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A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
Date
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APPROVAL
Title: DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC WATER PUMPING SYSTEM Author: Date Submitted: Akihiro Oi 26th September, 2005
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ABSTRACT
DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC WATER PUMPING SYSTEM Akihiro Oi
This thesis deals with the design and simulation of a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system. It provides theoretical studies of photovoltaics and modeling
techniques using equivalent electric circuits. The system employs the maximum power point tracker (MPPT). The investigation includes discussion of various MPPT algorithms and control methods. PSpice simulations verify the DC-DC converter design. MATLAB
simulations perform comparative tests of two popular MPPT algorithms using actual irradiance data. The thesis decides on the output sensing direct control method because it requires fewer sensors. This allows a lower cost system. Each subsystem is modeled in order to simulate the whole system in MATLAB. It employs SIMULINK to model a DC pump motor, and the model is transferred into MATLAB. Then, MATLAB simulations verify the system and functionality of MPPT. Simulations also make comparisons with the system without MPPT in terms of total energy produced and total volume of water pumped per day. The results validate that MPPT can significantly increase the efficiency and the performance of PV water pumping system compared to the system without MPPT.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to first acknowledge my advisor, Dr. Taufik, for his support and advice throughout my graduate program. His power electronics courses and his dedication to his students gave me the best experience during the program. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to my other thesis committees, Dr. Nafisi and Dr. Ahlgren, for review of this thesis in detail and their important feedback. I would like to thank my colleague and friend, John Carlin, who has a career experience in designing photovoltaic systems. A number of ideas generated from our
numerous discussions and his feedback are incorporated in this thesis. Also, thanks to my other good colleagues, James Silva, John Cadwell, Michael Chong, James Sorenson, Sajiv Nair, Alan Yeung, Yat Tam, all other denizens of EE Grad Lab and the lab technicians for their support and willingness to help me out during various stages of my project. Finally, to my parents, my sister, and my friends - many thanks for much support the whole way through, especially Jenny Ho for her constant encouragement and support during two years of my graduate work. Akihiro Oi September 2005
Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ......................................................................................................ix Chapter 1 Introduction ..........................................................................................1
1.1 Water Pumping Systems and Photovoltaic Power.......................................................... 1 1.2 Energy Storage Alternatives ........................................................................................... 3 1.3 The Proposed System...................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 PV Module............................................................................................................................ 5 1.3.2 Maximum Power Point Tracker............................................................................................ 5 1.3.3 MPPT Controller .................................................................................................................. 6 1.3.4 Water Pump .......................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Photovoltaic Module..................................................................................................... 17 2.5 Modeling a PV Module by MATLAB.......................................................................... 18 2.6 The I-V Curve and Maximum Power Point.................................................................. 25
3.4 Mechanism of Load Matching ...................................................................................... 37 3.5 Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms............................................................... 38 3.6 Control of MPPT........................................................................................................... 47
3.3.1 Topologies .......................................................................................................................... 31 3.3.2 Ck and SEPIC Converters ................................................................................................ 32 3.3.3 Basic Operation of Ck Converter...................................................................................... 34 3.5.1 Perturb & Observe Algorithm............................................................................................. 40 3.5.2 Incremental Conductance Algorithm.................................................................................. 44 3.6.1 PI Control............................................................................................................................ 47 3.6.2 Direct Control ..................................................................................................................... 48 3.6.3 Output Sensing Direct Control ........................................................................................... 50
4.3 Comparisons of P&O and incCond Algorithm............................................................. 62 4.4 MPPT Simulations with Resistive Load ....................................................................... 66
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Chapter 5 Conclusion..........................................................................................78
5.1 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 78 5.2 Difficulties and Future Research .................................................................................. 79 5.3 Concluding Remarks..................................................................................................... 80
Appendix B .......................................................................................................102
B.1 DSP Control ............................................................................................................... 102
B.1.1 TMS320F2812 DSP......................................................................................................... 102 B.1.2 SIMULNK and TI DSP.................................................................................................... 102 B.1.3 Example ........................................................................................................................... 103
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List of Tables
Table 1-1: PV powered, Diesel powered, vs. Windmill [13].................................................... 3 Table 2-1: Electrical characteristics data of PV module taken from the datasheet [1]........... 18 Table 3-1: Load matching with the resistive load (6 ) under the varying irradiance............ 53 Table 3-2: Load matching with the resistive load (12 ) under the varying irradiance.......... 53 Table 4-1: Design specification of the Ck Converter ........................................................... 55 Table 4-2: Ck converter design: comparisons of simulations and calculated results ........... 60 Table 4-3: Comparison of the P&O and incCond algorithms on a cloudy day ...................... 65 Table 4-4: Energy production and efficiency of PV module with and without MPPT .......... 75 Table 4-5: Total volume of water pumped for 12 hours......................................................... 77
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Block diagram of the proposed PV water pumping system................................... 5 Figure 2-1: Illustration of the p-n junction of PV cell [16]..................................................... 11 Figure 2-2: Illustrated side view of solar cell and the conducting current [16]...................... 11 Figure 2-3: PV cell with a load and its simple equivalent circuit [16] ................................... 12 Figure 2-4: Diagrams showing a short-circuit and an open-circuit condition [16]................. 13 Figure 2-5: I-V plot of ideal PV cell under two different levels of irradiance (25oC)............ 15 Figure 2-6: More accurate equivalent circuit of PV cell......................................................... 16 Figure 2-7: PV cells are connected in series to make up a PV module .................................. 17 Figure 2-8: Picture of BP SX 150S PV module [1] ................................................................ 18 Figure 2-9: Equivalent circuit used in the MATLAB simulations ......................................... 19 Figure 2-10: Effect of diode ideally factors by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC) ....... 21 Figure 2-11: Effect of series resistances by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC) ............ 22 Figure 2-12: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module at various temperatures........................ 24 Figure 2-13: Simulated I-V curve of BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC) .................. 25 Figure 2-14: I-V and P-V relationships of BP SX 150S PV module...................................... 26 Figure 3-1: PV module is directly connected to a (variable) resistive load............................ 27 Figure 3-2: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module and various resistive loads..................... 28 Figure 3-3: Electrical model of permanent magnet DC motor ............................................... 29 Figure 3-4: PV I-V curves with varying irradiance and a DC motor I-V curve ..................... 30 Figure 3-5: PV I-V curves with iso-power lines (dotted) and a DC motor I-V curve ............ 31 Figure 3-6: Circuit diagram of the basic Ck converter ......................................................... 34 Figure 3-7: Circuit diagram of the basic SEPIC converter ..................................................... 34 Figure 3-8: Basic Ck converter when the switch is ON........................................................ 35 Figure 3-9: Basic Ck converter when the switch is OFF ...................................................... 35 Figure 3-10: The impedance seen by PV is Rin that is adjustable by duty cycle (D).............. 38 Figure 3-11: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (25oC).......................... 39 Figure 3-12: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (50oC).......................... 40 Figure 3-13: Plot of power vs. voltage for BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC).......... 41 Figure 3-14: Flowchart of the P&O algorithm ....................................................................... 41 Figure 3-15: Erratic behavior of the P&O algorithm under rapidly increasing irradiance..... 43 Figure 3-16: Flowchart of the incCond algorithm .................................................................. 46 Figure 3-17: Block diagram of MPPT with the PI compensator ............................................ 48 Figure 3-18: Block diagram of MPPT with the direct control................................................ 48 Figure 3-19: Relationship of the input impedance of Ck converter and its duty cycle ........ 49 Figure 3-20: Output power of Ck converter vs. its duty cycle (1KW/m2, 25oC).................. 51 Figure 3-21: Flowchart of P&O algorithm for the output sensing direct control method ...... 52 Figure 4-1: Schematic of the Ck converter with PMDC motor load .................................... 59 Figure 4-2: PSpice plots of input/output current (above) and voltage (below) ...................... 60 Figure 4-3: Transient response when duty cycle is increased 0.35% at 250ms...................... 61 Figure 4-4: Searching the MPP (1KW/m2, 25oC)................................................................... 62 Figure 4-5: Irradiance data for a sunny and a cloudy day of April in Barcelona, Spain [2]... 63 Figure 4-6: Traces of MPP tracking on a sunny day (25oC)................................................... 64 Figure 4-7: Trace of MPP tracking on a cloudy day (25oC) ................................................... 65
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Figure 4-8: MPPT simulation flowchart ................................................................................. 68 Figure 4-9: MPPT simulations with the resistive load (100 to 1000W/m2, 25oC) ................. 69 Figure 4-10: Output protection & regulation (100 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)................................ 70 Figure 4-11: Kyocera SD 12-30 water pump performance chart [13].................................... 71 Figure 4-12: SIMULINK model of permanent magnet DC pump motor............................... 72 Figure 4-13: SIMULINK DC machine block parameters....................................................... 72 Figure 4-14: SIMULINK plot of Rload ( ).............................................................................. 73 Figure 4-15: MPPT simulations with the DC pump motor load (20 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)..... 74 Figure 4-16: SIMULINK plot of DC motor I-V curve ........................................................... 75 Figure 4-17: Flow rates of PV water pumps for a 12-hour period.......................................... 76 Figure A-1: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (P&O algorithm) .............. 100 Figure A-2: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (incCond algorithm) ......... 101 Figure B-1: A simple example of generating PWM from the voltage input ........................ 103 Figure B-2: Plots of the input voltage and the PWM output shown as duty cycle ............... 103
Chapter 1 Introduction
Water resources are essential for satisfying human needs, protecting health, and ensuring food production, energy and the restoration of ecosystems, as well as for social and economic development and for sustainable development [25]. However, according to UN World Water Development Report in 2003, it has been estimated that two billion people are affected by water shortages in over forty countries, and 1.1 billion do not have sufficient drinking water [26]. There is a great and urgent need to supply environmentally sound technology for the provision of drinking water. Remote water pumping systems are a key component in meeting this need. It will also be the first stage of the purification and desalination plants to produce potable water. In this thesis, a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system is presented. It provides theoretical studies of photovoltaics (PV) and its modeling techniques. It also investigates in detail the maximum power point tracker (MPPT), a power electronic device that significantly increases the system efficiency. At last, it presents MATLAB simulations of the system and makes comparisons with a system without MPPT.
powered system is economic and takes minimum maintenance when AC power is available from the nearby power grid. However, in many rural areas, water sources are spread over many miles of land and power lines are scarce. Installation of a new transmission line and a transformer to the location is often prohibitively expensive. Windmills have been installed
traditionally in such areas; many of them are, however, inoperative now due to lack of proper maintenance and age. Today, many stand-alone type water pumping systems use internal combustion engines. These systems are portable and easy to install. However, they have some major disadvantages, such as: they require frequent site visits for refueling and maintenance, and furthermore diesel fuel is often expensive and not readily available in rural areas of many developing countries. The consumption of fossil fuels also has an environmental impact, in particular the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 emissions can be greatly reduced through the application of renewable energy technologies, which are already cost competitive with fossil fuels in many situations. Good examples include large-scale grid-connected wind turbines, solar water heating, and off-grid stand-alone PV systems [24]. The use of
renewable energy for water pumping systems is, therefore, a very attractive proposition. Windmills are a long-established method of using renewable energy; however they are quickly phasing out from the scene despite success of large-scale grid-tied wind turbines. PV systems are highly reliable and are often chosen because they offer the lowest life-cycle cost, especially for applications requiring less than 10KW, where grid electricity is not available and where internal-combustion engines are expensive to operate [24]. If the water source is 1/3 mile (app. 0.53Km) or more from the power line, PV is a favorable economic choice [13]. Table 1-1 shows the comparisons of different stand-alone type water pumping systems.
Advantages Low maintenance Unattended operation Reliable long life No fuel and no fumes Easy to install Low recurrent costs System is modular and closely matched to need Moderate capital costs Easy to install Can be portable Extensive experience available No fuel and no fumes Potentially long-lasting Works well in windy sites
Windmill
Needs maintenance and replacement Site visits necessary Noise, fume, dirt problems Fuel often expensive and supply intermittent High maintenance Seasonal disadvantages Difficult find parts thus costly repair Installation is labor intensive and needs special tools
and automatic property controlling the output voltage of the array so that loads receive voltages within their own range of acceptability [16]. While batteries may seem like a good idea, they have a number of disadvantages. The type of lead-acid battery suitable for PV systems is a deep-cycle battery [15], which is different from one used for automobiles, and it is more expensive and not widely available. Battery lifetime in PV systems is typically three to eight years, but this reduces to typically two to six years in hot climate since high ambient temperature dramatically increases the rate of internal corrosion [24]. Batteries also require regular maintenance and will degrade very rapidly if the electrolyte is not topped up and the charge is not maintained. They reduce the efficiency of the overall system due to power loss during charge and discharge. Typical battery efficiency is around 85% but could go below 75% in hot climate [24]. From all those reasons, experienced PV system designers avoid batteries whenever possible. For water pumping systems, appropriately sized water reservoirs can meet the requirement of energy storage during the downtime of PV generation. The additional cost of reservoir is considerably lower than that incurred by the battery equipped system. As a matter of fact, only about five percent of solar pumping systems employ a battery bank [13].
PV Module [1]
1.3.1 PV Module
There are different sizes of PV module commercially available (typically sized from 60W to 170W). Usually, a number of PV modules are combined as an array to meet different energy demands. For example, a typical small-scale desalination plant requires a few thousand watts of power [24]. The size of system selected for the proposed system is 150W, which is commonly used in small water pumping systems for cattle grazing in rural areas of the United States. The power electronics lab located in the building 20, room 104, has three BP SX 150S multi-crystalline PV modules. Each module provides a maximum power of 150W [13], therefore the proposed system requires only one of them. A detailed discussion about PV and modeling of PV appears in Chapter 2.
maximizes the power output from a PV module or array with varying operating conditions, and therefore maximizes the system efficiency. MPPT is made up with a switch-mode DCDC converter and a controller. For grid-tied systems, a switch-mode inverter sometimes fills the role of MPPT. Otherwise, it is combined with a DC-DC converter that performs the MPPT function. In addition to MPPT, the system could also employ a sun tracker. According to the data in reference [15], the single-axis sun tracker can collect about 40% more energy than a seasonally optimized fixed-axis collector in summer in a dry climate such as Albuquerque, New Mexico. In winter, however, it can gain only 20% more energy. In a climate with more water vapor in the atmosphere such as Seattle, Washington, the effect of sun tracker is smaller because a larger fraction of solar irradiation is diffuse. It collects 30% more energy in summer, but the gain is less than 10% in winter. The two-axis tracker is only a few percent better than the single-axis version. Sun tracking enables the system to meet energy demand with smaller PV modules, but it increases the cost and complexity of system. Since it is made of moving parts, there is also a higher chance of failure. Therefore, in this simple system, the sun tracker is not implemented. A detailed discussion on MPPT appears in Chapter 3.
advanced algorithm with relative ease. It is far easier to code the equation, x = y z, than to design an analog circuit to do the same [23]. For the same reason, modification of the design
is much easier with digital controllers. They are immune to time and temperature drifts because they work in discrete, outside the linear operation. As a result, they offer long-term stability. They are also insensitive to component tolerances since they implement algorithm in software, where gains and parameters are consistent and reproducible [23]. They allow reduction of parts count since they can handle various tasks in a single chip. Many of them are also equipped with multiple A/D converters and PWM generators, thus they can control multiple devices with a single controller. This thesis, therefore, chooses a method of digital control for MPPT. The design and simulations of MPPT in Chapter 4 are done on the premise that it is going to be built with a microcontroller or a DSP, and the algorithm is readily transferable to its implementation. Chapter 3 provides discussions of various control methods. Appendix B provides
motor-pump systems [19]. In general, DC motors are preferred because they are highly efficient and can be directly coupled with a PV module or array. Brushed types are less expensive and more common although brushes need to be replaced periodically (typically every two years) [19]. There is also an aforementioned brushless type. The water pump chosen here for its size and cost is the Kyocera SD 12-30 submersible solar pump, pictured in Figure 1-1. It is a diaphragm-type positive displacement pump equipped with a brushed permanent magnet DC motor and designed for use in standalone water delivery systems, specifically for water delivery in remote locations. Flow rates up to 17.0L/min (4.5GPM) and heads up to 30.0m (100ft.) [13]. The typical daily output is between 2,700L and 5,000L [13]. The rated maximum power consumption is 150W. It operates with a low voltage (12~30V DC), and its power requirement is as little as 35W [13]. A simple model of this water pump is used for simulations in Chapter 4.
MPPT was made by Dang [4] of California Polytechnic State University, Pomona. The thesis built a small PV module simulator and a buck converter without a controller. Then, it provided a rudimentary computer simulation of MPPT with a resistive load. The study was, however, far from comprehensive. Another was done here by Day [5], and it centered round a power system for a miniature satellite. It included MPPT in the system, but the
functionality of MPPT was not tested. The theoretical study was insufficient, and it lacked simulations and experiments to ensure the functionality of MPPT. MPPT is one of many applications of power electronics, and it is a relatively new and unknown area. There is no textbook that provides comprehensive and detailed explanations about MPPT. Therefore, this thesis investigates it in detail and provides better explanations for students who are interested in this research area. In order to understand and design MPPT, it is necessary to have a good understanding of the behaviors of PV. The thesis facilitates it using MATLAB models of PV cell and module. Each subsystem in the PV water pumping system is modeled for MATLAB simulations. Finally, the functionality of MPPT for water pumping systems is verified and validated. This thesis is limited to providing theoretical studies and simulations of PV water pumping system with MPPT. The system will not be built in this thesis; that is left as future work. Thus, it will not cover a discussion about actual implementation of DSP or
microcontrollers, nor other hardware implementation, beyond a discussion on component selection for the DC-DC converter. A major assumption made in simulations is the use of an ideal DC-DC converter, as opposed to a more realistic model that includes losses. The model, however, should provide sufficient results for verification of MPPT functionality.
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they will emerge as an electric current. The electric field within the semiconductor itself at the junction between two regions of crystals of different type, called a p-n junction [16].
Figure 2-1: Illustration of the p-n junction of PV cell [16] Showing hole-electron pairs created by photons
The PV cell has electrical contacts on its top and bottom to capture the electrons, as shown in Figure 2-2. When the PV cell delivers power to the load, the electrons flow out of the n-side into the connecting wire, through the load, and back to the p-side where they recombine with holes [16]. Note that conventional current flows in the opposite direction from electrons.
Figure 2-2: Illustrated side view of solar cell and the conducting current [16]
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Figure 2-3: PV cell with a load and its simple equivalent circuit [16]
There are two key parameters frequently used to characterize a PV cell. Shorting together the terminals of the cell, as shown in Figure 2-4 (a), the photon generated current will follow out of the cell as a short-circuit current (Isc). Thus, Iph = Isc. As shown in Figure 2-4 (b), when there is no connection to the PV cell (open-circuit), the photon generated current is shunted internally by the intrinsic p-n junction diode. This gives the open circuit voltage (Voc). The PV module or cell manufacturers usually provide the values of these parameters in their datasheets.
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The output current (I) from the PV cell is found by applying the Kirchoffs current law (KCL) on the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2-3.
I = I sc I d
(2.1)
where: Isc is the short-circuit current that is equal to the photon generated current, and Id is the current shunted through the intrinsic diode. The diode current Id is given by the Shockleys diode equation:
I d = I o (e qVd / kT 1)
where: Io is the reverse saturation current of diode (A), q is the electron charge (1.60210-19 C), Vd is the voltage across the diode (V), k is the Boltzmanns constant (1.38110-23 J/K), T is the junction temperature in Kelvin (K).
(2.2)
Replacing Id of the equation (2.1) by the equation (2.2) gives the current-voltage relationship of the PV cell.
I = I sc I o (e qV / kT 1)
where: V is the voltage across the PV cell, and I is the output current from the cell.
(2.3)
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The reverse saturation current of diode (Io) is constant under the constant temperature and found by setting the open-circuit condition as shown in Figure 2-4 (b). Using the equation (2.3), let I = 0 (no output current) and solve for Io.
0 = I sc I o (e qVoc / kT 1)
I sc = I o (e qVoc / kT 1)
Io =
sc qVoc / kT
(e
1)
To a very good approximation, the photon generated current, which is equal to Isc, is directly proportional to the irradiance, the intensity of illumination, to PV cell [15]. Thus, if the value, Isc, is known from the datasheet, under the standard test condition, Go=1000W/m2 at the air mass (AM) = 1.5, then the photon generated current at any other irradiance, G (W/m2), is given by:
I sc |G =
G I sc |Go Go
(2.7)
Figure 2-5 shows that current and voltage relationship (often called as an I-V curve) of an ideal PV cell simulated by MATLAB using the simplest equivalent circuit model. The discussion of MATLAB simulations will appear in Section 2.5. The PV cell output is both limited by the cell current and the cell voltage, and it can only produce a power with any combinations of current and voltage on the I-V curve. It also shows that the cell current is proportional to the irradiance.
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5 4.5 4 3.5 Cell Current (A) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Cell Voltage (V) 0.5 0.6 0.7 Half Sun (500W/m2) Full Sun (1000W/m2)
Figure 2-5: I-V plot of ideal PV cell under two different levels of irradiance (25oC)
conspicuous in a PV module that consists of many series-connected cells, and the value of resistance is multiplied by the number of cells. b) Parallel Resistance This is also called shunt resistance. It is a loss associated with a small leakage of current through a resistive path in parallel with the intrinsic device [2]. This can be
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represented by a parallel resister (Rp). Its effect is much less conspicuous in a PV module compared to the series resistance, and it will only become noticeable when a number of PV modules are connected in parallel for a larger system. c) Recombination Recombination in the depletion region of PV cells provides non-ohmic current paths in parallel with the intrinsic PV cell [2] [7]. As shown in Figure 2-6, this can be represented by the second diode (D2) in the equivalent circuit.
Rs +
Isc
D1
n=1
D2
n=2
Rp
Load
I = I sc I o1 e
V + I Rs kT
1 I o2 e
V + I Rs 2 kT
V + I Rs Rp
(2.8)
It is possible to combine the first diode (D1) and the second diode (D2) and rewrite the equation (2.8) in the following form.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs nkT
V + I Rs Rp
(2.9)
where: n is known as the ideality factor (n is sometimes denoted as A) and takes the value between one and two [7].
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Also, multiple modules can be wired together in series or parallel to deliver the voltage and current level needed. The group of modules is called an array.
Electrical Characteristics Maximum Power (Pmax) Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) Current at Pmax (Imp) Open-circuit voltage (Voc) Short-circuit current (Isc) Temperature coefficient of Isc Temperature coefficient of Voc Temperature coefficient of power NOCT
150W 34.5V 4.35A 43.5V 4.75A 0.065 0.015 %/ oC -160 20 mV/ oC -0.5 0.05 %/ oC 47 2oC
Table 2-1: Electrical characteristics data of PV module taken from the datasheet [1]
The strategy of modeling a PV module is no different from modeling a PV cell. It uses the same PV cell model. The parameters are the all same, but only a voltage parameter (such as the open-circuit voltage) is different and must be divided by the number of cells.
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The study done by Walker [27] of University of Queensland, Australia, uses the electric model with moderate complexity, shown in Figure 2-9, and provides fairly accurate results. The model consists of a current source (Isc), a diode (D), and a series resistance (Rs). The effect of parallel resistance (Rp) is very small in a single module, thus the model does not include it. To make a better model, it also includes temperature effects on the short-circuit current (Isc) and the reverse saturation current of diode (Io). It uses a single diode with the diode ideality factor (n) set to achieve the best I-V curve match.
Rs +
Isc
Load
Since it does not include the effect of parallel resistance (Rp), letting Rp =
in the
equation (2.9) gives the equation [27] that describes the current-voltage relationship of the PV cell, and it is shown below.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs nkT
(2.10)
where: I is the cell current (the same as the module current), V is the cell voltage = {module voltage} {# of cells in series}, T is the cell temperature in Kelvin (K).
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First, calculate the short-circuit current (Isc) at a given cell temperature (T):
(2.11)
where: Isc at Tref is given in the datasheet (measured under irradiance of 1000W/m2), Tref is the reference temperature of PV cell in Kelvin (K), usually 298K (25oC), a is the temperature coefficient of Isc in percent change per degree temperature also given in the datasheet. The short-circuit current (Isc) is proportional to the intensity of irradiance, thus Isc at a given irradiance (G) is:
I sc |G =
G I sc |Go Go
(2.12)
where: Go is the nominal value of irradiance, which is normally 1KW/m2. The reverse saturation current of diode (Io) at the reference temperature (Tref) is given by the equation (2.6) with the diode ideality factor added:
Io =
sc qVoc / nkT
(e
1)
(2.13)
The reverse saturation current (Io) is temperature dependant and the Io at a given temperature (T) is calculated by the following equation [27].
T Tref
3 n q E g 1 1 nk T Tref
I o |T = I o |Tref
(2.14)
The diode ideality factor (n) is unknown and must be estimated. It takes a value between one and two; the value of n=1 (for the ideal diode) is, however, used until the more accurate value is estimated later by curve fitting [27]. Figure 2-10 shows the effect of the varying ideality factor.
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5 4.5 4 3.5 Module Current (A) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Module Voltage (V) 35 40 45 n=2 n=1
Figure 2-10: Effect of diode ideally factors by MATLAB simulation (1KW/m2, 25oC)
The series resistance (Rs) of the PV module has a large impact on the slope of the I-V curve near the open-circuit voltage (Voc), as shown in Figure 2-11, hence the value of Rs is calculated by evaluating the slope
derived by differentiating the equation (2.10) and then rearranging it in terms of Rs.
I = I sc I o e
V + I Rs nkT
1
V + I Rs nkT
(2.15)
q dV + Rs dI dI = 0 I o q e nkT
(2.16)
Rs =
dI dV
nkT q Io e
q V + I Rs nkT
(2.17)
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Then, evaluate the equation (2.17) at the open circuit voltage that is V=Voc (also let I=0).
Rs = dV dI
Voc
nkT q Io e
qVoc nkT
(2.18)
where:
dV dI
is the slope of the I-V curve at the Voc (use the I-V curve in the datasheet then
Voc
Voc is the open-circuit voltage of cell (found by dividing Voc in the datasheet by the
number of cells in series). The calculation using the slope measurement of the I-V curve published on the BP SX 150 datasheet gives a value of the series resistance per cell, Rs = 5.1m .
5 4.5 4 3.5 Module Current (A) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Module Voltage (V) 35 40 45 Rs=0
Finally, it is possible to solve the equation of I-V characteristics (2.10). It is, however, complex because the solution of current is recursive by inclusion of a series resistance in the
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model. Although it may be possible to find the answer by simple iterations, the Newtons method is chosen for rapid convergence of the answer [27]. The Newtons method is described as:
x n +1 = x n
f (xn ) f ( x n )
(2.19)
where: f (x ) is the derivative of the function, f ( x ) = 0 , x n is a present value, and x n +1 is a next value. Rewriting the equation (2.10) gives the following function:
f ( I ) = I sc I I o e
V + I Rs nkT
1 = 0
(2.20)
Plugging this into the equation (2.19) gives a following recursive equation, and the output current (I) is computed iteratively.
I sc I n I o e I n +1 = I n 1 Io
V + I n Rs nkT
1 (2.21)
q Rs e nkT
V + I n Rs nkT
The MATLAB function written in this thesis performs the calculation five times iteratively to ensure convergence of the results. The testing result has shown that the value of In usually converges within three iterations and never more than four interactions. Please refer to Appendix A.1.1 for this MATLAB function. Figure 2-12 shows the plots of I-V characteristics at various module temperatures simulated with the MATLAB model for BP SX 150S PV module. Data points superimposed on the plots are taken from the I-V curves published on the manufacturers datasheet [1]. After some trials with various diode ideality factors, the MATLAB model chooses the value
23
of n = 1.62 that attains the best match with the I-V curve on the datasheet. The figure shows good correspondence between the data points and the simulated I-V curves.
750C
250C 0 50 C
O 0C
Figure 2-12: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module at various temperatures Simulated with the MATLAB model (1KW/m2, 25oC)
24
Isc = 4.75A
P3 = 94.9W
P1 = 150.0W
Voc = 43.5V
The power vs. voltage plot is overlaid on the I-V plot of the PV module, as shown in Figure 2-14. It reveals that the amount of power produced by the PV module varies greatly
25
depending on its operating condition. It is important to operate the system at the MPP of PV module in order to exploit the maximum power from the module. The next chapter will discuss how to do it.
8 7 6 Isc Module Current (A) 5 4 3 2 1 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 45 160 Pmax 140 120 Module Output Power (W)
Impp
MPP
Voc 40
Figure 2-14: I-V and P-V relationships of BP SX 150S PV module Simulated with the MATLAB model (1KW/m2, 25oC)
26
+ PV
V
27
5 4.5 4 3.5 Module Current (A) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 Slope=1/R R=16 Ohms R=4 Ohms
*
R=7.93 Ohms
MPP
Increasing R
15
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-2: I-V curves of BP SX 150S PV module and various resistive loads Simulated with the MATLAB model (1KW/m2, 25oC)
28
Ra + PV
I V
-
E=Kw
Figure 3-4 shows an example of current-voltage relationship (I-V curve) of a DC motor. Applying the voltage to start the motor, the current rises rapidly with increasing voltage until the current is sufficient to create enough starting torque to break the motor loose from static friction [16]. At start-up ( =0), there is no effect of back emf, therefore the starting current builds up linearly with a steep slope of 1/Ra on the I-V plot as shown in Figure 3-4. Once it starts to run, the back emf takes effect and drops the current, therefore the current rises slowly with increasing voltage. As mentioned already a simple type of PV water pumping systems uses a direct coupled PV-motor setup. This configuration has a severe disadvantage in efficiency because of a mismatched operating point, as shown in Figure 3-4. For this example, the water pumping system would not start operating until irradiance reaches at 400W/m2. Once it starts to run, it requires as little as 200W/m2 of irradiance to maintain the minimum operation. This means that the system cannot utilize a fair amount of morning insolation just because there is insufficient starting torque. Also, when the motor is operated under the locked condition for
29
a long time, it may result in shortening of the life of the motor due to input electrical energy converted to heat rather than to mechanical output [15].
1000W/m2
Slope = 1/Ra
800W/m2
Current
600W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2
Voltage
Figure 3-4: PV I-V curves with varying irradiance and a DC motor I-V curve
There is a MPPT specifically called a linear current booster (LCB) that is designed to overcome the above mentioned problem in water pumping systems. The MPPT maintains the input voltage and current of LCB at the MPP of PV module. As shown in Figure 3-5, the power produced at the MPP is relatively low-current and high-voltage which is opposite of those required by the pump motor. The LCB shifts this relationship around and converts into high-current and low-voltage power which satisfies the pump motor characteristics. For the example in Figure 3-5, tracing of the iso-power (constant power) line from the MPP reveals that the LCB could start the pump motor with as little as 50W/m2 of irradiance (assuming the LCB can convert the power without loss).
30
600W/m2 Current
400W/m2
Figure 3-5: PV I-V curves with iso-power lines (dotted) and a DC motor I-V curve
3.3.1 Topologies
There are a number of different topologies for DC-DC converters. categorized into isolated or non-isolated topologies. The isolated topologies use a small-sized high-frequency electrical isolation transformer which provides the benefits of DC isolation between input and output, and step They are
31
up or down of output voltage by changing the transformer turns ratio. They are very often used in switch-mode DC power supplies [18]. Popular topologies for a majority of the applications are flyback, half-bridge, and full-bridge [22]. In PV applications, the grid-tied systems often use these types of topologies when electrical isolation is preferred for safety reasons. Non-isolated topologies do not have isolation transformers. They are almost always used in DC motor drives [17]. These topologies are further categorized into three types: step down (buck), step up (boost), and step up & down (buck-boost). The buck topology is used for voltage step-down. In PV applications, the buck type converter is usually used for charging batteries and in LCB for water pumping systems. The boost topology is used for stepping up the voltage. The grid-tied systems use a boost type converter to step up the output voltage to the utility level before the inverter stage. Then, there are topologies able to step up and down the voltage such as: buck-boost, Ck, and SEPIC (stands for Single Ended Primary Inductor Converter). For PV system with batteries, the MPP of commercial PV module is set above the charging voltage of batteries for most combinations of irradiance and temperature. A buck converter can operate at the MPP under most conditions, but it cannot do so when the MPP goes below the battery charging voltage under a low-irradiance and high-temperature condition. Thus, the additional boost capability can slightly increase the overall efficiency [27].
32
of all configurations [22]. Another disadvantage is that the input current is discontinuous because of the switch located at the input, thus good input filter design is essential. Other topologies capable of voltage step-down are Ck and SEPIC. Even though their voltage step-up function is optional for LCB application, they have several advantages over the buck converter. They provide capacitive isolation which protects against switch failure (unlike the buck topology) [21]. The input current of the Ck and SEPIC topologies is continuous, and they can draw a ripple free current from a PV array that is important for efficient MPPT. Figure 3-6 shows a circuit diagram of the basic Ck converter. It is named after its inventor. It can provide the output voltage that is higher or lower than the input voltage. The SEPIC, a derivative of the Ck converter, is also able to step up and down the voltage. Figure 3-7 shows a circuit diagram of the basic SEPIC converter. The characteristics of two topologies are very similar. They both use a capacitor as the main energy storage. As a result, the input current is continuous. The circuits have low switching losses and high efficiency [18]. The main difference is that the Ck converter has a polarity of the output voltage reverse to the input voltage. The input and output of SEPIC converter have the same voltage polarity; therefore the SEPIC topology is sometimes preferred to the Ck topology. SEPIC maybe also preferred for battery charging systems because the diode placed on the output stage works as a blocking diode preventing an adverse current going to PV source from the battery. The same diode, however, gives the disadvantage of high-ripple output current. On the other hand, the Ck converter can provide a better output current
characteristic due to the inductor on the output stage. Therefore, the thesis decides on the Ck converter because of the good input and output current characteristics.
33
(3.2)
Assume the capacitor (C1) is large enough and its voltage is ripple free even though it stores and transfer large amount of energy from input to output [17] (this requires a good low ESR capacitor [21]). The initial condition is when the input voltage is turned on and switch (SW) is off. The diode (D) is forward biased, and the capacitor (C1) is being charged. The operation of circuit can be divided into two modes.
34
Mode 1: When SW turns ON, the circuit becomes one shown in Figure 3-8.
The voltage of the capacitor (C1) makes the diode (D) reverse-biased and turned off. The capacitor (C1) discharge its energy to the load through the loop formed with SW, C2, Rload, and L2. The inductors are large enough, so assume that their currents are ripple free. Thus, the following relationship is established [21].
I C1 = I L 2
(3.3)
Mode 2: When SW turns OFF, the circuit becomes one shown in Figure 3-9.
