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AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON COORDINATE GEOMETRY OF THREE DIMENSIONS

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
OF THREE DIMENSIONS

BY

ROBERT

J. T.

BELL, M.A,

D.Sc., LL.D., Sc.D.

N.Z.

EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO, DUNEDIN, FORMERLY LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW

THIRD EDITION

LONDON

MACMILLAN & CO LTD

NEW YORK
ST MARTIN'S PRESS

1963

This book

is copyright in all countries which are signatories to the Berne Convention

First Edition 1910 Second Edition 1912

Reprinted 1914, 1918, 1920, 1923, 1926, 1928 1931, 1937 Third Edition 1944

Reprinted 1949, 1950, 1954, 1956, 1959, 1960 1963

MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED St Martin's Street London WC2 also Bombay Calcutta Madras Melbourne
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED
Toronto
ST MARTIN'S PRESS INO

New York

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

PREFACE
present elementary text-book embodies the course in Solid Coordinate Geometry which, for several years, it has been part of my duties as Lecturer in Mathematics at the

THE

University of Glasgow to give to two classes of students. For the student whose interests lie in the direction of

Applied Mathematics, the book aims at providing a fairly

complete exposition of the properties of the plane, the It is also intended to straight line, and the conicoids.
furnish

him with a book

of reference

which he

may

consult

when his reading on Applied Mathematics demands a knowledge, say, of the properties of curves or of geodesies. At the
same time
it is

hoped that the student of Pure Mathematics

may

find here a suitable introduction to the larger treatises on the subject and to works on Differential Geometry and

the Theory of Surfaces.

The matter has been arranged

chapters contain a
first

so that the first ten

course which includes the properties of conicoids as far as confocals. Certain sections of a less
all

elementary character, and

sections

and examples that

involve the angle- or distance-formulae for oblique axes have been marked with an asterisk, and may be omitted.

Chapter XL has been devoted to the discussion of the This order of General Equation of the Second Degree. arrangement entails some repetition, but it has compensating advantages. The student who has studied the special forms of the equation finds less difficulty and vagueness in dealing with the general.

Homogeneous Coordinates, and the method of Reciprocal Polars, Tangential Equations,

I have omitted all account of

vi

PREFACE

and have included sections on Ruled Surfaces, Curvilinear It seemed Coordinates, Asymptotic Lines and Geodesies.

more advantageous to make the student acquainted with the new ideas which these sections involve than to exercise him in the application of principles with which his reading in the geometry of two dimensions must have made him to some extent familiar. In teaching the subject constant recourse has been had to the treatises of Smith, Frost and Salmon, and the works of Carnoy, de Longchamps and Niewenglowski have been
to be

obligations to these authors, occasionally consulted. which are probably much greater than I am aware of, are I am specially indebted to Resal, gratefully acknowledged.

My

whose methods, given in his Tkdorie des Surfaces, I have found very suitable for an elementary course, and have followed in the work of the last two chapters. The examples are very numerous. Those attached to the sections are for the most part easy applications of the theory or results of the section. Many of these have been constructed to illustrate particular theorems and others have been selected from university examination papers. Some have been taken from the collections of de Longchamps, Koehler, and Mosnat, to whom the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness.

have to thank Profs. Jack and Gibson for their kindly interest and encouragement. Prof. Gibson has read part of in manuscript and all the proofs, and it owes much the work to his shrewd criticisms and valuable suggestions. My
I

colleague, Mr. Neil

the proofs and verified nearly all the examples part of that tedious task was performed by Mr. Thomas M. MacRobert. I tender my cordial thanks to these two gentlemen for their most efficient
all
;

M' Arthur, has read

help.

I desire also to

thank Messrs. MacLehose for the

EOBT.
J. T.

excellence of their printing work.

BELL.

GLASGOW, September, 1910.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

IN this edition a few alterations have been made, chiefly
in

the earlier part of the book. One or two sections have been rewritten and additional figures and illustrative examples

have been inserted.

B. J. T. B,
June. 1912

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

some corrections have been made and a second set of Miscellaneous Examples and an Appendix have been added. The Appendix contains notes on several paragraphs,
IN
this edition

which indicate alternative, and generally shorter, methods of

It also includes a discussion of the reduction of procedure. the general equation of the second degree, which depends only on the formulae for change of axes, and which can accordingly

be read by the student as a sequel to Chap. VII.

R.
December, 1937.
J. T.

B.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I

SYSTEMS OF COORDINATES THE EQUATION TO A SURFACE

*RT.
1.

Segments
Relations between collinear segments
Cartesian coordinates

--..

PAOB
1

2.
3.

4.

Sign of direction of rotation

Cylindrical coordinates

5.
6. 7. 8. 9.

Polar coordinates

Change

of origin

Point dividing line in given ratio

10.

The equation to a surface The equations to a curve

Surfaces of revolution

U.

*----. ---... --<---. ----------.----. -.-.. -------13

II

......-,_

1
j

7
8

12

CHAPTER
PROJECTIONS.

DIRECTION-COSINES.

DIRECTION-

RATIOS
12.

13.

The angles between two directed The projection of a segment

Relation between a segment and

lines

16
15

14.
15.
16. 17.

its

projection

15

The

projection of a broken

line

16
17
its

The angle between two planes

Relation between areas of a triangle and
projection
projection

17 18

18.

Relation between areas of a polygon and

its

x
ART.

CONTENTS
PAGH

19.

Relation

between
-

areas
-

of

a
-

closed
-

curve
-

and
-

its
-

projection
20.

19
19

Direction -cosines

definition

21. 22.

Direction-cosines (axes rectangular)

19

23.

The

angle
cosines

between

24.

Distance of a point from a line

25. 26. 27.

Direction-cosines (axes oblique)

The angle
cosines

between

---------22 ----...... ---27

two
lines

with

given

direction-

24
25

two

lines

with

given

direction-

28, 29, 30.

Direction -ratios
-

28 30

31.
32.

Relation between direction-cosines a:nl direction-ratios

The angle between two

lines with given direction-ratios

30

CHAPTER

III

THE PLANE. THE STRAIGHT LINE. THE VOLUME OF A TETRAHEDRON

33.

Forms

of the equation to a plane to a plane

32

34. 35.

The general equation

36.
37. 38.

The plane through three points The distance of a point from a plane The planes bisecting the angles between
planes

----two given
-

33
34

35

---------to a straight line

-

37

39.

The equations
The
line

38

40.
41.

Symmetrical form of equations

42.
43.
44.

through two given points The direction -ratios found from the equations
Constants in the equations to a line

.....
.

38 40
40
42

45.

The plane and the straight line The intersection of threp planes
Lines intersecting two given lines
Lines intersecting three given lines

43
47

46.
47.

...
-

63
54

48.
49.
50.

The condition that two given lines should be coplanar The shortest distance between two given lines Problems relating to two given non-intersecting lines

56
57
61

51.

The volume

of a tetrahedron

64

CONTENTS

xi

CHAPTER IV
CHANCE OF AXES
ART.
52.

PAOB

Formulae

of transformation (rectangular axes)

68

53.

Relations between the direction-cosines of three mutually

54.

perpendicular lines Transformation to examine the section of a given surface by a given plane

--------------

69
72
75

55.

Formulae

of transformation (oblique axes)

I.

EXAMPLES

76

CHAPTER V
THE SPHERE
56.
[37.

The equation

to a sphere

81

58,

Tangents and tangent plane to a sphere The radical plane of two spheres

82
83

EXAMPLES

II.

85

CHAPTER
69.
60.

VI

THE CONE

61.

The equation to a cone The angle between the lines in which a plane cuts a cone The condition of tangency of a plane and cone
-

-----.
a given base
-

88
90
92
92

62.

The

condition that a cone has three mutually perpendicular generators

--------

63.

The equation to a cone with EXAMPLES III.

93
-

96

CHAPTER

VII

THE CENTRAL CONICOIDS. THE CONE. THE PARABOLOIDS

64. 65.
66.

The equation

to a central conicoid

Diametral planes and conjugate diameters

----...
-

99
101

Points of intersection of a line and a conicoid

67.

Tangents and tangent planes

----

102
102

lii
ART.

CONTENTS
Condition that a plane should touch a conicoid
-

68. 69.
70.
71.

103
104
106 107

The polar plane

Polar lines
Section with a given centre

72.

Locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel chords-

108

73. 74.
75. 76.
77. 78. 79.

The enveloping cone The enveloping cylinder The normals

-

108

110
* -

-111
112

The normals from a given point Conjugate diameters and diametral planes
Properties of the cone

The equation

to a paraboloid

80.

81.
82.
B3.

Conjugate diametral planes Diameters

Tangent planes-

84,

Diametral planes The normals

....... --*. ...... ........ ... -*..

114
119
122
123 124

.....
-**.
VIII
SECTIONS.

124 126 126

127

EXAMPLES IV.

CHAPTER
THE AXES OF PLANE
85.

CIECULAB
131
-

SECTIONS
The determination
Axes
of axes

86.
87. 88.

of a central section of a central conicoid

131

Axes
Axes

of

any

section of a central conicoid

-

134
137

of a section of a paraboloid

89.
90.

The determination

of circular sections

138

Circular sections of the ellipsoid

138
lie

91.

Any two

circular sections

from opposite systems

on
139

a sphere
92. 93.

Circular sections of the hyperboloids

Circular sections of the general central conicoid

94.
95.

Circular sections of the paraboloids

.... ....
-

139 140 142

143
144

Umbilics

EXAMPLES V.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX
GENERATING LINES
*RT.

PAGE

96.

Euled surfaces

148

97. 98. 99.

100.

The

section of a surface

by a tangent plane

150
152 152 154
155

Line meeting conicoid in three points is a generator Conditions that a line should be a generator

System

of generators of a hyperboloid

...
-

101.
102. 103.

Generators of same system do not intersect

Generators of opposite systems intersect
tors

-156
156
156

Locus of points of intersection of perpendicular genera-

104.
105.
106.

The

projections of generators
<f>

Along a generator Q

is

constant

158
161

The systems

of generators of the hyperbolic paraboloid

* -

107.
108.

Conicoids through three given lines

163 163 163

165

General equation to conicoid through two given lines

109.

110. 111.

The equation to the conicoid through three given lines The straight lines which meet four given lines
to a hyperboloid

112.

The equation

when generators

are co-

ordinate axes
113.
114.

166
167
of distribution
-

Properties of a given generator

The

central point

and parameter

169

EXAMPLES VI.

172

CHAPTER X
CONFOCAL CONICOIDS
116.
116.

The equations of confocal conicoids The three confocals through a point

Elliptic coordinates

176
-

176
178
179 179
180

117.
118. 119.
120. 121.

Confocals cut at right angles

The

confocal touching a given plane

confocals touching a given line

The

The parameters

of the confocals through a point on a central conicoid

181

xiv
ART.
l'2'2.

CONTENTS
Locus of the poles of a given plane with respect to
confocals

--------through a point
-

181

123.
124.

The normals The

to the three confocals

182
183

self-polar tetrahedron

125.
126.

The axes

of

an enveloping cone

183

The equation to an enveloping cone

The equation
to the cunicoJd

184
184

127.

128. 129. 130.

Corresponding points

.-----

186
187

The
The

foci of a conicoid foci of

an ellipsoid and the paraboloids

189

EXAMPLES VI I.

193

CHAPTER XI
THE GENERAL EQUATION 0V THE SECOND DEGREE
131.

Introductory
Constants in the equation
Points of intersection of line

196

132.
133.

196

and general conicoid

197

134.

135.

The tangent plane The polar piano

The enveloping cone The enveloping cylinder

198
201

130.
137.
138.

202

203
-

The

locus of the chords with a given mid-point

203 204

139.
140.

The diametral planes The principal planes

Condition that discriminating cubic has two zero roots
Principal planes

204

141.
142.
143.

when one

root

is

zero

....
-

206

206
207

Principal planes

when two

roots are zero

144.
1

The

roots are all real

factors of (ale fyli) (.iyz)
2

208

45.

The

- A (.v* + + *'2 ) -?/

209 210 212

146. 147.
148.

Conditions for repeated roots

The The

principal directions

principal directions at right angles

212

149.
150.
151.

The

principal directions
of

when

there are repeated roots

The transformation
The centres

(abcfgh)(xyzf

...
-

212 214 215

CONTENTS
iBT.

xv
PAGE

152.

The determination The

central planes

of the centres

216
216

153.
154.

The equation when the

Conicoids of revolution

origin

is

at a centre

217
-

155-161.
162.
163.

Different cases of reduction of general equation

219
228

Invariants

231

EXAMPLES VIII.

233

CHAPTER
THE INTERSECTION OF TWO
164.

XII
CONICOIDS.

SYSTEMS
-

OF CONICOIDS
The quartic curve
Conicoids with a
Conicoids with
of intersection of

two

coriicoids

165.
166. 167. 188.
169.
170.

common

generator
generators

common

.... ....
...

238

239
241

The cones through the

Conicoids with two

intersection of
-

two conicoids

245
246 248

Conicoids with double contact

common

Equation to conicoid having double contact with a given

conicoid

---------

plane sections

248

171.
172.

Circumscribing conicoids
Conicoids through eight given points

249
251

173.

The polar planes

system

174.

Conicoids through seven given points

--------...
of a given
-

point with respect to the

251

252

EXAMPLES IX.

253

CHAPTER
CONOIDS.
175. 176.

XIII

SURFACES IN GENERAL

Definition of a conoid

-------

257
257

177. 178.
179.

Equation to a conoid Constants in the general equation

...

259
260
261 261

The degree The

of a surface

Tangents and tangent planes

inflexional tangents

180.

xvi
ART.

CONTENTS
PAOK

181.
182. 183.

The equation
Singular points

=/(,

TJ)

262

Singular tangent planes

The anchor-ring The wave surface

184.

-..*...
.
*

....

263
265 266
267

The

indicatrix

185.

Parametric equations

-...... ..--.....
-

270
271

EXAMPLES X.

273

CHAPTER XIV
CURVES IN SPACE
186.
187.

The equations The tangent

The

to a curve

275
275

188.
189.
190.

direction-cosines of the tangent

277

The normal plane

Contact of a curve and surface

191. 192.
193. 194.

The

osculating plane

The

principal normal

and

bi normal

-----....
torsion

......

277 278

279 282

Curvature
Torsion

284

195. 196. 197.

-284
285

The

spherical indicatrices

Frenet's formulae

198.

199.

The signs of the curvature and The radius of curvature

...
normal

285

288
288

200.

The

direction-cosines

binomial
201.
202.

--------of

the

principal

and
289 289

The radius

of torsion

Curves in which the tangent makes a constant angle with a given line

291

203. 204.
205. 206.

The

circle of

curvature

292

The osculating sphere

Geometrical investigation of curvature and torsion
Coordinates in terms of the arc
-

292
298
301

EXAMPLES

XL

303

CONTENTS

xvii

CHAPTER XV
ENVELOPES. EULED SUEFACES
ART.

PAGE

207. 208.
209.

Envelopes

one parameter

307

Envelope touches each surface of system along a curve

308

The edge
Envelopes

of regression
-

309

210.

Characteristics touch the edge of regression

309
311

211.
212.
213.

two parameters
-

Envelope touches each surface of system

Developable and skew surfaces

312

214.
215.

The tangent plane to a ruled surface The generators of a developable are tangents

....
to a curve
-

313
315

316
316
318

216.

Envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter

Condition for a developable surface
Properties of a skew surface
-

217.
218.

320

EXAMPLES XII.

322

CHAPTER XVI
CUEVATUEE OF SUEFACES
219.

Introductory

326
elliptic

220.

Curvature of normal sections through an

point

326
327

221.
222. 223. 224.

Curvature of normal sections through a hyperbolic point

Curvature of normal sections through a parabolic point

Umbilics

329

330
-

225.

Curvature of an oblique section Meunier's theorem The radius of curvature of a given section -

330
331

226.
227.

The

principal radii at a point of an ellipsoid

332

Lines of curvature

228.
229.

Lines of curvature on an ellipsoid

...
-

333
333
33?

Lines of curvature on a developable surface

230.

The

normals

to

surface

at

points

of

line

of

curvature
231.

334
-

Lines of curvature on a surface of revolution

335

xviii

CONTENTS
Determination
curvature
of

ART.

232.

the

principal

radii

and

lines

of

337

233.

Determination of umbilics
Triply-orthogonal systems,

342
Dupin's theorem
-

234.
235.

344
346

Curvature at f oints of a generator of a skew surface

236.
237.

The measure
The measure

of curvature

of curvature

is

l/pip2

....
-

346
347 348

238.
239.

Curvilinear coordinates
Direction-cosines of the normal to the surface

349

240.

The

linear

elenmt
and
-

350
lines of curvature
-

24L

The

principal radii

350

EXAMPLES XIII,

354

CHAPTER XVII
ASYMPTOTIC LINES-GEODESICS
242.

Asymptotic

lines

358
asymptotic lines
-

243.
244.

The

differential equation of

358
359

Osculating plane of an asymptotic line

245.

Torsion of an asymptotic line

Geodesies Geodesies on a developable surface

369

246.
247.

248.

The

differential equations of geodesies

249. 250.
251.

Geodesies on a surface of revolution

.... .... ....

...

362

363
363 366
367

Geodesies on conicoids

The curvature and

torsion of a goOiiesic

252.
253.

Geodesic curvatureGeodesic torsion

.......
I.

369

370 373
375

EXAMPLES XIV.

APPENDIX MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES INDEX

xiii

II

xxxi
xlv

CHAPTER

SYSTEMS OF COORDINATES. THE EQUATION TO A SURFACE.

segments AB and CD are said to have the same direction when they are col linear or parallel, and when B is on the same side of A as D is of C. If AB
1.

Segments.

Two

and CD have the same direction, BA and CD have opposite If AB and CD are of the same length and in directions. the same direction they are said to be equivalent segments.
2.

line

B C, ... N, P are any points on a straight X'OX, and the convention is made that a segment of
If
A,
f

the straight line is positive or negative according as its direction is that of OX or OX', then we have the following
relations
:

AB=-BA; OA + AB-OB, or AB-OB-OA, or OA + AB + BO = 0; OA + AB + BC+... NP^OP.

If

OA

x lt x.2 are the measures of OA and OB, ie. the ratios of and OB to any positive segment of unit length, L, then

and
or the measure of
3.

AB

is

#2

xl

X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ be any three fixed intersecting lines which are not coplanar, and whose positive directions are chosen to be X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ and let

Coordinates.

Let

planes through any point in space, P, parallel respectively to the planes YOZ, ZOX, XOY, cut X'X, Y'Y, Z'Z in A, B, C,
(fig. 1),
B,G.

then the position of P

is

known when

the segments

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
OA, OB,

[CH.

OC

are

struction for P

would be

given in magnitude and sign. A con* cut off from OX the segment OA,
:

draw AN, through draw NP, through

OB,

A, equivalent to the
N, equivalent to

OC

are

known when

segment OB, and the segment OC. OA. their measures are known, and

these measures are called the Cartesian coordinates

of P with reference to the coordinate axes X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ.

and the planes YOZ, ZOX, The measure of OA, the XOY, the coordinate planes. segment cut off from OX or OX' by the plane through P
is

The point O

called the origin

parallel to

YOZ,

is

called the as-coordinate of P

the measures

of OB and OC are the y and ^-coordinates, and the symbol " the point P whose coordinates P, (x, y, z) is used to denote,
divide space into eight parts called octants, and the signs of the coordinates of a point determine the octant in which it lies. The following table shews the signs for the eight octants
z."
:

are x, y,

The coordinate planes

3,4]

SIGN OF DIRECTION OF ROTATION

It is generally
"

perpendicular lines as coordinate axes.

rectangular," otherwise they are
"

most convenient to choose mutually The axes are then

oblique."
:

Ex.

1.

Sketch in a figure the positions of the points - 1, (8, 0, 3), (-2, 5;, (-4, -2, 0), (0, 0, -6).
is 3,

(ii)

Ex. 2. What is the locus of the point, (i) whose ^-coordinate whose ^-coordinate is 2 and whose y-coordinate is -4? Ex.
3. What is = and y=0

the locus of a point whose coordinates satisfy = a and y = (ii) x (in) j; = a and ?/ = & ; (iv)z = c
;

= c, (fig. 1), what are the equations to Ex. 4. If OA = a, OB = 6, the planes PNBM, PMCL, PNAL? What equations are satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the line PN

OC

4. Sign of direction of rotation. By assigning positive directions to a system of rectangular axes X'X, Y'Y, Z'Z, we have fixed the positive directions of the normals to the

coordinate planes YOZ, ZOX, XOY. Retaining the usual convention made in plane geometry, the positive direction of rotation for a ray revolving about O in the plane XOY
is

that given by XYX'Y', that is, is counter-clockwise, if the clock dial be supposed to coincide with the plane and front in the positive direction of the normal. Hence to fix the

positive direction of rotation for a ray in any plane, we have the rule: if a dock dial is considered to coincide

with the plane and front in

normal

to

the

plane,

the

positive direction of the positive direction of rotation

the
is counter-clockwise.

for a ray revolving ^n the plane

the other coordinate planes the positive directions of rotation for the planes YOZ, ZOX are seen to be YZY'Z', ZXZ'x'.

Applying

this

rule

to

positive direction of rotation for a plane can also be found by considering that it is the direction in which a right-handed gimlet or corkscrew nas to be turned so that it may move forward in the positive direction of the normal to the plane.

The

plane ABC meets the axes OX, OY, OZ in A, B, C, and the normal from O. If ON is chosen as the positive direction of the normal, and a point P moves round the perimeter of the the sign of the direction triangle ABC in the direction ABC, what is are (i) all positive, (ii) one of rotation of NP when OA, OB,

Ex.

ON

is

OC

negative,

(iii)

two negative,

(iv) all

negative

COORDINATE GEOMETKY
5.

[ce.

Cylindrical coordinates.

If

x'ox,

Y'OY, z'OZ, are

rectangular axes, and PN is the perpendicular from any point P to the plane XOY, the position of P is determined if ON, the angle XON, and NP are known. The measures
of these quantities, u, </>, z, are the cylindrical coordinates The positive direction of rotation for the plane XOY of P. has been defined, and the direction of a ray originally

coincident with OX, and then turned through the given angle 0, is the positive direction of ON. In the figure,
t6,
<f>,

z are

all positive.

