ECOLOGY Policy about environment presents collection of principles and actions which some state, community or even a company

adopts to safeguard or protects environmental components and/or to use natural resources. It refers to various questions: From atmospheric and continental eco-systems, promotional and scientific knowledge and ecological information to early warning and capability to react in critical situations for solving problems, ecological catastrophes and emergency situations.1 Depending upon their characteristics, the instruments can be used in different levels: local, regional and national. Some instruments have been created for use only in companies. There are instruments for general, specific and sectional use. General instruments refer to taxation, justice, information accessibility, spatial planning and all laws that do not deal with some concrete sector (like environmental sector), but have sectional implications. Among the sectional instruments there are some that deal with environment directly and some indirectly, just as energy. With the process of European integration, our country has a goal to include public in decision-making. Instruments have to be treated as: planning instrument; legal instruments; economic instruments for evaluation of influence; instruments for monitoring

and evaluation and instruments for managing environment which are used in organizations. 4.2 IDEA AND CONSCIOUSNESS OF HUMAN BEING When we talk about ecology and environment, we must always have in mind that everything that happens around us depends upon us and mostly upon human factor. The protection of human environment depends upon how the man relates to his environment and national policy of a country. It is specially interesting that former practice of central commercial planning of human environment in the countries which are in the process of transition gave birth to problems just as high level of industrial pollution (in North Bohemia, Czech Republic, Silesia in Poland and in Densest basin in Ukraine), pollution of rivers with industrial and town liquid waste, inefficient ways of work in agriculture, inefficient use of natural resources (land, water, fuel) and neglecting aspects of nuclear safety. As far as energy is concerned, the problem (especially air-pollution problem) is connected with fact the major part of production of electricity (about 70%) is produced in thermal power stations, especially those that use fossil fuel (90%), in which coal is used in almost half of the quantity (EEA, 2001)2. Neglecting nuclear safety aspects lead to catastrophe in Chernobyl. Inadequate dumping of nuclear waste,
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as well bad management of Uranium mines creates a very big problem. In order to develop consciousness about protection of environment, people have to be well-informed, mostly through so-called Strategy and national policy. Every country must regulate at least basic knowledge about ecology, environment, human part in pollution and the way to prevent them through educational system. People must know about the basic chemicals, sources and consequences that they may cause. The biggest source of energy is oil. Oil is a source of getting petrol, which is a natural ingredient of heating-oil, and it exists in natural gas. Benzene is emitted by motor vehicles and chemical industry. Nobody can be stopped from driving cars, buying petrol and of course creating environmental and airpollution. But the government can control the level of permissible pollution by defining laws, which entail putting up eco-filters in the silencers of vehicles. Government can ascertain showing respect towards these laws by putting fines on the vehicles that do not have eco-filters. The same laws will be applicable for the industrial units, which should the ecological laws, and put ecofilters which decrease pollution of air, water and land. According to the authors` opinion, it wont be a bad idea that every country develops its strategy, and to aim this strategy towards ecological questions, such as: decrease the quantity of toxic substances in living environments, and that way decrease the level of
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exposure of human beings and eco-systems which are under the influence of toxic chemicals. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to make a lot of measures have to be taken in national and international levels. The most important among them are: Better ways of collecting data regarding the existing and new chemicals (Inventory) and information exchange, among interested parties, about chemicals and their possible influences. Harmonized categorization and notification, evaluation and management of risk on the basis of usefulness of laws for which exist efficient management instruments. Give stress on international cooperation during the process of harmonizing laws in different regions, among the regions and all over the world. Introducing better systems of danger control which exists in transportation of dangerous chemicals prevention of illegal international trade of toxic and dangerous products. Better cooperation between industries and organizations for environmental protection. Production of those chemical which may replace the most dangerous ones Advancement in alternative strategies in various sectors.

