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Instrumentat|on ls deflned as Lhe arL and sclence of measuremenL and conLrol lnsLrumenLaLlon can

be used Lo refer Lo Lhe fleld ln whlch lnsLrumenL Lechnlclans and englneers work or lL can refer Lo Lhe
avallable meLhods of measuremenL and conLrol and Lhe lnsLrumenLs whlch facllllLaLe Lhls.
A process |s a co||ect|on of |nterre|ated work tasks |n|t|ated |n response to an event that ach|eves a
spec|f|c resu|t for the customer of the process
What are the process parameters ? (@emperaLure ressure llow LlghL / llame ulfferenLlal
pressure Speed volume WelghL ConcenLraLlon of lmpurlLles eLc pP / ConducLlvlLy
ow to measure process parameters ?
8y uslng Lhe mosL common process lnsLrumenLs as follows
@emperaLure lnsLrumenLs 8@u @hermocouple @hermlsLers Analog ulal @hermomeLer
@emperaLure Cauge @emperaLure @ransmlLLer @emperaLure Scanner
ressure lnsLrumenLs ressure Cauge ressure / ulff ress/ llow @ransmlLLers ressure Senslng
robe 8y orlflce plaLe nozzle venLury'meLer eLc
ConLrolllng lnsLrumenLs oslLloner oslLlon leedback @ransmlLLers l/ ConverLers AcLuaLor Alr Lock
8elay Alr lllLer 8egulaLor ConLrol valves uampers lsolaLors eLc
All Lhe above are fleld lnsLrumenLs lnsLalled ln lndusLrles whlch send slgnals called measured value Lo
Lhe conLrol room whlch are called Lransducers
What |s a 1ransducer ?
A Lransducer ls a devlce LhaL converLs one form of energy lnLo anoLher form @he converslon can be
Lo/from Lhermal mechanlcal elecLrlcal phoLovolLalc chemlcal or any oLher form of energy Whlle Lhe
Lerm ttoosJocet commonly lmplles use as a sensor/deLecLor any devlce whlch converLs energy can be
consldered a Lransducer
Why s|gna|s are sent to the Contro| koom ?
@he process parameLers are monlLored conLrolled from Lhe conLrol room lor monlLorlng Lhe slgnal
Lermed measured value ls dlsplayed lor ConLrolllng Lhe measured value ls fed Lo or from Lhe conLrol
panels Lhrough wlres
Contro| koom Instruments lndlcaLors 8ecorders ulsplay screens AnnunclaLlon wlndows ush
8uLLons 8reakers SwlLches eLc
ow thousands of Data managed or contro||ed |n the contro| room ?
All panels Lhrough whlch communlcaLlon wlLh fleld lnsLrumenLs ls done are lnLerconnecLed or lnLegraLed
Lhrough a cenLral neLwork called ulsLrlbuLed communlcaLlon neLwork @hls whole sysLem ls called
ulsrlbuLed ConLrol SysLem
A programmab|e |og|c contro||er (LC) or programmab|e contro||er ls a dlglLal compuLer used for
auLomaLlon of elecLromechanlcal processes such as conLrol of machlnery on facLory assembly llnes
amusemenL rldes or llghLlng flxLures LCs are used ln many lndusLrles and machlnes unllke general
purpose compuLers Lhe LC ls deslgned for mulLlple lnpuLs and ouLpuL arrangemenLs exLended
LemperaLure ranges lmmunlLy Lo elecLrlcal nolse and reslsLance Lo vlbraLlon and lmpacL rograms Lo
conLrol machlne operaLlon are Lyplcally sLored ln baLLerybacked or nonvolaLlle memory A LC ls an
example of a real Llme sysLem slnce ouLpuL resulLs musL be produced ln response Lo lnpuL condlLlons
wlLhln a bounded Llme oLherwlse unlnLended operaLlon wlll resulL
LCs can communlcaLe over a neLwork Lo some oLher sysLem such as a compuLer runnlng a
SCAuA (Supervlsory ConLrol And uaLa AcqulslLlon) sysLem or web browser
A SCADA neLwork Lyplcally conslsLs for a CenLral MonlLorlng SysLem (CMS) conLalned aL a
cenLral planL for example and one or more 8emoLe SLaLlons @he CMS houses Lhe ConLrol
Server and Lhe communlcaLlons access vla a peerLopeer neLwork @he CMS collecLs and logs