If the Cartesian coordinates of

P are

x, y, z,

those of

consider only points in the plane XOY, the Cartesian coordinates of N are x, y, and the polar, u, Therefore
are
x, y, 0.

If

we

z'
FIG. 9,

6.

Polar coordinates.

Suppose that the position of the

plane OZPN, (fig. 2), by a given value of (p then we may define the positive direction of the normal through O to the plane to be that which makes an
has been determined
y

+ ^/2 with X'OX. Our convention, ( 4), then fixes angle the positive direction of rotation for a ray revolving in the
plane OZPN. The position of P is evidently determined when, in addition to $, we are given r and 0, the measures

5,6]

CYLINDRICAL AND POLAR COORDINATES

/.ZOP.
</>

The quantities r, 6, are the polar The positive direction of OP is that of a coordinates of P. ray originally coincident with OZ and then turned in the
of

OP and

plane OZPN through the given angle 9. In the figure, OM is the positive direction of the normal to the plane OZPN, and r 0, <f> are all positive.
y

If

we

and ON

consider P as belonging to the plane as rectangular axes in that plane, P

z,

OZPN and OZ
lias

Cartesian

coordinates

u,

and polar coordinates r

6.

Therefore

But

if

is (x, y, z)

Whence

y = u sin # = rsin$cos <, y = rsin Osin

y

u cos

</>,

<f).

If the axes are rectangular the distance of (x, y, z)

from the origin

Ex.
(<*
1.

is

given by

<J
of the points
7T\
)

Draw * V\

figures
/.,
?

shewing the positions

_7T\
}

V'"3'4>
What
Ex.
2.

27T

6> V~'~4 ~3>

if

7T

/
J

5;T

IP
2, 1, 2)>

are the Cartesian coordinates of the points

Find the polar coordinates

of the points (3,

4, 5), (

so that r

may

be positive.
J,

An*. 4 3

tan-^),

where tan' 1 -, tan" 1

Ex.
Ex.
3.

(3,

2\/5
,

tair 1 2 are acute angles.

(1, 2,

Shew
Find

that the distances of the point

3)

from the
the polar
4.

coordinate axes are Vl3, \/10, v5.

4.
(i)

the Cartesian,

(ii)

the cylindrical,

(iii)

equation of the sphere whose centre is the origin and radius 2 2 2 = 2 2 = 4. Ans. 16, (iii) r (ii) w + 2 =16, (i) ^ -hy -h2

Find (i) the polar, (ii) the cylindrical, (iii) the Cartesian of the right circular cone whose vertex is O, axis OZ, and equation
Ex.
5.

semivertical angle a. Ans. (i) #=a,

(ii)

M = 2tana,

(iii)

^2 +;y 2 ^^2 tan 2 a.

Ex. 6. Find (i) the cylindrical, (ii) the Cartesian, (iii) the polar equation of the right circular cylinder whose axis is OZ and radius a. = a, (ii) #2 +y2 = a 2 (iii) rsin = a. Ans. (i) u
,

OOOEDINATE GEOMETRY

[cs.s.

Ex. 7. Find (i) the polar, (ii) the Cartesian equation to the plane through OZ which makes an angle a with the plane ZOX.

A ns.
7.

(i)

<

= a,

(ii)

y = x tan

a.

Change of origin. sets y'a>y, (fig. 3), be two

be
(x, y, z)
set.

Let x'ox, Y'OY, z'oz

of parallel axes,
first

and
)
y

referred to the

and

^,

let any point P referred to the

c,

second

Let

co

have coordinates

a, b

referred

to

the line of intersection of the planes P parallel to /3o>y cuts /3o>y, XOY, and the plane through ow/3 in GH and XOY in KL.

OX, OY, OZ.

NM

is

Pro.

8.

Then
therefore

= OM+&>H,
#=a
Similarly,

y^
to parallel

whence
Ex.
1.

axes through

The coordinates of (3, 4, 5), ( 1-5,0), referred - 2, - 3, - 7), are (5, 7, 12), - 2, 7). (
(1,

Ex. 2. Find the distance between P, (^, yn ^) and Q, (#2 the axes being rectangular. Change the origin to P, and the coordinates of Q become y% y ly z2 z l and the distance is given by
;

y2

z2 ),

x^-x^

The axes are rectangular and A, B are the points (3, 4, 5), A variable point P has coordinates #, y, z. Find the satisfied by x, y, z, if (i) PA = PB, (ii) PA 2 + PB 2 =2A2 equations
Ex.
1,

3.

3,

7).

An*,

(i)
(ii)

8x+ 2^+240+9=0, 2^ + 2y2 + 222 - 4^ - Uy + 4 + 109 =

(iii)

7,8]

CHANGE OF OKIGIN
4.

Ex.

Find the centre

of the sphere through the four points

(0, 0, 0), (0, 2, 0), (1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 4).

An*.

(J, 1, 2).

Ex.
Ex.

5.

Find the equation

2.

to the sphere

and radius
6.

whose centre is (0, 1, - 1) A ns. X L +y* + z 2 - 2y + 20 = 2.

represents a whose axis

Prove that aP-ip + z 1 - x +2y + 62+12 = right circular cone whose vertex is the point (2, 1, is parallel to OY and whose semivertical angle is 45.
Prove that x*+f + 2 2 -2#+4#-6*-2 = whose centre is at (1, -2, 3) and radius 4. sphere
Ex.
7.

3),

represents

8.

To find
P,

the coordinates of the

join of X:l.

(x r y l9 z^)

and

Q, (# 2

point which divides the in a given ratio, ?/ 2 2)

,

Let

R, (x, y,

z\

(fig. 4),

be the point, and

let

planes through
in
P',

P; Q> R> parallel to the plane

YOZ, meet

OX

Q',

R'.

Then, since three parallel planes divide any two straight 7 lines proportionally, P'R P'Q" = PR PQ = X X + 1. Therefore
:

X+l
Similarly,
</

=
-f^-f,

z=

'^+l

These give the coordinates of R for all real values of X If X is positive, R lies between P and positive or negative. Q if negative, R is on the same side of both P and Q.
;

Cor.

The mid-point

of

PQ

is

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
1.

[CH.

i.

Find the coordinates

(2,

- 3,

1), (3, 4,
t

- 5)

of the points that divide the join of

1
:

in the ratios

3,

3,

- 2.

Ans.

-,

--,

),

Ex.

2.

Given that

P, (3,

2.

-4)

Q.

(5,

4,

-6)

R, (9,

col linear, find the ratio in Q divides PR. found by considering the .^-coordinates only?

which

Why
,

- 10) are 8, can the ratio be Ans. 1 2.

:

Ex. 3. A, (.r n ?/!, 2,) B, (# 2 ;/ 2 z.2 ) C, (#3 ;/ 3 *3 ) D, (#,, y 4 * 4 ) Prove that A', the centroid of the are the vertices of a tetrahedron. triangle BCD, has coordinates
;
,

'

.% 3

4
'

*2+*3+*4
'

If B', C', D' are the centroids of the triangles

CDA, DAB, ABC, prove

3:1.

that AA', BB' CC',

S

DD' divide one another

in the ratio

Ex. 4. Shew that the lines joining the mid-points of opposite edges of a tetrahedron bisect one another, and that if they be taken for coordinate axes, the coordinates of the vertices can be written (a, b, c\ (a, -b, -6-), (-</, 6, r), (-, -b, c).

Ex.
in the

5.

Shew
(#,
/>,

form
6.

that the coordinates of any three points can be put 0), (tf, 0, c\ (0, i, <?), a fourth given point being taken
of gravity of the tetrahedra

as origin.

Ex.
(Ex.

The centres
coincide.

ABCD,

A'B'C'D',

3),

Ex. 7. Find the ratios in which the coordinate planes divide the line joining the points ( - 2, 4, 7), (3, - 5, 8). Ans. 2:3, 4:5, - 7 8.
:

which the sphere #2 4-?/ 2 -f-22 504 divides the line joining the points (1-2, - 4, 8), (27, -9, 18).' Ans. 2:3, -2: 3. Ex. 9. The sphere r'2 -t- 2 -f 2 2 - 2 j;-f 6// + 14z + 3 = () meets the line Prove joining A, (2, -1, -4); B* (5, 5, 5) in the points P and Q.
Ex.
8.

Find the ratios

in

t?/

that

AP PB - - AQ QB :

L>.

A is the point (-2, 2, 3) and B the point (13, -3, 13). 10. point P moves so that 3PA^2PB. Prove that the locus of P is the sphere given by 2 x*+y* + z + 28.r- 12// + 10* - 247-0,
Ex.

and verify that this sphere divides the ratio 2 3.

:

AB

internally

and externally

in

the point (1, -2, 3) lines are drawn to meet the sphere they are divided in the ratio 2:3. Prove that the points of section lie on the sphere

Ex.

11.

From
2

xf*

i/

+ z 2 = 4, and

9.

1 82

+ 22 = 0.

The equation to a surface. Any equation involving one or more of tlie current coordinates of a variable point represents a surface or system of surfaces which
is the locus

of the variable point.

0]

THE EQUATION TO A SUKFACE

locus of all points
is

The

to a constant a,

the equation x = a. = has roots 04, ^(#)

whose ^-coordinates are equal a plane parallel to the plane YOZ, and represents that plane. If the equation

a2 a3
,

...

a^,
,

equations

X^OL^ x^a^,

...

# = <xn

equivalent to the and therefore represents

it is

a system of planes, real or imaginary, parallel to the plane YOZ. = Similarly, /(i/) 0, f(z) Q represent systems of planes In the same way, if polar coordinates parallel to ZOX, XOY.
represents a system of spheres with a centre at the origin, /(0) = 0, a system of coaxal common = right circular cones whose axis is OZ, /($) 0, a system of

be taken, /(^) =

planes passing through OZ. Consider now the equation f(x 2/) = 0. This equation is satisfied by the coordinates of all points of the curve in the plane XOY whose two-dimensional equation is /(&, 2/) =
9

Q
Y'

Fio.

5.

Let
#o>

P,

(fig.

5),

any point

2/o

0-

Draw

any point on it. and since P is on the curve, /(#

of

have coordinates through P a parallel to OZ, and let Q be Then the coordinates of Q are # i/ Z
of the curve,
,
,
,

Therefore the cosatisfy the equation f(x, ordinates of every point on PQ satisfy the equation and every point on PQ lies on the locus of the equation. But

y ) = 0, = 0. y)

thus the coordinates

is

any point
is

of the curve, therefore the locus of the

equation

the cylinder generated

by

straight lines

drawn

10
parallel
f(y>

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
to

[OH.

i,

OZ through

points of the curve.

Similarly,

= 0, 3)

parallels to

= f(z, #) OX and OY

represent cylinders generated

respectively.
(i)

by

Ex. What surfaces are represented by the axes being rectangular ?

x2 +y 2 =a?,

(ii)y =4a.r,

Two equations are necessary to determine the curve in the plane XOY. The curve is on the cylinder whose equaand on the plane whose equation is 2 = 0, tion is /(#, y ) =
and hence " the equations
Ex.
(i)

to the curve

"

are f(x y)
y

0, 2

= 0.

What
2

curves are represented by

2
,

0+y =a

2=0

(ii)

,r>+y

=a2 z=b
,

(iii) $

(The surface shewn

is

represented by the equation

Consider

z=k
f(x,

The equation a plane parallel to XOY, and the equation represents = represents, as we have just proved, a cylinder y, &)

now

the equation f(x, y, z) = 0.

9]

THE EQUATION TO A SURFACE

at all

11

generated by lines parallel to OZ.

is satisfied

The equation f(x, ?/,&) = () and z = k are points where f(x> y, z) =

simultaneously satisfied, i.e. at all points common to the plane and the locus of the equation /(cc, y, 2) = 0, and hence

f(x y,
y

/c)

=
OZ

parallel to

represents the cylinder generated by lines which pass through the common points, (fig. 6).
y
y

The two equations f(x y

/c)

= 0,

of section of the cylinder by the plane z = k, curve of section of the locus by the plane z
all real

k represent the curve which is the

k.
/c,

If,

now,

values from
/c)

oo

to

be given to

the curve

f(x

y,

= 0,
The

surface.

varies continuously and generates a coordinates of every point on this surface

/c,
y

= 0, for they satisfy, for some satisfy the equation f(x y, z) value of k, f(x, y, &) = 0, z k\ and any point (x ly y ly zj whose coordinates satisfy f(x y, z) = lies on the surface,
y

zl% and therefor the coordinates satisfy f(x, y, 0^ 0, z fore the point is on one of the curves which generate the
surface.

=
y

surface,

Hence the equation f(x y 2) = represents a and the surface is the locus of a variable point
y

whose coordinates
Ex.
1.

satisfy the equation.

Discuss the form of the surface represented

by

j?la*+y*l& + z*l# = l.

The
The

section

by the plane z= k has equations z = k, x*a*+*b* = I - Wc*.

therefore a real ellipse
.

section

is

if

P<c

2
,

is

and reduces to a point if 2 =c2 The surface is therefore generated by a variable ellipse whose plane is parallel to XOY and whose centre is on OZ. The ellipse increases from a point in the plane z= o to the ellipse in the plane XOY which is given by # 2 /a 2 -f# 2 /& 2 =l, and The surface is the then decreases to a point in the plane z = c.
ellipsoid, (fig. 29).

imaginary

if

Ex.

2.

What

surfaces are represented

(i) .r
2

by the equations, referred

to rectangular axes,

+# 2 +* 2 =a2
y
2
2

(ii)

Ex.

3.

Discuss the forms of the surfaces

r
(i)

X*

(l) -o-f-VflT 7 2 o2

z --9=1)

....

c2

V 11 7 ) v

2 z* x* y -~9-~l2" 2 C* a2 DL

(ii)

The hyperboloid The hyperboloid

of one sheet
of

(fig. 30).
(fig. 31).

two sheets

COOBD1NATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
4.

[CH.

I.

What
(i)

loci

are represented
(ii)

by
(iii

/()-0,

=0,

(v) f(r,

<)=0,

(vi) f(u,
;

4>)=0

(i) A system of coaxial right cylinders (ii) a system of planes (iii) the surface of revolution generated by rotating parallel to XOY the curve in the plane ZOX whose polar equation is /(r, 6) = about the 2-axis (iv) a cone whose vertex is at O (v) a surface generated by circles whose planes pass through OZ and whose dimensions vary

Ans.

as the planes rotate about

parallel
f(u,

OZ

(vi)

to

OZ, and whose

section

a cylinder whose generators are by the plane 2 = is the curve

<)=0.

10.

The equations to a
y>

curve.

The two equations

fi( x

>

= 0, / (#, 3)
2

y,

= z)

represent the curve of inter-

section of the
y> s)

= 0.

two surfaces given by fl (x,y,z) = Q and

If

we

eliminate one of the variables,

z,

Y'

Fro.

7.

Fig. 7 shews part of the curve of intersection of the sphere 2 ax The right circular cylinder x*-\-y the curve on the plane # is also shewn. cylinder which projects 2 2 The projection of the curve Its equation is a (^2 -z )-i-2 4 = 0. is the parabola whose equations are y = 0, on the plane

#2 + y2 -l-z2 =a'2 and the

ZOX

z2

= a(a -x).

say,

between the two equations, we obtain an equation. 0(#, i/) = 0, which represents a cylinder whose generators are
If

parallel to OZ.

any values

of

x, y,

z satisfy f^(x, y,z}

and

they satisfy <f>(x, 2/) = 0, and hence the cylinder passes through the curve of intersection of the

f2 (x y
y

= 0, 0)

io,n]
surfaces.

SURFACES OF REVOLUTION
If the axes are rectangular
<f>(x, 2/)

13

represents

the cylinder which projects orthogonally the curve of intersection on the plane XOY, and the equations to the = = 0. projection are <f>(x, 2/) 0, z
Ex.
(i)

1.
2

j8

= 6,

^2 + y2 = a2
(a

If the axes are rectangular, 2 == 22 62 ; , (ii)

what
2
,

loci

>6

o*4y+*

y* = 4az;

are represented
(iii)

by j?+y*=a*,

)?

Ex. 2. Find the equations to the cylinders with generators parallel to OX, OY, OZ, which pass through the curve of intersection of the z = \. surfaces represented by r2 -f# 2 -f 2e 2 = 12, 2 2 Ans. 2i/ -2yz + 3z* + 2y-2z-lI=0, 2^ + 2^-f 3* 2 - 2^-22- 11 ==0,

xy+

So;2

- 4xy'+ 3y 2'- x + ty - 10 = 0.

11.

Surfaces of revolution.
is

Let

P, (0,

y l9 zj,

(fig.

8),

be

any point on the curve

f(y, z)

in the plane

YOZ whose

Cartesian

equation

= 0.

Then
*,)=o ............................ (i)

The

rotation of the curve about

of revolution.

As P moves
0-axis, is

produces a surface round the surface, z l9 the

OZ

2-coordinate of
of

P remains unaltered, and u, the distance

always equal to y r Therefore, by (1), the cylindrical coordinates of P satisfy the equation = 0. But P is any point on the curve, or surface, /*(u, z) and therefore the cylindrical equation to the surface is
,

P from the

z)

= 0.

Hence the Cartesian equation

to the surface

14

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
y

[CH.

I.

2 2 = T is/(y, Vs +# ) 0, an(} similarly /( N/T/ sents a surface of revolution whose axis is OX.

Since the distance of the point (x, y z) from the y-axis 2 2 is *Jz +x' , it follows as before that the equation to the surface formed by rotating the curve f(y, z] = 0, x = about

OY

+^

aj)

repre-

Ex. 1. The equation #2 +y 2 +22 =a 2 represents the sphere formed by the revolution of the circle ,r2 -hy 2 = a 2 2=0, about OX or OY.
,

Ex. 2. The surface generated by the revolution of the parabola 2 2 2 y =4a#, 2=0, about its axis has equation ?/ -j-2 = 4o*r about the at the vertex, equation ?/=16a 2 (22 -Kr2 ). tangent
;

Ex.

3.

The surfaces generated by rotating the ellipse .r2/a2 + y2/

4.

A 1 2=0, about Ex.

line 2
4.

its

'4.

axes are given by -g+

+2
,

2
-,

^+*

'

= 1,

2
*/

=1,

^~

+ /2 =s1

'

= 0, y = 2,r about OX and OY.

5.

Find the equations to the cones formed by rotating the

Ex.

tion of the circle

Find the equation to the surface generated by the revolu^2 -f;/2 -f 2ar4-ft2 = 0, 2=0, about the ?/-axis.

Ex.

6.

Sketch the forms of the surfaces

2

(i)

(y

4- 2

)(2a-^)=j^,

(ii)

=a

cos2<9,

(iii)

W2 =2c2.

surfaces are generated by rotating (i) the curve y 2 (2a-^r)=^3 2= 2 a cos2#, about about (ii) the lemniscate in the plane ZOX, r

The
;

OX

OZ

(iii)

the parabola in the plane

YOZ, # 2 = 2cz, about OZ.

Ex. 7. Prove that the locus of a point, the sum of whose distances from the points (a, 0, 0), (~a, 0, 0) is constant, (2), is the ellipsoid
i

of revolution V^-hy* *

- =!
__

11-141

CHAPTER

II

PKOJECTIONS.
that a given directed line OP makes with a second directed line OX we shall take to be the smallest
12.

The angle

angle generated by a variable radius turning in the plane XOP from the position OX to the position OP. The sign of
the angle

determined by the usual convention. Thus, in figures 9 and 10, 9l is the positive angle, and 2 the negative angle that OP makes with OX.
is

Fio. 9.

FIG. 10.

13.

and

Projection of a segment. // AB is a given segment A', B' are the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B to a
is the projection

given line X'X, the segment A'B'

of the

segment AB on X'X.

From
is

the definition

B'A',

and

follows that the projection of therefore that the projections of AB and

it

BA BA

differ

only in sign. It is evident that A'B'

is

the intercept

made on X'X by
and hence
the

the planes through

A and B normal

to X'X,

projections of equivalent segments are equivalent segments.

14.

If AB

is

whose positive

a given segment of a directed line MN direction, MN, makes an angle 9 with a

16

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
AB on X'X
is

II.

given line X'X, the projection of

equal

to

AB AB

cos

0.

In figures 11 and
is

12,

AB

is

positive,

in figures 13

and

14,

negative.

Fi<*.

18.

Fio. 14,

Draw OQ from

in the

same direction

as

MN,
;

Ij

AB

is

positive, cut off OP, the

segment equivalent to

AB then

the projection of

AB = the

projection of OP,
.

= OP = AB
// AB
is negative,

cos cos

0,
9.

(by the definition

of cosine),

BA

is

positive,

and therefore
.

the projection of
i.e.

BA = BA

cos
.

0,

- (the
i.e.

projection of AB)

the projection of
...

= - AB cos 0, AB = AB cos 6.
,

15.

If

A, B, C,

M, N are

any n points in
...

space, the

sum
X'X

of the projections of AB, BC,

equal to the projection of the Let the feet of the perpendiculars from A,
B',...M', N'.

is

MN, on any given line straight line AN on X'X.

B,
...

M, N, to

X'xbeA',

Then, (2),

A'B'+B'C'+...IVrN'=A'N',

which proves the proposition

14-17]
16.

PEOJECTION OF A CLOSED FIGURE

17

shall take to be the angle that the positive direction of a normal to one makes with the positive direction of a normal to the other.
17.

The angle between two planes we

Projection of a closed plane figure.

//

the

proB', C',

jections of three points A, B,

C on a given plane are A',

9
is the

then AA'B'C' = cos#

A ABC, where

angle between the

planes ABC, Consider

sign.

A'B'c'.
first

the areas ABC, A'B'C' without regard to

If the planes ABC, A'B'C' are parallel, the equation A A'B'C' cos A ABC is obviously true.
(i)

ABC, say BC, is parallel to the plane A'B'C', let AA' meet the plane through BC parallel Draw A 9 D at right to the plane A'B'C' in A 2 (fig. 15).
(ii)
,

If one side of the triangle

angles to BC, and join AD.

Then BC
c

is

at right angles tc

Fio. 15.

normal to the plane AA ? D and therefore at right angles to AD. Hence the angle A 2 D/}

M 2 D and AA 2 and
,

therefore

BC

is

is

equal to

0,

or

its

supplement.

But
and
therefore
(iii)

AA'B'C'=AA 2 BC, A A 2 BC A ABC = A 2 D AD = cos L A2 DA A A'B'C' = cos 6 A ABC.

:
:

none of the sides of the triangle ABC is parallel to the plane A'B'C', draw lines through A, B, C parallel to the line of intersection of the planes ABC, A'B'C'. These lines lie in the plane ABC and are parallel to the plane A'B'C', and one of them, that through A, say, will cut the
If
B.O.

18

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. ~i

opposite side, BC, of the triangle ABC, internally. And therefore the triangle ABC can always be divided by a line

through a vertex into two triangles, with a common side

parallel

to

the given

plane

A'B'C',

and hence, by

(ii),

A A'B'C' = COS A ABC. Suppose now that

the areas ABC, A'B'C' are considered

positive or negative according as the directions of rotation given by ABC, A'B'C' are positive or negative. Then, 4 to figures 16 and 17, we applying the convention of

F
dee that
A'B'C'
if is

Fio. 16.

Fio. 17.

cos 9

is

positive, the directions of rotation

ABC,

cos# sign, negative, have opposite signs. That is, the areas have the they same sign if cosO is positive, and opposite signs if cos#
if is

have the same

and that

Hence the equation AA'B'c' = cos0 A ABC negative. for the signs as well as the true magnitudes of the areas.
18.

is

//

A,
...

B,

C,

...

A', B', C',

N' are their projections

.
.

N are any coplanar points and on any given plane,

N'
:

then

area A'B'C'
is the

area ABC

...

N = cos 0,
and O' be
its

where 6
Let

angle between the planes. be any point of the plane ABC

...

...

N,

projection on the plane A'B'C'

N'.

Then area ABC... and area A'B'C' ... But AO'A'B'=cos0AOAB,

follows.

N = AOAB + AOBC + ... AONA, N' = AO'A'B'+ AO'B'C'+... AO'N'A'.

etc.,

and therefore the

result

17-21]

DIRECTION-COSINES

19

19. If A is the area of any plane curve and A is the area of its projection on any given plane, A = cos#.A where 6 is the angle between the planes.

For A is the limit, as n tends to infinity, of the area of an inscribed 7i-gon, and A is the limit of the area of the
projection of the 7i-gon, and, areas is cos 0.

by

18,

the ratio of these

Ex. 1. AA' is a diameter of a given circle, and P is a plane through AA' making an angle 9 with the plane of the circle. If B is any point on the circle and B' is its projection on the plane P, the perpendiculars from B and B' to AA' are in the constant ratio 1 cos #, and the projection is therefore a curve such that its ordinate to AA' is
:

a constant ratio to the corresponding ordinate of the circle that the projection is an ellipvse whose major axis is AA' and whose The minor axis is auxiliary circle is equal to the given circle. cos0. AA'; therefore if AA' = 2a and cos# = fc/a, the minor axis is 2ft.
in
;

is,

By

19,

the area of the ellipse = cos 0. 7ra 2

Ex. 2. Find the area of the section of the cylinder by a plane whose normal makes an angle of 60 with OZ.

Ans. 24?r

DIRECTION-COSINES.
20.

If a,

makes

are the angles that a given directed line with the positive directions X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ of the
j8,

coordinate axes, cosoc, cos/3, cosy are the direction-cosines of the line.

Fia. 18.

FIG. 19.

referred to rectangular axes. the line through O which has direction-cosines Let A'OA be Let P, (x, y, z) be any point on A'OA, cos a, cos /3, cos y.
21. Direction-cosines

20

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
r.

[CH. IL

positive in fig. 19, r is negative. Draw PN perpendicular to the plane XOY, and NM in the plane XOY, perpendicular to OX. Then the
fig. 18,

and OP have measure

In

is

measures of OM, MN, NP are x, OM is the projection of OP on OX,

y, z respectively.

Since

y = r cos /?, z = r cos y ..... (1) Again the projection of OP on any line is equal to the sum of the projections of OM, MN, NP, and therefore, projecting on OP, we obtain x = r cos a, and
similarly,

r = x cos a + y cos /3 + z cos

y .................. (2)
therefore
.................. (3)

But x/r = cos a, y/r = cos /3,

z/r

= cos y

This is the formula in three dimensions cos 2 #-fsin 2 0=l in plane trigonometry.

which corresponds to

Cor.

1.

we

obtain
2.

By substituting for cos oc, cos $ r2 = # 2 + 2 + 2 (cf. 6, Cor.).

2/
,

cos

y in (2) or

(3),

Cor.

If (x, y, z) is

any point on the

y
*/

line

through

whose direction-cosines are cos a,

tyC

)'

x __ cos a
3.

_
z

cos/8, cosy,
f /
.

we

have,

- M,
\

cos/3

cosy'
line

Cor.
( x i>

If (x,

y, z) is

any point on the

Vi

z i)

whose direction-cosines are

cosoc, cos/3, cosy,

through by

changing the origin we obtain

cos
Ex.
1.

oc

cos

/3

cos

Prove that

sin 2 a.-f sin 2

,

Ex. 2, If P is the point (#,, y T z { ), prove that the projection of on a line whose direction-cosines are n iHj, n v is l

OP

The projection

of

OP = projn.

of

OM-fprojn.

of

MN
(figs. 18, 19),

f projn. of NP,

If P, of projection
3.

Ex.

Q are
on a

PQ

line

the points (x l% y^ ^), (^2 , #2* z th prove that the is whose direction-cosines are I l3 1}

m %

(Change the origin to P and apply Ex.

2.)

21, 22]

DIEECTTON-COSINES
2, 3, 6.

21

Ex. 4. The projections of a line on the axes are the length of the line ? Ex.
5.

What
Ans.

is
7.

OA, OB, OC, whose measures are Find the area of the triangle ABC. Let the positive direction of the normal from O to the plane ABC have direction-cosines cos a, cos/:?, cosy, and let A denote the area ABC. Then since AOBC is the projection of AABC on the = and similarly, cos (3 A = ira, cos y A plane YOZ, cos a. A
a, 6, c,

plane makes intercepts

on the axes OX, OY, OZ.

/><?,

Therefore, since

#+2^4-22 = 9
curve
is

Ex.

6.

Find the areas of the projections of the curve x2 +y*-\-z~ 25, on the coordinate planes, and having given that the
10.)

plane, find its area.

2,

(Of. Ex.

Ans. 167T/3, 327T/3, 327T/3

167T.

are given proportionals to the directioncosines of a line, the actual direction-cosines are found
22.

If a, b

from the relations

cos
oc
~

2 2 2 _ cos ft __ cos y __ \/cos a + cos /3 + cos y __ ~ = "~~~

"'
1

the point (a, 6, c) and the direction-cosines of the directed line OP are cosoc, cos/3, cosy, then, since OP is
If

is

positive

and equal to v a 2 -j- 6 2 + c2 a a __ OP~~Jc

cos

v=

The

direction-cosines of

PO

are
b
c

Ex. 1. Find the direction-cosines of a line that makes equal angles with the axes. Ans. COSOL=COS /Jcos y= l/\/3 (whence the acute angles which the line makes with the axes are equal to 54 44').
;

Ex.

2.

cosines of

P and Q are OP, OQ, PO.

-,

(2,

3,

-6),

(3,

-4,

5).

Find the direction-

A Ans.

23-6.
-,
,

~_,

-4 -~ 1

. ,

_^,

-2 -3 _, _,
,

f
the direction -cosines

Ex.
of

PQ

If P, are (j?j, ?/j, 2-j), (^2 y 2 3. are proportional to a?a -#i, y%-y\i fy

2-

2)

Zi*

22

COOKDINATE GEOMETBY
4.

[CH.

Ex.

If P,
0,

Q are (2, 3, 5), (- 1, 3, 2), find the direction-cosines of PQ.

-Zi. \/2
5),

Am. ^1, V2
Ex. Ex.
5.
(1, 0, 5),

If P, Q, R, S are the points (3, 4, find the projection of RS on PQ.

If P, Q, R,

(4, 6, 3),

- 1,
Ans.

2, 4),

jj.

6.

(3, 5, 7),

are the points (2, 3, - 1), (3, 5, -3), (1, prove by projections that PQ is at right angles to RS.

2, 3),

23.

The angle between two

is the

lines.
;

//OP and OQ
cos
(3' y

have
y',

direction-cosines cos a,

and 9

angle that

cos /3, cos y cos a', OP makes with OQ,

cos

cos 9 = cos
If,

a cos a' + cos /3 cos /3' + cos y cos y'.

is (x, y, z)
is r,

and the measure of OP projecting OP and OM, MN, NP on OQ, we obtain r cos 9 = x cos a'+y cos ft + z cos y'.
as in
21,

But
therefore
<7or. 1.
2

# = rcosoc,
cos 9 = cos
oc

2/

= rcos/3,

7*

cosy;

cos a"

cos

/3

cos

/?'

+ cos y cos y'.

(I

We have the identity + m + n*) (^ + ?n' + ?i ) - (W + mm + nnj = (mn' - m'n)* + (nl - n'l) 2 + (lm' - I'm)2
2

/2

(This identity

is

known

shall frequently find it

as Layrange's identity. advantageous to apply it.)

We

Hence
sin2

= (cos2oc + cos2/? + cos2y )(cos2o/ + cos 2/?' + cos2/) 2 (cos a cos a' + cos /3 cos ft' + cos y cos y') = (cos /3 cos y' cos y cos /3') 2 + (cos y cos a' cos a cos y )2 + (cos a cos ft cos /3 cos a')2
,

Cor.

2.

If

is

an angle between the

6,

lines

whose

direction-cosines are proportional to a,

a', b'', c',

and
Cor.
3.

sin

=
a2 + 6 2 + cVa' 2 + [/H c /2

If the lines are at right angles,

cos oc cos a!

+ cos /5 cos /3 + cosy cos y' = 0,

X

or

23]

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

If the lines are parallel,

23

Cor. 4.

cos /3 cos y'

cos

y cos /3' = 0,

cos

y cos oc/

cos oc cos y'

= 0,
(as is

and cos oc cos /3' cos /3 cos a' = 0, whence cos a = cos a", cos /3 = cos /3', and cos y = cosy' evident from the definition of direction-cosines) or a b c
;

Ex.

1.

If P,

are

(2, 3,

- 6),

(3,

- 4,

5),

find the angle that

^1 ns.

OP
.

makes with OQ.

cos

_ 18\/2

35

Ex.

2.

P, Q,

of the triangle

R are PQR.

(2, 3, 5), (

1, 3, 2), (3, 5,

^ ^ ^.^
;

- 2).

Find the angles

3'

^ 3'

Ex. 3. Find the angles between the lines whose direction-cosines - 2, 1. are proportional to (i) 2, 3, 4 3, 4, 5 (ii) 2, 3, 4 1,
;

AM. (iJcoB-'-^L,
5v58
Ex.
4,

(ii)90.
to 2,
1, 1
;

4.

The

lines

whose direction-cosines are proportional

\/3-l, -\/3-l; 4, -\/3~l, \/3-l are inclined to one another at an angle 7r/3. Ex. 5. If j, Wj, M! 12 w 2 n2 ^3 M3 ^ 3 are the direction -cosines of three mutually perpendicular lines, the line whose direction-cosines are proportional to /i + 2 + ^3> m l + m 2 + ni^ n^n^n^ makes equal angles with them.
;

Ex.

6.

Find the angle between two diagonals

1

of a cube.

Ans. cos"

1/3.

Ex. Ex.
a cube

7.

Prove by direction-cosines that the points

(5, 8, 0), (2,

8.
;

(3, 2, 4), (4, 5, 2),

1,

6) are collinear.

makes angles OL, /?, y, 8 with the four diagonals of that prove cos 2o- 4- cos 2 /? + cos 2 y -f cos 2 8 = 4/3.
line

Ex.

9.

If the edges of a rectangular parallelepiped are a,

_

6,

c,

shew that the angles between the four diagonals are given by
cos

cosines

If a variable line in two adjacent positions has directionm, n I + 81, ra + 8w, n + 8n, shew that the small angle, 89 between the two positions is given by 8ffi = 81* + &m? + 8n 2

Ex.

10.
?,

We have 2P = 1
But
Therefore

and 2(J + 80=1, therefore

2()2= -

cosW=
2 sin

That

is,

since

sin

-| = |-,

8^=

24

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
11.

[CH.

Lines

OA,

OB

are

drawn from
-2,
3).

proportional to (1, -2, -1), (3, the normal to the plane AOB.

O with direction -cosines Find the direction-cosines of

, '

_3

-2

\/29* \/29* v/29'

Ex.
Ex.

12.

cosines proportional to
13.
/!,

Prove that the three - 1,

(1,

lines

drawn from
3, 0), (1, 0,

1), (2,

3) lie in

with directionone plane.

cosines

Prove that the three lines drawn from O with directionm 2 n 2 1 3J w 3 7? 3 are coplanar if 2 Wj, H!
;

,,

wn

7^

=0.

cosines proportional to (3, 6, -2), (2, 2, - 1), ( - 1, 2, that the cone also passes through the coordinate axes.

Ex. 14. Find the direction-cosines of the axis of the right circular cone which passes through the lines drawn from O with direction2),

and prove

Ans. l/v/3, l/v/3, l/v/3-

O with direction-cosines proportional Prove that the axis of the right circular cone through them has direction -cosines -l/v'3, l/v/3, l/v3, and that
Ex.
15.

Lines are drawn from

to (1,

2, 2), (2, 3, 6), (3, 4, 12).

the semivertical angle of the cone

is

cos" 1 l/v/3-

24.

Distance of a point from

9

line.

To find

the

distance of P, (x\ y' z') from the line through A, whose direction-cosines are cos a, cos j8, cos y.

(a, 6, c),

Let PN, the perpendicular from P to the line, have measure S. Then AN is the projection of AP on the line,

and

its

measure
(x'

is,

(Ex.

3,
/

21),

a)cosoc+(2/
2

6)cos/3 + (V
2

cjcosy.

But
therefore
8*

PN = AP

-AN

2
,

(of

- a)2 + <y {

(x

+ (z - cf } (cos a + cos /? + cos'y) 6) cos ($ + (%' c) cos y } a} cos a+(i/

2
r

fc)

2
,

which,

by Lagrange's

identity, gives

+ (%' + {(#'
{

c) cos oc

(x
(?/'

a) cos

a) cos
is

(3

y} 2 6) cos a}

Cor.

If

(05', 2/'>

0")

any point on the

(X

line, S

= 0, and
'

?^ = ?^ = ^.
COS

COS/5

COSy

(Cf. v

8 21, Cor.

3.) /

24, 25]

DIRECTION-COSINES (OBLIQUE AXES)

25

Ex.

(3, 4, 5)

Find the distance of (-1, 2, 5) from the line through whose direction-cosines are proportional to 2, - 3, 6.

An,

ifl

Ex. 2. Find the distance of A, (1, -2, 3) from the line, PQ, - 3, 5), which makes through P, (2, equal angles with the axes.

An,
Shew that the equation to the right circular cone whose at the origin, whose axis has direction-cosines cos a, cos /?, cos y, and whose semivertical angle is #, is
Ex.
3.

vertex

is

(?/

cos

- z cos /3) 2 + (z cos oc - x cos

y)

-f (a;

cos /?

y cos a)

Ex.
is

4.

P, axis

PQ

Find the equation to the right circular cone whose vertex (Ex. 2), and semivertical angle is 30.

Ans.

Ex.
is

5.

axis

Find the equation to the right circular cone whose vertex PQ, and which passes through A (Ex. 2).

Ans.

Ex. 6. The axis of a right cone, vertex O, makes equal angles with the coordinate axes, and the cone passes through the line drawn from with direction-cosines proportional to (1, -2, 2). Find the equation A ns. 4^2 + 4?y 2 -f 4e 2 + Qyz + Qz.r + 9,r?y = 0. to the cone.

Ex. 7. Find the equation whose axis passes through

portional to
(2,

- 3,

(1,

to the right circular cylinder of radius 2 2, 3) and has direction-cosines pro-

6).

Ans.

Let Direction-cosines referred to oblique axes. X'OX, Y'OY, Z OZ, (fig. 20), be oblique axes, the angles YOZ, ZOX, XOY being X, /x, v respectively. Let A OA be the
*25.
7

line

through

O whose
P, (x, y,
r.

direction-cosines

cos y.

Take

z)

any

measure of OP be

Draw

are cosoc, cos/3, point on A OA, and let the PN parallel to OZ to meet
7

the plane XOY in N, and NM parallel to in M. Then, since the projection of OP

OY
is

to

meet

OX

equal to the

26

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH. It

of the projections of OM, OY, OZ, OP in turn, we obtain

sum

MN, NP, projecting on OX,

(1) (2)

(3)

r =# cos a.+y cos {3+z cosy

(4)

Fio. 20.

Therefore, eliminating r, #, y, z we have the relation satisfied by the direction-cosines of any line
y

1,

cos

i/,

cos/x, cosoc

= 0,

cos

i/,

1,

cosX, cos/3
1,

cos/*, cosX,

cosy
1

cosoc, cos/3, cosy,

which may be written,

S sin2 A cos2 ot =1
(7or. 1.

22(cos X
cos X
2

cos
cos
2

/UL

cos j/)cos /3 cos

y
/JL

/x

cos 2 y+ 2 cos

X cos

cos z/.

Multiply

(1), (2), (3)

by

x> y, z respectively,

and

add, then

x 2 + y 2 + z* + %yz cos X

+ Zzx cosfm + Zxy cos v

(A)
2 y 2 z2 ), PQ
,

= r(x cos a+ y cos /3+2 cos y),

=rM;by(4)]
(7or. 2.

If P,

are (x lt

y lt

zj, (x2 ,

is

given by

25-27]

THE ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

If P, (#, y, z) is

27

Ex.

1.

angles to

OX,

the projection of

any point on the plane through O at right OP on OX is zero, and therefore

#+ y cos v + z cos/A=0.
Ex.
plane
2.

If P, (#, y, s) is

any point on the normal through

to the

XOY,

#-fycos
6,

v-f 3cos^=0=#cosv-fy-f zcosA.

*26.

If a,

c are

given proportionals to the direction-

cosines of a line, the actual direction-cosines are given cos a cos /3 cos y
~~
~~

by

2 2 (2 sin \ cos a 22(cos X cos ^ cos y) cos /3 cosy)* 2 2 22 (cos X - cos /x cos 6c } * { S sin X a cos 2 y+ 2 cos X cos /x cos y}* + { 1 cos2 X cos2
.

i/)

/UL

2 sin X a
.

22(cos X

cos

/z

cos

i/)6c }*

*27.

The angle between two

/3',

lines.

If

OQ has directionwith OP,

cosines cos a', cos

cos

y',

and makes an angle

.

projecting on OQ, we obtain 7 r cos 6 = x cos a! + y cos fl'+z cos y

............ (5)

Therefore eliminating
(2),

05,

2/,

0,

r between equations

(1),

(3) of

25,

and
1,

(5),

we have
cos/z, cos

cosy,
1,

a = 0,

or

cosj/,

cosX, cos/3
1,
7
,

cos/x,

cosX,
r
,

cosy
v)

cos a/, cos/3

2(sin X cos a cos a')

2

cosy cos 6 2 { (cos X cos cos

/UL 7

Cfor.

cosines
c

X (cos /3 cos y + cos ft cos y) } = cos 0(1 cos2 X cos2/x cos2 y + 2 cos X cos cos The angles between the lines whose directionare proportional to a, 6, c a 6 c are given by
/JL
7
7 7
;

i/).

2( aa/ sin X) 2

2W + 6

e)(cos

X - cos /x co3 v)}

Ex.

1.

2a2 sin2 X - 2S6c(cos X - cos ^ cos v) }* x { 2a/2 sin2 X - 226V(cos X - cos ^ cos i/) }* If A=/i=:v = 7r/3, find the angles between the lines whose
(i)

direction-cosines are proportional to

2,3,4; 3,4,5;
(ii) ir/2.

(ii)

2,3,4;

1,

-2,

1.

Ans.

(i)

cos- 1

-?^;
7vl6

28

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex.
2.
/,
;

[CH. It

tional to

Prove that the lines whose direction-cosines are proporm, n m n, n-l, l-m are at right angles if A=//, =
i>.
;

The edges OA, OB, OC of a tetrahedron are of lengths and the angles BOO, COA, AOB are A, /x, v find the volume. Take OA, OB, OC as axes, and draw CN at right angles to the plane AOB. Then if CN is of length JP, and V denotes tne volume,
Ex.
3.
i, 6, c,

V==

CN

o are

z
0, 0,

#,

and

i)

= ccosZ-OCN. But
therefore,

the direction-cosines of

cos^OCN,

by
cos 2//,

25,

sin 2 J> cos 2 ^.

.'.

OCN = 1
{1

cos 2 A

cos 2 y -f 2 cos
-f-

cos

JJL

cos

v,

V=-

- cos 2 A - cos 2/x - cosV

2 cos

A cos p cos vp.

DIRECTION-KATIOS.
28.

Let

OL

be drawn from

in the

same direction as a

given directed line

PQ and

of unit length.

Then

the co-

ordinates of L evidently depend only on the direction of PQ, and when given, determine that direction. They are
therefore called the direction-ratios of PQ.

If the axes are rectangular the direction-ratios are the

same as
29.

the direction-cosines.
P, (x, y, z) is

If

whose direction-ratios
is r,

any point on a given line A OA are I, in, n, and the measure of OP

then
I

=x

Fia. 21.

Fio. 22.

In

fig.

21,

is

positive, in

are parallel to

OZ; KH,

NM

LK, PN negative. are parallel to OY. Then since

fig.

22 r
X

is

the parallel planes PNM,

LKH

cut

X OX, A'OA

proportionally,

where OP, OL,

OP:OL = OM:OH, OM, OH are directed segments.

28-30]

DI RECTION-RATIOS

29
I

But the measures of and therefore l = x/r.

Cor.
1.

OM

and

OH

are x and

Similarly,

m = y/r, n = z/r.
line
y

respectively,

If P, (x, y, z) is

whose

direction-ratios are

any point on the I, m, n

in

through O

?=
I

!=! n

(Of. * 2 1, Cor. 2.) ' line

Cor.

2.

If (x,

?/,

z) is

any point on the

(#', y', z')

whose

direction-ratios are
/

tt
l>

through

m, n,
(Of.

m
Cor.
3.

n
z\

21, Cor. 3.)