Only with timely education and familiarization with consequences and ways of prevention of the same, mans consciousness can be developed as well as his attitude towards environment. Pollution should not go without fines, taxes and punishment systems. Only with timely measures something can be prevented or someone be forced to respect certain laws. 4.2 EU ECOLOGICAL LAWS In some environmental sectors legislature has the shape of directive which stands with several relevant directives and they are called sister directives. On the other hand, general directives define regulatory systems including guiding principles, institutional frame, jurisdiction and responsibility of the involved subjects, procedures, deadlines etc. Sister directives define more specific and more short-termed parameters of the regulatory system such as the maximum value or lists of relevant substances. Such directives are important for the area and regularization in the field of ecology. European Union harmonizes ecological laws in the whole Europe, and that way it ensures higher level quality of environment, exclusively not only in the member countries of EU, but also in the countries which are still not members of EU. Candidate members are supposed to adopt laws of EU regarding environment till their joining date, and
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they implement them completely within ten years of joining EU.3 One study of Ecotec from 2001 evaluates that annually uses (including the ones from health area, resources and eco-systems which come from implementation of laws of EU in field of living environment in countries which are new members from May, 2004) 2.6% GNP from period 1999-2020. Countries with bigger problems in the field of living environment use higher percentage i.e., Czech Republic 4.8%. Directives about quality of air Collective goal of the laws which refer to quality of air is to decrease harmful emissions into atmosphere to provide the quality of air which is acceptable from the point of view of human health and protection of environment. Legislation regulates the standards for the quality of air and maximum emission from different sources. Directive of European Commission4 in the process of evaluation and management of quality of air presents general legislative framework in this field. The goals of the directive are following: defining and setting up goals for quality of surrounding air and putting up this information for public use. This directive has found group of atmospheric pollutants, for which it says: within particular sisterdirectives they are defined by specific standards for quality of air. That list includes SO2, NO2, particular molecules, lead, ozone, cadmium, arsenic, nickel and
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mercury. For these pollutants maximum limits are defined in sister-directives. Member countries are obliged to establish zones in which quality of air is evaluated by changing measures and modulation. For those zones in which the real level of either one or more pollutants exceeds maximum value or limit of tolerance, it is obligatory to accept and implement the plan of activities for achieving maximum values in time. This plan is given for public use and it has to contain information defined by directives, including the origin and nature of pollution, its spatial and time distribution, and more detailed data about activities and projects the goal of which is to decrease pollution. In those zones where the level of pollution does not exceed value, member countries are obliged to maintain quality of air. Directives about quality and management of water Legislative goal about water is to provide sustainable use of water in EU, including fulfillment of good status of surface and underground water from the point of view of living environment, quality and quantity. Directive5 of European Parliament and Commission about establishment of framework for activities of community in the field of policy of water, has the following goals: prevention of ruining and improvement of water eco-system status, long-term protection of available water resources, providing of gradual decrease of pollution of surface and underground water, contribution for diminishing flood and drought.
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The goal is to achieve respect of all the standards for protected areas till 2015. Directive demands establishment of administrative units and competent agencies in basis of river basins. In each river basin the competent agencies analyze characteristics of basins, and influence of human activities on status of water surfaces accomplishes economic analysis of water use. Basic measures directed towards goal achievement of directive are: Legislative application of European Union in the field of water policy Measures directed towards covering expanses for water delivery and establishment of economic stimulative measures for more efficient water usage. Measures directed towards respect for laws regarding drinking water Controlled usage of surface and underground water, including giving permission for usage Control for artificial filling and strengthening of the volume of underground water Control of pollution from known sources (point source pollution) also including restriction or permission for letting them into surface water. Measures which provide that hydro morphological conditions are persistent, with defined good ecological status or potential Measures for elimination of pollution by substance priorities
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 Measures for prevention of accidental pollution Directive of Commission6 about cleaning communal wastewater demands from member countries to provide collecting and cleaning of collected communal wastewater. Member countries are obliged to identify sensitive areas the ones which water surfaces are entropic, have bad water exchange or are used pumping drinking water. For of all it is necessary to provide systems for collecting, cleaning and application of ancillary cleaning. Directive of Commission for water protection7 from nitrate pollution from agricultural activities has an objective to prevent and lessen nitrate pollution. It demands from member countries to adopt codex of good agricultural practice, which deals with questions about causes of pollution of water and agricultural sources. The biggest pollution is from nitrates. Directives about protection of nature Directive of Commission about saving wild birds8 has an objective to provide protection of all kinds of wild birds on EU territory and to save their population. So as to maintain number of birds on some natural level, it is necessary to safeguard or re-establish biotopes, also including development of protected areas. Member countries are obliged to protect these areas from pollution and damage. The strictest measures of protection are applied on categories which are mentioned in addition to same Directive.