lnformaLlon gaLhered aL Lhe 8emoLe SLaLlons and generaLes necessary acLlons based on Lhe
gaLhered daLa A 8emoLe SLaLlon conslsLs of elLher a 8emoLe @ermlnal unlL (8@u) or a
rogrammable Loglc ConLroller (LC) whlch conLrols acLuaLors and monlLors sensors 8emoLe
SLaLlons Lyplcally have Lhe capablllLy Lo be lnLerfaced by fleld operaLors vla lapLops or oLher
handheld devlces Lo perform dlagnosLlcs and repalr operaLlons @he communlcaLlons neLwork ls
Lhe medlum for LransmlLLlng lnformaLlon beLween 8emoLe SLaLlons and Lhe CMS @hese
faclllLles can be Lelco llnes cable or 8l
uCS are used Lo conLrol large complex processes such as power planLs reflnerles and chemlcal
planLs Lyplcally buL noL always aL a slngle slLe A uCS ls comprlsed of a supervlsory layer of
conLrol and one or more dlsLrlbuLed conLrollers conLalned wlLhln Lhe same processlng planL
@he supervlsory conLroller runs on a cenLral server and communlcaLes wlLh subordlnaLe
conLrollers vla some form of peerLopeer neLwork @he supervlsor sends seL polnLs Lo and
requesLs daLa from Lhe dlsLrlbuLed conLrollers @he dlsLrlbuLed conLrollers conLrol Lhelr process
acLuaLors (swlLches valves flow conLrollers eLc) based on requesLs from Lhe supervlsor @hese
conLrollers Lyplcally use a local fleld bus Lo communlcaLe wlLh Lhe acLuaLors and sensors
ellmlnaLlng Lhe need for polnLLopolnL wlrlng Lo each devlce Many Llmes Lhe dlsLrlbuLed
conLrollers ln a uCS have Lhe capablllLy Lo be accessed vla a modem allowlng remoLe
dlagnosLlcs and servlclng by vendors and planL englneers
What is a Distributed Control System?
A dlsLrlbuLed conLrol sysLem (uCS) refers Lo a conLrol sysLem usually of a process or any klnd of dynamlc
sysLem ln whlch Lhe conLroller elemenLs are noL cenLral ln locaLlon (llke Lhe braln) buL are dlsLrlbuLed
LhroughouL Lhe sysLem wlLh each componenL subsysLem conLrolled by one or more conLrollers @he
enLlre sysLem of conLrollers ls connecLed by neLworks for communlcaLlon and monlLorlng
|ements of a DCS
O A uCS Lyplcally uses cusLom deslgned processors as conLrollers and uses boLh proprleLary
lnLerconnecLlons and communlcaLlons proLocol for communlcaLlon
O @he funcLlonally and/or geographlcally dlsLrlbuLed dlglLal conLrollers are capable of execuLlng from
1 Lo 236 or more regulaLory conLrol loops ln one conLrol box @he lnpuL/ouLpuL devlces (l/C) can be
lnLegral wlLh Lhe conLroller or locaLed remoLely vla a fleld neLwork @oday's conLrollers have
exLenslve compuLaLlonal capablllLles and ln addlLlon Lo proporLlonal lnLegral and derlvaLlve (lu)
conLrol can generally perform loglc and sequenLlal conLrol llke Ladder Loglc
O lnpuL and ouLpuL modules form componenL parLs of Lhe uCS @he processor recelves lnformaLlon
from lnpuL modules and sends lnformaLlon Lo ouLpuL modules @he lnpuL modules recelve
lnformaLlon from lnpuL lnsLrumenLs ln Lhe process (aka fleld) and LransmlL lnsLrucLlons Lo Lhe
ouLpuL lnsLrumenLs ln Lhe fleld
O CompuLer buses or elecLrlcal buses connecL Lhe processor and modules Lhrough mulLlplexer or de
mulLlplexers 8uses also connecL Lhe dlsLrlbuLed conLrollers wlLh Lhe cenLral conLroller and flnally
Lo Lhe Puman Machlne lnLerface (PMl) or conLrol consoles
O uCSs may employ one or several worksLaLlons and lL's daLabase can be conflgured aL Lhe
englneerlng worksLaLlon
O Local communlcaLlon ls handled by a conLrol neLwork(uCn rlng) wlLh Lransmlsslon over LwlsLed
palr coaxlal or flber opLlc cable Distributed Communicution Network DCM ring incorporofe
commercioIIy ovoiIobIe communicofion devices in fheir nefwork sysfems whiIe moinfoining fhe
high reIiobiIify, reoI-fime confroI copobiIify, ond sfobIe communicofions fhof ore fhe hoIImorks
of convenfionoI confroI nefworks, wifh fronsmission over fwisfed poir, cooxioI, or fiber opfic
cobIe.
O server ond/or oppIicofions processor moy be incIuded in fhe sysfem for exfro compufofionoI,
dofo coIIecfion, sforoge ond reporfing copobiIify coIIed fhe Hisfory Subsfofion.
App||cat|ons of DCS ulsLrlbuLed ConLrol SysLems (uCSs) are dedlcaLed sysLems used Lo conLrol
processes LhaL are conLlnuous or baLchorlenLed such as oll reflnlng peLrochemlcals cenLral
sLaLlon power generaLlon pharmaceuLlcals food beverage manufacLurlng cemenL producLlon
sLeelmaklng and papermaklng uCSs are connecLed Lo sensors and acLuaLors and use seLpolnL
conLrol Lo conLrol Lhe flow of maLerlal Lhrough Lhe planL @he mosL common example ls a seLpolnL
conLrol loop conslsLlng of a pressure sensor conLroller and conLrol valve ressure or flow
measuremenLs are LransmlLLed Lo Lhe conLroller usually Lhrough Lhe ald of a slgnal condlLlonlng
lnpuL/CuLpuL (l/C) devlce When Lhe measured varlable reaches a cerLaln polnL Lhe conLroller
lnsLrucLs a valve or acLuaLlon devlce Lo open or close unLll Lhe fluldlc flow process reaches Lhe
deslred seLpolnL Large generaLlon unlLs have many Lhousands of l/C polnLs and employ very large
uCSs rocesses are noL llmlLed Lo fluldlc flow Lhrough plpes however and can also lnclude Lhlngs
varlable speed drlves and moLor conLrol cenLers fuel processlng faclllLles and many oLhers
DCS vs LC
A comblnaLlon of LCs along wlLh a Puman Machlne lnLerface could address Lhe process conLrol SysLem
needs @hough Lhere were few draw backs llke communlcaLlon proLocol lncompaLlblllLy wlLh oLher
sysLem Llmlng beLween operaLlons lnablllLy Lo handle complex lnLerlocks eLc @rue cosLs whlle up
fronL caplLal expendlLures for a LCbased soluLlon may be lower Lhe lnlLlal caplLal expense ls only a
small plece of Lhe ple Llfe cycle managemenL cosLs for a componenLbased sysLem LC/PMl vs an
lnLegraLed sysLem uCS Lhrough lLs malnLenance evoluLlon changes updaLes and addlLlons can be
subsLanLlally more
A uCS has a loL of safeLles redundancy and even dlagnosLlcs bullL lnLo lLs conLrol phllosophy Lo make lL
noL only rellable buL avallable as much as posslble Whlle LCs are very well made from hlghquallLy
parLs Lhey donL necessarlly Lake lnLo accounL all of Lhe posslble scenarlos LhaL can cause sysLem
downLlme
When lL comes Lo robusLness noLhlng compares Lo a uCS DCS is PC bosed con communicofe wifh
ofher nefworks eosiIy. Hence, if ,we hove Iorge power pIonf wifh numerous confroI sysfem fhof need
fo be infegrofed if's done eosiIy wifh DCS.
DCS soIufion opprooches moffers from o gIoboI perspecfive ond fends fo Iend ifseIf weII fo
process confroI environmenfs. Ifs obiIify fo hondIe compIex inferIocks ond fiming befween
operofions is one of ifs greofesf ossefs. TypicoIIy, o DCS wiII hove one gIoboI dofobose for I/O
poinfs fhof everyone con see. These I/O poinfs, referred fo os fogs, con be mopped fo o device on
fhe pIonf fIoor or fo some infernoI DCS voriobIe fhof is fhen given o nome indicofive of ifs funcfion.
nywhere fhis process voriobIe is needed, fhe engineer or operofor simpIy osks for if by nome ond
doesnf hove fo be concerned wifh where if is coming from or whof fype of device if is. DCS
soIufion opprooches moffers from o gIoboI perspecfive ond fends fo Iend ifseIf weII fo process
confroI environmenfs. Ifs obiIify fo hondIe compIex inferIocks ond fiming befween operofions is one
of ifs greofesf ossefs.

