Water

O Water is a bent, partially polar molecule.

O It is a polar covalent molecule; it has a slight positive and slight negative charge
on opposite ends.
O It is made up of two hydrogens () and one oxygen (-).
O Water possesses the following biologically important characteristics:
O Polarity : means that the molecule has both a positively and negatively
charged end
O Hydrogen Bonding : attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom with an
electronegative atom, such as nitrogen and oxygen (atoms that comes from a
different chemical group)
O Cohesion : molecules tending to stick together in a regular pattern; water
attracted to another water molecule
O Surface Tension
- Water is known as a universal solvent because it is able to disolve many common
substances.
O Substances that cannot be disolved in water (such as lipids, oils) are called fat
soluble and nonpolar.
- The hydrogen bonds that form between water molecules account for some of the
essential properties of water:
O The attraction created by hydrogen bonds keeps water liquid over a wider range
of temperature than is found for any other molecule its size.
O The energy required to break multiple hydrogen bonds causes water to have a
high heat of vaporization; that is, a large amount of energy is needed to convert
liquid water, where the molecules are attracted through their hydrogen bonds, to
water vapor, where they are not.
O When water is attracted to other water, it is called cohesion. When water is
attracted to other materials, it is called adhesion.

Chemistry of Life

O Carbohydrate is an organic compound. It is made up of one carbon atom, two
hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom.
O Organic compound: any compound whose molecules contain carbon. It is mostly
found in living things.
O The most important carbohydrate is glucose. Glucose can be converted to
glycogen (serves as a long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells) or
starch (used as energy storage by plants).
O Carbohydrates are divided into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
O The simplest form of carbohydrate is monosaccharides. Monosaccharides cannot
be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates.
O Two joined monosaccharides become disaccharides. Disacchardes are the simplest
form of polysaccharides. Some examples of disaccharides are sucrose (table
sugar), lactose (found in milk), and maltose.
O Polysacchardes contain more than two monosaccarides (monomers). Polymers can
be found in starch, glycogen, and different kinds of fibers.
O Condensation : the joining of two monomers. During this process, one water
molecule is lost.
O Hydrolosis : Hydro (water) lysis (breakdown). Breakdown/decomposition of a
chemical compound
- Polymers` function in living organisms are usually structure- or storage-related. e.g
starch, glycogen, cellulose in cell walls..

O Lipids are the main non-polar component of cells. Non-polar means non-
soluble/not able to mix in water or any other compounds
O Lipids are hydrocarbon molecules (molecules containing hydrogen, carbon, and
oxygen).
O Lipids are made up of one glycerol and three fatty acid groups. This combined is
also called triglyceride.
O Lipids store energy, are component of the cell membrane, and act as signalers
inside the cell.
O Four main types of lipids are: fats (used for energy storage), steroids (used for
hormones), waxes (, and phospholipids (found in cell membranes).
O Two kinds of fats are saturated fat and unsaturated fat.
O Saturated fat:
O are fats with a single bond between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids
O are solid in room temperature
O are mostly found in animal products
O contains only single bonds between carbon atoms, no double bonds
O Unsaturated fat:
O has one or more double bonds between the fatty acids
O is liquid in room temperature
O is mostly derived from plants
O Protein are made up of amino acid chains bonded together by peptide bonds.
Proteins require a very specific order for their amino acids to remain functional.
They can be found anywhere inside an organism; whether in the cell, in the
membrane, or outside of the cell. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Generic formula: H
2
NCHRCOOH.
O nzymes are made from amino acids, and are proteins that acts as
a catalyze (increase the rates of) chemical reactions. The region that carries out
the reaction is called the active site. nzymes are very specific as to which
reactions they catalyze. The factors that affects the rate of the reaction is:
temperature, concentration of substrate, and size of substrate. nzymes are not
permanently changed in the process, making it reusable. nzymes are used to
convert starch into sugar which then can be used in food.
O nzyme-substrate complex: a complex formed of a substrate bound to the active
site of the enzyme. An enzyme binds a substrate in a region called the active site.
Only certain substrates can fit the active site. nzyme and active site adjust shape
to bind substrate.
O Four factors that affects enzyme activity:
I. Temperature - higher temperature means higher kinetic energy; the enzyme
denatures if the temperature is too high because the high kinetic energy
causes big vibrations and disrupts the bonds)
II. Cofactors and coenzymes (a nonprotein compound that is necessary for the
functioning of an enzyme)
III. nzyme inhibitors (a molecule that binds to enzymes and decrease their
activity)
IV. pH level - pH affects the ionisation of the R group of the amino acids.
Changes in ionisation affects electrostatic bonding of the protein. Affecting
bonding means affecting the shape. If the shape of the active site is affected,
the substrate will not be able to bind as easily causing reduced enzyme
activity. If the pH change is extreme enough, the bonding will be so
disrupted that the enzyme denatures and becomes non-functional.