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Directive of the Commission about protection of natural domiciles of fauna and flora9 has an objective to contribute to protect biodiversity by developing systems of protection of species and their domiciles. Member countries are obliged to give report to the commission about areas in which species are present and also about domiciles which are defined in this directive. It is necessary to evaluate every activity which is planned in protected areas, which will affect objectives. That evaluation can be approved by authorized agencies only if negative influence is stopped or decreased by ways which ascertain safeguarding all general coherent networks Natura 2000. As far as animal species are concerned, those systems should prevent killing, disturbing, destroying their places of breeding and nesting, and for plants to prevent destruction, keeping and trading. Directive about waste management EU legislation in the area of waste has an objective to decrease quantity of waste and to provide its re-use and dumping in the way which harm living environment. Legislative framework is based on two directives: Directive about waste and Directive about dangerous waste. Other directives deal with specific courses of waste, package waste, coal waste, titandioxide, poly-chloral, biphenyl (PCB), and poly-chloral triennium (PCTs), sewerage mud, batteries, scraped vehicles, electric and electronic waste or its processing. Such are the directives about waste dumps and waste burning.
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Directive of Commission about10, with changes in directive of commission11, has an objective to decrease quantity of generated waste as well as it harmfulness by stimulating development of clean productive technologies and better designing of products, developing adequate techniques of waste dumping, waste recycling and re-use of waste for energy production. This directive demands from member countries to forbid uncontrolled dumping of waste dumping and provide recycling and controlled dumping the way which is safe for living environment. Member countries should build network of locations for waste dumping with an objective to develop self-sufficiency of EU on the field of waste dumping. All producers or waste owners are obliged to dump their waste according to the laws of directive and to give it to organizations to work by authorized agencies which are responsible for inspections. Dumping expenses are to be paid by the owner or the producer of the waste. The directive of the commission No. 91/689/EEC about dangerous waste is changed by directive of the commission No. 94/31/EC, is complimentary to the framework of the directive about waste. It defines dangerous waste and it introduces additional and stricter demands for managing it. Dangerous waste must not be mixed with other sort of waste and it kept apart. Work permissions for power plants and recycling and dumping locations may cover maximum values, maximum levels of emission and laws about
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technology. During collection, transportation, and storage it is necessary to adequately pack and mark dangerous waste. Directives about industrial pollution The of the commission about integral prevention and control of pollution (IPPC)12 has an objective integral prevention and decrease of pollution in living environment, regarding emissions of pollution into air, water, land, generation of waste and consumption of energy. Permissions which in harmony with this directive which authorized agencies give to some industrial organization should contain conditions that guarantee high level of protection of living environment in general. These conditions should include limited values for emission of pollution in air, water and land. Conditions which refer to generation of waste, longterm pollution except for the ones which come from normal work order, rehabilitation of location after work, etc., also can be added to permission. It should contain conditions of monitoring which will provide respect of law and permission. Limited values of emission and other conditions should be based on concept of the best available BAT techniques. They contain most appropriate and most developed working methods in that kind of industrial production, by which highest level of protection of environment is achieved, and which are feasible from technical and economical point of view.

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Permissions, which are given by authorized agencies, can demand stricter conditions for control of pollution then it can be achieved by the use of BAT techniques, as long as it is necessary on the basis of quality standard of living environment. Authorized agencies look through and change conditions of permission in the cases when there are important changes in industrial installation. It is done if the best available techniques enable decrease of pollution without significant increase of expenses or if the pollution which is made by the installation is of that much importance that it is necessary to revise limited values of emission. The directive of the commission about control of main risk of dangers provoked by harmful susbtances13 has an objective to prevent bigger accidents provoked by them, as well as limitation of consequences of such accidents on people and living environment. Directive demands that operators of power-plants, in which real and expected quantity of dangerous waste exceeds defines levels, should submit a proof to authorized agencies of member country that they have taken all possible measure for prevention and decrease of possible bigger accidents. They are also obliged to submit to authorized agencies those kinds of documents which, if correctly applied, present all general system for prevention of bigger accidents. These documents cover declaration of the operators named in the directive, main document which defines policy for prevention of bigger incidents: safety report and internal plan for extraordinary situations.
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Authorized agency is obliged to ensure the use of adopted system. In cases when it comes to significant changes in the power plant or by demand of the authorized agency, revision and speeding up of documents are being done. In the case of accident the operator is obliged to inform the authorized agency about urgent, short-term and long-term measures, analysis of accidents and recommendations for future prevention methods. Member countries are obliged to identify the groups of industrial power plants in which domino effect can increase the consequences of the accidents. The objective of land use planning is to prevent bigger incidents, especially when it is about plans for locating industrial power plants regarding public places, residential areas, traffic connections and areas of high natural sensitivity. 4.3 LEGISLATION IN REPUBLIC OF SERBIA The Government of Republic of Serbia adopted National strategy for waste management on July 4, 2003 in Belgrade, with an objective to come closer to European Union. National strategy presents basic document which provides conditions for rational and feasible waste management on the level of Republic of Serbia. Strategy must be supported by many implementation plans for collecting, transport, treatment, dumping of controlled waste.

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It also has to consider the needs for institutional strengthening, legislation development and confirmation of economical and financial mechanisms necessary to maintain and improve waste and to insure the system for the domestic and foreign investment in long-term feasible activities. By implementing basic principles of waste management (solving problems of waste at their origin), prevention, separate collection of waste materials, principle of neutralization of dangerous waste, waste dumping and rebuilding of trash dump on regional level, basic principles of EU are implemented in waste area and further danger is prevented. Exact formulation of goals presents strategic choice and main priorities for Serbia for following several years. At the same time they do not prevent activities which come from policy of environmental protection. Strategic goals are presented as long-term strategy of the Republic. Strategy of waste management determines basic orientation of waste management on the basis of strategic plans of EU, determines hierarchy of possible options of waste management, directs activities in legislative harmonization which is inevitable in the process of bringing closer to EU legislation because of trade demands, and identifies responsibilities for waste, importance and role of proprietary direction of capital. State of legal structure in the area of waste management points to following problems14:
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 Lack of instruments and mechanisms for conducting existing regulations Lack of legal structures for managing all kinds of waste Insufficient personnel, organizational and financial basis for working in municipalities. Divided payment of debts of public communal organizations and inherited deficit of work of the same. Information about commencement and dumping of waste in the Republic of Serbia is incomplete, which means it is also incorrect. It is estimated that public communal organization transport 2.200.000 tons of various waste annually. This is, of course, estimation which refers to waste from 70% of household, mostly residential structures in towns. The stunning fact is that about 30% of waste from suburban and city households ends in so-called wild dumps which present ecological bomb. The main and biggest item concerning waste from hospitals and health institutions as well as from industrial power plants is almost unnoted. It is estimated that annually about 550.000 tons of waste come from various packages15. This is a pure loss for our whole community.

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Refining or recycling of the same can save millions of euros, which is additional loss to our economically poor country. It is interesting that about 200.000 tons of waste annually comes from PCB oil in electric power plants from destroyed transformers. This all leads to the conclusion that it is urgent to make national plan for waste management which has to be according to the laws of EU. The biggest part of dangerous waste in Serbia is created in the field of mining and energy. Big quantity of waste has be created in mining and technological preparation or ore for metallurgical and chemical refining. Surficial mines of coal and mineral raw material as well as dumps of various waste materials take huge surface of degraded and contaminated land, unprotected and mostly beside water. If some things which go together with some phase of production cannot be avoided, then at least they must be mitigated. It is necessary to make laws urgently so as to regulate not only the way of waste dumping but also to provide punishment measures to which will ensure usage of the same. The solution which is applied in Great Britain, socalled Tax on waste water, is also possible to apply in our country in the shape of tax for certain kinds of waste in concrete industrial branches16.