The capacitor (C1) is getting charged by the input (Vs) through the inductor (L1). The energy stored in the inductor (L2) is transfer to the load through the loop formed by D, C2, and Rload. Thus, the following relationship is established [21].
I C 1 = I L1
(3.4)
35
For periodic operation, the average capacitor current is zero. Thus, from the equation (3.3) and (3.4) [21]:
[I
C 1 SW ON
] DT + [I
C 1 SW OFF
] (1 D )T = 0
(3.5)
(3.6) (3.7)
I L 2 DT + I L1 (1 D )T = 0
I L1 D = I L2 1 D
where: D is the duty cycle (0 < D < 1), and T is the switching period.
Assuming that this is an ideal converter, the average power supplied by the source must be the same as the average power absorbed by the load [21]. Pin = Pout V s I L1 = V o I L 2 (3.8) (3.9) (3.10)
I L1 Vo = I L 2 Vs
Combining the equation (3.7) and (3.10), the following voltage transfer function is derived [21].
Vo D = Vs 1 D
Its relationship to the duty cycle (D) is: If 0 < D < 0.5 the output is smaller than the input. If D = 0.5 the output is the same as the input. If 0.5 < D < 1 the output is larger than the input.
(3.11)
36
(3.12)
where: Vo is the output voltage, and Io is the output current. The optimal load for PV is described as:
Ropt = V MPP I MPP
(3.13)
where: VMPP and IMPP are the voltage and current at the MPP respectively. When the value of
Rload matches with that of Ropt, the maximum power transfer from PV to the load will occur.
These two are, however, independent and rarely matches in practice. The goal of the MPPT is to match the impedance of load to the optimal impedance of PV. The following is an example of load matching using an ideal (loss-less) Ck converter. From the equation (3.11):
Vs =
1 D Vo D
(3.14)
Is V I = L1 = o I o I L 2 Vs
From the equation (3.14) and (3.15),
(3.15)
Is =
D Io 1 D
(3.16)
37
From the equation (3.14) and (3.16), the input impedance of the converter is:
V s (1 D ) 2 Vo (1 D ) 2 Rin = = = Rload Is Io D2 D2
(3.17)
As shown in Figure 3-10, the impedance seem by PV is the input impedance of the converter (Rin). By changing the duty cycle (D), the value of Rin can be matched with that of
Ropt. Therefore, the impedance of the load can be anything as long as the duty cycle is
adjusted accordingly.
+ PV Figure 3-10: The impedance seen by PV is Rin that is adjustable by duty cycle (D)
Rin
DC-DC Conv
Rload
38
of measured Voc which corresponds to the voltage at the MPP [6] (note: the percentage depends on the type of cell used). The implementation of this open-loop control method is very simple and low-cost although the MPPT efficiencies are relatively low (between 73~91%) [9]. Model calculations can also predict the location of MPP; however in practice it does not work well because it does not take physical variations and aging of module and other effects such as shading into account. Furthermore, a pyranometer that measures
irradiance is quite expensive. Search algorithm using a closed-loop control can achieve higher efficiencies, thus it is the customary choice for MPPT. Among different algorithms, the Perturb & Observe (P&O) and Incremental Conductance (incCond) methods are studied here.
1000W/m2
750W/m2
500W/m2
250W/m2
Figure 3-11: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (25oC)
39
1000W/m2
750W/m2
500W/m2
250W/m2
Figure 3-12: I-V curves for varying irradiance and a trace of MPPs (50oC)
40
operating point has moved away from the MPP, and the direction of perturbation should be reversed to move back toward the MPP. Figure 3-14 shows the flowchart of this algorithm.
160 140 120 Module Output Power (W) 100 80 60 40 20 0 A MPP
10
15
35
40
45
50
Figure 3-13: Plot of power vs. voltage for BP SX 150S PV module (1KW/m2, 25oC)
41
There are some limitations that reduce its MPPT efficiency. First, it cannot determine when it has actually reached the MPP. Instead, it oscillates the operating point around the MPP after each cycle and slightly reduces PV efficiency under the constant irradiance condition [9]. Second, it has been shown that it can exhibit erratic behavior in cases of rapidly changing atmospheric conditions as a result of moving clouds [11]. The cause of this problem can be explained using Figure 3-15 with a set of P-V curves with varying irradiance. Assume that the operating point is initially at the point A and is oscillating around the MPP at the irradiance of 250W/m2. Then, the irradiance increases rapidly to 500W/m2. The power measurement results in a positive P. If this operating point is perturbing from right to left around the MPP, then the operating point will actually moves from the point A toward the point E (instead of B). This happens because the MPPT can not tell that the positive P is the result of increasing irradiation and simply assumes that it is the result of moving the operating point to closer to the MPP. In this case the positive P is measured when the operating voltage has been moving toward the left; the MPPT is fooled as if there is a MPP on the left side. If the irradiance is still rapidly increasing, again the MPPT will see the positive P and will assume it is moving towards the MPP, continuing to perturb to the left. From points A, E, F and G, the operating point continues to deviate from the actual MPP until the solar radiation change slows or settles down. This situation can occur on partly cloudy days, and MPP tracking is most difficult because of the frequent movement of the MPP.
42
Figure 3-15: Erratic behavior of the P&O algorithm under rapidly increasing irradiance
The advent of digital controller made implementation of algorithm easy; as a result many variations of the P&O algorithm were proposed to claim improvements. The problem of oscillations around the MPP can be solved by the simplest way of making a bypass loop which skips the perturbation when the P is very small which occurs near the MPP. The tradeoffs are a steady state error and a high risk of not detecting a small power change. Another way is the addition of a waiting function that causes a momentary cessation of perturbations if the direction of the perturbation is reversed several times in a row, indicating that the MPP has been reached [9]. It works well under the constant irradiation but makes the MPPT slower to respond to changing atmospheric conditions. A more complex one uses a variable step size of perturbation, using the slope of PV power as a variable, for example:
P [4] [12]. Again, this works well under the constant irradiation but V
worsens the erratic behavior under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions on partly cloudy
43
1000W/m2 D
750W/m2 G F
*
E
500W/m2
*
A
250W/m2
days because the power change due to irradiance makes the step size too big. A modification involving taking a PV power measurement twice at the same voltage solves the problem of not detecting the changing irradiance [9]. Comparing these two measurements, the algorithm can determine whether the irradiance is changing and decide how to perturb the operating point. The tradeoff is that the increased number of sampling slows response times and increases the complexity of algorithm.
(3.18)
(3.19)
(3.20)
The above equations are written in terms of voltage and current as follows.
dP d (V I ) dV dI dI = =I +V = I +V dV dV dV dV dV
(3.21)
44
(3.22)
dI I = dV V
(3.23)
If the operating point is at the left side of the MPP, the equation (3.21) becomes:
I +V dI >0 dV
(3.24)
dI I > dV V
(3.25)
If the operating point is at the right side of the MPP, the equation (3.21) becomes:
I +V dI <0 dV
(3.26)
dI I < dV V
(3.27)
Note that the left side of the equations (3.23), (3.25), and (3.27) represents incremental conductance of the PV module, and the right side of the equations represents its instantaneous conductance. The flowchart shown in Figure 3-16 explains the operation of this algorithm. It starts with measuring the present values of PV module voltage and current. Then, it calculates the incremental changes, dI and dV, using the present values and previous values of voltage and current. The main check is carried out using the relationships in the equations (3.23), (3.25), and (3.27). If the condition satisfies the inequality (3.25), it is assumed that the operating point is at the left side of the MPP thus must be moved to the right by increasing the module voltage. Similarly, if the condition satisfies the inequality (3.27), it is assumed that the operating point is at the right side of the MPP, thus must be moved to the left by decreasing
45
the module voltage. When the operating point reaches at the MPP, the condition satisfies the equation (3.23), and the algorithm bypasses the voltage adjustment. At the end of cycle, it updates the history by storing the voltage and current data that will be used as previous values in the next cycle. Another important check included in this algorithm is to detect atmospheric conditions. If the MPPT is still operating at the MPP (condition: dV = 0) and the irradiation has not changed (condition: dI = 0), it takes no action. If the irradiation has increased (condition: dI > 0), it raises the MPP voltage. Then, the algorithm will increase the operating voltage to track the MPP. Similarly, if the irradiation has decreased (condition: dI
< 0), it lowers the MPP voltage. Then, the algorithm will decrease the operating voltage.
dI I = dV V
dI I > dV V
46
In practice, the condition dP/dV = 0 (or dI/dV = -I/V) seldom occurs because of the approximation made in the calculation of dI and dV [11]. Thus, a small margin of error (E) should be allowed, for example: dP/dV = E. The value of E is optimized with exchange between an amount of the steady-sate tracking error and a risk of oscillation of the operating point.
3.6.1 PI Control
As shown in Figure 3-17, the MPPT takes measurement of PV voltage and current, and then tracking algorithm (P&O, incCond, or variations of two) calculates the reference voltage (Vref) where the PV operating voltage should move next. The task of MPPT
algorithm is to set Vref only, and it is repeated periodically with a slower rate (typically 1~10 samples per second). Then, there is another control loop that the proportional and integral (PI) controller regulates the input voltage of converter. Its task is to minimize error between
Vref and the measured voltage by adjusting the duty cycle. The PI loop operates with a much
faster rate and provides fast response and overall system stability [10] [12]. The PI controller itself can be implemented with analog components, but it is often done with DSP-based controller [10] because the DSP can handle other tasks such as MPP tracking thus reducing parts count.
47
48
The impedance seen by PV is the input impedance of converter. Using the example of the Ck converter in Section 3.4, the relationship to the load is:
V s (1 D ) 2 Rin = = Rload Is D2
(3.28)
where: D is the duty cycle of the Ck converter. As shown in Figure 3-19, increasing D will decrease the input impedance (Rin), thus the PV operating voltage moves to the left. Similarly, decreasing D will increase Rin, thus the operating voltage moves to the right. The tracking algorithm (P&O, incCond, or variations of two) makes the decision how to move the operating voltage.
5 4.5 4 3.5 Module Current (A) 3 2.5 2 Slope=1/R R=16 Ohms R=4 Ohms
*
R=7.93 Ohms
MPP
Increasing D
1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Module Voltage (V) 35 40 45 50
Increasing Rin
Figure 3-19: Relationship of the input impedance of Ck converter and its duty cycle
The time response of the power stage and PV source is relatively slow (10~50msec depending on the type of load) [9]. The MPPT algorithm changes the duty cycle, then the next sampling of PV voltage and current should be taken after the system reaches the periodic steady state to avoid measuring the transient behavior [9]. The typical sampling rate
49
is 10~100 samples per second. The sampling rate of PI controller is much faster, thus it provides robustness against sudden changes of load. The system response is, however, slow in general. The direct control method can operate stably for applications such as battery equipped systems and water pumping systems. Since sampling rates are slow, it is possible to implement with inexpensive microcontrollers [12].
50
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 3-20: Output power of Ck converter vs. its duty cycle (1KW/m2, 25oC)
As shown in the figure, there is a peak of output power when the duty cycle of converter is varied. This control method employs the P&O algorithm to locate the MPP. Figure 3-21 shows the flowchart of algorithm. In order to accommodate duty cycle as a control variable, the P&O algorithm used here is a slightly modified version from that previously introduced, but the idea how it works is the same. The algorithm perturbs the duty cycle and measure the output power of converter. If the power is increased, the duty cycle is further perturbed in the same direction; otherwise the direction will be reversed. When the output power of converter is reached at the peak, a PV module or array is supposed to be operating at the MPP. Even though it works perfectly in the simulation with the ideal converter, there is some uncertainly if the peak of output power is corresponding with the MPP in practice with
51
non-ideal converters. Also, this control method only works with the P&O algorithm and its variations, and it does not work with the incCond algorithm.
Figure 3-21: Flowchart of P&O algorithm for the output sensing direct control method
(3.29)
52
The equation (3.17) for the Ck converter is solved for duty cycle (D).
D= 1+ 1 Rin Rload
(3.30)
(3.31)
Io =
1 D Is D
obtained from the MATLAB simulation model. Using the equations above, two sets of data are collected for the resistive load of 6 PV Module IMPP 4.35A 3.48A 2.61A 1.73A 0.87A and 12 at the constant module temperature of 25oC. MPPT Vo 30.0V 26.7V 22.9V 18.5.V 12.7V
Rload 6 6 6 6 6
Table 3-1: Load matching with the resistive load (6 ) under the varying irradiance
Rload 12 12 12 12 12
Table 3-2: Load matching with the resistive load (12 ) under the varying irradiance
53
From the above results, its obvious that there is no regulation of the output voltage and current. If the application requires a constant voltage, it must employ batteries to maintain the voltage constant. For water pumping system without batteries, the lack of output regulation is not a predicament as long as they are equipped with water reservoirs to meet the demand of water. The speed of pump motor is proportional to the converters output voltage which is relative to irradiation. Thus, when the sun shines more, it simply pumps more water. Another noteworthy fact is that MPPT stops its original task if the load cannot consume all the power delivered. For the stand-alone system, when the load is limited by its maximum voltage or current, the MPPT moves the operating point away from the MPP and sends less power. It is very important to select an appropriate size of load, thus it can utilize the full capacity of PV module and array. On the other hand, the grid-tied system can always perform the maximum power point tracking because it can inject the power into the grid as much as produced. Of course, in reality DC-DC converter used in MPPT is not 100% efficient. The efficiency gain from MPPT is large, but the system needs to take efficiency loss by DC-DC converter into account. There is also tradeoff between efficiency and the cost. It is necessary for PV system engineers to perform economic analysis of different systems and also necessary to seek other methods of efficiency improvement such as the use of a sun tracker. After due consideration of limitations, the next chapter will discuss designs and simulations of MPPT and PV water pumping system.
54
converter design. After the component selection, PSpice simulations validate the design and choice of the MPPT sampling rate. MATLAB simulations perform comparative tests of the P&O and incCond algorithm. Simulations also verify the functionality of MPPT with a resistive load and then with the DC pump motor load. At last, this chapter provides
comparisons between the PV water pumping system equipped with MPPT and the directcoupled system without MPPT.
20-48V 0-5A (< 5% ripple) 12-30V (< 5% ripple) 0-5A (< 5% ripple) 150W 50KHz 0.1 D 0.6
55
i L =
Vs D L f
(4.1)
where: Vs is the input voltage, D is the duty cycle, and f is the switching frequency. Solving this for L gives:
L=
Vs D i L f
(4.2)
Assume that the worst current ripple will occur under the maximum power condition. Under this condition, the average current (IL1) of the input inductor (L1) is 4.35A, and the ripple current is 5% of IL1.
(4.3)
L1 =
(4.4)
A commercially available 1.5mH inductor is selected. For example, 1.5mH power coke (5.0A DC max, 0.07 DCR) is available from Hammond Mfg. (www.hammondmfg.com). Similarly, the value of the output inductor (L2) is calculated as follows.
(4.5)
56
L2 =
(4.6)
To make parts procurement easier, the output can use the same inductor size as one in the input. b) Capacitor Selection The design criterion for capacitors is that the ripple voltage across them should be less than 5%. The average voltage across the capacitor (C1) is, from the equation (3.2), Vc1 =
Vs + Vo= 34.5 + 30 = 64.5V, so the maximum ripple voltage is vC1 = 0.05 64.5 = 3.225V.
Vo (30.0) 2 R= = = 6 Po (150)
The value of C1 is calculated with the following equation [8]:
(4.7)
C1 =
(4.8)
The next commercially available size is 22 F. An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with low ESR type is required. The value of the output capacitor (C2) is calculated using the output voltage ripple equation (the same as that of buck converter) [21].
v o 1 D = Vo 8 L2 C 2 f
Solving the above equation for C2 gives:
(4.9)
C2 =
1 D 8 ( v o Vo ) L 2 f
(4.10)
The next available size is 0.47 F. An aluminum electrolytic capacitor with low ESR type is required.
57
c) Diode Selection Schottky diode should be selected because it has a low forward voltage and very good reverse recovery time (typically 5 to 10ns) [21]. From Figure 3-8, the recurrent peak reverse voltage (VRRM) of the diode is the same as the average voltage of capacitor (C1) [18], thus
VRRM = 64.5V. Adding the 30% of safety factor gives the voltage rating of 83.9V. The
average forward current (IF) of diode is the combination of input and output currents at the
SW off, thus it is ID = IL1+IL2 = 9.35A. Adding the 30% of safety factor gives the current
rating of 12.2A. Schottky diodes are widely available from numerous vendors. For example, MBR15100 (IF=15Amax, VRRM=100Vmax) meets the above-mentioned voltage and current ratings. d) Switch Selection Power-MOSFETs are widely used for low to medium power applications. The peak voltage of the switch (SW) [18] is obtained by KVL on the circuit shown in Figure 3-9.
VSW = Vs dI L1 dt
(4.11)
The voltage of SW could go up to 48V by the specification. Adding the 30% of safety factor gives the voltage rating of 62.4V. The peak switch current is the same as the diode. Thus, adding the 30% of safety factor gives the current rating of 12.2A. There are a wide variety of Power-MOSFETs available from various vendors.
VDS=100Vmax) meets the above-mentioned requirements.
58
C1 2 22uF 2
L2 1.5mH
La 1 2 10mH 1 Ra .2
Sbreak
D1 Dbreak
C2 .47uF
E 28Vdc
0 0
V1 = 0 V2 = 1 TR = 10n TF = 10n TD = 0 PW = {D*T} PER = {T}
PARAMETERS:
f = 50kHz T = {1/f } D = .465
Figure 4-2 shows current and voltage plots of the converter after turning on (t = 0sec). Since the load has such a large inductance, it takes a long time for current to build up. The plots show that both input and output currents take nearly 250msec to reach steady state.
59
5.0A
2.5A
30V
20V
10V
Figure 4-2: PSpice plots of input/output current (above) and voltage (below)
For comparisons, the same simulation is done with an equivalent resistive load (6 ). The transient time is less than 10msec with the resistive load. It is apparent that the motor load has a very slow response. Other current and voltage data are gathered and tabulated below for comparisons with the resistive load and calculated results. DC Motor 1 Set 2nd Set 4.07A 4.18A 5.2% 6.1% 4.70A 4.84A 4.6% 4.6% 34.5V 34.5V n/a n/a 28.9V 29.1V 9% 3.1%
st
Resistive Load (6 ) 4.20A 5.1% 4.83A 4.4% 34.5V n/a 29.0V 2.7%
Calculated Results 4.35A < 5% 5.0A < 5% 34.5V n/a 30V < 5%
Table 4-2 shows two sets of simulation data for the DC motor load. The first set is the result of simulation using the components selected in the previous section. The output
60
voltage ripple for the DC motor load is as large as 9% while one for the equivalent resistive load (6 ) is only 2.7%. Therefore, in the next simulation, the size of output capacitor (C2) is increased to the next commercially available size of 1 F. It makes the input current ripple slightly worse, but it makes overall improvement of performance. Thus, a 1 F capacitor (instead of 0.47 F) is finally selected.
5.0A
4.5A
32.5V
30.0V
260ms -V(C2:2)
280ms
300ms Time
320ms
340ms
360ms
Figure 4-3: Transient response when duty cycle is increased 0.35% at 250ms
61
Figure 4-3 is the result of PSpice simulation. It shows both input and output currents take between 80msec and 90msec to go to steady state, where they take only several milliseconds for the resistive load. It is important for MPPT algorithm to take measurements of voltage and current after they reach steady state. Therefore, with a PV pump motor, the sampling rate is 10Hz at most.
end
10
15
35
40
45
50
Figure 4-4: Searching the MPP (1KW/m2, 25oC) The traces of PV operating point are shown in green, and the MPP is the red asterisk
62
Next, the algorithms are tested with actual irradiance data provided by [2]. Simulations use two sets of data, shown in Figure 4-5; the first set of data is the measurements of a sunny day in April in Barcelona, Spain, and the second set of data is for a cloudy day in the same month at the same location. The data contain the irradiance
measurements taken every two minutes for 12 hours. Irradiance values between two data points are estimated by the cubic interpolation in MATLAB functions.
0.6
0.4
0.2
6 Hour (h)
10
12
Figure 4-5: Irradiance data for a sunny and a cloudy day of April in Barcelona, Spain [2]
On a sunny day, the irradiance level changes gradually since there is no influence of cloud. MPP tracking is supposed to be easy. As shown in Figure 4-6, both algorithms locate and maintain the PV operating point very close to the MPPs (shown in red asterisks) without much difference in their performance.
63
160 140
120 100 80 60 40
800W/m2
600W/m2
600W/m2
400W/m2
400W/m2
200W/m2 20 0 20 0
200W/m2
10
15
35
40
45
50
10
15
35
40
45
50
On a cloudy day, the irradiance level changes rapidly because of passing clouds. MPP tracking is supposed to be challenging. Figure 4-7 shows the trace of PV operating points for (a) P&O algorithm and (b) incCond algorithm. For both algorithms, the deviations of operating points from the MPPs are obvious when compared to the results of a sunny day. Between two algorithms, the incCond algorithm is supposed to outperform the P&O algorithm under rapidly changing atmospheric conditions [11]. A close inspection of Figure 4-7 reveals that the P&O algorithm has slightly larger deviations overall and some erratic behaviors (such as the large deviation pointed by the red arrow). Some erratic traces are, however, also observable in the plot of the incCond algorithm. In order to make a better comparison, total electric energy produced during a 12-hour period is calculated and tabulated in Table 4-3.
64
1000W/m 2
1000W/m2
800W/m2
800W/m2
600W/m2
600W/m2
400W/m2 40 20 0 200W/m2
400W/m2 40 20 0 200W/m2
10
15
35
40
45
50
10
15
35
40
45
50
Table 4-3: Comparison of the P&O and incCond algorithms on a cloudy day
Total electric energy produced with the incCond algorithm is narrowly larger than that of the P&O algorithm. The MPP tracking efficiency measured by {Total Energy
(simulation)} {Total Energy (theoretical max)} 100% is still good in the cloudy condition
for both algorithms, and again it is narrowly higher with the incCond algorithm.
The
irradiance data are only available at two-minute intervals, thus they do not record a much higher rate of changes during these intervals. The data may not be providing a truly rapid changing condition, and that could be a reason why the two results are so close. Also, further optimization of algorithm and varying a testing method may provide different results. The performance difference between the two algorithms, however, would not be large. There is a study showing similar results [9]. The simulation results showed the efficiency of 99.3% for
65
the P&O algorithm and 99.4% for the incCond algorithm. The experimental results showed 96.5% and 97.0%, respectively, for a partly cloudy day.
(4.12)
The function, bp_sx150s, calculates the module current (Ia) for the given module voltage (Va), irradiance (G in KW/m2), and module temperature (T in oC). The operating point of PV module is located by its relationship to the load resistance (R) as explained in Section 3.4.
R=
Va Ia
(4.13)
66
The irradiance (G) and the module temperature (T) for the function (4.12) are known variables, thus it is possible to say that Ia is the function of Va hence Ia = f(Va). Substituting this into the equation (4.13) gives:
Va R f (Va ) = 0
(4.14)
Knowing the value of R enables to solve this equation for the operating voltage (Va). MATLAB uses fzero function to do so. Please refer Appendix A.1 for details. Placing Va, back to the equation (4.12) gives the operating current (Ia). For the direct control method, each sampling of voltage and current is done at a periodic steady state condition of the converter. Therefore, the steady state analysis
discussed in Section 3.3.3 provides sufficient modeling of the Ck converter. The following equations describe the input/output relationship of voltage and current, and they are used in the MATLAB simulation.
Vo = Io = D Vs 1 D
(4.15)
1 D Is D
(4.16)
67
The following flowchart, shown in Figure 4-8, explains the operation of the simulated system. The details can be referred in the MATLAB script listed in the Appendix A.1.
" # $% &
'
! # ( #! ) *+ )*
! ) *
. +! ! +"
/ #
The simulation is performed under the linearly increasing irradiance varying from 100W/m2 to 1000W/m2 with a moderate rate of 0.3W/m2 per sample. Figure 4-9 (a) and (b) show that the trace of operating point is staying close to the MPPs during the simulation. Figure 4-9 (c) shows the relationship between the output power of converter and its duty cycle. Figure 4-9 (d) shows the current and voltage relationship of converter output. Since the load is resistive, the current and voltage increase linearly with the slope of 1/Rload on the
I-V plane.
68
end
5 4.5 4
800W/m2
600W/m 2
600W/m2
400W/m 2
400W/m 2
end
start 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Duty Cycle 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 Output Voltage (V) 25 30 35
Figure 4-9: MPPT simulations with the resistive load (100 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)
The control algorithm contains two loops, as shown in Figure 4-8: the main loop for MPPT and another loop for output protection. During the normal operation, it operates in MPPT mode. When the load cannot absorb all the power produced by PV, its voltage or/and current will exceed the limit. To protect the load from failure, the control algorithm stops operating in MPPT mode and invokes the output protection. Then, it regulates the output not to exceed the limit. In the simulation, it sets when the output voltage goes beyond 30V or 5A for the output current. irradiance, the 10 For the example shown in Figure 4-10, during the increasing
load exceeds the voltage limit of 30V. The output protection maintains
69
the voltage around 30V. Figure 4-10 (a) shows that PV is not operating at the MPP and sending the power less than the maximum after the irradiance reaches at a little over 600W/m2. It also indicates the importance of selecting an appropriate size of load, thus it can utilize the full capacity of PV module or array.
5 800W/m
2
600W/m 2
end
4 end 3
400W/m 2
start
10
25
30
35
The input sensing type direct control method, discussed in Section 3.6.2, is also implemented with both P&O and incCond algorithm. The results are very similar and are shown in Appendix A.2 for reference.
70
To model a permanent magnet DC motor, the SIMULINK model applies a constant field, as shown in Figure 4-12. Since the water pump is a positive displacement type, the load torque is also constant. The value is selected to draw the maximum power of 150W at the maximum voltage of 30V. The parameters of DC machine, shown in Figure 4-13, that correspond to the actual pump motor are unknown, thus they are chosen by modification of the default values and estimation from other references [2] [20].
71
TL Signal 1 s + A+ F+
Demux
dc
AF-
0-30V Ramp
Voltage Source
Va ? More Info
Ia vs Va
Divide
Rload
The voltage source applies a 0-30V ramp at the rate of 1V per second. Then, the change of load resistance (Rload) is observed, as shown in Figure 4-14. The plot data are
72
transferred to MATLAB, and the cubic curve fitting tool in MATLAB provides the equation of the curve, shown below.
(4.17)
where: Vo is the output voltage of converter. This equation characterizes the DC pump motor, and MATLAB uses it in the simulations.
73
end
5 4.5 4
800W/m2
600W/m 2
600W/m2
400W/m 2
400W/m 2
200W/m 2
10
15
35
40
45
50
160 140 120 Output Power (W) 100 80 60 40 20 0 start 0 0.1 0.2
end
Output Current (A) 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Duty Cycle 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 4-15: MPPT simulations with the DC pump motor load (20 to 1000W/m2, 25oC)
Figure 4-15 (d) shows the current and voltage relationship of converter output which is equal to the DC motor load. It shows that the output current rises rapidly with increasing voltage until the current is sufficient to create enough torque to start the motor. Once it starts to run, the back emf takes effect and drops the current, therefore the current rises slowly with increasing voltage. Figure 4-16 shows the I-V curve produced by the SIMULINK simulation. The y-axis is the armature current of DC motor, and the x-axis is time (second) that corresponds to the armature voltage (V). It is similar to the MATLAB version; therefore it can be concluded that the simple MATLAB model of DC motor used here is valid. The only
74
discrepancy is that the MATLAB version shows slow transition between halt to motion because the output is limited by the duty cycle which is set to 10% as the minimum.
Table 4-4: Energy production and efficiency of PV module with and without MPPT
75
The result shows that the PV water pumping system without MPPT has poor efficiency because of mismatching between the PV module and the DC pump motor load. On the other hand, it shows that the system with MPPT can utilize more than 99% of PV capacity. Assuming a DC-DC converter has efficiency more than 90%, the system can increase the overall efficiency by more than 35% compared to the system without MPPT. Another set of simulations provides a comparison of the two systems in terms of flow rates and total volume of water pumped. The results show that MPPT can significantly boost the performance. As shown in Figure 4-11, the flow rate of Kyocera SD 12-30 water pump is proportional to the power delivered. When the total dynamic head is 30m, the flow rate per watt is approximately 86.7cm3/Wmin. The minimum power requirement of pump motor is 35W [13]; therefore as long as the output power is higher than 35W, it pumps water with the flow rate above. Using the same test condition, the flow rates of pump are obtained from the MATLAB simulations and shown in Figure 4-17.
14 12 Loss-less Converter 90% Efficiency Converter Direct-coupled System
6 Hour
10
11
12
Figure 4-17: Flow rates of PV water pumps for a 12-hour period Simulated with the irradiance data of a sunny day (total dynamic head = 30m)
76
The results show that the direct-coupled PV water pumping system has a severe disadvantage because the pump stays idle for nearly two more hours in the morning while the same system with MPPT is already pumping water. Similarly, it goes idle nearly two hours earlier than the system with MPPT in the afternoon. The flow rate of water is also lower throughout the operating period. The total volume of water pumped for the 12-hour period is also calculated for both systems. The results are tabulated below.
Without MPPT
2.831m3
Table 4-5: Total volume of water pumped for 12 hours Simulated with the irradiance data of a sunny day (total dynamic head = 30m)
The results show that MPPT offers significant performance improvement. It enables to pump up to 87% more water than the system without MPPT. Even if the efficiency of converter is set to 90%, it can still pump 67% more water than the system without MPPT.
77
Chapter 5 Conclusion
5.1 Summary
This study presents a simple but efficient photovoltaic water pumping system. It models each component and simulates the system using MATLAB. The result shows that the PV model using the equivalent circuit in moderate complexity provides good matching with the real PV module. Simulations perform comparative tests for the two MPPT
algorithms using actual irradiance data in the two different weather conditions. The incCond algorithm shows narrowly but better performance in terms of efficiency compared to the P&O algorithm under the cloudy weather condition. Even a small improvement of efficiency could bring large savings if the system is large. However, it could be difficult to justify the use of incCond algorithm for small low-cost systems since it requires four sensors. In order to develop a simple low-cost system, this thesis adopts the direct control method which employs the P&O algorithm but requires only two sensors for output. This control method offers another benefit of allowing steady-state analysis of the DC-DC converter, as opposed to the more complex state-space averaging method, because it performs sampling of voltage and current at the periodic steady state. Simulations use SimPowerSystems in SIMULINK to model a DC pump motor, and then the model is transferred into MATLAB. It performs simulations of the whole system and verifies functionality and benefits of MPPT. Simulations also make comparisons with the system without MPPT in terms of total energy produced and total volume of water pumped a day. The results validate that MPPT can significantly increase the efficiency of energy production from PV and the performance of the PV water pumping system compared to the system without MPPT.
78
estimates. If tests could be run on the real water pump motor or an equivalent sized motor to determine reasonable entries to SIMULINK block parameters, this could lead to more accurate simulation runs. Also, simply increasing the size of system and using a larger motor (5hp or above) could allow for better results in SUMILINK, though many PV water pumps rarely use such large motors. Physical implementation of the system remains for future research. It may involve implementation of: a DSP or a microcontroller, a method of supplying power to the controller, signal conditioning circuits for A/D converters, a driving circuit for PowerMOSFET, a Ck converter, and a water level sensor that detects when the water reservoir reaches full. It may also involve performance analysis on the actual system and comparisons with simulations.
79
80
Bibliography
[1] [2] [3] BP Solar BP SX150 - 150W Multi-crystalline Photovoltaic Module Datasheet, 2001 Castaer, Luis & Santiago Silvestre Modelling Photovoltaic Systems, Using PSpice John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2002 Chapin, D. M., C. S. Fuller, & G. L. Pearson, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., Murray Hill, New Jersey A New Silicon p-n Junction Photocell for Converting Solar Radiation into Electrical Power Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 25, Issue 5, May 1954, page 676-677 Dang, Thuy Lam A Digitally-controlled Power Tracker Masters Thesis, California Polytechnic State University, Pomona, 1990 Day, Christopher Alan The Design of an Efficient, Elegant, and Cubic Pico-Satellite Electronics System Masters Thesis, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, 2004 Enslin, John H., Mario S. Wolf, Danil B. Snyman, & Wernher Swiegers Integrated Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Converter IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 44, No. 6 December 1997, page 769-773 Green, Martin A. Solar Cells; Operating Principles, Technology, and System Applications Prentice Hall Inc., 1982 Hart, Daniel W. Introduction to Power Electronics Prentice Hall Inc., 1996 Hohm, D. P. & M. E. Ropp Comparative Study of Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithms Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications November 2002, page 47-62 Hua, Chihchiang, Jongrong Lin & Chihming Shen Implementation of a DSPControlled Photovoltaic System with Peak Power Tracking IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 45, No. 1 February 1998, page 99-107 Hussein, K. H., I. Muta, T. Hoshino, & M. Osakada Maximum Photovoltaic Power Tracking: an Algorithm for Rapidly Changing Atmospheric Conditions IEE Proceedings Generation, Transmission and Distribution v. 142 January 1995, page 59-64 Koutroulis, Efichios, Kostas Kalaitzakis, Nicholas C. Voulgaris Development of a Microcontroller-Based, Photovoltaic Maximum Power Point Tracking Control System IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 2001, page 46-54
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[6]
[10]
[11]
[12]
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[13] [14]
Kyocera Solar Inc. Solar Water Pump Applications Guide 2001 (downloaded from www.kyocerasolar.com) MathWorks Inc. Embedded Target for the TI TMS320C2000 DSP Platform For Use with Real-Time Workshop Users Guide Version 1 2005 (downloaded from www.mathworks.com) Messenger, Roger & Jerry Ventre Photovoltaic Systems Engineering 2nd Edition CRC Press, 2003 Masters, Gilbert M. Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2004 Mohan, Undeland, Robbins Power Electronics Converters, Applications, and Design 3rd Edition John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2003 Rashid, Muhammad H. Power Electronics - Circuits, Devices, and Applications 3rd Edition Pearson Education, 2004 Rashid, Muhammad H. Editor-in-Chief Power Electronics Handbook Academic Press, 2001 Sharaf A. M., Abdulla Ismail, R. A. El-Khatib & S. I. Abu-Azab A Photovoltaic Utilization System with Bang-Bang Self-Adjusting Maximum Energy Tracking Controller International Journal of Energy Research, Volume 22, Issue 12 December 1998, page 1091 - 1098 Taufik EE410 Power Electronics I - Lecture Note Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo, 2004 Taufik EE527 Switching Power Supply Design - Lecture Note Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo, 2004 Texas Instruments Converting Analog Controllers to Smart Controllers with TMS320C2000 DSPs Application Report, June 2004 (downloaded from dspvillage.ti.com/) Thompson, Marry A. Reverse-Osmosis Desalination of Seawater Powered by Photovoltaics Without Batteries Doctoral Thesis, Loughborough University, 2003 UNEP Water Policy and Strategy (viewed on www.unep.org/dpdl/water/ , August 2005) UNESCO The UN World Water Development Report, 2003 www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/, August 2005) (viewed on
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[27]
Walker, Geoff R. Evaluating MPPT converter topologies using a MATLAB PV model Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference, AUPEC 00, Brisbane, 2000
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Appendix A
A.1 MATLAB Functions and Scripts
A.1.1 MATLAB Function for Modeling BP SX 150S PV Module
This MATLAB function (bp_sx150s.m) is to simulate the current-voltage relationship of BP SX 150S PV module and used in simulations throughout of this thesis.
function Ia = bp_sx150s(Va,G,TaC) % function bp_sx150s.m models the BP SX 150S PV module % calculates module current under given voltage, irradiance and temperature % Ia = bp_sx150s(Va,G,T) % % Out: Ia = Module operating current (A), vector or scalar % In: Va = Module operating voltage (V), vector or scalar % G = Irradiance (1G = 1000 W/m^2), scalar % TaC = Module temperature in deg C, scalar % % Written by Akihiro Oi 7/01/2005 % Revised 7/18/2005 %///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// % Define constants k = 1.381e-23; q = 1.602e-19; % Boltzmanns constant % Electron charge
% Following constants are taken from the datasheet of PV module and % curve fitting of I-V character (Use data for 1000W/m^2) n = 1.62; % Diode ideality factor (n), % 1 (ideal diode) < n < 2 Eg = 1.12; % Band gap energy; 1.12eV (Si), 1.42 (GaAs), % 1.5 (CdTe), 1.75 (amorphous Si) Ns = 72; % # of series connected cells (BP SX150s, 72 cells) TrK = 298; % Reference temperature (25C) in Kelvin Voc_TrK = 43.5 /Ns; % Voc (open circuit voltage per cell) @ temp TrK Isc_TrK = 4.75; % Isc (short circuit current per cell) @ temp TrK a = 0.65e-3; % Temperature coefficient of Isc (0.065%/C) % Define variables TaK = 273 + TaC; Vc = Va / Ns; % Module temperature in Kelvin % Cell voltage
% Calculate short-circuit current for TaK Isc = Isc_TrK * (1 + (a * (TaK - TrK))); % Calculate photon generated current @ given irradiance Iph = G * Isc; % Define thermal potential (Vt) at temp TrK Vt_TrK = n * k * TrK / q; % Define b = Eg * q/(n*k);
84
b = Eg * q /(n * k); % Calculate reverse saturation current for given temperature Ir_TrK = Isc_TrK / (exp(Voc_TrK / Vt_TrK) -1); Ir = Ir_TrK * (TaK / TrK)^(3/n) * exp(-b * (1 / TaK -1 / TrK)); % Calculate series resistance per cell (Rs = 5.1mOhm) dVdI_Voc = -1.0/Ns; % Take dV/dI @ Voc from I-V curve of datasheet Xv = Ir_TrK / Vt_TrK * exp(Voc_TrK / Vt_TrK); Rs = - dVdI_Voc - 1/Xv; % Define thermal potential (Vt) at temp Ta Vt_Ta = n * k * TaK / q; % Ia = Iph - Ir * (exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1) % f(Ia) = Iph - Ia - Ir * ( exp((Vc + Ia * Rs) / Vt_Ta) -1) = 0 % Solve for Ia by Newton's method: Ia2 = Ia1 - f(Ia1)/f'(Ia1) Ia=zeros(size(Vc)); % Initialize Ia with zeros % Perform 5 iterations for j=1:5; Ia = Ia - (Iph - Ia - Ir .* ( exp((Vc + Ia .* Rs) ./ Vt_Ta) -1))... ./ (-1 - Ir * (Rs ./ Vt_Ta) .* exp((Vc + Ia .* Rs) ./ Vt_Ta)); End
85
86
% Akihiro Oi June 29, 2005 % Revised on August 31, 2005 %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% clear; % Define constants % Cell temperature (deg C) TaC = 25; C = 0.5; % Step size for ref voltage change (V) % Define variables with initial conditions G = 0.028; % Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2) % PV voltage Va = 26.0; Ia = bp_sx150s(Va,G,TaC); % PV current Pa = Va * Ia; % PV output power % New reference voltage Vref_new = Va + C; % Set up arrays storing data for plots Va_array = []; Pa_array = []; % Load irradiance data load irrad; x = irrad(:,1)'; y = irrad(:,2)'; xi = 147.4e+3:190.6e+3; yi = interp1(x,y,xi,'cubic'); % % % % % Irradiance data of a sunny day Read time data (second) Read irradiance data Set points for interpolation Do cubic interpolation
% Take 43200 samples (12 hours) for Sample = 1:43.2e+3 % Read irradiance value G = yi(Sample); % Take new measurements Va_new = Vref_new; Ia_new = bp_sx150s(Vref_new,G,TaC); % Calculate new Pa Pa_new = Va_new * Ia_new; deltaPa = Pa_new - Pa; % P&O Algorithm starts here if deltaPa > 0 if Va_new > Va Vref_new = Va_new + C; % Increase Vref else Vref_new = Va_new - C; % Decrease Vref end elseif deltaPa < 0 if Va_new > Va Vref_new = Va_new - C; % Decrease Vref else Vref_new = Va_new + C; %Increase Vref end else Vref_new = Va_new; % No change end % Update history Va = Va_new; Pa = Pa_new; % Store data in arrays for plot
87
Va_array = [Va_array Va]; Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa]; end % Plot result figure plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g') % Overlay with P-I curves and MPP Va = linspace (0, 45, 200); hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); Pa = Ia.*Va; plot(Va, Pa) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*') end title('P&O Algorithm') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Output Power (W)') axis([0 50 0 160]) %gtext('1000W/m^2') %gtext('800W/m^2') %gtext('600W/m^2') %gtext('400W/m^2') %gtext('200W/m^2') hold off
88
Vref_new = Va + C;
% Set up arrays storing data for plots Va_array = []; Pa_array = []; Pmax_array =[]; % Load irradiance data load irrad7d; x = irrad7d(:,1)'; y = irrad7d(:,2)'; xi = 332.8e+3: 376e+3; yi = interp1(x,y,xi,'cubic'); % Take 43200 samples (12 hours) for Sample = 1:43.2e+3 % Read irrad value G = yi(Sample); % Take new measurements Va_new = Vref_new; Ia_new = bp_sx150s(Vref_new,G,TaC); % Calculate incremental voltage and current deltaVa = Va_new - Va; deltaIa = Ia_new - Ia; % incCond Algorithm starts here if deltaVa == 0 if deltaIa == 0 Vref_new = Va_new; % No change elseif deltaIa > 0 Vref_new = Va_new + C; % Increase Vref else Vref_new = Va_new - C; % Decrease Vref end else if abs(deltaIa/deltaVa + Ia_new/Va_new) <= E Vref_new = Va_new; % No change else if deltaIa/deltaVa > -Ia_new/Va_new + E Vref_new = Va_new + C; % Increase Vref else Vref_new = Va_new - C; % Decrease Vref end end end % Calculate theoretical max [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); % Update history Va = Va_new; Ia = Ia_new; Pa = Va_new * Ia_new; % Store data in arrays for plot Va_array = [Va_array Va]; Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa]; Pmax_array = [Pmax_array Pa_max]; end % % % % % Irradiance data of a cloudy day Read time data (second) Read irradiance data Set points for interpolation Do cubic interpolation
89
% Total electric energy: theoretical and actual Pth = sum(Pmax_array)/3600; Pact = sum(Pa_array)/3600; % Plot result figure plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g') % Overlay with P-V curves and MPP Va = linspace (0, 45, 200); hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); Pa = Ia.*Va; plot(Va, Pa) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*') end title('incCond Method') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Output Power (W)') axis([0 50 0 160]) %gtext('1000W/m^2') %gtext('800W/m^2') %gtext('600W/m^2') %gtext('400W/m^2') %gtext('200W/m^2') hold off
A.1.6 MATLAB Script for MPPT with Output Sensing Direct Control Method
This MATLAB script is to test the output sensing direct control method with the P&O algorithm in Section 4.4. The load is a resistive load (6 )
% po_dutyCycle2Test2: % Script file to test output sensing direct control method % P&O MPPT Algorithm is used % % Written by Akihiro Oi: June 23, 2005 % Revised: September 8, 2005 %////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// clear; % Define constants TaC = 25; % Cell temperature (deg C) Rload = 6; % Resistive Load (Ohms) deltaD = .0035; % Step size for Duty Cycle change (.35%) % Define variables with initial conditions G = .1; % Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2) D = .22; % Duty Cycle, D(k+1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max) D_k_1 = .22; % Duty Cycle, D(k-1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max) Va_k_1 = 0; % PV voltage, Va(k-1) Pa_k_1 = 0; % PV output power, Pa(k-1)
90
% Output voltage of Ck converter, Vo(k-1) % Output current of Ck converter, Io(k-1) % Output power of Ck converter, Po(k-1)
% Set up arrays storing data for plots Va_array = []; Ia_array = []; Pa_array = []; Vo_array = []; Io_array = []; Po_array = []; D_array = []; % Take 3600 samples for Sample = 1:3600 % Read present value of duty cycle D_k = D; % Calculate input impedance of ideal Ck converter (Rin) Rin = (1-D_k)^2/D_k^2 * Rload; % Locate the operating point of PV module and % calculate its voltage, current, and power f = @(x) x - Rin*bp_sx150s(x,G,TaC); Va_k = fzero (f, [0, 45]); Ia_k = bp_sx150s(Va_k,G,TaC); Pa_k = Va_k * Ia_k; % Measure the outputs for ideal Ck converter Vo_k = D_k/(1-D_k) * Va_k; Io_k = (1-D_k)/D_k * Ia_k; % Calculate new Po and deltaPo Po_k = Vo_k * Io_k; deltaPo = Po_k - Po_k_1; % Output voltage and current protection (30V/5A Max) if (Vo_k > 30.6) | (Io_k > 5.1) % '2%' margin added if deltaPo >= 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle else D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle end else if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle else D_k = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle end end elseif (Vo_k > 30) | (Io_k > 5) D = D_k; % No change elseif D_k < .1 D = .1; % Set minimum duty cycle elseif D_k > .6 D = .6; % Set maximum duty cycle else % P&O Algorithm starts here if deltaPo > 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle
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else D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle end elseif deltaPo < 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle else D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle end else D = D_k; % No change end end % Update history Va_k_1 = Va_k; Ia_k_1 = Ia_k; Pa_k_1 = Pa_k; Vo_k_1 = Vo_k; Io_k_1 = Io_k; Po_k_1 = Po_k; D_k_1 = D_k; % Store data in arrays for plots Va_array = [Va_array Va_k]; Ia_array = [Ia_array Ia_k]; Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa_k]; Vo_array = [Vo_array Vo_k]; Io_array = [Io_array Io_k]; Po_array = [Po_array Po_k]; D_array = [D_array D_k]; % Increase insolation until G=1 if (Sample > 20) & (G < 1) G = G + .0003; end % Goto next sample end % Functions to plot figure(1) plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g') % Overlay with P-V curves and MPP Va = linspace (0, 45, 200); hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); Pa = Ia.*Va; plot(Va, Pa) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*') end title('(a) PV Power vs. Voltage') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Output Power (W)') axis([0 50 0 160]) hold off figure(2)
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plot (Va_array, Ia_array, 'g') % Overlay with I-V curves and MPP hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); plot(Va, Ia) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Imp, 'r*') end title('(b) PV Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Current(A)') axis([0 50 0 5]) hold off figure(3) plot (D_array, Po_array, 'b') title('(c) Output Power vs. Duty Cycle') xlabel('Duty Cycle') ylabel('Output Power (W)') axis([0 1 0 160]) figure(4) plot (Vo_array, Io_array, 'g.') hold on Vo = linspace (0, 35, 200); Io = Vo ./ Rload; plot (Vo, Io) title('(d) Output Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Output Voltage (V)') ylabel('Output Current (A)') axis([0 35 0 6]) hold off
A.1.7 MATLAB Script for MPPT Simulations with DC Pump Motor Load
This MATLAB script is to test MPPT functionality with the DC pump motor as a load introduced in Section 4.5. It uses the output sensing direct control method with the P&O algorithm. It also calculates total energy output and total volume of water pump for a 12-hour period.
% po_dutyCycleTest4: % Output sensing direct control method with the P&O algorithm % (With variable load mimics DC pump motor) % Irradiance data on a sunny day % % Written by Akihiro Oi: September 6, 2005 % Revised: September 9, 2005 %////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// clear;
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% Define constants % Cell temperature (deg C) TaC = 25; deltaD = .0035; % Step size for Duty Cycle change (.35%) % Define variables with initial conditions Rload = .2; % Initial load (armature resistance of DC motor) (Ohms) % Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2) G = 0.028; D = .10; % Duty Cycle, D(k+1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max) D_k_1 = .10; % Duty Cycle, D(k-1), (0.1 Min, O.6 Max) % PV voltage, Va(k-1) Va_k_1 = 0; Pa_k_1 = 0; % PV output power, Pa(k-1) % Output voltage of Ck converter, Vo(k-1) Vo_k_1 = 0; Io_k_1 = 0; % Output current of Ck converter, Io(k-1) Po_k_1 = 0; % Output power of Ck converter, Po(k-1) % Volume of water pumped per sample Volume = 0; % Set up arrays storing data for plots Va_array = []; Ia_array = []; Pa_array = []; Vo_array = []; Io_array = []; Po_array = []; D_array = []; Rload_array = []; %Pmax_array =[]; Volume_array =[]; % Load irradiance data load irrad; x = irrad(:,1)'; y = irrad(:,2)'; xi = 147.4e+3:190.6e+3; yi = interp1(x,y,xi,'cubic'); % % % % % Irradiance data of a sunny day Read time data (second) Read irradiance data Set points for interpolation Do cubic interpolation
% Take 43200 samples (12 hours) for Sample = 1:43.2e+3 % Read irradiance value G = yi(Sample); % Read present value of duty cycle D_k = D; % Calculate input impedance of ideal Ck converter (Rin) Rin = (1-D_k)^2/D_k^2 * Rload; % Locate the operating point of PV module and % calculate its voltage, current, and power f = @(x) x - Rin*bp_sx150s(x,G,TaC); Va_k = fzero (f, [0, 45]); Ia_k = bp_sx150s(Va_k,G,TaC); Pa_k = Va_k * Ia_k; % Measure the outputs for ideal Ck converter Vo_k = D_k/(1-D_k) * Va_k; Io_k = (1-D_k)/D_k * Ia_k; % Calculate new Po and deltaPo Po_k = Vo_k * Io_k; deltaPo = Po_k - Po_k_1; % Output voltage and current protection (30V/5A Max)
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if (Vo_k > 30.6) | (Io_k > 5.1) % '2%' margin added if deltaPo >= 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle else D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle end else if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle else D_k = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle end end elseif (Vo_k > 30) | (Io_k > 5) D = D_k; % No change elseif D_k < .1 D = .1; % Set minimum duty cycle elseif D_k > .6 D = .6; % Set maximum duty cycle else % P&O Algorithm starts here if deltaPo > 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle else D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle end elseif deltaPo < 0 if D_k > D_k_1 D = D_k - deltaD; % Decrease duty cycle else D = D_k + deltaD; % Increase duty cycle end else D = D_k; % No change end end % Update history Va_k_1 = Va_k; Ia_k_1 = Ia_k; Pa_k_1 = Pa_k; Vo_k_1 = Vo_k; Io_k_1 = Io_k; Po_k_1 = Po_k; D_k_1 = D_k; % Calculate theoretical max %[Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); % Calculate volume water pumped (90% efficiency converter) if (.9*Po_k) > 35 Volume = 13/(60*150)*(.9*Po_k); % Volume of water pumped (L/sec) else Volume =0; end % Store data in arrays for plots Va_array = [Va_array Va_k]; Ia_array = [Ia_array Ia_k]; Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa_k]; Vo_array = [Vo_array Vo_k]; Io_array = [Io_array Io_k];
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Po_array = [Po_array Po_k]; D_array = [D_array D_k]; Rload_array = [Rload_array Rload]; %Pmax_array = [Pmax_array Pa_max]; Volume_array = [Volume_array Volume]; % Variable load that mimics DC motor if (Sample > 160) Rload = 9.5e-005*Vo_k^3 - 0.0087*Vo_k^2 + 0.37*Vo_k + 0.2; end % Goto next sample end % Total electric energy (Wh): theoretical and actual %Pth = sum(Pmax_array)/3600; Pact = sum(Po_array)/3600; % Volume of water pumped (L/day) TotalVolume = sum(Volume_array); % Functions to plot figure(1) plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g') % Overlay with P-V curves and MPP Va = linspace (0, 45, 200); hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); Pa = Ia.*Va; plot(Va, Pa) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*') end title('(a) PV Power vs. Voltage') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Output Power (W)') axis([0 50 0 160]) hold off figure(2) plot (Va_array, Ia_array, 'g') % Overlay with I-V curves and MPP hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); plot(Va, Ia) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Imp, 'r*') end title('(b) PV Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Current(A)') axis([0 50 0 5]) hold off figure(3) plot (D_array, Po_array, 'b')
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title('(c) Output Power vs. Duty Cycle') xlabel('Duty Cycle') ylabel('Output Power (W)') axis([0 1 0 160]) figure(4) plot (Vo_array, Io_array, 'g.') title('(d) Output Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Output Voltage (V)') ylabel('Output Current (A)') axis([0 30 0 6]) figure(5) hold on VolumeMin = Volume_array.*60; sample = 1:43.2e+3; Hour=sample./3600; plot(Hour, VolumeMin) xlabel('Hour') ylabel('Flow Rate (L/min)') axis([0 12 0 14])
A.1.8 MATLAB Script for MPPT Simulations with Direct-coupled DC Water Pump
This MATLAB script is to make comparative tests with PV water pumping system which employs direct-coupling between PV and the pump motor in Section 4.6. The script also calculates total energy output and total volume of water pump for a 12-hour period.
% directCoupledSystem: % DC pump motor is direct-coupled with PV module % (Variable load mimics DC pump motor) % * Testing on a sunny day % % Written by Akihiro Oi: September 6, 2005 % Revised: September 9, 2005 %////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// clear; % Define constants TaC = 25; % Cell temperature (deg C) % Define variables with initial conditions Rload = .2; % Initial load (armature resistance of DC motor)(Ohms) G = 0.028; % Irradiance (1G = 1000W/m^2) % Set up arrays storing data for plots Va_array = []; Ia_array = []; Pa_array = []; Vo_array = []; Io_array = []; Po_array = []; Rload_array = []; Pmax_array =[]; Volume_array =[];
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% % % % %
Irradiance data of a sunny day Read time data (second) Read irradiance data Set points for interpolation Do cubic interpolation
% Take 43200 samples (12 hours) for Sample = 1:43.2e+3 % Read irradiance value G = yi(Sample); % Locate the operating point of PV module and % calculate its voltage, current, and power f = @(x) x - Rload*bp_sx150s(x,G,TaC); Va_k = fzero (f, [0, 45]); Ia_k = bp_sx150s(Va_k,G,TaC); Pa_k = Va_k * Ia_k; % Measure the outputs Vo_k = Va_k; Io_k = Ia_k; Po_k = Pa_k; % Calculate theoretical max [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); % Calculate volume water pumped if Po_k >= 35 Volume = 13/(60*150)*Po_k; % Volume of water pumped (L/sec) else Volume = 0; end % Store data in arrays for plots Va_array = [Va_array Va_k]; Ia_array = [Ia_array Ia_k]; Pa_array = [Pa_array Pa_k]; Vo_array = [Vo_array Vo_k]; Io_array = [Io_array Io_k]; Po_array = [Po_array Po_k]; Rload_array = [Rload_array Rload]; Pmax_array = [Pmax_array Pa_max]; Volume_array = [Volume_array Volume]; % Variable load that mimics DC motor if (Sample > 160) Rload = 9.5e-005*Vo_k^3 - 0.0087*Vo_k^2 + 0.37*Vo_k + 0.2; end % Goto next sample end % Total electric energy (Wh): theoretical and actual Pth = sum(Pmax_array)/3600; Pact = sum(Po_array)/3600; % Volume of water pumped (L/day) TotalVolume = sum(Volume_array); % Functions to plot
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figure(1) plot (Va_array, Pa_array, 'g') % Overlay with P-V curves and MPP Va = linspace (0, 45, 200); hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); Pa = Ia.*Va; plot(Va, Pa) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Pa_max, 'r*') end title('(a)Direct-coupled System') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Output Power (W)') axis([0 50 0 160]) hold off figure(2) plot (Va_array, Ia_array, 'g') % Overlay with I-V curves and MPP hold on for G=.2:.2:1 Ia = bp_sx150s(Va, G, TaC); plot(Va, Ia) [Pa_max, Imp, Vmp] = find_mpp(G, TaC); plot(Vmp, Imp, 'r*') end title('(b) PV Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Module Voltage (V)') ylabel('Module Current(A)') axis([0 50 0 5]) hold off figure(3) plot (Vo_array, Io_array, 'g.') title('(c) Output Current vs. Voltage') xlabel('Output Voltage (V)') ylabel('Output Current (A)') axis([0 35 0 6]) figure(4) hold on VolumeMin = Volume_array.*60; sample = 1:43.2e+3; Hour=sample./3600; plot(Hour, VolumeMin) xlabel('Hour') ylabel('Flow Rate (L/min)') axis([0 12 0 14])
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end
800W/m2
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400W/m 2
400W/m2
end
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Figure A-1: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (P&O algorithm)
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400W/m 2
end
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Figure A-2: MPPT Simulations with the direct control method (incCond algorithm)
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Appendix B
B.1 DSP Control
The power electronics lab located in the building 20, room 104, has a DSP Starter Kit (DSK) for Texas Instruments (TI) TMS320F2812 DSP. This appendix provides introduction of this DSP and the SIMULNK tool for implementation of DSP.
performance which enables implementation of more complex algorithms and DC motor drives including control of brushless motors. It has 16 channels of high resolution12-bit A/D converters, thus it enables to control multiple devices with a single DSP.
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B.1.3 Example
The following SIMULINK block diagram presents a simple example of implementing control system in SIMULINK using the Blockset for TI DSP. As shown in Figure B-1, the system consists of the following blocks: C28x ADC, a gain, C28x PWM, and F2812 eZdsp. Another set of block diagram located below is to emulate this system. The analog voltage (0.39V) is input to the A/D converter. The PWM generator is also emulated, and the gain is included in the sub-block. Figure B-2 shows the input voltage (0.39V) and the PWM output shown as duty cycle (10%). In practice, a control law comes in the place of gain block. It could be SIMULINK blocks or an embedded MATLAB function.
12. Gain1
F2812 eZdsp
PWM Emulation
Info
Figure B-1: A simple example of generating PWM from the voltage input
Figure B-2: Plots of the input voltage and the PWM output shown as duty cycle
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