Cells
Cell Theory
O cells are the smallest unit of life and nothing smaller can survive independently
O all living things consist of cells
O all cells come from other pre-existing cells by cell division

O A nucleus is present in both plant and animal cells. The nucleus stores the DNA
blueprint and keeps it separate from the cytoplasm.
O Plant cells have a cell wall outside their plasma membrane. Cell walls are made of
cellulose. The cell walls found in plant cells mantains a plant cell in a fixed shape.
It protects the cell and prevents cell from bursting. Animal cells have cell
membranes, but not cell walls. Therefore animal cells have irregular
shapes. Plasma membrane (cell membrane) found in both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells is partially permeable, protects the cell, controls entry and exit of
substances, and can also pump substances in or out by active transport.
O Prokaryotic cells have the simplest cell structure. Bacteria are prokaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus and no organelles.
O Plant cells often have vacuoles, which absorbs mineral ions and water allowing
the rapid growth of plant cells. It is bounded by a vacuole membrane. Animal
cells do not have vacuoles. Lack of a vacuole reduces the mass of the cell and
makes movement easier, so animals have much greater range of locomotion
methods, such as flying.
O Plant cells do not have protein.
O Animal cells do not synthesize or store starch.
O Only animal cells contain centrioles.
O Plant cells have chlorophyll inside chloroplasts, and they are able to store starch.
O Only eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, also known as 'cellular power plants`
breaks down chemical bonds and releases energy. They also contain enzymes to
metabolize food. All cells have different numbers of mitochondria. Cells that
require a lot of energy usually have more.
O Plastids are only found in plant cells. It often contain pigments used in
photosynthesis and store products like starch.
O Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It is
responsible for manufacturing, storing, and and shipping of proteins that have
been produced in the R.
O ndoplasmic reticulum is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Rough R (with
ribosomes) is used to make proteins. Smooth R (without ribosomes) makes
lipids and steroids, and helps in the detoxicification of harmful substances in the
cell. ndomplasmic reticulum also transports ribosomes.
O Ribosomes in cells makes proteins.
O The ratio between the surface area and the volume of the cells determines the
amount of raw materials that can enter the cell membrane at one time. As a cell
grows in size, the SA/V decreases.
Functions of life that all organisms must do to ensure survival:
O Nutrition - obtaining food, to provide energy that the materials needed for growth
O Metabolism - chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to
release energy, allows organisms to grow and reproduce
O Growth - an irreversible increase in size
O Sensitivity - perceiving and responding to changes in the environment
O Homeostatis - keeping conditions inside organism in a stable, constant position
(temperature, pH)
O Reproduction - producing offspring either sexually or asexually
O The rate of the metabolism is proportional to the volume of the cell. The rate at
which substances cross the plasma membrane depends on its surface area.
O For metabolism to continue, substances used in the reactions must be absorbed by
the cell and waste products must be removed.