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It would make pollutants to invest money in environmental protection, buying and installing filters and cleaners. In 1990`s there were sanctions and sudden fall of economic and social standards which contributed to bad state in industry and made big economic giants poor. But money for cleaning various waste made during production process must also be added and provided into plans for restoration of the same for advancement and modernization of industrial production. 4.4 RECYCLING OF MATERIAL AS A NEW SOURCE OF ENERGY-ECOLOGOCALLY CLEANER AND CHEAPER We can try very hard to give precise answer to the question whether recycling is more significant in domain of industrial or communal waste, but it is practically impossible because in both cases very important technical, ecological and economical effects are developed. The most important among them are drastic decrease of the quantity of communal and industrial waste which must be dumped in sanitary waste dumps, which makes the period of use of dump prolonged and significantly slows down process of drawing out of natural resources and emissions from waste dumps. Some industrial processes and power plants for energy production work under the circumstances,
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which let the use of waste which has high level of heat energy instead of conventional fuel. Vehicle oils, which have already been used and thrown out, can be used again as a source of heat energy. In adapted heaters they are perfect resource for heating in i.e. auto mechanical workshops. With little investment, liquid fuel heaters can be restored and filled with motor and brake oil, which has been used already, and this way it is ready to be dumped forever. In Serbia it is poured all over. Law does not regulate punishment of pollution of living environment in that way of pouring motor oil. According to the authors opinion adequate legislative measures and punishment of illegal dumping with acknowledgement with good sides of usage of the same and production of heat energy, can contribute to save in that way of heating an prevent land pollution. 4.5 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES Electricity and oil are getting more and more expensive and at the same time the nature generously gives some other sources of energy. It should be kept in mind that every day Sun sends 15000 times more energy on Earth than people can manage to spend. The energy, which is produced by wind, comes and goes irretrievably. Wind as a source of energy is renewable forever. Nowadays usage of that energy has great expansion all over the world. Many rich countries have farms of windmills for producing electricity.
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In this way Germans get even 38% of electricity, Dutch 20%, and English 10%. Our country is situated in the zone of western winds and its energy potential bigger than average in the world. Only in Banat wind blows 270 days in a year and in Backa at least 200 days. In Vojvodina windmills for mincing grains were built even in the middle of seventeenth century following the model of Holland. There is information that there were 300 of them in the eighteenth century. Today there are less than ten and they are tourist attraction. If our ancestors could use the wind, why should not we do the same today? Only these new windmills do not look at all like the old ones. One of them is in the yard of landlord who lives near Valjevo in Serbia and the other one in Petrovac na Mlavi in Serbia17. These windmills are very simple, folded out of pieces produced in Serbia. There are wind generators on the pillar which is ten meters high and which moves even when the wind blows slowly. At the bottom of the pillar are batteries. When the windmill works in normal conditions, it can produce 6 kWh of electricity in eight hours. It is quite sufficient to provide one household or farm, for functioning of pumps that are used to water vegetable gardens, greenhouses and fish pounds. It is very easy to install, and if put solar panels on the pillar, then these two sources of alternative energy will support each other. Work of just one windmill saves seventeen tons of coal per month, and electricity that it produces can be used immediately. Extra energy is saved in batteries.
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Electricity that is produced in this way is completely harmless because its voltage is 24 volts. In the conference, which was held in the Republic of Serbia, it was emphasized that our country would have to start respecting the international laws and contracts about protection of living environment. Electric Power of Serbia is one of the key subjects in pollution because of engagements in its thermal power stations, so it will have to adjust to international standards. Windmills are most ideal for lower usage consumers. To provide such consumer with electricity, i.e. one transmitter for mobile telephony that is usually situated on top of some mountain, it is necessary to make big investment which cannot be paid off (longdistance power line and thermal power station building). This is clear loss for electro power sectors, and electricity that is produced by windmill is sufficient for this kind of users. Why just the rich countries should save and take care of their living environment and we do not? 4.6 NUCLEAR ENERGY - YES OR NO? Nowadays when we read some feasibility studies about nuclear energy, which done at the end of 60s and beginning of 70s of the 20th century, it seems to be science fiction. Nuclear energy was supposed to be the energy of future, cheaper and substitution for hydropower plants whose running is dependent upon heating oil, and
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thermal power stations that are dependent on coal and its reserves are getting lesser and lesser. Biggest problem of nuclear power plants is the possibility of overheating of reactors, whose consequences are catastrophic for population, and following generations. Overheating of reactors can itself be from either human factor or mechanical errors. Unfortunately it cannot be precisely foreseen or stopped in time. Consequences are catastrophic. People in Europe still remember huge damage in nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, Ukraine. It happened in 1986 and there children are still born with horrible birth defects. Such consequences can last for decades and both people are exposed. In 1970s nuclear power plants started working, they brought stability to electrical market and also the price that was within the limits of profitability, but they did not foresee and calculate expenses for shutting down these nuclear power plants. Such expenses cannot be imposed and included into price in short period and can be a very big problem and impact on economic stability. A problem, which erupted in nuclear power plant in USA, brought referendum in Sweden in 1980 which demanded cessation of usage of nuclear energy. In Germany Green party succeeded in convincing Government to stop refining nuclear fuel till the middle of 2005. Belgium decided to forbid new nuclear power plants just after Germany. And France, which was directed
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towards nuclear energy, simply stopped having enthusiasm for it. After building nuclear power plants a nuclear wastedumping problem arouse much before feasibility testing of the same. Presently everyone deal with new design and according to the opinion of International Agency for Atomic Energy (IAEA), which did new analysis of economy of nuclear energy, capital expense for present nuclear design is about 2000 USD/kW against the 1200 USD/kW for power plant which uses coal and only 500 USD/kW for combined gas power plant. But debts of any new power plant will not be written off which does not apply to present power plants. The real price of energy from existing power plants is at least double as compared to given numbers18. The supporters of industry point towards other exemptions: safe delivery, ecological advantages etc. In some countries and some circumstances such arguments would make sense. Regarding everything, do they make special case out of nuclear energy that approves subventions and other kinds of governmental interventions? Arguments about the security of energy are different, however, most of them contain reduced reliance on fossil fuel, less vulnerable to some OPEC embargo or lower bill for imported fuel. No matter how is the political sense of such arguments, one analysis was done 1998 by few OECD services which clearly shows relative expenses and use: For many
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countries additional security achieved from investments are options which are not based on use fossil fuel will most probably be worth less than the price received from that security. In ecological sense nuclear energy also does not offer clear winner. It is true that nuclear energy doesnt produce CO2, the main culprit for global warming caused by a man. Giving public money to nuclear industry (through production and investment tax credits) presents inefficient way for governments to solve the problem of global warming. Better method would be taxation of carbon which would punish use of fossil fuel, and not every fuel without carbon emissions, no matter whether it is nuclear or feasible energy. It is supposition that tax on carbon would be between USD 25 and 85 per ton of carbon, which is level considered by many experts to be necessary if industrialized countries are serious in the matter of objectives of emissions agreed in Kyoto in 1997. IAEA thinks that the highest among those taxes would to induce competition between nuclear energy and coal for 2 cents/kW, and regarding natural gas it would be 1 cent/kW19. In the end nuclear energy even if it is induced by tax on carbon carries very serious ecological responsibility. Radiation presents threat to human health in every phase of the process, from extraction of Uranium to its processing in power plants to its dumping. When the value of nuclear energy is being evaluated, it is very important to have in mind the scope,
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proportion and subtlety of the subventions which are being received. Analyses of IEAE nuclear economy shows that different OECD governments subvent the services for fuel delivery in industry, waste dumping, refining of fuel, research and development. Ecological profit of use of nuclear energy includes the use of alternative (fossil) fuels that are more harmful for living environment (emissions of CO2 and other GH gases). Ecological expenses include the problem of dumping of highly radioactive waste, the risk of big ecological catastrophes, which are related to nuclear power plants or transportation of nuclear materials. Non-ecological profit out of use of nuclear energy includes national security of the supply (there will be no dependency on overseas delivery of fossil fuels) and alleged lower prices of electricity through lower operative expenses. Low prices of energy will also contribute to growth of real income and to consumption, and it will stimulate the output and employment on national level. Non-ecological expenses include big expenses of capital in nuclear power plants and losses in output and employment in alternative industries of energy. Big part of the budget for research and development, which includes delivery of energy, goes for nuclear industry that is harmful for their industries of energy. 4.7 ENERGY AS A SOURCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION Biological existence of a man is inseparably connected to biosphere (thin external layer of our
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planet) in which exist organic matter and living processes. Biosphere presents global eco-system of the Earth, which is being maintained in the state of dynamic balance by natural self-regulatory processes. With development of industry a man deranges balance of natural and energetic flows in biosphere, which disturbs his living environment and endangers his biological survival. Analysis of pollution of living environment usually starts form basic living medium of biosphere, air, water and ground, and for these reasons we differ20: Pollution of air Pollution of water and Pollution of ground Therefore, all this can be observed and analyzed from the aspect of energy as a source of pollution of living environment. 4.7.1 Energy as a source of air pollution Main pollutants of air are: electro-power sector, traffic, industrial fireboxes (steam boilers and industrial heaters) and individual fireboxes. Depending on use of fuel, these pollutants emit following harmful materials21: Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Nitric oxides
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 Carbon hydrogen Hard particles (soot and ashes) The biggest part of the emitted sulfur dioxide (43%) comes from stationed fireboxes of electro power sector. During the processes of refining there are lots of emissions of Carbon hydrogen due to evaporation of evaporable particles of some derivates. Emission of flying ashes and sulfur dioxide depends on contents of ashes and sulfur that is in the fuel, and ways of heating in stationary fireboxes. The biggest part of ashes comes from hard fuel and the biggest part of sulfur comes from hard and liquid fuel. During the process of heating with carbonic dust in big electro power boilers, about 80% of smoke ashes with smoke gases come out of fireboxes. On the other hand, during usage of coal in barbecues most of the ashes remain in the firebox. Biggest potential producers of flying ashes are thermal power plants. Emission of unburnt substances (soot, carbon monoxide and carbon hydrogen) depends on quality of mixture of fuel and air in the process of burning. Following factors affect quality of mixture: Aggregation state of fuel Type of machine for mixing fuel with air Air flow Speed of heating and Management of burning process

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Nitric oxides appear in the process of burning, partly from Nitrogen that is in fuel and partly from Nitrogen that comes from air. Biggest quantity of nitric oxides comes out of burning of coal. Beside mentioned ones, emissions of waste heating, carbon dioxide and water steam appear during energetic processes. These emissions affect thermal balance of local and regional eco-systems and the whole biosphere too. In nuclear power plants, emissions of waste gasses appear with certain dose of radioactivity. Process of transmission or transport of harmful materials from emission sources to certain locations in ecosystem is affected by: Direction and speed of air movement (wind) in certain layers of atmosphere Other weather circumstances (rain, inversion of atmospheric layers) Natural configuration of the ground (natural relief, forests) and Artificial obstacles (buildings). Air pollution affects man, flora and fauna equally. Phenomena that are noticed on men can also be noticed on animals reactions to carcinogenic substances. It is very disturbing that more and more species became extinct, which opens a frightening question will human race have same destiny? As far as flora is concerned, hard particles affect them most
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because they make layers on the surface of leaves, this blocks sunlight from reaching them (upto 50%) and affects the process of photosynthesis. Sulfur dioxide also badly affects them but carbon hydrogen and carbon monoxide dont have direct toxic influence, but together with nitric oxides indirectly harms plants through photochemical smog. Damages of flora can mostly be noticed near thermal power stations and mining areas. In the biggest mining basin in EU, Ruhr basin (Germany), it is noticed that pine trees, whose average height in normal circumstances is about 20 meters, is only 6-7 meters. In European Union valorization of damage is anticipated which does not exist in the present legislation of the Republic of Serbia. It is hardly possible that valorization of damage, which is usually done in money units, can lessen damage but it can prevent it. For the same reason it is prohibited to use fireplaces in European Union (parts of Great Britain). There is competition between ecological goal for clean air and economic goal for providing economic development and material living standard in short and medium period, which means that both objectives can not be maximized at the same time. To achieve maximum well-being, it is necessary to find optimal compromise in achieving competitive sub-goals. Theoretically speaking, optimal compromise between ecological objective to lessen air-pollution and economical objective to provide economic
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development and material living standard is achieved when social benefit from additional cleanness of air is less than the social damage of reduced economic development and material living standard, and vice versa. Measurement of social benefit and social damage presents a process of political decisionmaking in general, because there is no objective and common measures for comparing various components and dimensions of mans well-being. In the countries of European Union there are high criteria of control, so-called emission standards. They are being established to control and emitters which emit high volume of harmful material. Establishment of such standards laws for controlling vehicle fumes has brought changes in constructional characteristics of engines. Laws also control big emitters such as thermal power stations, cokeries, high heaters. One of the first laws on the territory of ex-Yugoslavia was published in Bureau magazine no. 3/75 on Socialist Republic of Slovenia. Of course it is not enough to make laws to protect environment, it is more important to respect them. In the member countries of European Union fines on disrespect for laws are very high, though in Serbia they are just symbolic, which further more gives pollutants a push. Policy of protection of living environment usually anticipates a lot of qualitative and quantitative measures, but before everything else:

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 Restrictions on usage of certain processes and machines (prohibition of open fire-places in England) Restrictions on usage of certain kinds of inputs (restriction on usage of hard and liquid fuels in households) Limiting of number of permitted power stations and administrative procedures for giving licenses for running new power plants (i.e. limiting the number of boiler rooms) Limiting of total available quantity of certain inputs (i.e. limit of selling heating oil) Limiting of permitted quantity of total emissions (giving of so-called licenses which would approve of quantity of harmful emissions and paid according to permitted quantity) Qualitative emissions above all cover emission standards (criteria of permitted concentration of emissions) and laws about qualitative content of certain kinds of fuels, i.e. Laws about maximum contents of sulfur in fuel (in the member countries of European Union the quantity of sulfur in heating oil decreased from 2% to 1% even in 1983). Qualitative and quantitative can also be formulated in indirect way in the shape of orders and legal obligations such as:

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 The order for carrying out of certain measure for improvement of emission and transmission characteristics (installation of filters for cleaning) The order for connecting to certain systems of energy system (systems for distant heating) The order for usage of fuel with certain qualitative contents (fuel with low content of sulfur) According to the above mentioned, some limitations can be differentiated in space in time, such as: Restriction on usage of certain processes and machines in some specific areas (restriction on passing of certain vehicles through certain zone ). Restriction on usage of certain processes and machines during periods of critical emission loading (disconnection of big emitters in certain time period or under certain proper circumstances) Restriction on usage of certain kinds of fuel in certain areas (i.e. heating oil, fuel oil, lignite or brown coal) Restriction on usage of certain kinds or qualities of fuel in certain time period (i.e. restriction on usage of heating oil with big content of sulfur in certain time period)

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System of restrictions and system of control are prerequisite for successful application of rectrictions, for only efficient system of control of emissions and emitters can give all necessary information (according to the type of restriction) for possible sanctions and determined compensations. Without appropriate sanctions, restrictions cannot work efficiently (it is important to say that even in 1975 the Regulation about transferring all taxi vehicles in Belgrade to usage of gas fuel was brought, but it has never come to life). 4.7.2 Energy as a source of water pollution Different from air pollution, a part which energy takes in pollution of water with harmful materials is much lesser. The only thermal loading of water flows and stagnant water in whole, come from energetic processes. Within energy, pollutants of water with harmful materials are coalmines, cookeries and oil refineries. Possible pollutants are also machines that desulfurise smoke gasses, if they use so-called wet-process and radioactivity in wastewater of nuclear power plants. Wastewater of coalmines contains mostly hard particle and various salts, depending on land structure and applied procedures of preparation and refining of coal.

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