The oim is nof jusf fo benefif from generoI-purpose fechnoIogies, buf fo creofe o common pIofform
fhof con connecf wifh o voriefy of equipmenf. Compufer buses or eIecfricoI buses connecf fhe
processor ond moduIes fhrough muIfipIexer or de-muIfipIexers. 8uses oIso connecf fhe disfribufed
confroIIers wifh fhe cenfroI confroIIer ond finoIIy fo fhe Humon Mochine Inferfoce (HMI) or confroI
consoIes.
DCSs moy empIoy one or severoI worksfofions ond if's dofobose con be configured of fhe engineering
worksfofion.
|ements of a contro| system rocess ueslred value ( SeL value) MeasuremenL (AcLual value)
leedback Lrror ueLecLor ConLroller llnal ConLrol LlemenL

roport|ona| Contro| roduces ouLpuL proporLlonal Lo error @he greaLer Lhe error Lhe greaLer Lhe
conLrol efforL and as long as Lhe error remalns Lhe conLroller wlll conLlnue Lo Lry Lo generaLe a
correcLlve efforL @he consLanL of proporLlonallLy ls Lhe Ga|n ( Change ln CuLpuL/Change ln lnpuL) of Lhe
conLroller whlch ls relaLed Lo Lhe proporLlonal band(devlaLlon whlch glves rlse Lo 100 change ln
conLroller_ouLpuL
@hus a narrow proporLlonal band means a small change ln devlaLlon produces a large change ln
conLroller ouLpuL or Lhe conLroller has a large Caln) of Lhe conLroller

Integra| Act|on for proporLlonal acLlon Lhere wlll always be an offseL(dlfference of conLroller ouLpuL
from setpo|nt or deslred value) no maLLer how hlgh Lhe galn of Lhe conLroller So a mechanlsm ls
needed whlch wlll cause Lhe conLroller ouLpuL Lo lncrease as long as Lhe offseL remalns Cnly when Lhe
offseL ls zero Lhe conLroller ouLpuL wlll be consLanL @he conLroller lnLegraLes Lhe error slgnal so long as
Lhe error exlsLs Lo obLaln zero offseL lnLegral acLlon ls also called 8eseL acLlon

Der|vat|ve Act|on @he derlvaLlve slgnal ls Lhe raLe of change of error slgnal lL ls obLalned by a clrculL
whlch dlfferenLlaLes Lhe error @he derlvaLlve acLlon adds Lhe dlfference beLween Lhe seLpolnL and
ouLpuL Lhus sLablllzlng Lhe sysLem lL has no effecL on Lhe offseL lL can only reduce overshooL and make
Lhe sysLem respond rapldly @hus addlng u Lo l conLroller we geL a conLroller whlch can glve rapld
response wlLhouL much overshooL ID contro||er ls also called @hree @erm ConLroller lor,d[usLmenL
of lu ConLrollers procedure for proporLlonal conLrollers ls followed unLll a resulL more osclllaLory Lhan
deslrable ls obLalned Lhen lnLegral conLrol ls done unLll polnL of lnsLablllLy ls approached LasLly
derlvaLlve acLlon reduces Lhe lnsLablllLy and galn can be lncreased furLher

Cpen|oop contro||er also called a nonfeedback contro||er ls a Lype of conLroller whlch compuLes lLs
lnpuL lnLo a sysLem uslng only Lhe currenL sLaLe and lLs model of Lhe sysLem

C|osed Loop Contro| System @he ouLpuL of Lhe sysLem ls fed back Lhrough a sensor measuremenL colleJ
feeJbock oolt Lo Lhe reference value t(t) @he conLroller Lhen Lakes Lhe error e (dlfference) beLween Lhe
reference and Lhe ouLpuL Lo change Lhe lnpuLs Lo Lhe sysLem under conLrol

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