Cell Membrane
O All cells have a cell membrane.
O It controls what enters and exits the cell to main homeostatis (internal balance)
and provides protection and support for the cell. It also helps for cell
identification, cell communication,
O Structure: Lipid bilayer: two layers of phospholipids; contains phosphorus &
lipids
O The phosphate head is polar (water-loving/hydrophilic).The fatty acid tails is
hydrophobic. The tails do not like to be near water and arrange themselves to that
tails meet tails and heads face the cellular fluids and exterior of the cell.
O The lipid bilayer acts as a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell. It is a
highly impermeable structure; it does not allow molecules to freely pass across it.
Only water and gases can easily pass through the bilayer. This property means
that large molecules and small polar molecules cannot cross the bilayer, thus the
cell membrane, without the assistance of other structures.
O Membranes are not composed entirely of phospholipids - they also contain
proteins. Integral proteins, also known as transmembrane proteins, are the ones
that are permanently embedded in the phospholipid. Peripheral proteins, also
known as extrinsic proteins, are the ones that are temporarily attached and are
more loosely attached to the surface of the membrane. Glycoproteins are simply
proteins with sugar component that are part of the phospholipid bilayer. Their big
role is 'body recognition.` They decide what to accept and what to reject
(immune system & antibodies)
O Three types of passive transport: Osmosis, Diffusion, and Facilitated diffusion
O Osmosis is the process of water moving from a high-concentration to low
concentration. Osmosis may also be used to describe the movement of any liquid
solvent moving across a membrane.
O Simple Diffusion is the process of non-water molecules moving across a
membrane from high concentration to low concentration areas. Diffusion
continues until all the molecules are evenly spaced (equilibrium is reached). The
rate of diffusion is affected by temperature, size of molecules moving across the
membrane, and the steepness of the gradient concentration. The source of energy
used to power diffusion is heat. Molecules that are able to diffuse through the
lipid bilayer are generally hydrophobic. For example, oxygen and carbon dioxide
move into and out of cells by diffusion.
O Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of specific particles from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration through transport/carrier proteins found in
the cell membrane. Transport proteins are specific because they 'select` only
certain molecules to cross the membrane.
O Active transport is the process of moving molecules from low concentration to
high concentration. Moving things up a gradient requires cell energy (ATP). It
requires a protein 'pump` or protein channel; requires cell energy. The proteins
that carry out active transport are called globular/pump/transporter proteins.
O Cholestrol in lipid bilayer: helps strengthen bilayer and decrease its permeability;
helps regulate activity of certain integral proteins
O Large molecules are transported across the membrane by carrier proteins/protein
channel in the membrane.
O Two ways for transport of large molecules:
I. xocytosis: cellular process by which cells excrete waste products
II. ndocytosis: A process in which the cell takes in materials from the outside
by engulfing and fusing them with its plasma membrane



Cell Division
O Mitosis is the process of cell division which results in the production of two
daughter cells from a single parent cell. Daughter cells are identical to one another
and to the original parent cell because they have the same number of chromatids.
O Functions of mitosis: make new tissues/organs and repair damaged tissues/organs
O Consists of four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase
I. Prophase: supercoiling of the chromosomes; nuclear membrane breaks down;
chromosomes start to appear
II. Metaphase: spindle fibers fully formed and attach to chromosomes
(centromeres); chromosomes are moved to the equator of cell
III. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate; spindle fibers pull them to opposite
sides of the cell
IV. Telophase: nuclear membranes reform around the chromosomes;
chromosomes uncoil; cell divides; two daughter cells enter interphase again

O Cytokinesis: generally happens right after the last stage of mitosis; division of the
cytoplasm to form two new cells
O Polar molecules (e.g sugar,starch, glucose and proteins) cannot freely cross the
lipid membrane because the lipid bilayer is non-polar (because it contains fatty
acid tails) and does not readily interact with polar molecules.

Cell Respiration
O Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) from organic compounds in cells.
O Cell require energy for three main types of activity:
I. synthesizing large molecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins
II. pumps molecules or ions across membranes by active transport
III. moving things around inside the cell, such as chromosomes, vesicles, or in
muscle cells the proteins fibers that cause muscle contraction
O Cell respiration consists of four stages:
I. Glycolysis (cytoplasm)
II. Transition Reaction (matrix of mitochondria)
III. The Krebs Cycle (matrix of mitochondria)
IV. lectron Transport Chain (cristae of mitochondria)
O Glycolysis means 'breaking down sugar.` (glyco = sugar, lysis = breakdown)
O Glucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into two molecules of a three carbon sugar. In
the process, two molecules of ATP, two molecules of pyruvate and two NADH
are produced. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen.