection will be subtracted from the measurements. The results can be seen in gure 3.15. Again, some oscillation in phase C are still present but this time they are much smaller and around zero. By calculating again the space vectors for the transformer platform, the outcome from the calculation of the

18

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.10: Active and reactive power at the transformer platform calculated through space vector transformation

Figure 3.11: Active and reactive power at A01 calculated through space vector transformation

Chapter 3

19

Figure 3.12: Active and reactive power at A09 calculated through space vector transformation

Figure 3.13: Active and reactive power at all three locations before the radial disconnection. Left upper plot: Active Power at the transformer platform. Right upper plot: Reactive Power at the transformer platform. Left middle plot: Active Power at A01. Right middle plot: Reactive Power at A01. Left lower plot: Active Power at A09. Right lower plot: Reactive Power at A09.

20

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.14: Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms

power is presented in gure 3.16. Oscillations in the power are also present at A09 but this cannot be xed without risking the damage of the measurements as the wind turbine is still producing after the disconnection of the radial. In this case is more preferable not to interfere in the measurement data. The corrected data of the measurements at the transformer platform will be used throughout the report.

Chapter 3

21

Figure 3.15: Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms after the correction.

Figure 3.16: Current at the transformer platform from 80ms to 120ms

22

3.3 Measurement analysis

3.3.3

Transformation into sequence components

In the previous section, the transformation of the voltage and current measurements into space vectors was presented. Due to uncertainties regarding the application of the method after the radial disconnection, the transformation into symmetrical components will be used. The transformation into symmetrical components is a method that is being used for the analysis of unbalanced systems or faults [28], [29], [26]. In the present report, only the equations that describe the transformation will be presented. Further information regarding the transformation could be readily found in the literature [28], [29]. The zero, positive and negative sequence components are equal to: Vs = AVp where A is the matrix equal to: (3.7)

1 A= 1 1

1 a2 a

1 a a2

(3.8)

and

a = 1ej120

(3.9)

After implementing the transformation of the three-phase system into the sequence components in MATLAB, the results are depicted in gures 3.17 and 3.18 for the voltage and the current in the main transformer respectively.

Figure 3.17: Sequence components of the voltage at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component.

In balanced power systems, the zero sequence voltage is zero [28]. Before the radial disconnection at t=0.08s it could be considered as balanced as the zero sequence voltage in gure 3.17 is almost zero. However, after the disconnection there is zero sequence component of the voltage, so the system cannot be considered as balanced. This fact enhances the decision to consider trustful the results from the space vector transformation only before the disconnection of the radial. Furthermore, as shown in gure 3.18 the zero-sequence component of the current

Chapter 3

23

Figure 3.18: Sequence components of the current at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component

at the transformer platform is not exactly zero. It is reminded that the wind farm transformer is -connected and the current should have no zero-sequence component [28]. The existing zero component could be either due to measurement errors or due to calculation errors during the transformation to the sequence components. In [4] the measuring system is described. The measuring system for the currents is a Rogowski-coil sensor from Powertek. The specications can be found in [4] and in [30]. In [30] the datasheet for the CWT3 used can be found. According to the performance characteristics the system is capable of measuring currents above 300 mA and up to 600 A. This means that the current probes are not designed to measure the very low current as the zero sequence component should be. The sequence components of the voltage and the current in A01 and A09 can be found in the Appendix A. It would be interesting though to discuss the positive sequence voltage at A01, presented in 3.19. According to the shape of the waveform and the switching operations performed, the data could be separated in 5 stages for the analysis. Stage A is the steady state before the islanding of the wind turbines from 0 ms to 80 ms. Stage B is during the radial disconnection, when the rst transients occur and lasts from 80 ms to 100 ms. Stage C is from 100 ms to 275 ms during which the wind turbines of the radial are into island operation. It can be seen that the voltage increase until t=200 ms and then it starts decreasing. When wind turbines are isolated from the grid they can produce over-voltages [31]. Among other, the over-voltages could occur due to reactive overcompensation in the isolated system [20]. The fact that the magnitude of the voltage starts decreasing after 200ms could be an indication that the capacitor banks are disconnected. This will lead the induction generators to be excited from the radial and absorb reactive power that eventually leads to the reduction of the voltage magnitude [15]. Stage D is between 275 ms and 320 ms when the high transient over-voltages occur. This is possibly due to capacitor banks switching. A similar study in India has shown that when capacitor banks connect similar transients with the transients observed in the current project are produced [20]. The main dierence is that in the current study the connection of the capacitors occur during island operation while in [20] the wind farm is connected to a weak grid. Stage E is from 320 ms until 500 ms when the voltage magnitude decreases.

24

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.19: Positive sequence voltage at A01.

In gure 3.20 the positive sequence voltage at the three measuring points is depicted. It can be seen that the highest over-voltages appear in the transformer platform, then in A09 and the smallest magnitude is at A01. It should be mentioned though that also the level of the voltage magnitude is the same at the steady state (Vplatf orm > VA09 > VA01 ). For the calculation of the power delivered to the grid from the sequence components, equation (3.10) will be used [28]:
Sp = 3 (V0 I0 + V1 I1 + V2 I2 )

(3.10)

After implementing equation (3.10) in MATLAB the results are presented in gures 3.21, 3.22 and 3.23. The power calculated from the sequence components is presented with the power calculated from the space vector transformation in the same gure to ease the comparison. It can be seen that there is very good agreement between the results from the two methods. This agreement could lead to the conclusion that the system remain balanced even after the disconnection of the radial. Supposing that the current probe could measure very low current, this would be possible to verify through the zero sequence component of the current that should be zero in case of balanced systems. Observing more carefully gure 3.23 one could see that after the islanding of the radial, A09 wind turbine is feeding active power to the cable. However, this is not the case with A01 wind turbine as after the disconnection it absorbs active power. This can be also seen in gure 3.24, where the active power absorbed varies from 0.1 MW to 0.3 MW. This can be explained based on the power production of the wind turbines. As A09 is producing more power (according to the calculations around 2.2 MW instead of 1.9 MW of A01) it will rotate faster. After the isolation of the system, as the active power will ow into the isolated radial. As a result, the wind turbines that rotate faster will be operating as generators by feeding power to the system while the wind turbines that rotate slower will be operating like motors and will be absorbing power [19].

Chapter 3

25

Figure 3.20: Positive sequence voltage at the three locations.

Figure 3.21: Power at the transformer platform calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption

26

3.3 Measurement analysis

Figure 3.22: Power at A01 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption

Figure 3.23: Power at A09 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation. Upper plot: Active power production. Lower plot: Reactive power consumption.

Chapter 3

27

Figure 3.24: Power at A01 calculated through sequence components and space vector transformation between 80 ms and 200 ms.

3.3.4

FFT analysis

An alternative approach for investigating the behavior of the system is the frequency analysis of the measurements. Variations on the voltage or current frequency are an important issue of the Power Quality aspect. Power quality is a complicated and lately deeply investigated issue. Even the denition of the power quality could be dierent in various sources. In [32], the denition of power quality is based on the consumers and as a power quality problem is dened "Any power problem manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviation that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment". In [33], according to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), power quality is dened as "Characteristics of the electricity at a given point on an electrical system, evaluated against a set of reference technical parameters". In the latter, it can be seen that there is no direct connection to the consumer. However, regardless the denition, power quality is an important issue. Wind turbines have a serious impact on the power quality of a power system either due to wind uctuations or due to the components that they are consisted of. As it has been shown earlier in the Chapter, the island operation of the wind turbines leads to temporary and transient over-voltages that could harm the equipment. After the second switching operation, at 275 ms, the voltage waveform is distorted due to harmonic contents. In similar cases, where harmonics are present, a spectrum analysis is performed to identify the harmonic components [34], [35]. The power spectrum analysis is usually performed with the Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT). Depending on the event that disturbs the system, the frequency response will vary as it depends on the resonance of the system. In [34], it is presented that during a capacitor bank energization the presence or not of another capacitor will have a dierent impact on the spectrum of the transients. The dierence on the spectrum can be justied from the dierent resonances of the system. The resonant frequency of a system can be determined by (3.11): f= 1 2 LC (3.11)

It is easily understandable that in case of dierent capacitors, the oscillatory circuit that is formed between the capacitor connected and the capacitances and inductances already connected will have a dierent eigenfrequency. As a result, through the harmonic analysis of the measurements, the resonances of the system could be estimated and be used for the validation of the model. In the beginning, a general perspective of the power spectrum should be investigated.

28

3.3 Measurement analysis

Following this, the spectrogram of the current at A01 is depicted in gure 3.25. The reason that A01 is chosen for the frequency analysis should be looked into gure 3.7. It can be seen that the eect of the second switching operation at 275 ms is much more severe in A01 than in A09. This could imply that the switching operation occurs in A01 or in a wind turbine close to A01. As it is expected, in gure 3.25 the dominating frequency before the radial disconnection is 50 Hz. At t=80 ms and at t=275 ms the power spectrum is dierent. It can be observed that instead of only the 50 Hz other frequencies are present as well. Especially at the second switching operation, the harmonics of the frequency with signicant amplitude are close to 1000 Hz.

Figure 3.25: Spectrogram of the current at A01 wind turbine from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Based on the dierence in the current waveform in A01 and A09, an FFT analysis will be performed for the two measuring points. The results can be seen in gure 3.26. It can be seen that there are signicant dierences as in the current at A09 there are almost no harmonics. On the contrary, in the current at A01, the 5th harmonic is the one with the highest amplitude after the fundamental. The dierence between the two spectra is most likely due to the fact that the switching operation at 275 ms occurs at or closer to A01 rather than A09. Following the segmentation introduced in 3.19, an FFT analysis is performed on each of the ve stages at the current in A01 wind turbine. The results of the analysis can be found in gure 3.27. In stages A, C and E the dominating frequency is 50 Hz as it is expected as there are no severe disturbance during those stages that could give rise to higher harmonics. During the radial disconnection (stage B) there is a peak around 900 Hz, while in stage D there are two dominating frequencies, at 250 Hz and at 800 Hz. The dierence in the results in gures 3.26 and 3.27 can be explained from the dierent content of the analyzed data; in the former, the whole dataset is analyzed, while in the latter each stage is analyzed independently.

Chapter 3

29

Figure 3.26: FFT analysis on phase B of the measured current at A01 and A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 3.27: FFT analysis on phase B of the measured current at A01. The signal is divided in ve stages according to gure 3.19.

30

3.4 Capacitor banks

3.4

Capacitor banks

Based on the analysis performed earlier and the research in the literature, [20] and [34], it is derived that the switching operation that provokes the high transient over-voltages at 275 ms is due to capacitor energization. However, the reactive power calculated from the sequence components show that before the radial disconnection A01 and A09 were almost fully compensated. From the total reactive power it could be also assumed that the A02-A08 were almost fully compensated. This means that after the radial disconnection, the capacitor banks at A01 should disconnect and then connect again at 275 ms. As the capacitor used in the nine wind turbines are the same, the same behavior would be expected. From the information available, the Power Factor Correction (PFC) system that the wind turbines are equipped with, is based on the Elspec Equalizer/Activar components. In the users manual of the Equalizer it is mentioned that during the power factor control mode, the voltage control is necessary for the limitation of the grid voltage into safe limits [6]. The voltage control mode can be concisely presented in gure 3.28. The voltage control mode is based on voltage measurements acquired from the grid. While the voltage remains between the limits 95%-105% of its nominal value, the control of the capacitor banks is in power factor control mode. In this mode, the steps of the capacitor banks are connecting or disconnecting in the basis of correcting the power factor of the wind turbines. More specically, if the wind speed increases and more reactive power is needed, then the capacitor banks will connect. In the voltage control mode, If the voltage exceeds the 95% or the 105% of its nominal value, then the control enters in voltage control mode. This means that the control will start connecting or disconnecting capacitor steps respectively to control the voltage. If the voltage exceeds a critical point, either upper (120%) or lower (60%), the control will act immediately by disconnecting or connecting all the capacitor. When the voltage is into acceptable limits again, the control will start connecting or disconnecting capacitors in steps; one step every cycle.

Figure 3.28: Voltage control set points [6].