If

P,

arc

(x^ y ly

(# 2

?/ 2

z2 \

and the

measure of PQ

is r,

the direction-ratios of

PQ

are

Ex. 1. Find the direction -ratios of the lines bisecting the angles / 2 w? 2 1*2* between the lines whose direction -ratios are l m n n \ ( 2 m^ n 2 \ then OL and OL' are the lines If L, L' are (l^ m from O with the given direction-ratios, and OL and OL' are of unit
}

{ ,

length.

The mid-point, M,
and
are

of LL' has coordinates,

^,

-1

OM =cos 2

where L LOL'=^

therefore the direction-ratios of

222
?,

-?-!

2
?

OM

2 cos ~ffl$
'

2 cos 0/2
'\

~
J , etc. 2 sin 0/2
.

Similarly, the direction-ratios of the other bisector are J

Ex.

2.

Prove

OZ are given rectangular axes OZ bisect the angles YOZ, ZOX, XOY OX OY,, OX OY OZ bisect the angles YjOZ^ Z^X^ X^Yj, that L Y OZ = Z.Z OX =^X OY -7r/3, and that L Y2 OZ - L Z OX - L X O Y - cos" 5/6.
OX, OY,
t ,
;

Ex.

3.

A, B, C, are the points

and the axes are rectangular.

interior bisector of the angle

(1. 2, 3), (3, 5, -3), (-2, 6, 15), Find the direction-cosines of the

BAC.

Am.

l/\'l82, 67/5\/l82, 6/5^/182.

*30.

The direction-ratios of any

1, (A)),

line satisfy the equation

(25,
which

Cor.

it is

convenient to write,

<f>(l,

m,

7i)

30
*31.

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
To find
the
I,

[ca n.

direction-cosines of the line whose

direction-ratios are

m,

n.
itself,

Project OL, (figs. 21 and 22), on the axes and on and we obtain, as in 25 (1), (2), (3), (4),

cos

8 = 1 cos v + m +n cos \
y=
l

==

^2, 3m
o~~>

cos

cos/x

+ wcosX + 7i =

<>

= cosa+wcos/3-f Ticosy.
the lines

(Of.

21

(3).)

*32.

To find the angles between

Z,

whose direction-

ratios are

m, n

',

m',

T^'.

',

Let OL', the unit ray from O which has direction-ratios Then projecting OL' m', n', make an angle 6 with OL.
cos 6 = V cos

on OL, we obtain,

oc+m' cos (3+ri cos y,

= tt' + mm' 4- nn' + (win' + m'ri) cos X

i'

+ n'i) cos + (lm' + /'m) cos v,

/a.

(7or.

If the lines are at right angles,

which

may

be written in the forms,

V cos a + m*' cos /3 + n' cos y =

or
7
,

cos oc'+

m cos (3'+n cos y' = 0,

x

where cos a. cos /3', cos y are the direction-cosines of

OL'.

Ex. 1. If A=^i= v=?r/3, find the direction-ratios of the line joining the origin to the point (1, 2, Find also the direction-cosines. 1).
Ans.
'

-L

JI*.
'

L.
2\/5'

/5' \/5'

V5

31, 32]

DIREGTION-KATIOS
Shew
by
I

31

Ex.

2.

that the direction-ratios of a normal to the plane

__

XOY

are given

m
cos /A cos v - cos A
2

_ n _
sin
2
i/

cos v cos A - cos p,

sin

vA*
i/.

where
Ex.
3.

A=1

cos

cos

- cosV -f 2 cos A cos /x

//,

cos

Prove that the lines which XOY, internally, have direction-cosines

2 cos A/2

bisect the angles

YOZ, ZOX,

^:^,
'

cos^,
2'

cos

etc., f

and that the angles between them are

ft

+ CQS v

4 cos /x/2 cosy/2

(CH. IIL

CHAPTER

III

THE PLANE.
Let ABC, (fig. 23), a given plane, make intercepts OA, OB, OC on the axes, measured by a, 6, c and let ON, the normal from O to the plane, have direction- cosines cos a, cos /3, cos y, and have measure p, (p is a positive number).
33.
;

Equation to a plane,

(i)

To find

the
y, p.

equation to the

plane ABC in terms of cos a, cos fi, cos

Fio. 23.

Let

P, (x,

?/,

0) be

any point on the

plane.

Draw PK

parallel to OZ to meet the plane XOY in K, and to OY to meet OX in M. Then the measures of

KM

parallel

OM, MK, KP

are x, y, z respectively, and since ON is the projection of OP on ON, and therefore equal to the sum of the projections of OM, MK, KP on ON,

p = x cos oc + 2/ cos P + z cos y.

This equation, satisfied by the coordinates of every point on the plane, represents the plane.

33-35]
(ii)

THE EQUATION TO A PLANE

the equation to the

33
a, 6, c.

To find

plane in terms of
;

.*.

ON = projection of OA on ON = OA cos <x p = a cos oc. Similarly, b cos (3 = c cos y = jp.

(i),

Hence, by

the equation to the plane

is

x cos oc_^ y cos ft^z cos y ----_.

-j-j,

-p

j^

P
*
i.e.

+ ? + ?=!.

Ex.
plane
34.
if

2s

Find the intercepts made on the coordinate axes by the plane = 9. Find also the direction-cosines of the normal to the - 5, the axes are rectangular. Arts. 9, 9/2, -9/2 J,
;

If,

General equation to a plane. The general equation of the first degree in x, y, z represents a plane. For Ax + B-\-Cz+D = Q can be written

x
,
..

'

-D/A

-D/B

-D/C
D/A
%

and therefore represents a plane making intercepts D/B, D/C on the axes.
35.

If

represent the same plane,

cos
oc

_ cos /3 __ cos y "~

therefore the direction-cosines of the normal to the plane If the are proportional to A, B, C. Ax By + Cz+D

axes are rectangular, each of the ratios in (l) = -7 to

But

is

a positive number

therefore

if

is positive,

-A

cos

B= ^
we must change
the sign of %/A2 +B 2

If

is
B.O.

negative,

+C2

34

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Cor.
If the axes are rectangular, the angle

fen. ra.

between the

planes
18

COS'

Ex.

1.

If the axes are rectangular, find the angle

(i) (ii)

between the

PIanes

2x-y+z=6

3^4-4^-5^=9,

Arts, (i) 7T/3, (ii) ?r/2.

Ex. 2. If the axes are rectangular, find the distance of the origin Ans. 2. from the plane 6# - 3y + 2z - 14 = 0.
that the equations by+cz+d=Q, represent planes parallel to OX, OY, OZ respectively. Find the equations to the planes through the points (2, 3, 1), (4, 5, 3) parallel to the coordinate axes.

Ex.

3.

Shew

a#+&y+c?=0
Ans.

Ex.

4.

Find the equation to the plane through Ans. 5s=0.

(1, 2, 3) parallel

Ex.

5.

parallel to

ax+by + cz~Q

Prove that the equation to the plane through is ax+by + cz=aaL + b/3 + cy.

(OL,

/?,

y)

Ex. 6. If the axes are rectangular find the equation to the plane through
Ans.

and P

is the point at right angles to

(2, 3,

-1),

OP.

Prove that the equation 2#2 -6#2 -: represents a pair of planes, and find the angle between them.
Ex.
7.

Ans. cos^ 1 16/21.

Ex.

8.

Prove that the equation

ax* + by 2 + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2 hxy = a6c + 2/^A-a/2 is
2

represents a pair of planes

if

fc#

-cA 2 =(

Prove that the angle between the planes

tan -'
\

a+b+c
Through A,

Ex.
B,

9.

A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin

Shew
that

in A, B, C. planes are drawn parallel to the coordinate planes. the locus of their point of intersection is given by

and meets the axes, which are rectangular,

36.

Plane through three given points.

The general

equation to a plane contains three arbitrary constants, and therefore a plane can be found to satisfy three conditions

which each involve one relation between the constants;

35-37]

DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A PLANE

35

e.g.

a plane can be found to pass through any three nonthe equation to the
(

eollinear points.

To find
(#2
>

plane through (x ly y l9 z^

2/2> **)>

x s>

Vs> **)

Let the equation to the plane be ax + by+cz+d = 0.

Then

axl + by l + cz1 + d = 0,

Therefore, eliminating a,
equation,
x>

6, c, d,

we

obtain the required

o.

^
>

%>
c

3,

y 2 %> y3 3
,
,

i 1

Ex.

1.

Find the equation to the plane through the three points

(1,1,0),

(1,2,1),

(-2,2,-!).

Ex.
(3, 3,

Shew that the four points 0) are coplanar.

2.

(0,

1,

0), (2,

1,

1), (1, 1, 1),

37. 1 Distance

distance of the

from a point to a plane. To find point P, (x', y'. z') from the plane
is

the

Suppose that p
cos
to

a positive number so that cos a, cos /3, are the direction-cosines of the normal from the origin
(x',
y',

the plane. Change the origin to equation to the plane becomes

z'\

and the

p = (#+#') cos oc+(2/ + 2/0 cos /3+(2 + z') cos y,

or
p'

x cos CL + y cos (3 + z cos y,

x'

where

p' = p

cos

OL

y' cos
(#',
2/',

z cos

Hence the distance

plane
is

of

z'\ the

y new
.

origin,

from the

= _ p' -p ^ cos oi

y' cos /3

z'

cos y.

If P is

on the same side of the plane as the original

origin O, cos a, cos/3,

cosy are
7/cos
/3

still

the direction-cosines of

the normal
fore p' or

from the new

origin, P, to the plane,

o/cosoc
1

z'cos
i.

is

and thereIf P positive.

See Appendix, p.

36

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

m.

and O are on opposite sides of the plane, cos a, cos/3, cosy are the direction-cosines of the normal from the plane to x'cosa y'cos/3 2' cosy is P, and therefore p' or p
negative.

Hence,

if

is positive,

p
is

x'cosoi
2') is

y' cos /3

2'

cos

y
side of the

and negative on the side of the plane remote from the

Cor.
1.

positive if (x, y\ plane as the origin,

any point on the same

if (#', y'y z') is

any point

origin.

The distance

of

(#', y',

z} from the plane

it

the axes are rectangular,

,,

is

given by

ax'

+==== by'+cz'+d
"
-

positive the positive sign is to be taken, as it gives a positive value for the perpendicular from the origin.
If
is

ax'+by' and the origin are on the same side (x ?/, z') positive of the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0, and negative if they are
is

Cor.

2.

If

is

positive, the expression

if

',

on opposite

sides.

Ex. 1. If P is (,*;', normal to the plane

#', 2'),

shew that the projection

is a/

of
r

OP

on the

p ~x cos a +y cos /? -f z cos y

and deduce the
Ex.
s.

cos OL+y' cos

/? -f z

cos y,

results of

37.

2.

the plane

x+ 2y - 2* = 9.
No.

Find the distances of the points (2, 3, -5), (3, 4, 7) from Are the points on the same side of the plane ?
Find the locus of a point whose distance from the origin from the plane 2^+3^-6^ = 2.

3, 4,

Ex.
is

3.

7 times its distance

Am.

3.r

+ 8y2 + 3522 - 36^- 24*r+ 12a- &r- 12 + 24* + 4 = 0.

Ex. 4. Find the locus of a point the sum of the squares of whose distances from the planes ^+^ + ^ = 0, x - z = 0, #-2^ + ^ = 0, is 9.

planes o?+y+ from the plane

of the squares of the distances of a point from the = is equal to the square of its distance 2?/ + 2 x z. Prove that the equation to the locus of the point is ?/ 2 + 2#2: = 0. By turning the axes of x and z in their plane through angles of 45, prove that the locus is a right circular cone whose semi5.

Ex.

The sum

= 0, x

vertical angle is

45.

37,38]
38.

BISECTORS OF ANGLES BETWEEN PLANES

37

Planes bisecting the angles between given planes. the planes bisecting the angles between the given = = planes ax + by + cz+d 0, a'x + b'y + c'z + d' 0, the axes being rectangular. We can always write the equations so that d and d are

To find

positive.

Then the equation ax + by + cz + d __ a'x + b'y + c'z + d ~

~~
therefore

represents the locus of points equidistant from the given planes, and since the expressions

ax + by + cz + d, ax + b'y + cz + d'
in the equation have the same sign, the points are on the origin side of both planes or on the non-origin side of both.

The

locus

is

the

plane

between
Similarly,

the

given

planes

which
a'x

bisecting contains

that
the

angle
origin.

ax + by + cz + d _

~~

+ b'y + c'z

represents the plane bisecting the other angle between the

given planes.
Ex. 1. Shew that the origin lies in the acute angle between the = = Find the planes bisecting planes #-|-2y-f2z 9, 4r-3y-i-12z-f-13 0. the angles between them, and point out which bisects the acute angle. Ans. Acute, 25# + 17y + 62s-78 = 0; obtuse, o?-h35y-10z- 156 = 0.

*Ex.

2.

Shew

that the plane ax-\-by + cz + d=Q divides the join of

rati

[The point

*2l
Hence

l,

T^T

lies

on the Plane

if

-h cz2 -f

d) + a^

+ by

-h cz l -f

*Ex.
v

3.

= a'x + b'y + c'z-\-d' = Q,

, ,

shew that the planes u + Av==0, u-\v = Q divide any transversal

d= 0.] u = ax \-ty-\-cz-\- d=0,

harmonically. Let P, (xl yl , z^ be on the plane u 0, then u v = ax l + by l + cz\ 4-^=0. Let Q, (.r2 , y2 z2) be on the plane v = 0, then v^ax^Vy^c'z^d' ft The planes u Av=0 divide PQ in the ratios

t.e.

divide

PQ

harmonically.

38

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

in

are any *Ex. 4. If A, P, B, ratio, or cross-ratio of the range

APBQ,
f>T

four collinear points, the anharmonic is defined to be

AP AQ __ PB QB
L.
'

,_r

AP.QB * AQ.PB

Prove that four given planes that pass through one line cut any transversal in a range of constant cross-ratio. If M=0, v = Q are two planes through the line, the equations to the four given planes can be written, w + A r0=0, r=l, 2, 3, 4. Let A, B,
z \\ y\\ respectively.
(^it

the

e P^nes u + \ x y%> z%) I* 6 on Then u + X. v =0 and u 2 + \ 3 v.2 =0. planes u + A 2 v = 0, w-f A 4 y=0, then by Ex. 2,
(
<2,i

v = Q,

u + A3 y

If

P,

lie

on

AP
PB
and therefore

AP.QB

(A 1

AQ.PB
This constant cross-ratio
is

(A 3 -A 2 )(A 1

-A 4 y

called the cross-ratio of the four planes.

*Ex.

5.

CD,

DA

P, Q, R,

of a

skew

quadrilateral.

are four coplanar points on the sides Prove that

AB, BC,

AP BQ CR DS, PB'QC'RD'SA

THE STRAIGHT
39.
first

LINE.

The equations

to a line.

Every equation

of the

degree represents a plane. Two equations of the first degree are satisfied by the coordinates of any point on the
line of intersection of the planes

therefore the

which they represent, and two equations together represent that line.
a'x

Thus ax + by + cz+d = 0,
straight line.

+ b'y+c'z+d' = Q

represent a

Symmetrical form of equations. The equations to a straight line can be found in a more symmetrical form. If the line passes through a given point P, (x> y', z') and has
40.

direction-ratios
i

I,

m,
r

n,
f

1=
where Q,

x'
>

y r

ij'

~>

n=
it,

z'

>

(x, y, z) is
(

any point on
;

and the measure of

PQ

is r,

21, Cor. 3

29,

Cor.

3).

And

therefore the

39,40]

THE EQUATIONS TO A LINE

any point on the line satisfy the equations x x' ^ y' z z y ^ , \
7 6

39

coordinates of

n
c

( x

=r

'

These equations enable us to express the coordinates of a variable point on the line in terms of one parameter r, for x = x'+lr, y = y'+mr, z = z+nr.
Conversely, any equations of the form

x
I

&__y ~~

b __z

n
(a, 6, c)
I,

represent a straight line passing through the point

and having
Ex.
1.

direction-ratios proportional to
line

??i,

n.

Find where the

x ~~ * = ffrJJ =
2

-3

gg
4

meets the plane

(^
5
,
v

_jj,

jj).

Ex.

2.

the surface

Find the points in which the lU2 -5?/-f z2 ==0. ^

line

1 =-1.7.1? = lzZ cuts

1
.

2
,

(1,2, 3), (2, -3,

1),

Ex.

3.

If the axes are rectangular, find the distance to the point

(3, 4, 5)

where the

line

ff

""-.*-

=^~
2

f-IL,

from the point meets the plane

Find the distance of the point (1, -2, 3) from the plane #-y-f 2=5 measured parallel to the line -=^ = -5-, (rectangular axes).
Ex.
4.
1.

23-6

Ex. 5. Shew that if the axes are rectangular, the equations to the perpendicular from the point (OL, /?, y) to the plane g "" a> == .y~' P = LllY and deduce the perpendicular distance of the are f

point

(oc, ^8,

y) from the plane.

Ex.
B, (a. ' N

6.

If the axes are rectangular, the equations to the line through

y) at right angles to the lines '

~ ^-^, m n
Z

f
Z

^-

=~
n

are

Ex. 7. If the axes are rectangular, and if 1 19 v n x ; / a , 2 , n a are direction-cosines, shew that the equations to the planes through the lines which bisect the angles between
xll l

=ylm l =z/n l and

xll 2

=ylm 2 =zln 29

and at right angles to the plane containing them, are n 2 )z =0.

40
Ex.
8.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[en. in.

line through the origin makes angles a, j8, y with its on the coordinate planes, which are rectangular. The projections distances of any point (#, y, z) from the line and its projections are Prove that rf, a by c.
y

cP = (a2

- x*) cos 2a + (6 2 - y*) cos 2 ft + (c2 - z2 ) cos2 y.

41.
(#2>

Line through two points.

>

#2 _ x v
are

2/2

z%)> the direction-ratios of

7/2

y l% z2

zlt
~*

y l9 zj, are proportional to and therefore the equations to PQ

If P,

are (x v

PQ

~"

the coordinates of a variable point of the line in terms of one parameter, X, are

By

8,

Ex.

1.

Find the point where the

cuts the plane

2x+y-z = 3.

line joining (2,

1, 3), (4,

-2, 5)
1, 5,

Ans.
2), (

(0, 4, 1).

Ex. 2. Prove that the line joining the points (4, - 5, meets the surface 2,r2 + 3y 2 - 4z'2 = 1 in coincident points.
42. Direction-ratios

3)

from equations. The planes through

the origin parallel to

are given

by
ax + by + cz = 0,
o/# -f 6
r

i/

+ c'0 = 0.

Hence the equations ax + by + cz = Q = a'x + b'y + c'z

together represent the straight line through parallel to the line given by the origin

They may be written

bcb'c
and therefore the

=
ca'

c'a

ab'

a'b'

direction-ratios
y

of the

two

lines

are

proportional to be' be, ca! c'a ab' a'b. = in the point line meets the plane
( \ ab'-a'b'

Again the second

bd'-Vd

daf-tfa ab'^'b'

41,42]

THE EQUATIONS TO A LINE

41

therefore the equations to the second line in the symmetrical form are

j^ Vd
_

ab'-db
b'c

jM^dfa
ab'-a'b
ca

z
ab'
a'6"
to the

be

ca

Ex.
plane

1.

XOY are

The equations

to a line

-.

through

(a, 6, c) parallel

since the direction-ratios are , w?, 0. Again the line lies in the plane = c, and therefore its equations can be written

m(x-a)*=l(y-b)i

= ?,

........................... (2)
(2).

and

(1) is to
2.

be considered the symmetrical form of

Find the equations to the The equations are iH_. = '^H_ = lZJL.
Ex.
1

line joining (2, 4, 3),

(-3,
is

5, 3).

Therefore the line

parallel

to the plane

XOY,
3.

as

on

it

are equal to

evident, since the ^-coordinates of The equations can also be written

is

two points

# + 5// = 22,
Ex.
.

= 3.
(a,
ft,

3.

to

OZ
Ex.

~_

are

The equations to the straight line through bz x L =/--- = - - c or x = a^y = b.

-ay
Shew

c) parallel

4.
4tf

planes

+ 4y-5s = 12,

Prove that the equations to the line of intersection of the 8.r-M2 y-132 = 32 can be written
i

x
2

=y
3
<

=z
4'

Ex.
it

5.

that
t

the

line

parallel to the plane

y = 0, and

find the coordinates of the point

2j + fy-z-6 = Q = 2x + 3y-z-8 is where

Ans.
(0, 2,

meets the plane #=0.

-2)

Ex.

6.

Prove that the

lines

are parallel.

Ex.

7.

Find the angle between the

lines

(rectangular axes).

An*, cos" 1 8/</406.

line

Ex.

8.

Find the equations to the

parallel to the line

xy + 2^ =
4

through the point

6.

(1, 2,

3)

5, 3#-fy-|-,3

42

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
a line.
c

[CH.

m.

43. 1 Constants in the equations to

The equations

x
I

a_y

b_2
~~

may u J be

written

05

=
,

m
me n

_m y
which are of the form

a)

n 03 =

and therefore the general equations to a straight

tain four arbitrary constants.

line con-

The equations (1) represent the planes passing through the line and parallel to OZ and OX respectively, and by a choice of such planes to define any given line its equations can be put in the form (2), which is the form with the smallest possible number of arbitrary
constants.
Ex.
line

Prove that the symmetrical form of the equations to the i r 7 = y = z-d given by ^ = oy + 6, z = cy + a is C CL i
1.
, ,

xb

--

Ex.

2.

Prove that the

if

lines

zc'y + d',
are perpendicular
aa' + cc' 4-1=0.
c, a?,

Ex. 3. Find a, 6, through the points

(3,

given points and (9, 8, Ans. a = l, 6=1, c

2,

x ay-\- &, z cy + d may pass -4), (5, 4, -6), and hence shew that the 10) are collinear.
so that the line

1,

d=

-2.
rz+s> intersects the conic

Ex. 4. Prove that the line x = pz + q, y 2 0=0, 0^ + 6^=1, if af + 6* = 1.

intersects the conic

Hence shew that the coordinates of any point on a line which and passes through the point (OL, /?, y) satisfy the 2 2 2 equation a(yx ou) -f b (yy fa) = (z y)
.

Ex.

and

Prove that a line which passes through the point (a, 5. intersects the parabola y=0, 2 2 =4a,r, lies on the surface
t

/J,

y)

Ex.

6.

Find the equations to the planes through the

lines

parallel to the coordinate axes.