Figure 3.28 shows an indication that the assumptions regarding the second switching operation could be possible. Even though is not clearly mentioned in the Users manual where exactly is the voltage measured and whether it is the RMS, the magnitude or even the instantaneous value of the voltage, it shows that the immediate disconnection or connection of the

Chapter 3

31

capacitor banks could occur. However, there are some inquiries regarding the time between the measurement of the voltage and the switching operations as well as whether the same operations occur simultaneously at all the nine wind turbines of the radial. With the information available, both the measurements and the capacitor Users manual, it could be derived that after the radial disconnection all the capacitor banks disconnect but only the capacitor banks in A01 connect again. The latter is based on the dierence in the current measurements in A01 and A09. After the development and the validation of the model of the xed-speed wind turbine, a sensitivity analysis will be performed to investigate the impact of dierent switching operations on the voltage and the current at the three measuring locations.

3.5

Summary

In the present Chapter the analysis of the available measurements is performed in order to understand the behavior of the wind turbine after the disconnection of the radial. It is reminded that only the switching operation at 80 ms is known. For the verication of the voltage and current sequence the calculation of the active and reactive power was needed. The measurement data were transformed into space vectors and their symmetrical components and the active and reactive power was calculated. The results of the calculations show a very good agreement for both the methods used. In the results of the reactive power there was a dierence between the reactive power at the transformer platform between the calculation from the voltage and current measurements and the measurements presented in table 3.1. As the measurements given are from 10 minuted averaged values they will be used only as an indication and the goal would be the simulation results to be close to the calculated results from the active and reactive power measurements. To facilitate the procedure of understanding the behavior of the system, the data were discretized according to gure 3.19. It was attempted to understand and interpret the behavior of the wind turbine separately in each stage. It was assumed that the high transient overvoltages observed at 275 ms are caused by one or several switching operations. Based on literature research, it seems that the switching operation is the capacitor banks connecting at A01. The research on the manual of the capacitor banks that are used as power factor compensators at Nysted has shown that the connection of the capacitor banks could be possible. Finally, an alternative approach of the analysis of the measurements was presented. The FFT analysis has been used previously in the literature in capacitor switching studies. Dierent amount of capacitor banks connecting or being already connected could have a dierent resonant frequency. With the FFT analysis the harmonic frequencies were estimated and they could be used in the validation process later on the report.

32

3.5 Summary

Chapter

4 Nysted Oshore Wind Farm Modeling

In this chapter the model of the Nysted Oshore Wind Farm developed in PSCAD will be described. The present work is a continuation of [5], where the switching transients in the wind farm where modeled. Scope of the thesis is the development of the model of the xed-speed wind turbine that is used in Nysted wind farm. Taking this into account, the transmission and the collection grid is based on the model developed and validated in [5], [36]. The simulation tool that is used is PSCAD. PSCAD (Power Systems CAD) is a powerful graphical user interface to EMTDC solution engine. EMTDC stands for Electromagnetic Transients including DC and solves dierential equations for electromagnetic systems in the time domain [37]. PSCAD is used in both academical and professional level for planning, design, operate and advanced research of power systems. Among other, studies conducted using PSCAD are [37]: Power system studies consisting of rotating machines, turbines, transformers, transmission lines, cables, loads etc. Over-voltages because of a breaker operation Studies of the power system response after a fault Control system design of FACTS and HVDC PSCAD oers many models that can be found in the library provided with the program. The models included are from the simplest and most common like resistors, capacitors and inductors to more complex AC and DC machines, wind turbines, inertial models and HVDC controllers. For the development of the model of the xed-speed wind turbine in PSCAD, some of the components used were models provided in the tool (i.e. induction generator) while others were developed through the generic control systems (i.e. shaft model). A generic model of a xed-speed wind turbine should be consisted of the following parts [9], [10]: The aerodynamics model The shaft model The induction generator model The blade-angle control The capacitor banks A generic block-diagram of the xed-speed wind turbine is depicted in gure 4.1. Each block of the diagram represents a component of the wind turbine.

34

4.1 Transmission and Collection Grid Modeling

Figure 4.1: Generic block-diagram of the xed-speed wind turbine.

4.1

Transmission and Collection Grid Modeling

In [5], the model of the wind farm was developed in both Power Factory and PSCAD. The model was validated with measurements acquired with the same measuring tool as in the present work. The transmission grid that is after the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) was modeled as a voltage source with a series impedance [36]. The specic Voltage Source Model used in PSCAD can be specied by the positive and zero sequence source impedance [5], [37]. The source impedance is modeled as as a series RL impedance and it must be controlled externally; the inputs to the source are the RMS line-to-line voltage and the phase angle. The most important characteristic of the system, its "strength", was reproduced accurately with the aforementioned Voltage Source Model as shown in [5]. The collection grid of the wind farm is consisted of the onshore and oshore cable, the park transformer, the cable of the radial and the transformer on each wind turbine. PSCAD gives the option to use dierent models for the representation of the transmission lines or cables. The most simple model is the equivalent of the cable while there are more detailed models as they are frequency dependent. In [5], the onshore and oshore cable after the park transformer are modeled as a -section. The same approach is adopted in the present work but not only for the oshore and onshore cable. After the radial disconnection the model of the oshore, the onshore and the transmission grid do not have any inuence on the simulation results. In [5], both the equivalent and the frequency dependent model were used for the representation of the cables of the radial. The frequency dependent model represents a distributed traveling wave model that features the frequency dependence of all parameters [37]. The -section is used for the representation of a short cable and provides the correct fundamental frequency impedance but not it will not model accurately the properties at other frequencies. Including the model of the 9 wind turbines of the radial will add high complexity to the simulated system. For this reason and in order to keep the model as simple as possible but accurate at the same time, the cables will be modeled as -section in the initial simulations. For the -section model, the sequence components of the resistance and the reactance are entered by the user. The park transformer, that is a three-winding transformer, and the wind turbine transformer model were based on the simple transformer model that can be seen in gure 4.2. It should be noted that the park transformer is --Y while the wind turbine transformer is a -Y. The park transformer is a simple transformer model and it was dened by the positive

Chapter 4

35

sequence leakage reactance and the no-load and copper losses [36]. Regarding the wind turbine transformer it was also modeled as a simple transformer model but in this case the saturation characteristics were included [36]. In [19], it can be seen that including the saturation eect in the transformer and generator models would have a dierent impact on the current during the transients. As the park transformer is not part of the studied system after the radial disconnection, the saturation eect was not included in the model. All the data regarding the transformers of the wind farms can be found in [5].

Figure 4.2: Simple transformer equivalent circuit with the secondary winding referred to the primary.

4.2
4.2.1

Wind Turbine Modeling

Aerodynamics

The power delivered through the drive train of the wind turbine to the generator depends on the aerodynamic properties of the rotor. The design of the rotor has a crucial eect on the overall eciency of the energy conversion in the wind turbine as it determines the proportion of wind energy that will be converted into mechanical energy. However, high eciency should be also combined with the limitation as much as possible of the dynamic loads on the rotor that aect the lifetime of the wind turbine. The available power from the wind power is represented by the well-known equation (4.1): Paero = where A Cp Vw is the air density in kg/m2 , the area swept by the rotor m2 , the power coecient, equal to = R , Vw the pitch angle, the wind speed in m/s. 1 3 ( A Cp (, ) Vw ) 2 (4.1)

The power coecient denotes the wind power at the wind turbine that can be extracted from the available wind power and depends on the pitch angle and the tip speed ratio [22].

36

4.2 Wind Turbine Modeling

As mentioned before in chapter 2, in case of xed-speed operation, the rotor speed is xed to the electric speed of the power grid and under normal operation it only varies according to the induction generator slip variations. This implies that the xed-speed wind turbine will operate at maximum eciency at the wind speed that the optimal Cp occurs. The active stall control will be activated for wind speeds above rated to keep the power equal to the rated and for wind speeds below rated to maximize the power output [21]. The switching transients that occur after the disconnection of the radial feeder last for a few milliseconds. Consequently, the wind speed could be considered as steady throughout the simulations. In addition, for the initial simulations of the model, the power coecient will be considered as steady and that there is no control of the pitch angle. The model of the aerodynamics of the rotor implemented in PSCAD can be seen in gure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Model of the aerodynamics of the wind turbine rotor.

The design of the rotor has a crucial eect on the eciency of the energy conversion. The parameter that depends on the rotor design is the power coecient that corresponds uniquely to a certain tip speed ratio and a pitch angle. During the control of the wind turbine the relationship between Cp and the tip speed ratio for certain pitch angle plays the most important role in the power output of the wind turbine. Due to lack of information regarding the rotor aerodynamics, some assumptions need to be made. Initially, as the wind speed is assumed to be constant for the 500 ms of the measurements time, the power coecient will be assumed constant as well. The disconnection of the wind turbines while they are under operation will lead to the increase of their rotational speed. As soon as it is detected, the blade-angle control will start pitching the blades to regulate the speed. Due to the total loss of the load demand power, the speed will start increasing quickly like there was a fault in the power system. However, during a fault in the system with a duration of 100 or 150 ms, the control might not be able to operate fast enough. This denotes that the wind turbines may operate as passive stall wind turbines [38], [39]. The total duration of the measurements is 500 ms with the islanding occurring at 80 ms. The short duration of the operation along with the lack of the data regarding the time constants of the active stall control have led to the assumption that during the simulation the wind turbines will operate as passive stall as mentioned in [38] and [39]. The representation of the blade-angle control will be with the power coecient Cp that will remain constant for the entire simulation. It should be noted that in case that the speed of the wind turbines exceeds certain limits they will disconnect. However, the limits are not known and it will be considered that they remain connected throughout the simulation. From the measurements available, it can be seen that the power output of A01 is around 1.8 MW, while the power output of A09 is around 2.2 MW. These values are close to the rated power, so it will be assumed that the wind speed is close to the rated wind speed. In [21] the rated wind speed of an active stall xed-speed wind turbine with 2 MW rated power is 11.8

Chapter 4

37

m/sec. As the wind turbine is similar it will be considered that the rated wind speed is between 12 13 m/sec. It is assumed that the rated speed is at 13 m/sec as it is an oshore wind farm and the average wind speed is higher than onshore. For A09 wind turbine, knowing wind speed, the Cp can be easily found so that the power output is equal to the power calculated from the measurements. It is considered that the wind speed is the same across the radial, so the Cp will be less for A01 so that it can produce power equal to the calculated in Chapter 3. The power production of the other wind turbines of the radial can be found from the 10 minutes averaged values in gure 3.8. However, two specications need to be taken into consideration; the total power output of the radial should be equal to the total power calculated in Chapter 3 and the wind speed is the same in all the wind turbines. Once these specications are fullled, the dierent level of production between the wind turbines can be determined through dierent power coecients. In gure 4.3, the wind speed is provided to the system through the Wind Source model. From the available options of the model only the mean wind speed at the reference height is set equal to 13 m/s as explained earlier. The wind power that can be used from the wind turbine as it is described by equation (4.1) is labeled as Pw. The rotor diameter is assumed to be around 80 m, based on [21], whereas for the air density the standard value of 1.225 kg/m2 was used as there are no information regarding the air temperature and pressure. As the input for the mechanical model and the induction generator will be the aerodynamic torque, the transformation from the aerodynamic power needs to be performed. After transforming the aerodynamic power into the per unit system, then the aerodynamic torque is calculated from equation(4.2): Taero = where W T R is the wind rotor speed in per unit, Paero W T R (4.2)

4.2.2

Shaft system

The wind turbine consists of several physical components such as the blades, the low-speed shaft, the gearbox, the high-speed shaft and the generator. Previous investigations [9] have shown that in case of transient stability or fault studies the drive train of the wind turbine should not be represented as lumped mass model but as a two-mass model. This is due to the fact that the shaft system is not considered absolutely sti. The shaft is subjected to the mechanical torque applied from the wind turbine rotor and the electrical torque due to the electromagnetic eld of the generator. As a result, the shaft will be subjected to torsion which will vary when the electrical or the mechanical torque changes. When the wind turbine faces a sudden event such as a wind speed change or a grid frequency transient, oscillations on the shaft torsion will occur. In [13] both mechanical models were used, lumped and two-mass model and the results on the simulations were discussed. It was concluded that for the representation of the electromechanical oscillations the two-mass model is essential. Therefore the two-mass model will be included in the wind turbine model; the rst mass represents the low-speed shaft that includes the hub and the blades of the wind turbine rotor and the high-speed shaft that represents the generator rotor. The moments of inertia of the low and high speed shaft along with the shaft stiness should be provided by the manufacturer. However, only the inertia of the generator was provided. The equation applied to describe the shaft system is based on the equation of motion [40]:

38

4.2 Wind Turbine Modeling

J where Tm Te m J is is is is the the the the

dm = Tm Te dt

(4.3)

mechanical torque in N m, electromagnetic torque in N m, angular velocity of the rotor in mech.rad/s and moment of inertia in kg m2

When there is an unbalance between the torques, the machine would either accelerate or decelerate. The gradient of the change on the speed depends on the moment of inertia. When the shaft is represented as a lumped model, then the moment of inertia in equation (4.3) stands for both the turbine and generator moment of inertia. The Tm is the torque of the wind power that acts on the wind turbine and Te the electrical torque of the generator. For the two mass model representation of the shaft system, equation (4.3) will be used to describe the motion in both masses. The state equations that describe the model can be found in [9] and are presented in equations (4.4)-(4.6): 2 HW T R dW T R = TW T R TW T G DW T G W T R dt dW T G = TW T G TE DW T G W T G dt ds = 0 (W T R W T G ) dt (4.4)

2 HW T G

(4.5)

(4.6)

where HW T R and HW T G are the inertia constant of the wind turbine rotor and generator respectively and they can be calculated through equations (4.7) and (4.8), [9]: HW T R = 0.5 JW T R 0 2 2 SBASE NM E NEE JW T G 0 2 SBASE NEE (4.7)

HW T G = 0.5 where SBASE is NM E is NEE is 0 is the the the the

(4.8)

base power of the wind turbine in M V A, gear box ratio, the generator pole-pairs and base system speed in rad/s

In equations (4.4)-(4.6), the parameters of the wind turbine rotor are denoted with WTR while the parameters of the generator with WTG. All the values of the parameters in equations (4.4)(4.8) are in the per unit system apart from the base power Sbase and the base speed 0 that is equal to the base speed of the power grid: 0 = 2 f = 314rad/s (4.9)

Chapter 4

39

[9]:

The mechanical torque applied to the generator can be calculated from equation (4.10), TW T G = Ks s Ds (W T G W T R ) (4.10)

DW T R , DW T G and Ds are the damping coecient of the rotor, generator and shaft respectively. Ks is the shaft stiness and s is the shaft torsion. It should be noted here that there is no information available regarding the values of DW T R , DW T G , Ds and Ks . Their values along with the value of the inertia of the wind turbine rotor was based on the typical values found in the literature [9], [11]. However, the range of the typical values was broad so many simulations had to be performed to nd the values that were representing as close as possible the measured voltage and currents. Later on, in Chapter 6 a sensitivity analysis will be performed for the values of the inertia constant of the wind turbine rotor and the shaft stiness. It will be shown that the frequency and the magnitude of the current and the voltage after the radial disconnection are aected by changes in the values of the two parameters. The implementation of the two-mass model in PSCAD based on equations (4.4), (4.5), (4.6) and (4.10) can be seen in gure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Two-mass model of the shaft implemented in PSCAD.

The aerodynamic torque is used as the input to the model and the output is the mechanical torque applied to the generator rotor. The model presented actually comprises only one mass that represents the low speed shaft of the wind turbine, the wind turbine rotor. The generator rotor, that lies in the high speed side, is included in the induction generator model.

4.2.3

Induction Generator

Previous studies have shown that the appropriate model for electromagnetic transient studies is the fth-order model [9], [13]. For the representation of the induction generator of the wind turbine, the already existing model in PSCAD will be used. The model can be seen in gure 4.5. The state equations that describe the fth-order model of the induction machine transformed in dq components can be found in [40], [41] and are presented in equations (4.11)-(4.14): uDs = Rs iDs + uQs = Rs iQs + dDs e Qs dt dQs e Ds dt (4.11) (4.12)

40

4.2 Wind Turbine Modeling

Figure 4.5: Induction generator model implemented in PSCAD.

uDr = Rr iDr + uQr

dDr dr Qr dt dt dr dQr + Dr = Rr iQr + dt dt

(4.13) (4.14)

The subindices s and r stand for the stator and rotor quantities respectively. The u and i denote the voltage and the current respectively in the stator and the rotor while the parameter represents the ux linkages. The parameter r is the integral over time of the electromagnetic eld speed in the rotor [9]. The expressions for the ux linkages are [40]: Ds = Xs iDs + Xm iDr Qs = Xs iQs + Xm iQr Dr = Xr iDr + Xm iDs Qr = Xr iQr + Xm iQs (4.15) (4.16) (4.17) (4.18)

The electrical parameters of the machine are the stator resistance and reactance, denoted by Rs and Xs , the rotor resistance and reactance, denoted by Rr and Xr , and the mutual reactance denoted by Xm . All the parameters in equations (4.11)-(4.18) are in the per unit system apart from the e , the electrical system speed given by equation (4.9) that is in el. rad/s and the rotor angle, r , that is in el. rad. The model described above is the fth-order model of the induction machine. However, in stability studies the third-order model is used as well. The dierence between the two dQs models is that in the latter the stator ux linkage transients ( dDs and dt ) are neglected. dt As the electromagnetic transients should be as accurate as possible for the present study, the fth-order model is chosen. There are two sets of data that could be used in PSCAD to model the induction generator. The rst set of data is the representation of the equivalent circuit of the generator whilst the second set comprises the parameters of the generator at the starting and at the full-load operation. The second set of data is dened among other by the slip of the generator at full load, the power factor at rated load, the number of poles and the starting torque. From the information available both sets could be used. It needs to be mentioned that the squirrel-cage induction machine in PSCAD is modeled as a double squirrel-cage machine to account for

Chapter 4

41

the deep bar eect of the rotor cage. A double squirrel-cage induction generator provides the desirable characteristics to obtain high eciency at full-load operation, that is low rotor resistance, and at the same time keep the starting current low by having high rotor resistance at the starting of the machine [40]. However, the wind turbines are equipped with single squirrel-cage induction generators. The equivalent circuits of a double and a single squirrelcage machine can be seen in gures 4.6 and 4.7 respectively.

Figure 4.6: Equivalent circuit of a double squirrel-cage induction generator.

Figure 4.7: Equivalent circuit of a single squirrel-cage induction generator.

In [40] it is stated that a double-cage rotor may be represented by an equivalent single-cage rotor. The equations that describe this representation are [40]: Rr (s) = Rr0 m2 + m s2 m2 + s2 Rr0
mR1 R2 m2 + s2 R1 Rr0

(4.19) (4.20)

Xr (s) = X1 + where

Rr0 =

R1 R2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2 m= X2

(4.21) (4.22)

42

4.2 Wind Turbine Modeling

However, as it is shown in equations (4.19) and (4.20) both the resistance and the reactance will be depended on the slip of the generator. As this could have an impact on the torquespeed characteristic of the machine it was decided to disable the eect of the second cage by applying high values on the second-cage resistance and reactance, following the instructions from PSCAD support. In addition, as the data for the representation of the equivalent circuit are available, the dataset that for the representation of the generator includes the equivalent circuit will be used. The machine can be either torque or speed control. As the wind speed is assumed to be steady for the simulation time, the machine can be controlled in the torque mode. This is common practice in simulations of wind farms that last several seconds as it simulates more accurately changes in speed in case of voltage dips. In PSCAD manual help is mentioned that generators in torque control mode should be started in speed control mode to avoid the high starting transients and then be switched to torque control. The control mode of the induction generator is dened by the control signal S2M in gure 4.5. As long as the the generator control is in speed mode, the input torque is at 1 pu. After switching to the torque control mode, the torque input is the torque calculated from the two-mass model described earlier. It should be noted as well that once the induction machine model is used as a generator the torque input should be negative.

4.2.4

Capacitor banks

The capacitor banks are also included in the model of the wind turbine. Each wind turbine is equipped with capacitor banks of 1356 kVAr nominal power. The capacitors are designed for reactive power compensation of a 2.3 MW wind turbine as there is no other mean for compensation. The behavior of the capacitor banks was described earlier; here the model of the capacitor will be presented. In PSCAD there are two capacitor models available; the capacitor and the three-phase capacitive load. The dierence between the two models is that in the latter the inductance value is calculated based on the data entered by the user, while in the former it is not included. The model chosen is the capacitive load and it can be seen in gure 4.8.

Figure 4.8: Model used for the representation of the capacitor banks included in the wind turbine.

As it was explained earlier, the behavior of the capacitor banks has a great inuence on the system when it is in island operation. From the measurement analysis it was derived that the transient over-voltages at 275 ms are due to the connection of capacitors in A01. Although the connection is in accordance with the information regarding the voltage control mode of the capacitors, the dierent behavior of A01 and A09 as well as the unknown behavior of the intermediate wind turbines lead to the simplication of the control of the capacitor banks. Instead of the control based on the over-voltages and dip voltages, the time that they will connect and disconnect is predened. The time of the switching operations is based on the measurement analysis and tests performed during the simulations. The capacitor banks are disconnecting due to their voltage control when the upper critical voltage limit is exceeded. It is assumed that in this case the capacitor banks in each wind turbine will be disconnected at the pre-dened moment as one big step. However, the connection of the capacitor banks at A01, once the voltage has not exceeded the grid fault threshold, will occur in steps. The capacitor banks are connecting in steps of 90 kVAr, so at the moment of

Chapter 4

43

the connection of the capacitors at A01, 15 steps of 90 kVAr will switch in. In Chapter 6 of the report, the sensitivity analysis performed would comprise dierent switching operations regarding the capacitor banks of the wind turbines. When the wind turbine model is validated, the voltage control of the capacitor banks will be implemented and added to the model.

4.3

Summary

The development of the model has been based on the recommendations introduced in [9] and [11]. The nature of the experiment along with the intention to develop a model as simple as possible led to the assumption that during the simulation of the experiment, the blade-angle control of the wind turbine will not operate. As the wind speed is assumed to remain constant during the experiment, the power coecient of the wind turbine remains constant as well. As a result, throughout the simulation the aerodynamic torque is constant. The two-mass model is chosen for the representation of the mechanical part of the wind turbines. According to [9], there is a strong coupling between the generator rotor speed and the active and reactive power production that must be represented in power system stability studies. In [13] the implementation of the mechanical model as one mass has shown that the oscillations in rotor speed cannot be represented accurately. In the present model, the general considerations regarding the representation of the shaft system are taking into account. Therefore, it is considered that the mechanical representation of the wind turbine as one lumped mass will not be accurate enough. Regarding the induction generator, in stability studies two models are commonly used; the fth-order and the third-order mode. The dierence between the two models was explained and as the study is related to the electromagnetic transients a model of the generator as detailed as possible should be used. Therefore, the available model from PSCAD has been chose. In [14] was shown that the PSCAD model has similar results with the fth-order model of the machine used in tools that simulate stability studies. Finally, the capacitor bank is modeled as three-phase capacitive loads, in which its inductance value is also calculated based on the capacitance. Until the model is validated the capacitor bank control will be based on time and not the voltage control described earlier.

44

4.3 Summary

Chapter

5 Validation of the model

The model described in Chapter 4 will be applied in PSCAD and will be validated with the measurements analyzed in Chapter 3. As it was mentioned in Chapter 3, there are two switching operations during the time of the measurements. The rst switching operation is the disconnection of radial A while the second switching operation seems to be capacitor banks that connect to the isolated system, based on [20]. As explained, it is assumed that it is the capacitor banks at A01 that switch in. From the reactive power calculations and measurements A01 is almost fully compensated, which means that the capacitor banks will have to be switched out rst. As both the time of the disconnection and whether they disconnect in one or in several steps are unknown, new assumptions will be made. Based on that, the disconnection of the capacitor banks will be assumed for all the 9 wind turbines of the radial but the connection only for A01. The available measurements are only from 2 wind turbines and the results can be only veried based on those measurements. The switching operations that take place in the simulation are presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Switching operations in the simulation

Time [ms] 80 226 246 256 266 275 300

Switching operation Radial disconnection Disconnection of the capacitor banks at A06 Disconnection of the capacitor banks at A03, A08 Disconnection of the capacitor banks at A04 Disconnection of the capacitor banks at A01, A02, A05, A07 and A09 Connection of the capacitor banks at A01. The connection occurs in 14 steps of 90 kVAr Disconnection of the capacitor banks at A01

For the validation of the model the results of the simulation will be compared with the measurements. Initially, the instantaneous voltages and currents from the simulation will be used for the comparison. Further on, the simulation results will be transformed to the sequence components. To ensure transparency, the transformation will be done with the same code as in Chapter 3. After the transformation, the results will be compared with the results presented in Chapter 3 and nally a similar FFT analysis will be performed.

46

5.1 Comparison of the instantaneous values of currents and voltages

5.1

Comparison of the instantaneous values of currents and voltages

In gures 5.1 - 5.3 , the comparison of the instantaneous voltage at the transformer platform can be seen. In 5.1, the results of the whole simulation are depicted while in gures 5.2 and 5.3 there is a closer view on the time of the switching operations. In gure 5.2, there is a discrepancy as the transients observed in the voltage measurements after the radial disconnection are not reproduced in the simulations. On the contrary, in gure 5.3, the transients after the switch of the capacitor are reproduced. The switching occurs at the same point of the waveform and the impact on the magnitude of the transient over-voltages is comparable in phases A and C. However, the harmonics created after the operation do not have the same duration as in the measurements. This possibly could happen because the capacitor banks in A01 do not switch in simultaneously but in steps or because the same switching operation could occur in other wind turbines as well. From the comparison shown in gure 5.1 is very interesting to point out the dierence in the frequency of the signals. Before the radial disconnection, as it is expected, the frequency of the system is the same. Until the second switching operation the frequency of the signals remains in the same level, even though one could notice that they are not exactly the same. After the switch of the capacitor banks though, it seems that in the beginning the frequency in the simulation is less than the frequency in the measurements, to end with almost the same frequency again. A possible reason that this happens is the dierent values in the inertia of the wind turbine rotor and the shaft stiness between the simulation and the real wind turbines. As there were no information available, the values used were in the typical range that can be found in the literature [9]. The frequency dierence could be also explained from the dierent size of the capacitor banks that connect in the measurements or even from the dierent time that the capacitor banks switch o (see Table 5.1). However, it should not be disregarded that the voltage magnitude between the switching operations and also the transients during the switch of the capacitors are similar. The results of the simulation are the same for the voltage at the other two measuring points (A01 and A09) as the results presented in gures 5.1 - 5.3 and they can be found in the Appendix B.

Figure 5.1: Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

In gures 5.4 and 5.5 the simulated current in comparison with the measured current at the transformer platform is depicted. In gure 5.5, it can be seen that the magnitude of

Chapter 5

47

Figure 5.2: Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure 5.3: Measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

48

5.1 Comparison of the instantaneous values of currents and voltages

the simulated current before the radial disconnection is similar to the measured. Based on that, it could be considered that the production of the radial in the simulation is equal to the measured power production. However, this will be veried when the power production is calculated. From gure 5.6, it can be derived that the radial disconnection in the simulation occurs at the same point of the current waveform as in the measurements. The exact time of the disconnection is at t=78 ms when the rst zero crossing is at phase C.

Figure 5.4: Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure 5.5: Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

In the analysis of the measurements and in the beginning of the present chapter, based on the current measurements at A01 and A09 it was assumed that the switch of the capacitor banks was at A01. This can be veried in gures 5.7 and 5.8 where the current at A01 and A09 is illustrated. The time of the switching operation in the simulation is in agreement with the measurements and also the magnitude of the transient currents is similar to the measurements. However, as it was expected after the discussion of the voltage waveform at the transformer platform the frequency of the current in the simulation is not the same with the measurements. In gures 5.9 and 5.10 it is veried that a small current is still fed into the isolated system and

Chapter 5

49

Figure 5.6: Measured and simulated current at the transformer platform from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

that the wind turbines are still connected. In the same gures, it is shown that the transients in the current after the radial disconnection have not been reproduced in the simulations. The overall view of the current in A01 and A09 can be found in the Appendix B.

Figure 5.7: Measured and simulated current at A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

5.2
5.2.1

Sequence components analysis

Voltage and current at the three locations

In this section, only the most important results will be presented. However, all the results can be found in the Appendix B. It is reminded that the comparison is between the simulation results and the measurements corrected as suggested in Chapter 3. In gures 5.11 and 5.12 the zero, positive and negative component of the voltage and the current at the transformer platform respectively are depicted. It can be seen that the measured and simulated values are similar. However, some dierences exist, especially in the zero-sequence component of both the voltage and the current. In the zero-sequence voltage, before the disconnection of the radial,

50

5.2 Sequence components analysis

Figure 5.8: Measured and simulated current at A09 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure 5.9: Measured and simulated current at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure 5.10: Measured and simulated current at A09 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Chapter 5

51

both the measured and the simulated voltages are zero. The main dierence is located in the transients during the disconnection of the radial and until the end of the simulation. The magnitude of the transients is higher in the measurements and this can be explained from the fact that the radial disconnection does not have the same inuence on the voltage waveform in the simulations. In gure 5.2 it can be seen that the magnitude of the transient voltage during the radial disconnection is not the same in the simulation and the measurements. This dierence might be the reason for the dierence in the zero sequence component of the voltage. After the radial disconnection, the magnitude of the zero-component of the simulated voltage remains almost constant but still higher than zero. On the contrary, on the measured voltage, the magnitude of the zero-sequence component is not constant as it reduces until it reaches the value of the simulated voltage. In addiction, in the measured voltage oscillations are present this is not the case in the simulations. Similarly, in gure 5.12 where the sequence components of the current are presented, the main dierences can be observed in the zero component. As with the voltage, the magnitude of the transients are higher in the measured than in the simulated current. However, in this case before the radial disconnection the simulated zero component is almost zero while the measured zero component is not, as it was explained in Chapter 3. The simulated current is in agreement with what can be found in the literature for the zero-sequence components of the currents in -connected systems. The sequence components of the voltage in A01 and A09 are similar to the results shown in gure 5.11 and they can be found in the Appendix B. Here, only the positive-sequence component of the voltage at A01 is presented in gure 5.13. It is clear that the simulated voltage is similar to the measured both during the transients and the temporary over-voltages between the two main switching operations. This is another evidence that even though the exact switching operations are unknown, the assumed in Table 5.1 produce results similar to the measurements. The main dierences that can be spotted are mainly between the two main switching operations and after the connection of the capacitor banks at A01. The higher level of the simulated voltage between 100 ms and 200 ms could be due to the capacitor banks that they disconnect in dierent times than the assumed. After the second switching operation at 275 ms the simulated and the measured voltage present a dierent behavior. It seems that the measured voltage decreases with steady slope whereas the simulated voltage oscillates. The measured voltage drops to zero with the same slope as it can be seen in gure 5.13. However, in the simulations after the 500 ms presented here, the voltage drops to zero but it presents oscillations. The dierence could be due to the disconnection of the wind turbines after this point in the measurements due to over-speeding. However, the sequence components of the currents at A01 and at A09 present dierences with the measured. The dierences are located only in the zero component that is presented in gure 5.14. The positive and negative-sequence components can be found in the Appendix B. In gure 5.14 the main dierence can be spotted in the A01, as the zero component of the simulated current is equal to zero for the whole simulation while the zero component of the measured current is oscillating close to zero. To add on that, the measured current is rising from 200 ms until it reaches its peak value at the time when the capacitor banks connect. In A09 the oscillations at the zero component of the measured current are high but its value is very low that it could be considered as zero.

52

5.2 Sequence components analysis

Figure 5.11: Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negativesequence component.

Figure 5.12: Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at the transformer platform. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positive-sequence component. Lower plot: Negativesequence component.

Chapter 5

53

Figure 5.13: Positive-sequence component of the voltage at A01.

Figure 5.14: Zero-sequence component of the current at A01 and A09. Upper plot: A01. Lower plot:A09.

54

5.2 Sequence components analysis

5.2.2

Active and reactive power comparison

The comparison between the simulated and measured active and reactive power is for the verication of the state of the wind turbines. The active power transferred from the three locations is presented in gure 5.15.

(a) Active power production from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine

(b) Active power production before the radial disconnection. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine

Figure 5.15: Active power production at the three measuring points. As it can be veried, the production of A01, A09 as well as the total production of the radial is in accordance with the power production calculated from the measurements. It can be also veried that after the radial disconnection the wind turbines are still connected. This can be seen in gure 5.15a and it is more clear in gure 5.16. As it was explained in Chapter 3, after the disconnection some of the wind turbines will have a negative slip and some of them will have a positive slip. Depending on their production and their angular velocity, the wind turbines with negative slip will be producing and the wind turbines with positive slip will be consuming power. The wind turbines that before the disconnection were producing more, therefore their slip was higher, they will continue producing power. As an example, in gure 5.16, A09 wind turbine that was producing almost at rated speed is producing power while A01 that was producing less is consuming power [19].

Chapter 5

55

Figure 5.16: Active power production at the three measuring points after the radial disconnection. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine

The reactive power calculated after the sequence components transformation can be seen in gure 5.17. The reactive power consumed at A01, A09 and in total from the radial is in accordance with the reactive power calculated from the measurements. The main dierences can be seen in the total reactive power absorbed and the reactive power absorbed from A01 during the disconnection of the radial.

56

5.2 Sequence components analysis

(a) Reactive power at the three measuring points from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine

(b) Reactive power at the three measuring points before the radial disconnection. Upper plot: Transformer platform. Middle plot: A01 wind turbine. Lower plot: A09 wind turbine

Figure 5.17: Reactive power at the three measuring points

Chapter 5

57

5.2.3

FFT analysis

The FFT analysis is performed on the current at A01. In gure 5.18 the analysis is performed in the ve stages described in Chapter 3. As it can be seen, in stages A, C and E, that there is no switching operation, the basic component of the frequency is the fundamental. In stage D, when the connection of the capacitor banks occur there is a signicant component at 250 Hz and 700 Hz that is dierent from the results obtained from the measurement analysis. In the measurements in stage D, the most signicant components were around 250 Hz and 800 Hz. This could mean that the amount of the capacitor connecting is dierent. Furthermore, in gure 3.27 in stage B there is a signicant component of the harmonic that corresponds to 900 Hz but in gure 5.18 this frequency cannot be observed. However, this was expected as in the simulation the eect of the radial disconnection was not as severe as in the measurements.

Figure 5.18: FFT analysis on the current at A01.

5.3

Distributed cable model

In Chapter 4, it was described that for the cables of the collection grid of the radial, a simple equivalent was used. One important dierence between the measurements and the simulation of the developed model was spotted in gure 5.2. The switching transients in the voltage after the radial disconnection are not represented in the simulation results. Similar observations can be derived for the current at A01 and A09 in gures 5.9 and 5.10. A possible explanation could be that the model of the cables used in the simulation, the -equivalent, was not accurate enough for the representation of the cables in this study. In [37], it is mentioned that the -section provides the correct impedance at the fundamental frequency but does not model accurately the properties at other frequencies. The -section was initially selected to keep the model as simple as possible. However, PSCAD has more capabilities regarding the representation of a line, such as the Bergeron model, the Frequency-Dependent (Mode) model and the Frequency-Dependent (Phase) model. From the PSCAD manual [37], it is suggested that for transient behavior the Frequency-Dependent (Phase or Mode) model should be used. The most advanced model that represents the full frequency dependence of all lines parameters is the Frequency-Dependent (Phase) model. The same model was as well used in [5] that the collection grid of Nysted oshore wind farm was modeled. The representation of the model in PSCAD is illustrated in gure 5.19. The model in gure 5.19 represents the cable between A08 and A09. The same model is used for all the cables of the collection grid. However, the onshore and the oshore cables are still modeled as -sections as after the radial disconnection they are not part of the isolated system. The cables connecting the wind turbines from A01 to A09 are the same as the cable presented

58

5.3 Distributed cable model

in gure5.19. The cable that represents the root cable of the radial is dierent regarding its length. The information regarding the properties of each cable were retrieved from [5].

Figure 5.19: Frequency-Dependent (Phase) model of the cable.

Due to computational problems in the simulations some changes were essential. Initially, the solution step was reduced to 3 s from 50 s in the previous simulations. In addition, instead of the analytical approximation for the calculation of the earth ground return path for the cable used in [5], the numerical integration is used. According to the manual [37], although this calculation of the ground impedance is accurate enough adds a signicant amount of time on the simulation. It should be noted as well that the Frequency-Dependent (Phase) model is represented in the three phase system. Consequently it needs to be merged into a single line diagram as it is illustrated in gure 5.19. For the simulation of the dierentiated model of the radial, the same switching operations applied to the initial model and described in Table 5.1 are performed. For the easier comparison of the simulation results obtained with the distributed cable model and the -section model with the measurements, the voltage and the current at A01 are illustrated in gures 5.20-5.23. As it can be seen, the results of the two models are similar. The switching transients observed in the voltage and current measurements due to the radial disconnection were not represented with any of the models (gures 5.20 and 5.21). The main dierence can be spotted in the transients due to the connection of the capacitor banks at 275 ms in gure B.14. It seems that the eect is more severe in the distributed cable model than in the -section. With the -section model, the frequency of the transient over-voltages is not the same with the measurements as the disturbance lasts for less time. On the contrary, with the distributed cable model, the disturbance due to the capacitor connection lasts for more time than in the measurements. It can be also seen that the magnitude of the transient over-voltages at the time of the capacitor banks connection is dierent in the two cable approaches, with closest to the measurements the results from the distributed model. Similar observations can be concluded from gure 5.23.

Chapter 5

59

Figure 5.20: Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements

Figure 5.21: Instantaneous current at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements

Figure 5.22: Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements

60

5.3 Distributed cable model

Figure 5.23: Instantaneous current at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements

The aforementioned can be veried by plotting the positive sequence component of the voltage at A01 in gure 5.24. The magnitude of the transient over-voltages due to the capacitor banks connection with the distributed cable model are closer to the measurements. However, the oscillations observed after the 300 ms are not visible in the measurements as they are damped soon after the switching event. Similarly to the analysis performed in Chapter 3, in gures 5.25 and 5.26 the frequency analysis on phase B of the current and voltage in A01 and A09 respectively is presented. In gure 5.25 the dierence in the harmonic components between the cable models and the measurements in each location is obvious. It can be seen that in the measured voltage there is a peak around 800 Hz, but in case of the -section model the peak is around 700 Hz. Regarding the results from the simulation with the distributed cable model, there is one peak around 750 Hz but there is also one higher peak at 650 Hz. The 650 Hz component of the voltage is not observed neither in the simple cable model nor in the measured voltage. Similar observations can be seen in gure 5.26 where the frequency analysis is performed in phase B of the current at A01 and A09. Here, dierences can be seen both between the simulated cases and the measured current but can be also seen between the two locations. The latter was expected as the switching operation provokes high transients only in A01 where it occurred. At A01, the low frequency component at around 250 Hz is similar in the two simulated cases but it is slightly dierent for the measured values. In addition, the harmonic frequency at 650 Hz in the simulation with the distributed cable is also present in the current, while the dierences observed around 800 Hz are similar with the dierences analyzed in the FFT at the voltage. In gures 5.25 and 5.26 it can be seen that the 13th harmonic that is present in both voltage and current is also present in both locations A01 and A09. This could be associated with the modeling of the cable as in case of the simple equivalent model for the cable is not observed. Apparently, the representation of the full frequency impedance of the cable created a resonance with the capacitor banks at this frequency. In the simulations performed in the next chapters, the -section model will be used for the representation of the cables as the results compared with the distributed model and the measurements are in good agreement.

Chapter 5

61

Figure 5.24: Positive sequence component of the voltage at A01.

Figure 5.25: FFT analysis at phase B of the voltage. Upper plot: FFT at A01. Lower plot: FFT at A09.

62

5.4 Summary

Figure 5.26: FFT analysis at phase B of the current. Upper plot: FFT at A01. Lower plot: FFT at A09.

5.4

Summary

Following the development of the model, in the present chapter, the model is validated with the available data. The radial disconnection occurs at 80 ms and the nine wind turbines of the radial are in island operation. In Table 5.1 the switching operations of the capacitor banks are described. As the behavior of the wind turbines was unknown after the radial disconnection the simulation was based on the measurement analysis that revealed that at 275 ms there is capacitor banks connection. However, several simulations were performed with dierent switching operations. The simulation that reproduced the results closest to the real measurements and presented in the present Chapter, are according to table 5.1. The comparison of the simulated results has been following the measurement analysis; rst the instantaneous values of the voltage and the current in all three measuring locations are compared with the measurements, while the transformation into sequence components follows. The active and reactive power are calculated and through the FFT analysis, the harmonics induced to the system are presented. It is important to note that the transformation to sequence components and the FFT analysis are performed by using the same MATLAB code as in the measurement analysis section. It can be seen that there is a good agreement between the simulated and measured instantaneous values of the voltage and the current in all locations. After the transformation to the sequence components, the positive sequence voltage has similar waveform to the positive sequence measured voltage. The main discrepancies are focused at the moment of the radial disconnection, as the the transients in the voltage and the currents are not reproduced in the simulations. Furthermore, the active power production of A01, A09 and the total power production from the radial are close to the power calculated from the measurements. Here, the main dierence can be spotted in the reactive power calculated at the moment of the radial disconnection. In addition, the reactive power before the disconnection is close to the reactive power calculated from the measurements. Finally, the most detailed model for the representation of the cables of the collection grid was used due to the fact that the transients observed in the measurements during the radial disconnection are not represented in the simulation results. The results of the study showed that using a frequency dependent model for the cables would give dierent results from a simple -section model. Especially the FFT analysis depicts dierent harmonic components between the cable models and the measurements. The comparison showed that even though the -

Chapter 5

63

section model is simplied it can represent accurately enough the measurements. Throughout the report, if is not referred otherwise the -section will be used as the cable model.

64

5.4 Summary

Chapter

6 Sensitivity analysis

In the present Chapter, the main uncertainties introduced in the project will be discussed. Yet from the development of the model, some parameters were unknown and had to be chosen based on the typical values found in the literature. In this case, the shaft stiness and the inertia of the wind turbine rotor were the unknown factors. As both the wind turbine rotor and the shaft are included in the two-mass model, it is easily understandable that it is important to have the appropriate values so that the model is as accurate as possible. In Chapter 4, the development of the model was presented, while in Chapter 5 the model is validated. The values for the aforementioned parameters were chosen from the range of the typical values found in the literature [9], [11]. To ensure that the values chosen give a result as close as possible to the measurements, a sensitivity analysis will be performed. Sensitivity analysis is a method used broadly to investigate the eect of errors or uncertainties in the study case. In [42], for the investigation of possible discrepancies between the actual and the measured values of the turbine inertia and the shaft stiness, a sensitivity analysis was performed. In addition, in [43] the sensitivity analysis was performed to study the eect of the dierent parameters that characterize the drive train and the generator on the transient stability of the wind turbines. In the present work, the sensitivity analysis will be used dierently. As the values of the parameters are unknown, the sensitivity analysis will be used as a guide to show that the values used in Chapter 4 are those that led to the most realistic outcome. Apart from the uncertainties introduced from the unknown parameters of the wind turbines, equally critical for the validation of the model is the switching sequence of the capacitor banks. It is explained in Chapter 3 the logic behind the control of the capacitor banks. However, as the measurements are only from 2 wind turbines of the radial, assumptions were made. The assumptions were based on the control strategy and the measurement analysis. To verify that the approach followed in Table 5.1 is similar to what happened during the measurements, the sensitivity analysis will be repeated with the switching time and the quantity of the capacitor banks switching as a variable parameter. Based on the previous, the chapter can be divided into two sections. The rst section will be the sensitivity analysis regarding the values of the parameters of the model that were assumed during the development of the model. The unknown parameters were: The inertia of the wind turbine rotor JW T R or the inertia constant HW T R The shaft stiness K For values used for the parameters were the typical that were found in the literature [9]. However, the range was quite broad, i.e. the inertia constant of the wind turbine rotor could vary from 2.5 s to 12.5 s , while the shaft stiness could vary from 0.15 s to 1.2 s. Due to this broad range of HW T R and K the following method was followed. In [11] a similar wind turbine was used (rated power 2 MW), so the values of the specic parameters of this wind

66

6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

turbine were used as a starting point. As the rated power is similar it is adopted that the inertia constant of the wind turbine rotor would not be much dierent, so the parameter that was changed in the whole range was the shaft stiness. Four scenarios are formulated with dierent values for the parameters and are presented in Table 6.1: Table 6.1: Scenarios based on dierent values of HW T R and K

Inertia constant HW T R Scenario Scenario Scenario Scenario A1 A2 A3 A4 3.5 3.5 4.5 4.5 s s s s

Shaft stiness K 0.15 s 1.2 s 0.15 s 1.2 s

The second section of the Chapter will include the sensitivity analysis regarding the switching of the capacitor banks. Scenarios based on dierent switching time for the capacitor banks are formulated and simulated. Based on this analysis, the outcome will show that even though the information regarding the switching time of the capacitor banks is limited, the scenario presented in Chapter 5 is the closest to the measurements. The scenarios are presented in Table 6.2. Table 6.2: Scenarios based on dierent times for the capacitor banks switching

Switching operations Scenario B1 Scenario B2 Scenario B3 Scenario B4 Capacitor switching operations occur only at A01 and A09. They switch out at 200 ms and switch in at 275 ms. The capacitor banks in all nine wind turbines have the same behavior their switching operations occur at the same time. There is no switching operation of the capacitor banks until 275 ms where all disconnect. The capacitor banks connect in dierent steps than the 90 kVAr.

In the rst section of the Chapter, from the results obtained from the sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters only the instantaneous voltages and currents at A01 will be presented and compared with the measurements. It is expected that the impact of the changes would be similar to all three locations, respectively. In the second section, the discussion will be for both the wind turbines, A01 and A09, as the dierent switching operations will aect both turbines in dierent ways.

6.1
6.1.1

Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

Scenario A1: Low inertia- Low shaft stiness

Following the rst scenario presented in Table 6.1 the results obtained can be seen in gures 6.1 and 6.2. In gure 6.1a and more clearly in gure 6.1b it can be seen that there is a dierence in the frequency of the system. At the moment of the second switching operation the simulated voltage is almost half a period ahead of the measured voltage. In addition, the magnitude of the voltage between the two main switching operations is higher in the simulations. Furthermore, even the magnitude of the transient over-voltages is dierent as in the phases -a- and -c- of the simulated voltage is higher than the measurements whilst in phase -b- the impact of the switching operation is almost unnoticeable.

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67

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.1: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A1

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6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

(a) Instantaneous current comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous current comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.2: Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A1

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The same could be mentioned for the current at A01 as well in gure 6.2. Comparing the simulated current with the measurements the impact of the capacitor banks connection at 275 ms is more severe on phases -a- and -c- of the simulated current but less severe on phase -b-. In addition, similarly with the frequency of the voltage, the frequency of the two signals is dierent. However, is should be mentioned that at after 400 ms in gure 6.1a the simulated and the measured voltage have the same magnitude and frequency. On the contrary, in the current shown in gure 6.2a the magnitude and the frequency of the two signals do not agree.

6.1.2

Scenario A2: Low inertia- High shaft stiness

For this simulation, the inertia is kept the same but now the shaft stiness is the highest possible from the range of the typical values. The results are presented in gures 6.3 and 6.4.

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.3: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A2 In this scenario, the dierent shaft stiness has an impact on both the voltage magnitude and the frequency. It can be seen that in this case, the magnitude of the simulated voltage after the radial disconnection and before the connection of the capacitor banks is almost the same with the measurements. At the same time period, the frequency of the voltage is closer to the

70

6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

(a) Instantaneous current comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous current comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.4: Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A2

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frequency of the measured voltage, but still close to the switching operation at 275 ms it starts deviating. As presented in gure 6.3b the impact of the connection of the capacitor banks is dierent in the simulation. Even though the time of the switching operation is the same in all the simulations, here it occurs in a dierent point on the voltage waveform. Especially in phase -b- in the simulated voltage the switching operation occurs almost 180o earlier in the voltage waveform than the actual point in the measurements. In gure 6.4 the results of the simulation regarding the current at A01 are illustrated. In this case, the transients at 275 are similar but as it is depicted in gure 6.4b they occur earlier than the measurements. Comparing scenario A1 with scenario A2 it could be said that the shaft stiness of the wind turbine has an eect on the voltage and current after the radial disconnection. It seems that with higher shaft stiness the response of the system is closer to the measurements.

6.1.3

Scenario A3: High inertia- Low shaft stiness

In scenario A3, the stiness of the shaft is low, similar to scenario A1. The inertia constant of the wind turbine rotor will be high in this case and its impact on the simulation results will be investigated. The results are presented in gures 6.5 and 6.6. In gure 6.5 the dierence in the frequency and the magnitude between the simulated and the measured voltages can be noticed. Observing carefully gure 6.6 as well, it could be said that the results from the present scenario are similar to the results from the scenario A1. Indeed, the low shaft stiness has produced discrepancies in the frequency and the magnitude of the voltage that were not that signicant when the stiness was high. In addition, the transients in the current at 275 are similar to the results in scenario A1, as in phases -a- and -c- the impact of the switching operation is higher in the simulation than in the measurements. The similarities between scenarios A1 and A3 can be also seen in both voltage and current after t = 400 ms. In the voltage, the frequency and the magnitude between simulation and measurements are exactly the same. Regarding the current, the frequency and the magnitude between simulation and measurements are not the same. More specically, the current in phase -c- in the simulation is higher than the current in phase -c- in the measurements. From the discussion of the three simulated scenarios, it is indicated that the shaft stiness has a higher inuence in the temporary over-voltages during the island operation of the wind turbines. In addition, the transient over-voltages during the connection of the capacitor banks have also higher magnitude in case of the higher shaft stiness than in the case with the low stiness.

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6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.5: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A3

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(a) Instantaneous current comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous current comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.6: Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A3

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6.1 Sensitivity analysis on the wind turbine parameters

6.1.4

Scenario A4: High inertia- high shaft stiness

The last scenario for the rst part of the sensitivity analysis comprises high inertia constant for the wind turbine rotor and high shaft stiness. The results are illustrated in gures 6.7 and 6.8.

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous voltage comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.7: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01-Scenario A4 Following the discussion in scenario A3, the results of the present simulation conrm the proposal that the shaft stiness has the most signicant impact on the temporary and the transient over-voltages. In gure 6.7 the frequency and the magnitude of the voltage after the radial disconnection in the simulation and the measurements are closer. Moreover, the transient over-voltages at 275 ms are not that high as observed in the measurements. Regarding the current, gure 6.8 shows also similar results as in scenario A2. The transients due to the connection of the capacitor banks are similar between the simulated and the measured current but for the simulation the switching operation occurs earlier. Following the 4 scenarios simulated, it could be concluded that the shaft stiness has an signicant role on the temporary and the transient over-voltages. If the shaft stiness is represented with a dierent value than its actual the eect would be either worse (if it is higher

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(a) Instantaneous current comparison from 0 ms to 500 ms

(b) Instantaneous current comparison from 230 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.8: Instantaneous current comparison at A01-Scenario A4

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6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

than the actual) or more conservative (if it is lower than the actual). The inertia of the wind turbine rotor does not seem to inuence the results as much as the shaft stiness. However, it should be noted here that in the validated model, the inertia constant was lower than the inertia values in the sensitivity analysis (HW T R =2.5s) while the shaft stiness is between the two extreme values presented in the chapter (Ks =0.6s). Further investigation could be done in this section to study the exact impact of the two parameters and especially the shaft stiness, that seems to be the most crucial, on the over-voltages. In this case though, the actual values should be provided so that results of the study would be more accurate. Finally, according to the sensitivity analysis the representation of the mechanical part of the wind turbine from the two-mass model is necessary.

6.2
6.2.1

Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

Scenario B1- The capacitor banks switching operations occur only in A01 and A09

In scenario B1 it is only the capacitor banks at A01 and A09 that switch out and then switch in at 275 ms. This scenario is based on the information regarding the control of the capacitor banks and disregards the behavior of the wind turbines that there is no measurement available (A02-A08). For those wind turbines it will be considered that the capacitor banks remain connected throughout the simulation. The results are presented in gures 6.9-6.10. The main dierences can be spotted during and after the disconnection of the capacitors, as before this switching operation the measured and simulated voltages and currents are in agreement. The transients on the current at A01 are similar to the measured. However, the transients in the current at A09 are much higher in the simulations. In addition, after the the disconnection of the capacitor banks, the current and the voltage at both wind turbines have signicantly higher magnitude compared with the measurements. This is due to the fact that the capacitors in the A02-A08 are still connected and provide reactive power to the induction generator. As a result, the wind turbines as long as they remain connected they keep feeding the isolated system with current. From the present scenario, it could be concluded that the capacitor banks at A09 are not connecting at 275 ms. In addition, after the switching operation at 275 ms there should be no capacitor banks connected as in that case the current and the voltage magnitude would be higher as shown here.

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(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.9: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B1

78

6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.10: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B1

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6.2.2

Scenario B2- The capacitor banks have the same operation in all wind turbines

Scenario B2 is based on the control of the capacitors banks described earlier. In this case, the capacitor will have the same operation in all wind turbines, which means that the capacitors will switch out and in at the same time. The disconnection of the capacitor banks will be at 200 ms and the connection at 275 ms. After the connection, the capacitors will disconnect following the conclusions from scenario B1. The results can be found in gures 6.11-6.12

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.11: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B2 The simultaneous switching operations of all the capacitor banks in the wind turbines, being already an unlikely scenario, does not reproduce similar to the measurements results. The impact of the connection of the capacitor banks on the voltage is more severe than in the measurements. As it can be seen in gure 6.13, the transient over-voltages at A01 can reach 70 kV while in the measurements the transient over-voltages reach 45 kV. On top of that, the transients in the currents are dierent. In A01, as depicted in gure 6.11b, the eect the

80

6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.12: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B2

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magnitude of the transient current is less than in the measurements while in A09, as illustrated in gure 6.12b the impact is more severe in the simulations. As a conclusion from the present scenario, the results presented here show that the simultaneous connection of the capacitor banks at 275 ms during the time that the measurements were acquired could not have happened. However, the disconnection of the capacitor banks at 200 ms might have occurred. The results from the simulation do not show any signicant dierence regarding this switching operation. In reality, though, it would be dicult to happen even the minimum delay in the control of the capacitors would have an impact on the switching moment. In gure 3.20 it was illustrated that the magnitude of the voltage after the radial disconnection was dierent in the three measuring locations. This dierence on the voltage magnitude could be expected for the other wind turbines as well and it is easily understandable that this dierence would activate the voltage control of the capacitors in dierent time for each wind turbine. Consequently, for the measurement representation, the simultaneous switching operations of all the capacitor banks could be considered as invalid.

Figure 6.13: Voltage at A01 from 250 ms to 330 ms.

6.2.3

Scenario B3- The capacitor banks remain connected and disconnect at the 275 ms

Scope of this scenario is to clarify that the switching operation that occurs at 275 ms is not the disconnection of the capacitor banks. The worst case is considered, where the capacitors disconnect simultaneously in all nine wind turbines of the radial. The results of the simulation are presented in gures 6.14-6.15. In gures 6.14a and 6.15a it can be seen that the transient over-voltages at 275 ms have signicant dierences with the measurements. In gure 6.16 this is more obvious. The transient over-voltages do not have similar magnitude to the measurements whereas the system is not excited almost at all. The high frequency oscillations that can be seen in the measurements are not shown in the simulation. This is apparently due to the fact that the switching operations are not the operations that occur in the measurements. This can be veried from the current waveforms as well, as the disconnection of the capacitors do not provoke any current transients.

82

6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.14: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B3

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(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 0 ms to 500 ms.

Figure 6.15: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B3

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6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

Figure 6.16: Voltage at A01 from 250 ms to 330 ms.

6.2.4

Scenario B4- Dierent steps of the capacitor banks connecting at A01

For the validation of the model, as the switching operation that occur at 275 ms was considered the connection of the capacitor banks at A01. The capacitor banks are in steps of 90 kVAr with nominal power 1350 kVAr. In Chapter 5 it was considered that all the steps are connecting simultaneously, which means that 15 steps of 90 kVAr power connected at 275 ms. In the information available about the Dynamic Power Factor Correction system installed in Nysted it is mentioned that the capacitors are organized in teams; 90 kVAr is one team, 180 kVAr is the second team and there are 3 teams of 360 kVAr. In the present scenario the simultaneous connection of the 5 teams is considered. Due to the good agreement between the results from the simulation and the measurements, only the gures illustrating the transients at 275 ms in A01 and A09 will be presented here. The overall views of the voltage and the current at A01 and A09 can be found in the Appendix C.

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(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 270 ms to 330 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 270 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.17: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A01-Scenario B4

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6.2 Sensitivity analysis on the switching of the capacitor banks

(a) Instantaneous voltage comparison between measurements and simulation from 270 ms to 330 ms.

(b) Instantaneous current comparison between measurements and simulation from 270 ms to 330 ms.

Figure 6.18: Instantaneous voltage and current comparison at A09-Scenario B4

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As it is shown in gures 6.17 and 6.18 there is a good agreement between the simulated and measured values at both locations. However, the transients due to the connection of the capacitors are not totally represented in the simulation. In A01, even though the magnitude of the transients in both the voltage and the current is similar to the measurements, the disturbance is damped quite fast. This is more obvious in the current in gure C.4 especially if it is compared with gure 6.19 from Chapter 5 that is presented here as well to facilitate the comparison. In gure 6.19, the current transients are almost fully reproduced, while in gure C.2 the results are similar but not very close to the measurements. The aforementioned can be veried in gure 6.18 where the comparison of the transients in the voltage and the current at A09 is depicted. Especially in the current in gure C.4, the transients in the current are not represented in the simulation. Consequently, even though the results from scenario B4 are very close to the measurements they do not reproduce exactly the measurements. In particular, the transients are damped quite fast and if the results from this scenario are compared with the results from the simulation in Chapter 5, the switching operation simulated in Chapter 5 has better response.

Figure 6.19: Measured and simulated current at A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. The gure is from the simulation in Chapter 5. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

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6.3 Summary

6.3

Summary

In the present Chapter the sensitivity analysis regarding parameters that could aect the results of the simulation and were unknown are presented. As described, the main uncertainties are the unknown values of the wind turbine rotor inertia, the shaft stiness and the exact moments of the switching operations of the capacitor banks. The values of the unknown parameters were based on typical values that can be found in literature [9], [11]. The results have shown that the temporary and transient over-voltages depend mainly on the shaft stiness. However, this suggestion it can only be based on the comparison between the simulation results and the available measurements. In order to verify the dependence of the over-voltages from the shaft stiness the actual data should be provided. Based on that, the sensitivity analysis would be more signicant. It is also very important to notice the dependence of the results from the two unknown parameters, as it means that the two-mass model is necessary for similar studies as well. In general, the two-mass model is essential for stability studies. As it is suggested here, the two-mass model is also necessary for electromagnetic transient studies as well. The second part of the sensitivity analysis includes the dierent switching operations of the capacitor banks. Four scenarios of dierent switching operations were performed and the the results have veried that the assumptions made in the previous chapters were correct. The capacitor banks disconnect before 275 ms, probably not at the same time, and at 275 ms it is only the capacitor banks at A01 that connect and provoke the high transient over-voltages. It has been shown that the connection of the capacitor banks occurs in 15 steps of 90 kVAr and also that after this switching operation the capacitor banks at A01 need to be disconnected again.

Chapter

Capacitor control and assessment of over-voltages in dierent production levels

In the previous Chapters it was shown that the high transient over-voltages observed in gure 3.6 are due to connection of the capacitor banks in A01. Based on the information regarding the control of the capacitor banks this behavior could be expected. However, as it was shown in Chapter 6 the capacitor banks were connected only in A01. Due to the dierent behavior of the capacitor banks, in the model developed in Chapter 4, the control of the capacitors was modeled through a simple breaker that performed the switching operations on specic time. In the present chapter, the control of the capacitor banks will be developed. The control will be designed based on how the wind turbines should operate during island operation. Furthermore, simulations with the wind turbines producing in low and high-level will be performed and the results regarding the over-voltages will be discussed.

7.1

Capacitor bank control

As a reminder, gure 7.1 describes the logic behind the control of the capacitor banks. It should not be disregarded that the wind turbines used in Nysted are in compliance with the grid codes [3]. This is depicted in the voltage control mode of the capacitor banks. If the voltage is below a certain level, that is considered to be a threshold for a grid fault for a certain time that can be dened from the user, then all the available capacitor groups are connecting. Similar is the logic for the maximum safe voltage, which is normally the 120% of the nominal voltage. If the voltage exceeds this upper threshold, all the capacitor banks disconnect immediately. Apart from the upper and lower thresholds for the voltage control, there is an intermediate level as well. If voltage exceeds the upper or the lower voltage threshold, but not the corresponding critical thresholds, then the voltage control acts by disconnecting or connecting step by step capacitor banks. This continues until the voltage is within the normal values again, that the control changes from voltage to power factor correction mode. As soon as the system returns to normal operation, the steps that were disconnected are connecting or vice versa. To simulate the control of the capacitor banks, a simplied version of the control described in gure 7.1 will be implemented in PSCAD. Only two extreme values will be taken into account, one as the critical upper voltage (120% of the voltage nominal value) and one as a lower voltage threshold. For the lower voltage limit the gird fault threshold could be one choice but for the present simulations the 90% of the nominal voltage will be considered as the

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7.1 Capacitor bank control

Figure 7.1: Voltage control set points [6].

threshold. It was not possible to develop the model of the full control of the capacitor banks due to time limits, as there were many parameters that should be taken into account. Some of the parameters were the several thresholds and the switching operation performed, switching the capacitors in steps or in total for dierent thresholds, introduce time delay for each wind turbine as from the measurements it does not seem that they operate simultaneously. Therefore, the control logic approach is simple and includes two critical voltage thresholds. However, as there is no fault introduced, the lower voltage threshold is chosen 90%, as mentioned earlier. The capacitor banks are switching as one step in all switching operations. Furthermore, the measurement voltage that the control will be based upon is the MV at the transformer at each wind turbine, as introduced by the manual [6]. As the voltage control cannot be based on the instantaneous values of the voltage, the RMS value of the voltage needs to be calculated. The lower and upper voltage thresholds will be based on the per unit values of the RMS measured voltage. The implementation of the voltage control logic is presented in gure 7.2. The RMS voltage is measured at the MV side of the transformer at each wind turbine and after transformation to its per unit value it is used for the control. The limits are set to 1.2 and 0.9 per unit and the comparison is performed with the Hysteresis Buer component. According to PSCAD manual [37], the Hysteresis Buer component is used for converting a real into a logic signal. In addition, the transition to the new logic state is avoided until the input signal has moved across the dened threshold. The Edge Detector component and the counter are used to limit the switching operations of the capacitor banks. This operation is chosen for practical reasons, as it is not possible within 1 sec the capacitor banks to switch several times. In simulations performed while testing the control logic it was found out that numerous switching operations of the capacitor banks were performed following the radial disconnection as after disconnecting the capacitor banks the voltage was decreasing and after connecting the capacitor banks the voltage was increasing. The command of opening or closing the breaker of the capacitor banks was controlled with an OR gate. When the voltage is higher than the predened threshold, the breaker will open. Finally, it should be noted that the amount of the capacitor banks participating in the switching operations after the radial disconnection was equal to the amount of the capacitor banks connected in the steady state before the radial disconnection.

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Figure 7.2: Voltage control logic implemented in PSCAD.

7.2

Over-voltages during low-level production

The peculiarity of this simulation is that the wind turbines used in Nysted have two dierent induction generators as explained in Chapter 2. The rst generator is used for low wind speeds and the second for medium and high wind speeds. In this way the eciency of the wind turbine is higher. In the low wind speed conguration the nominal power output of the wind turbine is 400 kW instead of the 2300 kW in high wind speed. In addition, the equivalent circuit of the generators is similar to the circuit depicted in gure 4.7 but the value of the parameters are dierent. Along with the induction generator model, the aerodynamic model needs to be adjusted as the base for the per unit values is the nominal power of the wind turbine. The change in the induction generator conguration has an impact on the reactive power consumption as well. In case of the low power conguration, the reactive power consumption at nominal operation is 225 kVAr. It was found out in [15] that if the wind turbines are fullycompensated or supply reactive power to the grid, then the increase rate of the voltage will be larger than when they absorb reactive power. Furthermore, it is stated that the rate of the voltage is also connected with the power production level. This is due to the current of the wind turbines that charges the cable during the island operation. If the production is low, the current will be low and the increase rate of the voltage will be lower as well. For the low production level of the wind turbines, two simulations will be performed; one while the radial is supplying reactive power to the grid and one while the radial is absorbing reactive power. The results can be seen in gures 7.3-7.8. The radial disconnects at 15 sec and after that the operation of the capacitor banks is based on their control. In gure 7.3, where the voltage at A01 is depicted, it can be seen that the radial disconnection occurs at 15 sec as the voltage magnitude starts increasing after this moment. However, the voltage waveform is not the same in the two simulations. It seems that in the case that the radial is supplying reactive power to the grid, the voltage magnitude is higher. The high transient over-voltages at 15.24 and 15.67 sec are due to the connection of the capacitor banks in the two simulations. The connection is performed faster in the simulation that the reactive power is supplied to the grid and the impact is more severe. In gure 7.3, the eect of the disconnection of the capacitor banks is also visible in the case that the reactive power is supplied to the grid as it provokes switching transient over-

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7.2 Over-voltages during low-level production

Figure 7.3: Instantaneous voltages at A01. The control of the capacitor banks is enabled faster in the simulation that the reactive power is supplied to the grid.

voltages as well. However, the disconnection of the capacitor banks is not that severe in the simulation that the reactive power is absorbed from the grid. It should also be mentioned that the disconnection of the capacitors occurs later in the reactive power consumption simulation, around t = 15.55 sec as the magnitude of the voltage starts decreasing, while in the reactive power supply simulation occurs at 15.18 sec. The time dierence is due to the dierent increase rate of the voltage in the two simulations as when the reactive power is supplied to the grid, the voltage increases faster. In gure 7.4, the current at the capacitor banks in the two simulations is presented. It is veried that in the reactive power supply simulation, the capacitor banks disconnect around t = 15.18 sec while in the second simulation they disconnect around t = 15.55 sec. It should be also noted that after the connection of the capacitors, in the rst case they remain connected for less time than in the second case. Obviously, this is because the eect of the capacitor connection is more severe and also the higher amount of reactive power provided from the capacitors lead to a faster voltage increase in the reactive power supply simulation.It should also be noted that current in the capacitor in the rst case after the radial disconnection is higher than the current in the second case. This is most likely associated with the excess of reactive power that is dierent in the two cases. As mentioned before, the control logic is based on the RMS measured value measured at the MV side of each wind turbine. In gure 7.5 the RMS measured voltages in the two simulations are presented. The thresholds for the voltage control are the 120% and 90% of the nominal value and is shown that the control is working as it was dened. It can be seen in gure 7.5 that after the radial disconnection the voltage magnitude increases in both cases. However, when the reactive power is supplied to the grid the voltage increases faster. In this case, the higher amount of reactive power supplied to the isolated system causes over-compensation of the generator and increase of the voltage. After the disconnection of the capacitor banks the voltages start reducing until they drop to 90% of their nominal value when the control reconnects the capacitors. Finally, when the voltage reaches again the upper limit the capacitor banks disconnect and the voltage drops to zero, as no reconnection is allowed by the control. A dierent view of the over-voltages in the two simulated case is illustrated in gure 7.6.

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Figure 7.4: Current at the capacitor banks at A01. Upper plot: Reactive power supplied to the grid. Lower plot: Reactive power absorbed from the grid.

Figure 7.5: RMS voltage at A01 measured for the control of the capacitor banks. Upper plot: Reactive power supplied to the grid. Lower plot: Reactive power absorbed from the grid.

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7.2 Over-voltages during low-level production

Here, it is more obvious that the connection of the capacitor banks is more critical in the switching transient over-voltages in case of reactive power supply to the grid. In addition, in the same case, after the radial disconnection the voltage magnitude increases faster and activates the control of the capacitor banks earlier.

Figure 7.6: Positive sequence component of the voltage at A01.

In gures 7.7 and 7.8, the active and reactive power status of the wind turbines are presented. In gure 7.7, it can be seen that the active power produced is the same in the two wind turbines and a little higher in the total production in case of reactive power consumption. However, as the dierence is small it is considered as identical active power production in both simulations. In gure 7.8 the dierence between the two cases is illustrated. As it is shown, the total reactive power supplied to the grid is around 0.5 MVAr while the absorbed reactive power is 0.2 MVAr. Even though the dierence for each particular wind turbine is not large, the higher amount of reactive power available in the isolated radial in the case of reactive power supply leads to the faster activation of the capacitors control system. The results presented here are in accordance with the conclusion of the Danish TSO investigation shown in [15], as in general the impact of the radial breaker switching operation is more severe if reactive power is supplied to the grid.

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Figure 7.7: Active power production in the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Total active power production. Middle plot: Active power production at A01. Lower plot: Active power production at A09.

Figure 7.8: Reactive power production in the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Total reactive power production. Middle plot: Reactive power production at A01. Lower plot: Reactive power production at A09.

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7.3 Over-voltages during nominal power production

7.3

Over-voltages during nominal power production

In this section, the behavior of the wind turbines during island operation while they are producing their nominal power will be simulated. In the previous section it was shown that the over-voltages increase faster in case that the reactive power is supplied to the grid. Here, the eect of high and low-level of active power production of the wind turbines on the overvoltages will be discussed. The results are presented in gures 7.9-7.15. In gure 7.9 the eect of the dierent power production level during the island operation on the voltage at A01 is illustrated. In case of the nominal power operation shortly after the radial disconnection the capacitor banks disconnect as well. Following this, the voltage starts reducing until 200 ms later when the capacitor banks connect. The switching transient over-voltages provoked from this switching operation reach almost 50 kV. These can be seen more clearly in gure 7.10. It should also be mentioned that the disturbances observed 50 ms after the radial disconnection are most likely due to the disconnection of the capacitor banks. To verify the switching time of the capacitor banks, the current at the capacitors in the two simulations is presented at gure 7.11. It is indeed shortly after the radial disconnection that the capacitor banks also disconnect as the current drops to zero.

Figure 7.9: Instantaneous voltage at A01. The radial disconnection occurs at 15 sec.

Similarly, when the capacitor current in the simulation with low active power production drops to zero the capacitors are disconnected. However, it should be noticed that the disconnection of the capacitors occur more than 500 ms later than in the other case. This indicates that the increase rate of the voltage is higher in the case of high active power production. This can be implied as well from gure 7.10, but is more clear if the RMS voltage used for the control of the capacitors is plotted in gure 7.12.

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Figure 7.10: Instantaneous voltage at A01. The capacitor banks in case of the nominal power operation disconnect 50 ms later and they connect again at 15.2 sec.

Figure 7.11: Current at the capacitor banks.

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7.3 Over-voltages during nominal power production

Figure 7.12: RMS voltage at MV side of the transformer at A01. The measured voltage is used for the voltage control of the capacitor banks.

In gure 7.12 it can be seen that in the simulation with nominal power production, the change rate of the voltage is higher than in the simulation with low power production. More specically, within the rst 500 ms after the radial disconnection, the control of the capacitor banks has already been activated twice for the upper voltage threshold. On the contrary, in the simulation with low-level power production, in order for the control to be activated twice for the upper voltage threshold it takes more than 1 sec. In gure 7.13 the switching transients due to the connection of the capacitor banks while the wind turbines are in low-level power production is shown. It can be seen that the effect of the switching operations on the switching transient over-voltages is similar in the two simulated cases. In gure 7.14 the positive sequence component of the voltage is depicted. The aforementioned observations regarding the increase rate of the voltage and the transient over-voltages due to the switching operations can be derived as well as from the analysis of gure 7.14. For the complete comparison of the two cases, the active and reactive power production are illustrated in gures 7.15 and 7.16. The dierence in the active power production is obvious while at the same time the dierence in the reactive power consumption is also signicant.Even though in the nominal power production simulation all the capacitor banks available are connected, the wind turbine still absorb reactive power. From the comparison of the two simulations, it could be derived that the level of the active power production is related with the rate of the voltage as introduced in [15]. In the simulation where the wind turbines were producing their nominal power, the increase rate of the voltage was higher than in the case with the low power production.

Chapter 7

99

Figure 7.13: Instantaneous voltage at A01. Connection of the capacitor banks at low-level power production occur at 15.655 sec

Figure 7.14: Positive sequence voltage at A01.

100

7.3 Over-voltages during nominal power production

Figure 7.15: Active power production at the three locations for the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Active power production at the transformer platform. Middel plot: Active power production at A01. Lower plot: Active power production at A09.

Figure 7.16: Reactive power production at the three locations for the two simulated cases. Upper plot: Reactive power at the transformer platform. Middle plot: Reactive power at A01. Lower plot: Reactive power at A09.

Chapter 7

101

7.4

Summary

In the present chapter a simple control logic of the capacitor banks was introduced. The control logic is based on the Users Manual of the Power Factor Compensator units used in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm [6]. The voltage control of the capacitor banks is using the RMS measured voltage at the MV side of the transformer of each wind turbine. As it is not a full control model, it is based on two voltage limits; the upper voltage limit set by the 120% of the voltage nominal value and a lower voltage set by the 90% of the voltage nominal value. Exceeding the rst limit, the control will disconnect all the capacitor banks while exceeding the latter the control will connect all the available capacitor banks. After including the capacitor control component into the initial model of the wind turbine, two study cases were investigated. The rst study case was while the wind turbine was in low-level power production operation, simulating a day with low wind speed. In this case, the wind turbine is operating with the "low power generator" where the nominal power output is 400 kW. Two simulations were performed while the wind turbine was in this operation mode, one with the wind turbines absorbing reactive power and one with the wind turbines supplying reactive power to the grid. The results showed that the over-voltages were inuenced by the state of reactive power compensation of the generator. When the generator was supplying reactive power to the grid, the increase rate of the voltage was higher than in the other case. In addition, in the former simulation, the connection of the capacitor banks provoked higher switching transient over-voltages than in the latter. The second study case was to investigate the impact of high and low power production level in the over-voltages. A new simulation was performed while the wind turbines were operating in nominal power and the results were compared with the results from the simulation of the previous case that reactive power was consumed. The comparison has shown that the impact on the transient over-voltages during the switching operation of the capacitor banks were similar but the increase rate of the voltage was higher in the case of nominal power operation. It could be mentioned that at the same time after the radial disconnection due to higher current the cables are charged faster when the wind turbines are in nominal operation. As a nal comparison, the positive sequence voltage at A01 in the three simulated cases is presented in gure 7.17 to illustrate the results from all the simulation cases. As it is depicted, the highest rate of voltage increase occurs at nominal power operation but the highest switching transient over-voltages when reactive power is supplied to the grid. As discussed earlier, the results are in agreement with the investigation from the Danish TSO presented in [15].

Figure 7.17: Positive sequence voltage at A01 for the three simulated cases.

102

7.4 Summary

Chapter

8 Discussion and future work

8.1

Discussion

The Scope of the project was the development of a model of a xed-speed wind turbine . The model was validated with voltage and current measurements acquired from an experiment performed in Nysted Oshore Wind Farm in 2007. The experiment performed was the disconnection of radial A of the wind farm, while the wind turbines were in operation. This switching operation and the eld measurements of the voltage and the current in three locations were the available information. As the behavior of the wind turbines after the radial disconnection was unknown, Chapter 2 was devoted in literature research. The main interest was to present the dierent types of wind turbines, and present the technical regulations regarding the interconnection of wind farms to the power system. From this research, knowledge regarding the fault-ride through capabilities of the xed-speed wind turbines was acquired. Nysted consists of this type of wind turbines and the experience through the research was used during the analysis of the measurements. In Chapter 3, the analysis of the measurements was performed. The measurements available were from three locations, after the circuit breaker of radial A at the main transformer, the rst wind turbine of radial, A01 and the last wind turbine of radial A, A09. Scope of the analysis was to understand the exact behavior of the wind turbines during the island operation that could be applied in the development of the model. In addition, dierent ways of analyzing the data were investigated in order to extract as much information as possible. From the measurement analysis it was concluded that after the disconnection of the radial, the high transients observed at 275 ms were due to capacitor connection. The reactive power measurements revealed that before the disconnection the wind turbines were almost fully compensated as the reactive power consumption was very close to zero. Combining these information, it was assumed that the capacitor banks disconnected after the islanding of the radial. This assumption was enhanced from the voltage waveform as after 150 ms from the radial disconnection, the voltage starts decreasing. After the islanding of the radial the reactive power needed by the induction generators is absorbed from the capacitors and the cable capacitance. Therefore, the voltage decrease that was observed could be due to the disconnection of the capacitor banks and the loss of the reactive power needed by the generators. Furthermore, the Users Manual of the Dynamic Power Factor Correction system used in Nysted conrmed this assumption. According to it, if the over-voltages exceed a certain limit, the capacitor banks must disconnect immediately. It is also mentioned that in case that the voltage drops below a critical level, then all the capacitor banks should connect immediately. This is related to the fault-ride through capabilities of the xed-speed wind turbines mentioned in Chapter 2. Connecting the capacitor banks as soon as the fault is detected is in accordance

104

8.1 Discussion

with the specications of the grid codes regarding the supply of reactive power during and after the fault. Consequently, it was assumed that the switching operation at 275 ms was the connection of the capacitor banks that was based on the fault-ride through capabilities of the wind turbines. In addition, based on the dierences in the current measurements in A01 and A09, it was assumed that the connection of the capacitors occurred only in A01. After the assumptions regarding the behavior of the wind turbines, the model was developed in order to be simulated and conrm the aforementioned. The development of the model is presented in Chapter 4 and is based on the recommendations found in literature. Previous studies in the xed-speed wind turbine modeling were investigated even though the literature found was mainly for stability studies. The model included the aerodynamics of the wind turbine, the mechanical part and the induction generator. The blade-angle control was not included in the model as it was assumed that due to the short duration of the experiment, it would not have enough time to operate. This assumption was based on the fact that between the radial disconnection and the moment of the high transient over-voltages the dierence is only 200 ms. At the moment of the disconnection, the dierence between the active power production and demand will accelerate the wind turbines. From the moment that the fault is registered and the moment that the blades start pitching reasonable time will have passed. However, the time of interest in the present study is 250 ms that the blade-angle control is highly unlikely to be activated and start operating as well. In addition, no data regarding the active stall system were provided. For these reasons it was decided to assume that the active stall control will not have any inuence on the over-voltages observed. As a result, the aerodynamic model was based on a constant power coecient as the wind speed was also assumed constant throughout the experiment. The mechanical part of the wind turbine and the induction generator though, were modeled according to the recommendations from [9]. The two-mass model representation was adopted for the shaft system while for the induction generator the fth-order model was chosen. Although the data for the induction generator were provided, the inertia of the wind turbine rotor and the shaft stiness were not. Their values were looked up from the literature and were chosen based on their range and on data from similar wind turbines. Regarding the model of the capacitor banks control, taking into consideration the dierent operation in the two wind turbines with the available data, it was decided to be with simple time logic. The moments of the switching operations were based on the measurement analysis performed in Chapter 3. Once the logic behind the development of the model was explained, the experiment was simulated and the data were presented in Chapter 5. As explained in the chapter, the results of the simulation are very close to the measurements, despite the uncertainties introduced. The assumptions regarding the development of the model and the switching operations of the capacitor banks were conrmed. The main dierence can be spotted in the transient voltages during the radial disconnection that in the simulated model have not been reproduced. Except for this, the results from the simulation are in very good agreement with the measurements. In the same chapter, the use of a more detailed representation of the model of the cables was investigated. The results of the study showed that if the distributed cables had been used in the model of the radial, the disconnection of the capacitor banks would be more severe due to the low damping. For this reason, in the following simulation the equivalent was used to represent the cables. Following the validation of the model, the main uncertainties introduced in the study were investigated. Chapter 6 was divided into two section; the rst section is about the sensitivity analysis of the unknown parameters of the two-mass model while the second part includes the sensitivity analysis regarding the switching operation of the capacitor banks. In the rst part it was shown that especially the shaft stiness has a signicant impact on the temporary over-voltages. Thus, the use of the two-mass model was essential for the present study. In the second part, it was shown that the only switching operation that occurs at t = 275 ms is the connection of the capacitor banks at A01. It can be seen in the results that the capacitor banks do not have the same behavior in all the wind turbines. In this case, the impact of the simultaneous connection of the capacitor banks in all the wind turbines would be more severe on the transient over-voltages.

Chapter 8

105

In the last chapter, the control of the capacitor banks was developed based on the description found in the manual. The control is dened by two limits, one for the over-voltages and one when the voltage drops below a certain level. As this is the behavior that the wind turbines should have in case of over-voltages, simulations with dierent level of power production were performed and their impact on the over-voltages was discussed. The results shown are in accordance with the conclusions from the study of the Danish System Operator presented in [15].

8.2

Future work

As a conclusion, it could be derived that despite the assumptions in the development of the model, it reproduces accurately enough the behavior of the wind turbines during the time of the experiment. The voltage and current measurements that were available were reproduced from the model. The validated model could be used in the assessment of the over-voltages during dierent switching operations. However, the assumptions regarding the blade-angle control of the wind turbines should be always taken into consideration. This means that the model should be used in studies that the time duration is not enough for the blade-angle control to operate. Especially if the event lasts for several seconds, the active stall control would have time to operate. In this case, the blade-angle control have to be developed and included in the model of the wind turbine. In addition, if the wind turbines remain in island operation for considerable time they might be disconnected from the grid due to over-speeding protection. However, for the implementation of the control, the appropriate data should be provided otherwise it could lead to wrong results. In Chapter 7 the model of the control of the capacitor banks is developed. However, it is not complete as according to gure 7.1 there are several levels before the critical limits for the over-voltages and the faults. While the voltage does not exceed the critical limits, the control is more conservative.In these levels, the switching operation of the capacitors occurs in steps; in every cycle, one step of the capacitor banks is switching. Furthermore, if the actual data of the inertia of the wind turbine and the shaft stiness are provided their impact on the system could be investigated. More specically, if all the parameters are known, the inuence of the shaft stiness on the over-voltages could be assessed independently and verify whether the suggestion made in the present report is valid.

Bibliography

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Appendix

Appendix A-Measurement analysis

Figure A.1: Sequence components of the measured voltage at A01. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component

112

A Appendix A-Measurement analysis

Figure A.2: Sequence components of the measured current at A01. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component

Figure A.3: Sequence components of the measured voltage at A09. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component

Chapter A

113

Figure A.4: Sequence components of the measured current at A09. Upper plot: Zero sequence component. Middle plot: Positive sequence component. Lower plot: Negative sequence component

114

A Appendix A-Measurement analysis

Appendix

B Appendix B-Validation

Figure B.1: Measured and simulated voltage at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

116

B Appendix B-Validation

Figure B.2: Measured and simulated voltage at A01 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure B.3: Measured and simulated voltage at the A01 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure B.4: Measured and simulated voltage at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Chapter B

117

Figure B.5: Measured and simulated voltage at A09 from 60 ms to 120 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure B.6: Measured and simulated voltage at the A09 from 270 ms to 330 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure B.7: Measured and simulated current at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

118

B Appendix B-Validation

Figure B.8: Measured and simulated current at A09 from 0 ms to 500 ms. Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure B.9: Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at A01. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component.

Chapter B

119

Figure B.10: Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at A01. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component.

Figure B.11: Sequence components of the measured and simulated current at A09. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component.

120

B Appendix B-Validation

Figure B.12: Sequence components of the measured and simulated voltage at A09. Upper plot: Zero-sequence component. Middle plot: Positivesequence component. Lower plot: Negative-sequence component.

Figure B.13: Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements.

Chapter B

121

Figure B.14: Instantaneous voltage at A01 from 260 ms to 380 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements.

Figure B.15: Instantaneous current at A01 from 0 ms to 500 ms. The results obtained from the distributed cable and -section model are compared with the measurements.

122

B Appendix B-Validation

Appendix

Appendix C-Dierent steps of the capacitor banks connecting at A01

Figure C.1: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A01 from 0 ms to 500 msScenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

124

C Appendix C-Dierent steps of the capacitor banks connecting at A01

Figure C.2: Instantaneous current comparison at A01 from 0 ms to 500 msScenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Figure C.3: Instantaneous voltage comparison at A09 from 0 ms to 500 msScenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

Chapter C

125

Figure C.4: Instantaneous current comparison at A09 from 0 ms to 500 msScenarion B4 . Upper plot: Phase A. Middle plot: Phase B. Lower plot: Phase C.

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