Ans.

(i)
(iij

5y~4z + l=0, 2s >lTy-25* =0, 5^-17^+34 = 0,

1

5jp

See Appendix,

p.

i.

43,44]

THE PLANE AND THE STEAIGHT LINE

If the axes are oblique the distance of the point (xf y
is

43
y', sf)

*Ex.
(ax

7.

from the plane ax + by + cz + d=0

f

given by
'
//,

+ by' + cd + d)
{

cos 2 A

- cos 2 - cosV -f 2 cos A cos /A cos

cos
//,

v)

2a 2sin 2 A - 226c (cos A

of (^,
f

cos v) }
line

*Ex.
is

8.

The distance
2
2

y',

z )

from the

xjaylb=ztc

given by
;2 "~

2(fe-cy) sin A-f 22(<?#-az)(ay-&.r)(cos/icos *>-cos A) a2 + 6 2 -fc2 -h26ccos A + 2cacos/x + 2a6cosi/

*Ex.
plane r

9.

Prove that the direction-cosines of the normal to tho

are
0, 0,

OXY

sin v

where
If the

XOY

A = 1 - cos2 A - cos2/x - cosV + 2 cos A cos /x cos v. angles that OX, OY, OZ make with the planes YOZ, ZOX,
/J,

are a,

y,

prove that
sin a.

sin sin /3 __

y
i/

cosec
If the angles

cosec

/x

cosec

between the planes ZOX, XOY,

etc.,
>\ t

are A, B, C,

prove that

cos ^ _ cog ^ cos v = sl n ^ s

-

j,

C08

/..x

sin

A_sin B__sin C
A
sin
//,

sin

sin v

44.
,

The plane and the straight

,

ax+oy + cz+d = Q,
7
,

X
j
(/

OL

y~8 = =til'

zy IV

line.

Let the equations

represent a given
i&

plane and

straight line.
(oc+Zr,
/3

Their point of intersection

+ mr, y + nr\

where r

is

given by

But r
(a,
/3,

proportional to the distance of the point from Therefore the line is parallel to the plane if y).
is

al

+ bm+cn = Q

and

aoL

+ bfi + cy + d=\=Q.

If the axes are rectangular, the direction-cosines of the normal to the plane and of the line are proportional to
a, 6, c]
I,

m, n\ and therefore

if

the line

is

normal to

the plane,

l_m_n
a
b
c'
lie

Cor.

The

conditions

that the line should

al

in

tho

plane are

+ bm + cn = Q

and

44

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
Ex.
1.

[CH. in.

Prove that the

line

^-IZ-Lil^

plane

234
1, 5),

is

parallel to the

Ex.

2.

&r- 31^-332=0
Ex.
3.

Prove that the planes 2^-3y-7<s=0, 3#-14y- 132=0, pass through one line.

Find the equation

to the line joining (3, 4,

to the plane

1), (2,

through

(2,

-3,

1)

normal

(axes rectangular).

Am.
Ex. 4. Find the equation to -1, 0), (3, -4, 5) parallel to the
the
line 2j;

(2,

plane through = 3y = 42.

the

points

Ans.

Prove that the join of (2, 3, 4), (3, 4, plane through (-2, -3, 6), (4, 0, -3), (0, -1,
Ex.
5.

5) is
2),

normal to the the axes being

rectangular.

Ex.

6.

Find the distance of the point (-1, -5, -10) from the
?

point of intersection of the line

?/ -f-

1
.

='/.

=2

4-2

= 5,

and the plane

Ans. 13.

(rectangular axes).
to

Ex.

7.

(-

1, 0, 1)

Find the equations and the lines

the

planes

through the point

and shew that the equations to the line through the given point which intersects the two given lines can be written

xy
Ex.
8.

=2

2.

Find the equation

I

to the plane

through the line

~~

n
.

parallel to the line r

#-, %=m =~ I n

A ns. 2 (x - a.) (mn' - m'ri)

0.

Ex. 9. The plane lx + mf/ = Q is rotated about its line of interProve that the section with the plane through an angle <x. equation to the plane in its new position is

20

Z# + ray i

2\^ 2 -f m2 tan

a.

= 0.
which
is

Ex, 10. Find the equations to the line through (/, gy h) nz Q and intersects the line parallel to the plane lx-\-my-\-

ax + by -\-cz-\- rf=0,
Ans.

_
a/-f b'g -H c'h -f- d''

44]

EXAMPLES
11.

4b

Ex.

The axes being

rectangular, find the equations to the

line

perpendicular from the origin to the

=0.

Find also the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular. (The perpendicular is the line of intersection of the plane through the origin and the line and the plane through the origin perpendicular
to the line.)

Ans
Ex.
g 2t

__-___
12.

__

The equations

to

AB

referred to rectangular axes are

= -^- = |. Through a point P, (1, 2, 5) PN is drawn perpendicular D to AB, and PQ is drawn parallel to the plane 3,r + 4 -f 5e = to meet AB in Q. Find the equations to PN and PQ and the coordinates of
*5
?/

N and

Q.

-3

176

89

'

-13

(^M^">
Ex.
13.

angles to

OP

the area of

Through a point P, (x', //, /) a plane is drawn at right to meet the axes (rectangular) in A, B, C. Prove tnat _- where r is the measure of OP. the triangle ABC is
,

2.r'?/Y

Ex. 14. The axes are rectangular and the plane JC/a+y/b-\-z/c=l Prove that the equations to BC are meets them in A, B, C.
-='^ o

=
^

that the equation to the plane through

;

OX

at right

= angles to BC is by cz that the three planes through OX, OY, OZ, at right angles to BC, CA, AB respectively, pass through the line axby=cz\ and that the coordinates of the orthocentre of the are triangle

ABC

a- 1

b~ l

c- 1

Ex.

15.
)

from the

If the axes are rectangular, the distance of the point line

is

k given hv m VPTI by
where
Ex.

____^
-

aU " OT

^
16.

a^ +6y

+^ +

rf,

and

v Q ==a\rQ-\-b'y +c'zQ + d',

line

Find the equation to the plane through the u = ax -f 6 + cz + d = 0, v =

?/

parallel to the line

x/l=y/m=z/n.

Ans.

46

COORDINATE GEOMETER
17.

[CH.

Ex.

Find the equation

to the plane

through the lines

Ans.
be'

= 0.
-6'c,
ca!
c'tf,

ab'

-a'b

/3/-/?'y,

ya'-y'a,
is

a./?'-*'/?

Ex.
line

18.

x~py + q = rz + s

Prove that the plane through the point

given by

(a,

/?,

y) and the

,=0.
a,
1,

p(3 + q,
1,

ry + i
1

Ex.
C

19.

The

distance

of

the

point

(,

77,

f)

from the

line
is

^lfj n

measured parallel to the plane a#+6y+cs=0,

given by

Deduce the perpendicular distance *Ex. normal

of the point
'

from the

line.

If the axes are oblique, the line 20. to the plane ax by cz + c? 0, if

=j

(See

31.)

*Ex. 21. Shew that the equation to the plane through is right angles to the plane

XOY

OZ

at

.r (cos

JJL

cos v

cos A)

y(co& v cos

cos p).

*Ex.

22.

angles to the planes

r(cos
JJL

Shew that the planes through OX, OY, OZ, at right YOZ, ZOX, XOY, pass through the line v cos A) =^(cos v cos A cos p) ^(cos A cos cos cos v).
//,

*Ex.
planes

23.

The planes through

YOZ, ZOX,

XOY

in lines

normal to OX, OY, which lie in the plane

ft

OZ

cut the

cos

cos

cos v

=0.
is

*Ex.

24.

Shew

that the line in Ex. 22

at right angles to the

plane in Ex. 23.

*Ex.

If P is the point (#', y', af) and the perpendiculars 25. to the coordinate planes are p l9 p^ p 3 , prove that

from

sin

A _p 2 sin /A_JP3 sin

y'

~~~rf~~~~~

A ~~?~- a
v__

i
'

Deduce that the planes bisecting the interior angles between the coordinate pianes pass through the line
sin

=
sin
/z

=
sin
v*

44 45]
?

THE INTEESECTION OF THEEE PLANES

47

*Ex. 26. Shew that the squares of the distances of from the coordinate axes are
2 2 y' sin v

P, (a/, y*, af)

+ z'2 sin 2 + 2yV (cos A - cos

//,

//,

cos

v), etc.

*x.

27.

Prove that the equation to the plane through

normal to

x = _y
is

-==
/u,

# cos -A-fu+v, y cos -f ^2i

sin

sin

, sin v

A-u+v &

+z cos

+ A

=0.

intersection of three planes. Before proceeding to the general discussion of the intersection of three given
45.

The

planes

we

will consider three typical numerical cases.

Solving the equations

2z- y+
a

3,

3.y-f2s=

1,

we

obtain

ce

= l,

2/

= 2,

= 8, and

hence the three planea

represented by the given equations pass through the point

(1, 2, 3).

Let us

now attempt

to solve the equations

(i)
(ii)

2#-4i/ + 2z = 5, = 8, 5x y

(iii)

x+

= 7.
then from
(i)

Eliminate z from

(ii)

and

(iii),

and

(ii),

and

y = 6. Similarly, eliminating y from (i) and and (iii), we get

.

4^-22/ = l, x+ Whence subtracting,

we

get

4^-27/ = 7.
.

(ii),

then from

(ii)

whence
There
are, therefore,

no

finite

values of

x,
.

satisfy all
O.o?

the given equations.

The equations
(X*

y z, which x+ y = 6,
y
.

+ 0.0 = 6, are

limiting forms of

T;

+ T=6, + T.~G>
T.

1J

2/

as &

tends to infinity, and hence we may say that any point wnose coordinates satisfy the three given equations is at an

48

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. in.

infinite distance.

section of

any two

easily find that the lines of interof the planes are parallel to the line

We

x _y _z

1~2~3'
and
it is evident that no two of the planes are parallel, so that the three planes form a triangular prism. Thus if we are given the three equations to the faces of a triangular

prism, and we attempt to solve them, we obtain a paradoxical equation of the form & = (), where k is a number
different

from

zero.

Consider, in the third place, the equations

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

12a- y + 2z = 35,

3x+ y+ z= x + 2y + z=
(i)

7, 0.

Eliminating z between and (iii), we obtain

and

(ii),

and then between

(ii)

Similarly,
equations,

if

20-2/ = 7. we eliminate x in any way between the

5 ?/

63-3i/ = 21,

we

get

+ 2z + 7 = 0.

Thus
tions
lie

all

points whose coordinates satisfy the given equaupon both of the planes ^x y 1, 5 1/ + 2^ + 7=0,

or the
line,

common
is,

that
1.

points of the three planes lie upon a straight the three planes intersect in a straight line.
jc+
fti-

Ex.
(i)

Examine the nature

(ii)
(iii)

^iv)

(v)
(vi)
(vii)

2x-5y + 2 = 3, 3# + 4y + 6z = 5, x+ y+ 2 = 6, # + 2# + 32 = 6, 2#+3y + 42 = 6, 2.r- y+ 2 = 4, Zx- y+ 2 = 5,

(i)

+ 5y + 9s = 1 0, 2^ + 3y + 4s = 20,

of the intersection of the sets of planes ;r + y + 40-5, 3y + 6e = l

;

a? + 3# + 5* = 5

3.r

4-4^ + 52 -2, 3# + 4y + 5* = 20,

5.r

x- y + 2 = 2; 5# + 4y + 32+ 18=0
.r+2y-f3z = 2;
3,r
;

+ 7?/-f22 = 0,
;

Ans.

2#-f-4y+ Planes form prism (ii) planes pass through line

+ 4y-2s + 3 = 2+10=0, 6^-2y-f 2^ + 9 = 0.

z

3# - 5 _jj _
(iii)

.____;
;

planes intersect at

(1, 2, 3)

(iv)

planes pass through line

(v) planes form prism; (vi) planes intersect at planes parallel, tnird intersects them.

(1,

1,1);

(vii)

twc

46]

THE INTERSECTION OF THREE PLANES

2.

49

Ex.
z

= 2,

Prove that the three planes form a triangular prism, and find the area

of a

normal section
Ans. \/3/18.

of the prism.

consider the general case. Let the equations to the planes be

shall

We

now

Ul
u.z

- a rx + b^y + c^z + </ = 0,

t

.(i)

a.2 x

b.2

y + c^z + d.2 = 0,

(2)

Solving the equations

6 lt c lt

(1), (2), (3),

we

obtain

-i
dl
ap
P
c,

which, by contracting the denominators,

we may
~~ l

write,
.

X
i>

~y d^}
\ci>i,
e?

-tt
I

Z
lf

QI>

2,

d3
,

62

</

\a v b 2

(to ...\*)

c3

Let
D Di

A-|a p

62

c3

|,
L/Lv-i

^
i

/ />

//

/^f

X I
Ij

\ t/.'jCA/o

L-ovl,^

3A C l

Then
B2 C3
B3 C 2 =
x

A,

C2A 3
-^ = Uo = ~
***)

C3A 2 = 6jA,
1
f

A.,B 3

-A

3 B.,

=c A
t

etc.

Therefore,

if

A = 0,
"^>> A., --

and

^ ~=
t

l J

l-* 4?

-^

^'t = -A

.(5)
z,

If A^=0, tlie equations (4) give finite

'r

alues of x, y,

and therefore the three given planes have a point

intersection at a finite distance.

of

the given equations are not satisfied by any finite value of x. Since
if
|

But

A=

and

6 P c2

d.3 |^=0,

A p A 2 A 3 cannot
,

all

are not all parallel. planes are parallel to

/y //
/}/

be zero, and therefore the three planes Again, the lines of intersection of the
/> vLf

C/

/v

&

9/
'{

^ ~

'T* ^"^

II

j &

C,

A2

A,

B,

C,'

60

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
,

[OH.

m.

and hence, by (5), are parallel. If A l9 A 2 A 3 are all different from zero, no two of the given planes are parallel, and the planes form a triangular prism. The edges are parallel to XOY if d^Cg^Ca^O, (and so av 6 2 d3 1=0), or to OX if and B l9 B 2 B 3 C v C 2 C 3 are all zero (and so % c 2 d3 and A 2 A 3 ^0, the planes d3 If A x 0). Bj Cj 0, |a!& 2 u 2 and u 3 are parallel and u meets them, and we have a
|

limiting case of a triangular prism when one of the edges is at an infinite distance. Since d% and d 3 are not both zero, we and have &! C 2 d 3 ^0. Hence for a triangular prism, A

one of the other three determinants is different from zero. It is to be noted that in this case

three planes are parallel to one line their equations can be combined so as to form a paradoxical = equation & 0, where k is a quantity different from zero

that

is,

when

Conversely,

if

three

numbers

I,

m, n can be found so that

y z, and is not zero, then the three planes are parallel to one line, and if no two of them are parallel, form a triangular prism. For
is

where k

independent of

x,

a 2 m + a3?i = 0,
2

bj + b%m +

b 3n

= 0,
|=jfe=0.

m + c n = 0,
3
,

Therefore
|

ax

6 2 c3
,

= Suppose now that \b l9 c 2 rf 3 one of the common minors of A and b ly

,
|

= A = 0,
\

dj + d^m + d3n =fc 0. and \b l9 c2 d3

,

and c2 d 3
,

A^O, (^
1).

is

As

in the

last case, the three planes are parallel to one line. But since \b l9 c2) d3 the three lines in which the planes 0,

cut the plane YOZ,

viz.,

# = 0,

are concurrent.

Their

common

point
z

is

given by # = 0,
l

and since

A^O,

it is

at a finite distance.

Hence, since the

45]

THE INTERSECTION OF THREE PLANES

51

three planes are parallel to one line and pass through a point in the plane YQZ, they pass through one line. the It follows now that \al9 c2 ds and |alf 6 2 d3
,
,
\

\,

in (4), are zero. For since the planes pass through one line, their lines of intersection

remaining two determinants

viz.,

with the plane ZOX,

are concurrent.

Therefore \a v

2,

d3 = 0, and
|

similarly,

not zero, the lines of intersection of the given planes with the planes ZOX and XOY are concurrent. The points of concurrence are
is

= 0, \a v c2 Again, if \a v 6 2 c/3 (any one of the common minors),

,
|

d!

=
|

and

given by

and since c?2a3 rf3a 2 ^=0, they are not coincident. The planes have therefore two common points and thus pass through one line. It follows then that (a^ 62 c3 and
,
[

ft
[

l9

cZ

are both zero.

1

If,

therefore,
|&1
<?2>

any two

of the determinants
l

^3!'

K>

C 2> ^3l>

a i>

& 2> ^sl

a i' & 2>

C sl

are zero, and one of their

common minors

is

not zero, the

remaining two determinants are zero,* and the three planes have a line of intersection at a finite distance.
*

This

is easily

proved algebraically.

If

A =0,

\b l9 cai

c 3

= 0, and Aj ^ 0,

then, since '

and
,

c 3A8

Therefore, since

26^ = 0,
Joj, 62 ,

ScjA^O, and
c?8

|=0 and

(oj,

c,,,

rf,|=

52

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
The conditions

[CH. IIL

for a line of intersection are often written

in the form,

a 1?
2'

61

c l9
2
'

d
}

a3

63

c3 ,

c/<

the notation signifying that any two of the four third-order determinants are zero. They may also be obtained as

Any plane through the line of = 0, ^ 2 = is given by X u + X 2 u 2 = 0. ^ 1^=0, u., = 0, ?^ = pass through one line, O = and u3 = Xi^i + X 2 u 2
follows.

intersection of
If

l'^

ol

the planes

must, for some values of X x X 2 represent the same plane,

,
,

and therefore

or

-X 3u3

Conversely,

if

A 1? A 2 A 3 can be found so that

,

then

EE

u3 s 0, A 3u 3
,

and therefore the plane u3 = passes through the = and u.2 = Q. Considering the of intersection of 1^ etticients in + + A^^O, we have

line

co-

A^ A^
2

^A! 4-

A 2 + & 3 A 3 = 0,

6X

Therefore, eliminating X x X 2 X 3
, ,

we

obtain

<x

abed
2
,

&2

c2

d^

Ex.

3.

Prove that the planes

pass through one

line.

Ex. 4. Prove that the planes x=c 2 2 2 through one line if a -f6 +c +2a6c=i.

yaz+cx, z=bx+ay

pass

45,46]

LINE INTERSECTING TWO GIVEN LINES

if

53

Ex. 5. The planes line pass through one

ax+hy+gz=Q, A#+ 6y + /z=0, gx+fy + czQ

A=

a, A,
,9:

A,
6,

g =0, and the

direction -ratios

/
o
o

/,

of the line satisfy the equations

7>>

n
z

__

?r

3A
'da

c)A~eS*
'db
'dc

Ex. 6. If the axes are rectangular, the equations to the planes through the line of intersection of two of the given planes a r^ + 6ny + c^ + rfr = 0, r=l, 2, 3,
perpendicular to the third, are

Shew
Ex.

that the three planes pass through one

7.

line.

The plane -+f +* = ! meets the axes OX, OY, OZ, which r a b c

are rectangular, in A, B, C, Prove that the planes through the axes and the internal bisectors of the angles of the triangle pass through the line

ABC

6\/c 2

-f

a2
lines.
L

46,

Line intersecting two given

The equations
l ;

to
,

any
are

line intersecting
v

two given
lies

u + \^ = 0,
line

For the third

therefore
is

in

coplanar with = = w2 coplanar with 1^

it is
.

= v u% = = v.2 lines, U = u^ + X 2 v2 = 0. = 0, and the plane u + X ^ = = ^, and similarly it

1

i;

Ex.

1.

Find the equations to the straight

line

drawn from the

origin to intersect the lines

"'"'

249 "153

-52
;

Ex. 2. Find the equations to the line that intersects the lines = l, 2jf y 2 = 2 x-y z~ 3, 2^+4y 2 = 4, and passes r-hy-f-2 x-\ __,? \ _ z-\ through the point (1. 1, 1). A y \ / r ^ ns
>

Ex.

3.

so as to

Find the equations to the line drawn parallel meet the lines 2 = 5#-6 = 43/ + 3, z = 2:r-4 = 3v + 5.

to --=:- = -

= l 1^+1693,

ll* =

54

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
4.

[CH. in.

Ex.
lines

y=2 = a
5,

Find the surface generated by a line which intersects the #4-32 = a, y+z = a and is parallel to the plane x+ y = 0.
;

Ans.

Ex,

the lines
x* = 2a z.

Find the surface generated by a straight line which intersects z, #+y = 2#, and the parabola y = 0, Am. x~- y* = 2az.

x+yzQ\ xy
A

Ex.

6.

and

is

variable line intersects OX, and the curve #=y, ;/ 2 =c*, Prove that it generates the parallel to the plane YOZ.

paraboloid xy~cz.

Ex. 7. Prove that the locus of a variable line which intersects the three given linesy = w#, z~c y= -mx, z= -c y=, w#= -c is the su rface y* - 2x* ==z 2 - c2
;
;

47.

Lines intersecting three given

to
t;

lines.
i;

If the equa11

tions

three
s
,

ua = =
(1)

given lines are and the three planes

(2)

u = =
1

u 2 = = w2
()

ttj-X^^O,

u 2 -X 2^2 =

(3)

Us-\v,3 =

have a

line of intersection, that line is

coplanar with each

of the three given lines, and therefore intersects all three. There are two independent conditions for a line of intersection, ( 45), which may be written,

A(Ai>
If

A* X 3 ) = 0,
,

......... (4)

/8 (X lf X 2
satisfy (4)

X 3) =

.......... (5)

and (5), any two of the equations (1), (2), (3) represent a line which intersects the three given lines. Suppose that (1) and (2) are taken, then eliminating X 3 between (4) and (5), we obtain
X lf X 2 X 3 be chosen to

0(X lf X 2 ) =

........................... (6)
,

An

infinite

number

of values of X x X 2 can be found to

infinite

satisfy (6), be found to intersect three given lines.

and therefore an
(1), (2), (6)

number
If

of lines can

we

eliminate

X lf X 2 between

we

obtain
(7) ^ ;

This equation

is satisfied

by the coordinates

of

on any

line

which

intersects the three given lines,

any point and

therefore represents a surface generated by such lines. Hence the lines which intersect three given lines lie on a
surface.

47]

LINES INTERSECTING THREE GIVEN LINES

Xx
,
,

55

It is to be noted that if
(3) is of the

form t^
(3),
(4),

X 2 X 3 satisfy (4) and (5), X^ + fc^g X 2v2 )==0, and therefore

are
really

that

(1),

(2),

(5)

equivalent to four

independent equations. The equation to the surface is obtained by eliminating \ v X 2 X 3 between these four Hence equations, and this can be done in only one way.
,

the surface
///
Al

is
/! \

also

given by j^f\ 1/1

123
*

3 )

= 0,

or

I/O

I/O /

by

Ex. =6, z

1.

-0

Find the locus a z=c x

;

of lines
;

which intersect the three

lines

a,

-b.

If the three planes

have a
is

line

of

so

intersection, it meets the three given

c\

lines.

That

0,
A-

1,

Aj,
1,
~~

LI\* + Ajfl

n =0,

2,

0,

M
t.e. if

^3

0>

(1)

A A 2 A 3 + 1=0
1

and

(2)

Therefore the coordinates of any point on a line which meets the three given lines satisfy

where AiA 2 A 3 -f-l=0. the locus of the lines,

Therefore eliminating A n A 2) A3
viz.
:

we

obtain

y
or

z+c
ayz -f bzx + cxy + abc
result
is

= 0.
(2).)

(Shew that the same

Ex.

obtained from
a

y=l,
lies

z-l
3.

2.

If the planes
;

2=1,

on the surface

yz+zx+ xy + \ =0.
all lines

through #=1 #=1, point y=~l

j

P and the three given

lines

pass through one line,

P
;

Ex.

Prove that

y=

-mo;,
4.

2= -c

and the x

axis, lie

which intersect the lines y~mj,z=c on the surface mxzcy.

Ex.

y-2~l, #=0; 2-#=l, y=0

Ex.

Prove that the locus of lines which intersect the three #-;/ = !, z=0 is
;

lines

5.

Find the locus of the straight

lines

which meet the

lines

56

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

III.

Ex. 6. Shew that the equations to any line which intersects the three given lines y=b, z -c, z = c, x~-a\ # = a, may be written y-b + \(z + c) Q, (x-a) + /x(?/-f fe) = 0, where A and //, are connected by the equation A//c - fib + a = 0. Hence shew that the two

y=-b

lines

which intersect the three given

lines

and

also

-=^
c c

are

~(

x
a
Ex.
7.

v c

__
c

Shew

that the two lines that can be

drawn

to intersect the

four given lines

are given by

= 1,

//-f-1

=0

48.

Coplanar

lines.

To find

the condition that

two given

lines should be coplanar.

Let their equations bo

qg-q
/

= y-$ ^ Z ~V

.................... (1)

71

x-a! __y-f z-y ~ir~~-~^r-'~rt~~

The equation
where
to a plane through the first line is
>

a(a?-a) + 6(y-j8) + c'(0-y) =

.............. (3)

+ &?ft+cr*-=0 ......................... (4)

8')

If it contains the line (2),

a(a
and

a') + 6( 8j

+c y.y =
(
')

............ (5)

rt

+ &?n + er?/ =
/

........................ (6)
(4),

Therefore eliminating a, &, obtain the required condition,

between

(5),

(6),

we

- a',
i

0-jS',
771,

y-y' =0 ............... (7)

71

m'
fc,

n
(3), (4), (6)

The elimination

of a,

between

gives the

equation to the plane containing the

lines, viz.,

X-OL, T/-/3,
I,

Z-y =0 ................ (8)

n
n'

?n,

m',

48,49]

COPLANAR LINES

57

Generally, the equation (8) represents the plane through the line (1) parallel to the line (2), and (7) is the condition

that this plane should contain the point

(a',

fl',

y')

on

(2).

Ex. 1. Deduce the result (7) by equating the coordinates 0.4- Zr, f tc., a/4- I'r' etc., of variable points on the given lines.
y

Ex. Ex.

2.

Prove n * *i that the r lines

TI

are coplanar.
3.

234345
1

'/- 2 =='

2-3 _=--_

.r-2

y-3 ^>^ = ^

2-4

Prove that the

lines
t

xa+d_ya za-d
OL8
OL

<X-f8

are coplanar, and find the equation to the plane in which the}7 Ans. 2y = *v

lie.

Ex.

4.
if

coplanar

Prove that the lines #= = (y c)(a($ fox) (OL a)(c8 dy) 0.

Prove that the "
lines

Ex.

5.

m
are coplanar
,

n
4-cv-fr

-r

if

aa-f

acL TT 7r a 6 4- /> m -f ^ ?i

'

Ex.

6.

Prove that the

5

lines
'//

= Q ^= OL.V 4- ft

4- y'z 4- 8'

are coplanar

ii

=0
' i

&',

ft,

ft

7
d,
;

d',

8,

8'

shew that Ex. 7. A, A' ; B, B' C, C' are points on the axes B'CA, BC'A' the lines of intersection of the planes A'BC, AB'C' C'AB, CA'B' are coplanar.
; ;

49.

The shortest distance between two

to

lines.

The axes

being rectangular, _

X
lines
j

OL
I

=v

8=z
A,

the find the shortest distance between r\t y X OL = y p = % 7y // ~:T~ "oi n i n

/
'

Let the points

r
,

(fig. 24),

be (a,

y), (a', p', y).

The

shortest distance between the given lines is at right angles X to both, and it is therefore equal to the projection of AA on

line at right angles to both of the given lines.

58

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
Suppose that
X,
/JL,

[OH. in.

are the direction-cosines of such a

line,

then

l\+mfj.+nv = and /'X+mV+^V=0;

X v = M = mri~m'n~~nl'--n'l~~lm'--l'm

Therefore the projection

= X(a-a )+/x(ft-ft')+Ky~y')> (21, Ex. 3), ~ ^ = (a a/Kmti' m'n) + (ft ft') (^ ti'Q + ( y y)(lm'~ I'm)
x x

a-a', p-jET, y-y' n m, Z,

i',

m',

n'

Fio. 24.

be interpreted as the condition that the shortest distance between the two given

Equation

(7),

48,

may now
Again,
if

lines

the shortest distance, the equations to the planes APP', A'PP' are
PP'
is

should vanish.

=o,
I,

as- a/,
r,

y-j
m',

*-y = 0,

m,
/x,

n
i/

X,

and these represent the

Ex.
1.

line PP'.

Find the shortest distance using the theorems that the is equal to (i), the perpendicular from any point (a+Jr, ft + mr, y+nr), on the first line to the plane drawn through the second parallel to the first and (ii), the distance between two planes, each passing through one line and parallel to the other.
shortest distance
;

Ex.

2.

If P,

(a+fr,

/3

+ mr, y+nr)

and

are points on the given lines, and PP'=8, prove that -~r-=0,

^w=0>
is

necessary conditions for a minimum of perpendicular to each of the lines.

PP/2

are verified

when PP'

49]

SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES

3.

Ex.

Shew

that the shortest distance between the lines

is

v6

_,

and that

its

equations are

Ex.

4.

Find the shortest distance between the

""

lines

-1

~
1

-T~

"""If"
:

The following method of solution may be adopted Let the S.D. meet the lines in P and P' respectively. Then the coordinates of P and P' may be written (3 + 3r, 8-r, 3 + r), (-3-3r', -7 + 2r', 6 + 4r'), where r is proportional to the distance of P from the point (3, 8, 3) and / to the distance of P' from (-3, -7, 6). Whence the directioncosines of PP' are proportional to 6-f 3r +
3r',

Since PP'

is

at right angles to both lines,

15-r-2r', we have

'

Whence, solving for r and r', we get r=/=0. Therefore P and P' are the points (3, 8, 3), (-3, -7, and the equations to PP' are

6),

2~~
Ex.
5.

~~-l*

Find the same

results for the lines

""
-.

-2

'

-6

T'
<-l -l
f

fT.l.^iZ.?,
Ex.
6.

(3,5,7),

-l)l

Find the length and equations

of the S.D.

between

Ans.

~~,
7.

Ex.

drawn

line with direction-cosines proportional to 2, 7, to intersect the lines

is

Find the coordinates intercepted on it.

of the points of intersection

and the length

(0, 1, 2),

Ans.

(2, 8,

-3),

\/7a

60
Ex.
8.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the
S.D.

[CH. in.
line

between the axis of

and the

(The plane passing through the

c'

line

and

parallel to

OZ

is

(ax + by + cz + d) = c (a'jc -f Ijy -f cz + d'\

to this plane
is

and the perpendicular from the origin

equal to the

S.D.)

Ex.

9.

If

the axes are rectangular, the

is

S.D.

between the

lines

(OL

.')(&

- 6') -

(o//3
(x')

- <*.p)(a - a')
2

{aV
Ex.
10.

(a

- aj + (a S.D.

+ (aa - a'a/) 2
lines

*
}

Prove that the

cur -f

between the

by -f cz -f o?

= =
d
d'

a'.*:

-f b'y

+ c'c -f

rf',

18

a,
a',

6,

c,

-r{2(BC'-B'C)

}*,

b\
/?,

c,
7,

,
.',

p, y, y
A'

where
Ex.

A = 6c'-6V,
11.

etc.,

= /^y' S.D.

/3'y,

etc.

Shew
cos

that the

between the
'

lines
g

y2
z { ) is
,.
..,

a.!

cos

jy t

meets the
M(.r,

_LJ

first

line at a point
<

,r <> )(cosa., 2/v

-cos __L---#cosou>)
!l

sin

(/

cos y^

cos

a. 2

cos

/ 2

cos

2/
?

/) where 6

whose distance from (r^ ?/ u T is the angle between the

.

lines.

Ex. 12. Shew that the S.D. between any two opposite edges of the tetrahedron formed by the planes ^/-f-^^o, 2-f.r^O, ^-fy = 0, x +y-\- z = a is 2a/\ f i$, and that the three lines of shortest distance intersect at the point x~y z~-a.

Ex.

13.

Shew

that the

S.D.

between the

line

and the
origin
is

z-axis

meets the 2-axis at a point whose distance from the

db'

- d'b) (be - b'c) -f (ca' - ca) (ad' - a'd)

Ex.

14.

Shew

= l, # = 0; and
y

that the equation to the plane containing the line is parallel to the line #/a-s/c=l, y =
if

x/a-y/b-z/c+l=Q and

2d

is

the

S.D.

prove that

Tj^-a + Tij +T*

50]

A CLASS OF PROBLEMS
15.

61

Ex.

Two
I

straight lines
,r

I'

m
/i,

are cut by a third whose direction-cosines are X, length intercepted on the third line is given by

v.

Shew

that the

OL-O/, /3-/3',
/,

y-y'
n
ri

-r-

w,
m',
/z,

n
n'

wi,
ra',

I',

I ',

A,

and deduce the length

of the S.D.

*Ex. 16. The axes are oblique and the plane ABC has equation x/a+y/b + zlcI. Prove that if the tetrahedron OABC has two pairs coa ^ COS M coa v / r J 1 i /\ J .1 . = of opposite edges at right angles, (^^X an ^ ^iat ~~h
4.

the equations to the four perpendiculars are

' ' '
'

c)y

*dz

3,>:

c)//

32*

Hence shew that the perpendiculars pass through the point given by
~-2 ==. 26c^*,
S.D.

^-

= 2cA,

= %abk.
7=^

Prove also that the equations to the

of

AB

and

OC

are

-^ Oz

Qabk. a^~--br~-

Ox

and that the

s.r*

('//

passes through the point of concurrence of the perpendiculars.

50.

Problems relating to two non-intersecting lines. When two non-intersecting lines are given, the following

coordinate axes allow their equations to be written in simple forms, and are therefore of use in problems

systems of

relating to the lines.

FIG. 25.

I.

Rectangular
let

and

them.

Let AB, A B', (fig. 25), be the lines, CC', length 2c, be the shortest distance between Take the axis of z along CC', and O the mid-point
axes.

62

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. in.

Draw OP, OQ parallel to AB, A'B', and of CO' as origin. take the plane POQ as the plane = 0. As x- and 7/-axes
take the bisectors of the angles between OP and OQ. Then if the angle between the given lines is 2oc, the equations
to the planes POZ,

QOZ

are

2/

= a?tanoc,

T/=

a?

tana; and

hence the equations to AB and A'B' are

These

may
cos

be written in the symmetrical forms

z ~~ c

x
cos

V
sin

sin

a
Q

'

a
AB

Ex.
lines

1.

P and

is a variable point so that QP, QP' are at arid A'B', and and A'B' right angles to one another and at right angles to Find the locus of Q. respectively. Take as the equations to AB, A'B', ?/ w.r, z c ; mx> z~ -c. Then the coordinates of P, P' are <x, 7*101, c /J, - 7H./3, c, where a. and

AB

P' are variable points

on two given non-intersecting

y=
is

/3

are variables.
'

Let

toAB
since

be (,

?;,

)>

then since

PQ

perpendicular

is

-m<x.)==0;

........................... (1)

P'Q

perpendicular to A'B',

(-/J)-mfo + ro/3)=0
since

........................... (2)

PQ

is

perpendicular to P'Q,

(-a.)(-p) + (T)~m^ + mp) + (t-c)((+c)=0 .......... (3)

To
The
find the equation to the locus
(1), (2), (3). \ /> \ /> \ /
is
.

we have
2

to eliminate
2

a.

and

ft

between

result

easily

found to be

7
,

"".?.

=^

/"2__ "*

a hyperboloid.
II.

(i-f-m^

I-

^ which
2

represents

Axes partly rectangular. If we take OP and OQ as axes of x and y, instead of the bisectors of the angles between them, we have a system of axes in which the angles ZOX, YOZ are right angles and the angle XOY is the angle between the lines. The equations to AB, A'B' referred
to this system are
2/

= 0,

2 = c;

# = 0,

2=

c.

Ex.

2.

P,

lines and by PP'.

PP

P' are variable points on is of constant length 2k.

two given non-intersecting Find the surface generated

Take

as the equations to the lines

/3,

P' are (a, 0, c), (0, equations to PP' are

P and

y=0, 2=c; #=0, z=-c; then - c), where a and /? are variables. The

50]

WORKED EXAMPLES
= =
Therefore

63

If Q, Q' are the projections of P, P' on the plane OXY, PQ Q'p' = c, = oL, OQ' /3 and QQ' 2 ==o.2 4-/32 --2oLj3cos0, where Q is the angle

between the

lines.

4F................... (2)
To obtain the equation
OL

to the locus of PP'

(1)

and

/3

between the equations

and

(2).

we have From (I),

to eliminate

and therefore the surface

is

given by

Ex. 3. Find the surface generated by a straight line which intersects two given lines and is parallel to a given plane. If the axes be chosen as in Ex. 2, ana the given plane be
&p 4- wy 4-tt,z = 0, the locus
is

z+c

,-{-?*

= 0.

is

Axes oblique. If a point on each of the given lines specified and a rectangular system is not necessary, the line
III.

joining the given points may be taken as 0-axis, its midpoint as origin, and the parallels through the origin to the

given lines as x- and

i/-axes.

The equations
# = 0,

to the lines

arethen

^0,0 = 0;
is

0=-c;
A
and A' being
is

where 2c
Ex.
4.

the distance between the given points.

lines,

AP, A'P' are two given

such that

fixed,

P and

P' variable points

z-axis, etc.

AP.
;

A'P'

constant.
(0, /?,

and Find the

locus of PP'.

Take AA' as

= a/J constant = 4P,

say.

Then P, P are (a, 0, c), The equations to PP' are

-c\ where

x _y-$ _z + c
and eliminating
Ex.
(iii)

a and

(3

a." -/?""" 2c' between these and a/3=4

2
,

we

obtain the

equation to the locus,

5.

A P 2 -f A'P' 2

Find the locus of PP' when (i) AP + A'P', (ii) AP/A'P', is constant. Find also the locus of the mid-point

of PP'.

Ex. 6. Find the locus of the mid-points of lines whose extremities are on two given lines and which are parallel to a given plane.
Ex.
lines

Find the locus of a straight 7. and makes a right angle with one
8.

line that intersects of them.

is

two given

Ex.

Find the
lines.

locus of a point which

equidistant from two

given straight

64
Ex.
9.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Shew

[CH.

I]

that the locus of the mid-points of lines of constai

i

length which have their extremities on two given lines is an ellip whose centre bisects the S.D., and whose axes are equally inclined
the lines.

point moves so that the line joining the feet of tl perpendiculars from it to two given lines subtends a right angle the mid-point of their S.D. Shew that its locus is a hyperbol

Ex.

10.

cylinder.

Ex.

11.
)

Prove that the locus of a

line
z

which meets the

is

liu<

0=

and the
-

circle
2

x?+y = a\
i

mxzf 4- c

(yz

THE VOLUME OF A TETRAHEDRON,

51.

To find

the

volume in terms of

the coordinates of th

vertices, the

axes being rectangular.

are (x l9 y l9 zj, (x^ y^ x, y, equation to the plane ABC is

If A, B,

2 ),

(# s

= 0,
1 1

y^

z^\ th

or

2/1-

y\>
2/2
>

3'

*'$

>

?/3'

The equation
Let
planes

to the plane

ABC can

also be written

p = a; cos

fJL

+ y cos j8 +
ABC then
;
.

cos
its

y
.

(2

denote the area

YOZ, ZOX, XOY are cos a But the projections of respectively.

projections on th A, cos (3 A, cos y L

.

A, B,

YOZ
sign

are

(0,

y lt
2/i>
2/ 2 .

z^

(0,

j/ 2

2 ),

(0,
is

y3

^\

C on the plan and therefore th<

area of the projection of

ABC

by

given in magnitude anc Therefore we have

cos

a A=
.

in

magnitude and

sign.

2/2.

y*>

51]

THE VOLUME OF A TETKAHEDKON

65

Hence, using the similar expressions for cos/3 cos y A, equation (1) may be written
.

and

2 A(# cos a + y cos ft + z cos

y) =
C
2.

2/2.

*2

<-3

the absolute measure of -JpA is the volume of the tetrahedron OABC, and we can introduce positive arid negative volume by denning the volume OABC to be -JpA,

Now

which

positive or negative according as the direction of rotation determined by ABC is positive or negative for the
is

plane ABC, (p
Vol.

is

positive as in

37).

We may then
"1>

write

OABC = Vol. OCAB = Vol. OBCA = 1

XZ> x\>
S
2/2'

Vol.

OBAC =

Vol.

OABC,

etc.

<V

2/2

2/1 >
2/3'

If

is

the point

?/ 4

4 ),

changing the origin to

D,

we have
Vol.
2/1-2/4. 2/2-2/4.
2/3-2/4.
2/1-2/4.

2/2-2/4.

2/3-2/4.
2/4.

_
2/1'

1 --

4.

2/4.

c2 ,
2/4-

2/2.
2/3'

Since the sign of a determinant is changed when two adjacent rows or columns are interchanged, it follows that
Vol.

DABC=

Vol.

ADBC = Vol. ABDC=

B

Vol.

ABCD,

etc

B.O.

86

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Again, since
2/3'

[CH.

III.

*3

*^2> 2/2

^2>

2/2'

^2

2/3'
2/4'

2/4.^4
2/2

#3,2/3,23,1

-Vol. ABCD = Vol. OABC-Vol.

Since the volume

OBCD
ODAB.

+ Vol. OCDA-Vol.
ABCD
S

does not depend on the position of the origin, this must be true for all positions of O.
Cor.
If
oc,
/3y

y,

are the perpendiculars

from any
y

point

ABC, BCD, CDA, DAB of a given tetrahedron aoi+b/3 + cy + dS is constant, where a, 6, c d are
to the faces
A, B, C are (3, the vol. PABC
of

certain constants.
Ex.
Ex.
j, 6,

1.

locus of

if

= 5.

2, 1),

(-2,

0,

-3),

(0, 0,

Am.

-2). Find the 2^-f 3/y- 42 = 38.

2.

The lengths
is

their S.D.

equal to
is

that the

volume

two opposite edges of a tetrahedron are and the angle between them to 6 prove abdsin 6
d,
;

IT

S.D. between two given lines, and B, B' are variable points on them such that the volume AA'BB' is constant. Prove that the locus of the mid-point of BB' is a hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the lines.

Ex.

3.

AA'

is

the

Ex. 4. If O, A, B, C, D are the projections of OA, OB, OC, p l Vol. -jD 8 .Vol.
.

OD

any
.

five points,

and

p^p^ p^ p
.

are

on any given
Vol.

OBCD

OCDA + p3

ODAB

line, prove that -p4 Vol.

OABC = 0.

Ex. 5. Prove that the volume of a tetrahedron, two of whose sides are of constant length and lie upon given straight lines, is constant, and that the locus of its centre of gravity is a plane.

A, B, C, D of a tetrahedron to meet the opposite faces in A', Prove that Vol. A'B'C'D'- -3 .Vol. ABCD.

= Vol. A'BCD. projections on any plane, prove that Vol. AB'C'D' Lines are drawn in a given direction through the vertices Ex. 7.
B', C', D'.

Ex.

6.

If

A, B, C,

are coplanar and A',

B', C',

D' are their

*Ex. 8. Find the volume of the tetrahedron the equations to whose faces are arX + 6r y+c r g + rfr =0, r=l, 2, 3, 4. Let the planes corresponding to r=l, 2, 3, 4 be BCD, CDA, DAB, Then (#lf ylt ABC respectively, and let A= a l9 b l9 15 dv
.

dt

511

THE VOLUME OF A TETRAHEDRON

67

the coordinates of A, are given by

and therefore the volume

etc.

is

given by

A2

etc.

-A

(C. Smith, Algebra, p. 544.)

*Ex.

9,

OABC

The lengths
6, c,

of the edges

OA, OB,

are a,

and the angles BOC, COA,

OC AOB
2,

of a tetrahedron are A, /*, v ; find

the volume.

Suppose that the direction-cosines of rectangular axes through O, are 1 19 m^ n v the coordinates of A are ^a, t a, n^, etc.
Therefore
6. Vol.

OA, OB, OC,

;

referred to

m OABC

J2 ,

n2

3,

3J

n3

then

/2 ft,

>

abc

2^
vj

2
,

2^/2
y; 2 J -"^2

>

2<

COS
V, ],

V,

COS /i COS
3

*.

7 1^25

y;

^^2^5

COS

cos//,

cos A,
(Cf.

27, Ex. 3.

[CH. IV.

CHAFFER

IV.

CHANGE OF AXES.
OZ o Orj, o are two sets of rectangular axes through a common origin O, and the direction-cosines mlt 7i 2 Orj, o, referred to OX, OY, OZ, are 2 2 ms n3 P, any point, has coordinates x y, z referred to l s CX, OY, OZ and ^ referred to O Qq, O^. We have to
52-

OX, OY,

*/,

26.

express x, y> z in terms of

rj,

and the

direction-cosines,

and

vice-versa.

In the accompanying figure, ON, NM, MP represent ^, and OK, KL, LP represent x, y, z. Projecting OP and ON,

NM,

MP

on OX, OY, OZ in turn, we obtain

.(i)

52,53]

THREE PERPENDICULAE LINES

OK, KL, LP on
,

69

And projecting OP and we obtain

Oq,

in turn,

(2)

The equations

(1)

and

(2)

can be derived from the

:

above scheme, which may be constructed as follows Affix and to the columns and rows the numbers x, y, z to the column headed x and the in the square common
;

YJ,

row headed place the cosine of the angle between OX and o i.e. 1 19 and so on. To obtain the value of x, multiply the numbers in the ^-column by the numbers at the left of their respective rows and add the products; to obtain the value of multiply the numbers in the -row by the numbers at the heads of their respective columns, and add
the products. Similarly, any other of the equations (1) and (2) may be derived.
Cor.

Since

x,

y, z

are linear functions of

is

rj,

the

degree of

unaltered by transformation from any one set of rectangular axes to any other. For it is evident that the degree cannot be raised* Neither can it

an equation

be lowered, since in changing again to the original axes, it would require to be raised.
53.

Relations between the direction-cosines of three

lines.
3

mutually perpendicular

We
2

have
3
l

y +w m
(A)
lj, l

+ 7i 3 = 0,1 +m^n + w an = ol
2
9? 1

(B)

= 0, J

70

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
From
the second and third equations of
(B),

[CH. iv.

we

derive

I 7i 2 3
2>

-m n
3

2
2)

m m
1

2>

(23,

Cor.

I.)

3,

Therefore,

if

D" ^

1,

m m
= D(m27i8 -m37i
Similarly,
2 ),

2,

'3'

7^ =
(E)

first column of equations and adding, we obtain respectively, n 7

Multiplying the

(E)

by

^,

2,

2,

3>

m m

and

similarly,

+ m32 = 1,
Multiplying the second column by
in the

..(c)

nv n2

7i

3,

we

obtain

same way,

m^ + m
and
similarly,

+ m37i3 = 0, n^ + n l% + 7i3 3 = 0,
2

7i
z

The equations (c) and (D) can be derived at once from the consideration that l v Z2 n l9 n%, 7i3 are 7n 3 3 l} 2
,
;

m m

the direction-cosines of OX, OY, OZ referred to O^, The method adopted shews that the four sets (A), (B),

Oiy,

O^. (D)

(c),

are not independent, and it can be shewn as above, that if either of the two dissimilar sets (A), (B) (c), (D) be given, the other two can be deduced.
;

Suppose that a plane LMN (fig. 27) cuts segments of unit length from the axes o

off three positive

Oiy,

Then

if

53]

THREE PERPENDICULAR LINES

71

the direction of rotation given by LMN is the positive direction of rotation for the plane LMN, the system of axes

can be brought by rotation about O into coincidence with the system OX, OY, OZ. If the direction of
O//,

rotation is negative,

and o

Otj

with OX,

OY

respectively, then

Of

are brought to coincide coincides with OZ'.

Fio. 27.

Now

6 Vol.
.

OLMN =
k,
*2>

positive or negative according as the direction of rotation determined by LMN Hence if LMN is positive or negative for the plane LMN.

The volume, and

therefore

D, is

gives the positive direction of rotation, from equations

(K).

the positive sign being taken throughout. the negative direction of rotation,

If

LMN

gives

^=
Conversely,
lines
if 1 19

(m2n3

7i ), etc.> 2

the negative sign being taken throughout.

mv n^

L,

7?

3,

3,

7i

are the

direction-cosines of three mutually perpendicular directed

O^, Of, and

then

O^,

Of can be brought by

rotation about

to

coincide with OX, OY, OZ.

Ex. Verify the above results by considering O, Or;, O to coincide, Bay, with OX', OY', OZ. Z3 = w 3 = 0, w 3 -=l. /2 =rc 2 =0, w 2 =--l; Here ^=-1, and if Ot be rotated to coincide with OX, Or; ^r^Wg-Ws^, coincides with OY.

^=^=0;

72

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
a surface by a given plane.

[CH.

IV.

54. 1 Section of

The

follow-

ing method

when the

of transformation can be applied with advantage section of a given surface by a given plane

passing through the origin is to be considered. Let the equation to the plane be lx + my + nz = Q, where
^ 2

+ m + 7i = 1,
2

and n
the

is

positive.

Take
OZ.

as

new

axis of

which passes through O

-

the normal to the plane and makes an acute angle with

0,

Then the equations to o, referred to OX, OY, OZ, are = 2//m = z/n Take as O//, the new ^/-axis, the line in #/ the plane ZO which is at right angles to o and makes an acute angle with OZ. Then choose Of, the new #-axis, at
right angles to Oq and o, and so that the system o O/;, Of can be brought to coincidence with OX, OY, OZ. The given

PiO. 28.

plane
W^

is

/ / O Orj,

and since

at right angles lies in the plane XOY, and therefore is the line The of intersection of the given plane and the plane XOY. = yjm therefore if X, p., equation to the plane fO^ is xjl
it

is

o O is at right angles to Of and Ow, O to OZ which lies in the plane fO^.

CJ

C5

' *

Hence o

;/

are the direction-cosines of Ow,

-71
1

n
p.
ii.

See Appendix,

54]

A USEFUL TRANSFORMATION
O//

73

But

positive,

makes an acute angle with OZ, and therefore v is and therefore the negative sign must be taken in
In

the ambiguity.

mn
=,
,/

2 = v/fw-. ?/i2 +

at right angles to O>; the direction-cosines of O are

since
is

And

and

o, by

53

m
i.e.

I
r,

Hence we have the scheme

mn

w
that the projection of a conic
is

71

Ex.
species.

1.

Shew

a conic of the same

the curve in which the plane r -f ra ?/ 4- fl^ = cuts the is the conic. and the projection of this curve on the plane 2 cylinder, Change the axes as above, arid the equations to the curve become

The eq u ation /(.r, y ) = a^:2 -f 2Ao7// 4- ft?/ 2 -f 2^.r 4- 2/7/ 4- c = represen ts a cylinder whose generators are parallel to OZ and pass through the conic 2 = 0, /(,r, .y) = 0. The equations r-f-w?/ + = 0, y*(^ ,?/)=0
ft,2

represent

m^

V/rnVV^V^V
and therefore the curve
is

\*/P
4-...-0,

m*/

the conic given

by

A'==

,,

Imn(a-b)-hn(l 2 -m ' ^ i 2 l + m*

-2

} ^
5

=
A' A'
2 2

Whence
and

- a7/ =

?i

(A

- aft)

-a'ft'-0 as A 2 - aft -0.

74

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH.

iv.

Ex. 2. All plane sections of a surface represented by an equation of the second degree are conies. Take coordinate axes so that a plane section is 2=0 ; the equation to the surface is, after transformation, of the form
ax* + by*+ cz*+ 2fyz + 2gzx + Ihxy + 2ux+ 2vy + 2wz+d=0.

The The
Ex.

section

by the plane
2=0,

XOY is the conic whose equations are

by equations
of the second degree are the

surfaces represented

conicoids.
3.

All parallel plane sections of a conicoid are similar and

similarly situated conies. Take the coordinate plane

2=0

plane sections.
z

= kf
z

The equations

parallel to a system of parallel to the sections by the planes

0=,

are then,

= k,

',

ax* + VJixy + by* + 2x(gk' + u) + 2y(fk' + v) + ck'* + Zwk' + d= 0.

sections are similar

Hence the

and similarly situated

conies.

Ex. 4. Find the conditions that the section of the surface ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 =l by the plane lx+ my + nz=p should be (i) a parabola,
a hyperbola. examine the section by the plane lx + my + nz=0, (It which, by Ex. 3, is a similar conic. The equation to the projection of this section on the plane z=0 is obtained by eliminating z between the equations lx + my + nz 0, ax 2 + by'2 + cz 2 =I, and the projection is a conic of the same species.)
(ii)

an

ellipse, (iii)

is sufficient

to

Ans. For a parabola

/a +

m /b + n /c =
2

(),

etc.

Ex.

5.

Find the condition that the section of ax2 +by 2 = 2z by

should be a rectangular hyperbola.

lx+my+nz=p

(Since rectangular hyperbolas do not, in general, project into rectangular hyperbolas, it will, in this case, be necessary to examine the actual section of the surface by the plane lx+ my + nz=Q by the

method
Ex.
6.

of

54.)

A ns.
circle.

(a + b)n 4- am* + U* = 0.
2

Find the conditions that the

should be a

section of

ax2 + by 2 +cz 2 = l by
2
;

lx+my + nz=p
Ans. 1=0,

w2 (c-a) = w2 (a-&);
Lv+my=Q
is

or

m=0, n\a- b) = l (b-c)

or

Ex.

7,

If

a circular section of
2

prove that

A.r2 + By + Cz 4- 2Oxy = 1 - C) I2 - 2Dlm + ( A - C)m2 = 0. (B

2
,

Ex.

8.

Prove that the eccentricity of the section of

2

= l),
db
"

xyz

by

is

given

by

2
~TT

_1

?m

Explain the result when n=0.

55]

EXAMPLES OF PLANE SECTIONS

9.

75

Ex.

Shew

that

if

be transformed by change of coordinates from one set of rectangular axes to another with the same origin, the expressions a + 6 + e, remain unaltered in value.

Ex.

10.

Two

meet a sphere whose centre is Vol. OPQR' = Vol. OP'Q'R.

sets of rectangular axes through a common origin in P, Q, R ; P', Q', R'. Prove that

Ex. 11. The equations, referred to rectangular axes, of three mutually perpendicular planes, are pr -lrX- m ry-nrZ = fy 7* = 1, 2, 3. Prove that if (, 97, ) is at a distance d from each of them,

Ex.

12.

If the axes of #,

z are

rectangular, prove that the

substitutions

x=

jz ;k ^'

y==

V3~vi'

z=
;/3~v2

+
;/6

give a transformation to another set of rectangular axes in which the = 0, and hence prove that plane x+y + z = Q becomes the plane the section of the surface yz -\-zx-\-xy-\- a 2 = by the plane x+y -fz = is a circle of radius \/2 a.
.

*55o

are

OX, OY, OZ are rectangular axes, and o Otj, o oblique axes whose direction-cosines, referred to
If

nx OX, OY, OZ, are 1 19 1 on OX, OY, OZ O^, jecting

, ;

12

7i 2 , 1 39

3>

Oiy,

O^, as in

52,

n3 then prowe obtain

,

x=
(A)

^+

Y\

cos v

+ ^ cos = ^
JUL
f

cosX + =i

where the angles ?;O,

o? are X, p, v. The equations (B) can also be deduced from (A) by multiplying in turn by I ml ,n l9 etc., and adding. Again, from (A), li
2/,

2
^c

-T-

l$

L,

ra x

7i x

etc, etc. ...(c)

2,

78

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. iv,

By means

of (A)

and

(c)

we can transform from

?/,

rect-

angular to oblique axes and vice versa. Since x, y, z are linear functions of Cor.
vice

and

the degree of any equation is unaltered by transformation from rectangular to oblique axes or from
versa,

The transformation from one oblique to rectangular axes. to another can be performed, by inset of oblique axes
troducing a set of rectangular axes, in the above two steps, and hence in this most general case the degree of the

equation

is

unaltered by the transformation.

Ex. 1. The equation #2 + 4 (?/ 2 + z2) 2 is transformed bv change from rectangular axes, the new axes being oblique, and having
direction -cosines proportional to

2,1,1;

4,

N/3-1, ~\/3-l
is

4,
2

-V3- K
3,

N/3-

1.

Shew

that the

new equation

x
,

+y + z = l.
2

Ex. 2. If P, Q, R are (., rj r ), r=l, 2, ?tiique axes through an origin O, prove that
8.Vol.

referred to a set of

OPQR =
V2
7

1,
?2
'

cos

v,

cos cos

IJL

cos

v,
//,,

1,

A
1

COS

COS A,
cf.

(Use55(B);
*

51,

Ex.

9.)

Examples

I.

1. The gnomon of a sundial is in the meridian at an elevation A (equal to the latitude), and the sun is due east at an elevation a. Find the angle that the shadow makes with the N. and S. line of the dial.

2.

Find the equations to the 1 n _ M_ 1 ni

line

through

(1, 1, 1)

which meets
its inter-

both the lines

^-

=--=
I

#=2^ = 82, and shew

,
,

that

section with the second line

is

mr 7i r r = l, 2, 3; 3. If OA, OB, OC have direction-ratios r and OA', OB', OC' bisect the angles BOO, COA, AOB, the planes AOA', BOB', COC' pass through the line
,
,

x
4.

____

is

a given point

to the planes

planes

OMN

and PM, PN are the perpendiculars from P OP makes angles #, OL, /?, y with the and the (rectangular) coordinate planes. Prove that

ZOX, XOY.

eosec 2 9 = cosec 2 a + cosec 2 /3 + cosec 2 v

CH. iv.]
5.

EXAMPLES
xa__
y
sin

I.

77

Shew

that the locus of lines which meet the lines

__

a "^ cos a,
CL
CLI/

at the same angle

(jcy

is

cos

a.

az sin a) (xz sin

cos

oc)

= 0.

6.

circle

Find the locus #2 -f.y^==c 2 z=h

,

of a straight line which meets and the so that the distance between the points of

OX

section
7.

is \/c -f

A2

If three rectangular axes

be rotated about the line f =^=~

:

into new positions, and the direction-cosines of the to the old are 15 n n l9 etc.; then if

new axes
;

v \i referred

= + (w 2n 3 - m 3

7i

2 ),

A (w 3 -f n 2 ) = M (^ i +

3)

= v (Lz + MJ)
rotated,

also

if

is

the angle through which the system

is

between lines 1, 2, 3 are parallel to then the shortest distances between the lines 4, 5, 6 are parallel to the lines 1, 2, 3.
8.

If the shortest distances

5, 6,

lines 4,

9.

Any

three non-intersecting lines can be

made the edges

of a
2, 3,

parallelepiped, and if the lines are the lengths of the edges are

-^=?!
Cr
-5-

m'

2
==

""

UT
71
,

7^

= l,

72-73

etc.

Consider the case where the denominator

10.

is zero.

opposite to O.

of a parallelepiped and R is the corner are perpendiculars to the plane ABC. Compare the lengths of OP and RQ. If the figure is rectangular and is taken as origin, and the plane ABC is given by lx + mi/ + nz=p, PQ has direction -cosines proportional to l~ l 3l, m~ l 3w, n~ l 3n,

OA, OB,

OC are edges OP and RQ

and

of the cube of which OF3 OQ, OR are edges. the diagonal of the parallelepiped of which OQ, OR, OS are are formed similarly. Find the coordinates and edges, and of U, V, W, and if OT is the diagonal of the parallelepiped of which coincides with OS and that are edges, shew that OU, OV,
,

OU

PQ 2 =OR 2 -9.OP 2 11. OS is the diagonal

.

is

OV

OW

OW

OT

or=5.os.

12. Find the equations to the straight line through the origin which meets at right angles the line whose equations are

and

find the coordinates of the point of section.

ratio of its

Find the locus of a point which moves so that the distances from two given lines is constant.
13.

78
14.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

iv.

x2 +y 2 =a 2 z=0
15.

line is parallel to the plane y z=Q and intersects the circles 2 2 2 Q ; find the surface it generates. ; x +z , y ,

=a

which

is

Find the equation to the surface generated by a straight line = mx, z=nx, and intersects the ellipse parallel to the line y

16. plane triangle, sides a, 6, c, is placed so that the mid-points of the sides are on tne axes (rectangular). Shew that the lengths

intercepted on the axes are given

by

and that the coordinates

(l,m, -TI).

of the vertices are

- /,

n\

(/,

- m, n\

17. Lines are drawn to meet two given lines and touch the right circular cylinder whose axis is the s.n. (length 2c'), and radius c.

Find the surface generated.

section of ax2 by2 + cz 2 = l by the plane Prove that a parabola of latus rectum 2L.
18.

The

lx+my+nzp

is

L (I2/a 2 + m 2/b2 + n 2/crf =p (I 2 + m 2 4- n 2)/abc.

19.
circles

line
9

moves so as
;

to intersect the line

z*

x=0 y2 +z*=r
is

y = 0,
2

+ x?=r2

and the 2=0, &=y Prove that the equation to

;

the locus

(x+y)
1

{z

2 2 2 +(x-y) }=r (x-y)

20.

Prove that

y
whose

-- --- -- = x
1

line of intersection is equally

represents a xyinclined to the axes.pair

of r planes

21. Find the surface generated by a straight line which revolves about a given straight line at a constant distance from it and makes a given angle with it.
22.

Shew

that

x2 +y2 +z2 -3xy

revolution about the line generating curve.

23.

xy^z^

3zx-3yz = l represents a surface of and find the equations to the

L!,

L 2 L3
,

L! and L 2 are at right angles. feet of the perpendiculars from

24.

are three given straight lines and the directions of Find the locus of the line joining the any point on L3 to Lj and L2
.

The ends

joined to

the conjugates of parallel diameters of the #2 /a2 -f #2 /6 2 =l, z= -c. Find the equation to ellipse the surface generated by the joining lines.
are and B are two points on a given plane and AP, 25. Shew that for all lines in given directions at right angles to AB. is constant, and that all such lines PQ, parallel to the plane,

of diameters of the ellipse corresponding ends of the

c,^

/a

+y /62 =l
2

are

BQ

two

AP BQ
:

lines lie

on a conicoid.

of a triangle pass through given points B is a conicoid. that the locus of

26.

The vertex A

ABC
and

lies

AC

lie

BC

on a given line AB and on given planes ; shew

;

CH. iv.]
27.

EXAMPLES

I.

79

to the jcy-plane

Prove that the equation to the two planes inclined at an angle OL and containing the line y = 0, scos /J=.rsin /?, is
2

(r
28.

+ y2 ) tan 2 /j + * - 2atr tan /? = y 2 tan 2a

so as to

line

moves

meet the

lines
2
,

x
coso.

-.iJL? in

drsino.

and B and pass through the curve

= ?/e

# = 0.

is a curve of the third of the mid-point of degree, are parallel to the given lines. asymptotes

AB

Prove that the locus two of whose

29. Given two non-intersecting lines whose directions are at right angles and whose S.D. is AB, and a circle whose centre C is on AB and plane parallel to the lines. Shew that the locus of a variable line whicn intersects the given lines and circle is a surface whose sections by planes parallel to the lines are ellipses whose centres lie on AB, and that the section by the plane through C', another point of AB, is a circle, if C, C' are harmonic conjugates with respect to A and B.
30. If the axes are rectangular the locus of the centre of a circle of radius a which always intersects them is

#\/a 2

z l 4-

line is drawn to 31. so that the length intercepted on it is constant. tions may be written in the form

L L l y *Jd z - X -f z*Ja* meet y = #tano., z = c

x^y^
;

a2

-.rtana, z= -c,

Shew

that

its

equa-

#coto.__?/-cos 0tana _ ~~
kcosfl

kamO

where k
32.

is

a constant and

a parameter.

Deduce the equation

to the

locus of the line.

which
33.

Find the equation to the surface generated by a straight line is parallel to the plane 2 = and intersects the line x=y~Z) and
'

the curve
fixed line L, which lies in the #y-plane but does not the origin, is drawn a plane which intersects the planes pass through #=0 and y~Q in lines and N respectively. Through and a fixed point A, and through N and another fixed point B, planes are drawn. Find the locus of their line of intersection.

Through a

The axes are rectangular and a point P moves on the fixed plane x/a+y/b+z/c^l. The plane through P perpendicular to OP meets the axes in A, B, C. The planes through A, B, C parallel to YOZ, ZOX, XOY intersect in Q. Shew that the locus of Q is
34.

35.

through
locus of

AB and CD are AB cuts CD in

given non-intersecting
P,

lines.
it

Any

plane

and

PQ

is

normal to

at P.

Find the

PQ. 36. Find the equation to a plane which touches each of the circles 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 How many such #=0, y +z*=a? y = 0, ^ +^ = 6 *=0, # +y = c
;

planes are there ?

37. Find the locus of the position of the eye at which non-intersecting lines appear to cut at right angles.

two given

80
38.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Four given points
of a

[CH.

iv.

variable line lie on the faces of a that any other point of the line describes quadrilateral prism. a line which is parallel to the edges of the prism.

Shew

locus of the harmonic conjugates of P with respect to the in which any secant through P cuts a pair of planes is the polar of P with respect to the planes. Prove that the equation
39. The two points

to the polar of (#,,

y^

z^)

with respect to ^ = 0, v = 0,

ni

<jj

is

-f

=0, where

Shew u v is the result of substituting x\,y\,z\ for x,y,z also that the polars of P with respect to the pairs of planes that form a trihedral angle cut those planes in three coplanar lines.
40.

Ul V} in u, etc.

Any

line

meets the faces

in
A',

hedron

ABCD

BCD, CDA, DAB,

D'.

B',

C',

ABC of a tetraProve that the mid-points of

AA', BB', CC',

DD' are coplanar.

41. If the axes are rectangular, and A, //, v are the angles between the lines of intersection of the planes a^v 4- 6ry + 0,^=0, r=l, 2, 3, prove that

*
.

2a 2 2 2a32 )%l - cos 2 A - cos 2 sin A sin

.

//,

cos'2 i>

+ 2 cos A cos /x cos ?/)

2

//,

sin v
3

(A -2A/x)2-f /x(A -/x), where A 2/ are parameters, determine a system of lines. Find the locus of /x those which intersect the -e-axis. Prove that two lines of the system pass through any given point unless the given point lies on a certain curve, when an infinite number of lines pass through it, and find the equations to the curve.
42.

The equations x = Xz + ^

and

561

CHAPTER

V.

THE SPHERE.
Equation to a sphere. If the axes are rectangular the square of the distance between the points P, (x lt y,, z a ) and Q, (aj8 y 2> 2 ) is given by (x 2 -x l )2 + (y z -y 1 f + (z2 -z,)2 and therefore the equation to the sphere whose centre is P and whose radius is of length r, is
56.
,

Any

equation of the form

ax* +ay* + az*

can be written

u \*

J + (y + a)
.

'V
is

and therefore represents a sphere whose centre

/
{

u
a
,

w\
,

a/

and radius

i-

Ju + v + w
2
2

ad
-

a
(2,
-

Ex. 1. Find the equation to the sphere whose centre is 9 ->- ' ~ *Ans. and radius 5.
Ex.
2.

3, 4) "->- -A

Find the centre and radius of the sphere given by

x*+y2 + zv-2x+4y-6z=n
Ex.
3.

Ans.

(1,

-2,3),

5.

Shew that the equation - = (x ^(.r .r2 ) + (y y^(y y2 ) + (z z^(z *2 )

(j^,

represents the sphere on the join of

y l9

2 ^), (^2 , y<

z.

2)

as diameter,

Ex.

4.

Find the equation to the sphere through the points

(0, 0, 0),

(0,

1,

-1),

(-1,

2, 0),

(1, 2, 3).

Ana.
U.Q.

82

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Ex,
5.

[OH

v,

point (a, Ans.

Find the equation to the sphere which passes throag and the circle z = 0, /?, y)
Find the equations
to the spheres

i t/na

Ex.

6.

through the

eircla

and

(i)

Ans.

the origin, (ii) the point (1, 2, 3). - l&v - 27# - 36* (i) 5 (x* +y* + z*)
(ii)

3 (j? + y* + z*) - &v - 3t/ - 4^ - 22 - 0.

Ex. 7. The plane ABC, whose equation is #/a + ?//6 4- /<?==!, meets find equations to determine the ch cumcircle of the axes in A, B, C. the triangle ABC, and obtain the coordinates of its centre.
Ans.

x\a +y/b + z/c = l,

x 1 -f;/ 2 4- z 2 - ax - by - cz =

8.

If the axes are oblique, find the equation to the sphere

is

whose centre
Ans.
2(.r
9.

(^1?
2

yn

-Sj),

and radius

r.
t

2 ^) + 22 (^ -yi)(z - ^) cos A = r

*Ex.

Prove that the necessary and

sufficient conditions that

the equation

referred to oblique axes, should represent a sphere, are

a = i= c
.

=-/_=-- =JtCOS
A.

COS /JL

COS V

Prove that the radius

,

is

1/-S\* -}
\
.

where
and

a cos

v,

a cos

p, A,
a,

u
v

1,

cos

r,

cos

fj,

a cos
a cos

r,
//,

a,

a cos

cosy,
cos/x,

1,

cos

A
1

a cos A,
v,

w
d

cos A,

u,

w,

57.

Q,

(o: 2 ,

Tangents and tangent planes. If P, (x l9 y v zj and are points on the sphere x 2 + y 2 +z2 = a?, then i/ 2 2)
,

and therefore

(^ - x 2 )(x, + xj + (y l - 7/ 2 )( ?/1 + 1/ 2 ) + (z l

)(^ +

2)

= 0.

Now
O
is

the direction-cosines of
zz'> an d

PQ

xi~~ xt> y\"~y*> z \

,

^ M ^

are proportional to the mid-point of PQ and

the origin, the direction-cosines of OM are proportional to x l +x2 Therefore PQ is at right angles 2

y^y^ ^+^

57,58]

THE RADICAL PLANE

83

OM. Suppose that OM meets the sphere in A and that PQ moves parallel to itself with its mid-point, M, on OA. Then when M is at A, PQ is a tangent to the sphere at A, and hence a tangent at A is at right angles to OA, and the
to

locus of the tangents at A angles to OA. This plane

is
is

the plane through A at right the tangent plane at A. The

(3,

equation to the tangent plane at A, (a,

(x

y\

is

cC)GL+(y

or
Ex.
1.

Find the equation

to the tangent plane at

</>,

(a cos 6 sin <, a sin 6 sin

f-o

a cos <)

the sphere
Ans.

x2 +y +z =a
2
2

2
.

#cos 0sin<-f ysin #sin^>4- z cos $

a.

Ex. 2. Find the equation to the tangent plane at 1 2 2 sphere x + y + z + %ux -f 2 vy + 2wz + d = 0.
Ans.

(#', ?/9

/) to the

xx

Ex. 3. Find the condition that the plane lx + myi-nz=p should touch the sphere ,r2 -l-y 2 -|-2 2 -|-2?/.r-f 2vt/ + 2wz+d=0. 2 2 A ns, + m2 + n 2 ) (u l (ul 4- vm 4- wn -f p) ( Ex.
circle
4.

^2 4-y 2 -f 22 =5, #4-2^ + 32 = 3, and touch the plane

Find the equations

to the spheres

which pass through the

Ans.

Ex.

5.

Prove that the tangent planes to the spheres

^2 -f y 3 + 22 -f2?^+2i?y-f 2ws
t

.v

+y 2 -}-z 2 i'2u x+2v y + 2i

l
l

at

any common

point are at right angles

if

*58.

Radical plane of two spheres.

through a given point

// any secant meets a given sphere in P and Q,

OP OQ
.

is constant.

The equations

direction-cosines are

to the line through O, (a, 8, y), I, m, n, are

/

whose

*Ll^^y^JLLl =r
I

84

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The point on
(xyz)
this line,

[CH. v.

whose distance from O is r, has coordinates a.+lr, (3+mr, y+nr, and lies on the sphere

= a(ce2

if

This equation gives the lengths of

OP and OQ, and

is

hence
all

OP OQ
.

is

given by

F(oc, /9,

y)/a,

which

the same for

secants through O.

The measure of Definition. with respect to the sphere.

If

OP.OQ

is

the power of

S t = x2 + y* + z 2 + Zup + Zvfl + 2w^ + (^ = 0,

spheres, the locus of points whose powers with respect to the spheres are equal is the plane

are the equations to

two

given by

S 1 = S 2 or 2(%
,

u 2 )& + 20^

v^)y

+ 2(w
<

w^z + ^
two

d^

= 0.

This plane
It
is

is

called the radical plane of the

spheres.

evidently at centres.

right angles

to

the line joining the

The radical planes of three spheres taken two by two pass through one line. (The equations to the line are S 1 = S 2 = S 3 .) The radical planes of four spheres taken two by two pass through one point. (The point is given by S x = S 2 = S 3 = S4 .)
The equations
to

any two

spheres

can

be

put in

the

form

(Take the

line joining the centres

as &-axis

and the

radical plane as

# = 0.)

The equation x 2 + y* + z* + 2\x + d~Q, where X is a parameter, represents a system of spheres any two of which have the same radical plane. The spheres are said to be
coaxal.

58]

EXAMPLES

II.

85

Ex. 1. Prove that the members of the coaxal system intersect one another, touch one another, or do nol intersect one another, according as
Ex. 2. Shew that the centres of the two spheres of the system which have zero-radius are at the points (\/d, 0, 0). (These are the
limiting -points of the system.)

that the equation ^-f^-f-^-f 2/xy-f 2i>-d=0, where a system of spheres passing through the limiting points of the system a?+ y 2 + 2 2 4-2Ar-f rf =0, and cutting every member of that system at right angles.
p.

Ex. and

3.

Shew

v are parameters, represents

Ex.

4.

The

locus of points

whose powers with respect

is

to

two

given spheres are in a constant ratio two given spheres.

a sphere coaxal with the

Ex.

5.

Shew

that the spheres which cut two given spheres along

great circles all pass

through two fixed points.

*

Examples

II.

1. sphere of constant radius r passes through the origin, O, and Prove that the locus of the cuts the axes (rectangular) in A, B, C. to the plane is given by foot of the perpendicular from

ABC

(x*

P is a variable point on a given line 2. Shew that the sphere projections on the axes. a fixed circle.
3.

OABC

and A, B,

are

its

passes through

in A, B, C.

plane passes through a fixed point (a, 6, c) and cuts the axes Shew that the locus of the centre of the sphere OABC is

+ + ?= 2 x z
y

4. If the three diagonals of an octahedron intersect at right angles, the feet of the perpendiculars from the point of intersection If a, a. to the faces of the octahedron lie on a sphere. i, /? c, y are the measures of the segments of the diagonals, the centre (, r/, / of the sphere is given by
~~
27?

+ a.-

6- 1

+ /J-

___+
~~
1

2f

~
1

c- 1

y'

(aa)-

__
;

+ (6j3)- + (cy )-*

1

the diagonals being taken as coordinate axes. Prove that the points where the perpendiculars meet the opposite faces also lie on the sphere.
5, Prove that the locus of the centres of spheres which pass through a given point and touch a given plane is a conicoid. 6, Find the locus of the centres of spheres that pass through a given point and intercept a fixed length on a given straight line. 7, Find the locus of the centres of spheres of constant radius which pass through a given point and touch a given line.

86
8.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
;

[OH. v.

=c

Prove that the centres of spheres which touch the lines y=mx, 2 mx, z -c, lie upon the conicoid mxy + cz( I + m ) 0.

y-

9. If the opposite edges of a tetrahedron are at right angles the centre of gravity is the mid-point of the line joining the point of concurrence of the perpendiculars and the centre of the circumscribing sphere.

10. If the opposite edges of a tetrahedron are at right angles the mid-points of the edges and the feet of the perpendiculars from the vertices to the edges lie upon a sphere whose centre is the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron.

The sum of the squares of the intercepts made by a given sphere on any three mutually perpendicular lines through a fixed
11.

point

is

constant.

12. With any point P of a given plane as centre a sphere is described whose radius is equal co the tangent irom P to a given Prove that all such spheres pass through two fixed points. sphere.
13.

If

A=//,=

i>

= 7r/3,

the plane and surface given by

intersect in a circle of radius a.

14.

If T

is

the radius of the circle

prove that
2

(r

+ d) (P + m* + ft 2) = (mw - nvf + (nu - Iwf + (Iv - muf.

15.

points are

Prove that the equations to the spheres that pass through the and touch the plane 2^+ 2^ -2 = 11, (4, 1, 0), (2,-3, 4), (1, 0, 0),
2

- 102^7 + 50y- 492 + 86 = 0.

in the octant

16.

OXYZ

Prove that the equation to a sphere, which lies and touches the coordinate planes, is of the form

Prove that

and find for point to touch the coordinate planes, the spheres are (i) real (ii) coincident. the point
;

in general

two spheres can be drawn through a given what positions of

17.

is
(

constant

= a). On AB
OZ.
Prove

a point on

parallel to

is so that the angle and B on is as diameter a circle is described whose plane varies the circle generates the cone that as

OX

OY

OAB

AB

2 2 sin 2oc

= 0.

a variable diameter of the ellipse 2=0, #2/a 2 +?/ 2 /&2 = l| and a circle is described in the plane PP'ZZ' on PP' as diameter, Prove that as PP' varies, the circle generates the surface
18.

POP'

is

OH. v.l

EXAMPLES

II.

87

19. Prove that the equation to the sphere tetrahedron whose sides are

circumscribing the

*+f-o, be

'

-V=o, a c

*+f=o, a b
'

?+?+ f -i. a b c
'
'

r.

y
b

a
20.
00116

__Z__Q c~~

A variable plane is parallel to the given

in A, B, C.

and meets the axes

Prove that the

plane x/a+y/b+z/c=Q, circle ABC lies on the

a (b f c ^ a\ l n J y z [-+7i+ z v \a cJ * -+-}+*!/ {\b aj)==o. T+\c bj

-

^\^

^\

21. Find the locus of the centre of a variable sphere which passes through the origin O and meets the axes in A, B, C, so that the volume of the tetrahedron OABC is constant. 22.

A sphere

meets the axes in A, B, C. ABC lies on the sphere 9(

of constant radius k passes through the origin and Prove that the centroid of the triangle

23. The tangents drawn from a point P to a sphere are all equal to the distance of P from a fixed tangent plane to the sphere. Prove that the locus of P is a paraboloid of revolution.

24.

Prove that the

circles

- 5=0, 5y + 62 4-1=0;
Jie

on the same sphere, and find

its

equation.
circles

25.

Find the conditions that the

ehould
26.
origin, If

lie

on the same sphere.

OA, OB,

OC

are mutually perpendicular lines through the

OA = a, OB = 6, OC = OABC is

and their direction-cosines are ? n

c,

m lt n

1%,

ra 2 ,

n2

1%,

?i

prove that the equation to the sphere

z

cl3 )

-y (am l + bm 2 + cm 3)

vi.

CHAPTER VI
THE CONE.
Equation to a cone. A cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes through a fixed point and
59.

If the given point O, say, be chosen as origin, the equation to the cone is homogeneous. For if P, (x\ y', z) is any point on the cone, x', y', z satisfy

intersects a given curve.

any point on OP is on the cone, and has coordinates (kx' ky', kz\ the equation is also satisfied by kx', ky', kz' for all values of k, and therefore must be homogeneous.
the equation.
since
9

And

a generator of the cone re= presented by the homogeneous equation /(#, y, 2) 0, then = 0. Conversely, if the direction-ratios of a f(l, m, 7i)
Cor.
If x/l
is

= y/m = z/n

straight line which always passes through a fixed point satisfy a homogeneous equation, the line is a generator of a cone whose vertex is at the point.

The line x/l=y/m=z/n y of the cone 2 generator

Ex.
1.

where 2

-f

3w2 -5n2 =0,

is

Ex.

2.

ratios satisfy al 2 +

Lines drawn through the point (OL, /?, y) whose directionbmt + cifi O generate the cone

Ex.
vertex

3.
is

Shew that the equation to the right circular cone whose 2 2 2 2 O, axis OZ, and semi-vertical angle OL, is # -f y = ^ tan o..

Ex. 4. The general equation to the cone of the second degree which passes through the axes iafyz+gzx + hxy = Q.

The general equation

to the cone of the second degree

2

is

ax* + by

+ cz + 2/^ + tyzx + 2 hxy = 0,

2

and this is to be satisfied by the 1,0,0; 0,1,0; 0,0,1,

direction-ratios of the axes,

i.e.

by

59]

EQUATION TO A CONE
5.

89

Ex.

any

five

cone of the second degree can be found to pass through concurrent lines.

Ex.

6.

cone of the second degree can be found to pass through

any two sets of rectangular axes through the same origin. Take one set as coordinate axes, and let the direction -cosines of the w* 3 n 3 others be ^, m^ n The equation to a cone 1%, m^ n 2 3 the coordinate axes i&fyz+gzx+hxy=zQ. If this cone also containing contains trie first two axes of the second set,
;

Therefore, since

n l + m 2n^ + ra 3n 3 =0,

etc.,

so that the cone contains the remaining axis.

Ex. 7. The equation to the cone whose vertex is the origin and which passes through the curve of intersection of the plane 2 2 2 lx+my-\-nz=*p and the surface a.r -ffy/ -f-<^ ==l is

Ex. 8. Find the equations to the cones with vertex at the origin which pass through the curves given by
(i)
(ii)

x2 4- y 2 + z 2 -f 2o# -f b = 0,

Ix 4-

w?//

+ nz = p\

(iii)

Am.

(i)

(ii)
(iii)

Ex.

9.

The plane x/a+y/b-\-z/c = l meets the coordinate axes

in

Prove that the equation to the cone generated by drawn from O to meet the circle ABC is
A, B, C.

lines

Ex. 10. Find the equation to the cone whose vertex is the origin and base the circle, xa, ?/ 2 -M 2 = 6 2 and shew that the section of the cone by a plane parallel to the plane XOY is a hyperbola.
,

An*. a?(f+z*) = bW.

Ex.
origin

11.

Shew

that the equation to the cone whose vertex

z =*=,/(#,

is

the

and base the curve

y)=0 is/f

^ )=0.

90
60.

OOOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Angle between
it

[CH. VI.

lines in

which a plane cuts a cone.

convenient to introduce here the following notation, to which we shall adhere throughout the book.
find
a,
h.

We

h,
b,
p

f
3D

3D

= ab
7

1BD
The student can
easily verify that

13D

GH - AF =/D,
In what follows

HF - BG = </D,
use P2 to denote
a,
h,
9,
,

FG - CH = hD

we

g,
/,
c>

u
v

6,

j,
V,

Uy

W,

or

The axes being rectangular to find the angle between the lines in which the plane ux + vy + wz = cuts the cone
f(x, y, z]

= ax 2 + by 2 + cz2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0.

If the line x/l = y/m = zfn lies in the plane,

ul+vm+wn=0;
if it lies

................... ..(1)

on the cone,

/(Z,m,7i) =
(1)

......................... (2)

Eliminate
2
J

n between

and

(2),

and we obtain

(cu

+ aw2

2gwu) + Zlm(hw* + cuv

+m (cv
2

fuw gvw) +bw ~2fvw) = .......... ,..(3)

2

Now

the direction-cosines of the two. lines of section

satisfy the equations (1)

and

(2),

and therefore they

satisfy

60]

LINES OF SECTION OF COiNE

(3).

AND PLANE
19

91

equation

Therefore

if

they are

mv 7^;

l , ?

m^, nrf

2fvw
2 (/m;2

+ cuv fuw

gr

we;)

From

the symmetry, each of the expressions in (4)

is

seen to be equal to

2uP
But
if

2vP
lines,

is

the angle between the

cos

sin
2

1^2+

m m + n^
l

cos 6

sin

Ex.

1.

Find the

-s =

cuts the cone 4r2 -

equations

to

the

lines

in

which the

plane

Ex. 2. Find the angles between the lines of section of the follow* ing planes and cones
:

(i) 60?

- lOy - 7z = 0,

108^2 - 20/ - 7* 2 =

(ii)
(iii)

3x+y + 5^=^=0,
2^-3y4-0=0,
,

Ans.

(i)

cos^l?,

(ii)

cos-'!, ,

(iii)

-.
ax+by + cz=*Q
cuts

Ex.

3.

Prove

that

the

=Q

plane

the

cone

in perpendicular lines

if

82
61.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Condition of tangency of plane and cone.
If

|CH. vi.

p=o,

or

Au + Bu +Cu; +2Fyw+2Gwu + 2Hu-y = 0,

2

...... (1)

then sin

= 0,
\l
**
,

and therefore the

lines of section coincide, or

the plane touches the cone.

Equation (1) shews that the

X
line

-=- =

i.e.

the normal through

to the plane,

is

generator of the cone

2 2 Ax*+By + Cz + 2Fyz + 2Gzx + 2Hxy = F2 = aD, and Similarly, since we have BC
().
,

........

(2)

the

corre-

sponding equations at the head of paragraph 60, it follows that a normal through the origin to a tangent plane to the cone (2) is a generator of the cone

ax 2 + by* + cz l + 2fyz + '2gzx + 2hxy = 0,

The two cones are therefore such of the given cone. that each is the locus of the normals drawn the
i.e.

through

origin to the tangent planes to the other, arid they are that account said to be reciprocal.
o

on

Ex.

1.

Prove that the cones ax2 + fy 2 + c* 2 =0 and

are reciprocal.

Ex. 2. Prove that tangent planes to the cone lyz + mzxnxy = Q are at right angles to generators of the cone
PJI?

+ m?y2 + n2z* - 'Zmnyz

%nlzx - 2lmjcy = 0.

Ex. 3. Prove that perpendiculars planes to the cone

lie

drawn from the

origin to tangent

on the cone 19x2 + 1 ly2 + 3*2 + Qyz - IQzx - 2Gxy = 0.

<

Ex. 4. Shew that the general equation to a cone which touches the coordinate planes is a *

Condition that the cone has three mutually perpendicular generators. The condition that the plane should cut the cone in perpendicular generators is
62.

(a
If also the

+ 6 + c)(u + ^ 2 +^)=/(u,
2

v,

w) ............. (1)

normal to the plane

9

lies
9

on the cone, we have

and therefore

S(u,v w) = a + b + c = 0.

61-63]

TANGENCY OF PLANE AND CONE

93

In this case the cone has three mutually perpendicular generators, viz., the normal to the plane and the two perpendicular lines in which the plane cuts the cone. If a + 6 + c = 0, the cone has an infinite number of sets of

mutually perpendicular generators. For if ux + vy + wz = be any plane whose normal lies on the cone, then
/(u, v,w) =
Q,
v,

and therefore (a + b + c^rf + v^ + w^^fiu,

since

w),

a + & + = 0.
the plane cuts the cone in perpendicular Thus any plane through the origin which is
(1),

Hence, by

generators. normal to a generator of the cone cuts the cone in perpendicular lines, or there are two generators of the cone at

right angles to one another, and at right angles to

any

given generator.
Ex.
1.

If a right circular cone has three

is

generators, the semi-vertical angle

tan -1 \/2.

mutually perpendicular (Cf. Ex. 3, 59.)

Ex. 2. Shew that the cone whose vertex is at the origin and which passes through the curve of intersection of the sphere #2 -f3/ 2 -f * 2 = 3a 2 and any plane at a distance a from the origin, has three mutually perpendicular generators.
,

Ex. 3. Prove that the cone has three mutually perpendicular tangent planes

if

Ex.

4.

If

~=^r=| o 1
2*

represent one of a set of three mutually per-

pendicular generators of the cone 5y2-8&r-3.ry=0, find the equations

to the other two.

Ans.

#=?/=
5.

-2,

4r=

5y = 20&
lx +

Ex.

Prove that the plane

(b

- c)#

my+nz~Q cuts the cone + (c - a)y* + (a - b)z* 4- Zfyz + tyzx + %hxy =

if

perpendicular lines

Equation to cone with given conic for base. To find the equation to the cone whose vertex is the point
63. 1
(<x, /3,

y)

and

base the conic

See Appendix, p.

ii.

94

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The equations
to

[CH. vi.

any line through x a *

(a,

{3,

y) are

y6 = '

y r

and the

line

meets the plane

=
(3

in the point

(a
This point
!.. if
is

ly

my,

0).

on the given conic

if

/(a

ly

/?

my)=0,
......... (1)

/(a,

fl-y+m
.

+ yVa m)-0,

If we eliminate Z and where </>(#, y)^ax* + 2hxy + by 2 between tho equations to the line and (1), we obtain the equation to the locus of lines which pass through (a, /3, y) and intersect the conic, i.e. the equation to the cone. The

result is

-,

2/

- &) =0.

may be transformed The coefficient of y2 is

This equation
/(a,

as follows

and the

coeflBcient of

zy

is

If f(x, y) be

made homogeneous by means

is

of an auxiliary

equated to unity after differentiation, we have, by Euler's theorem,

variable
t

which

Therefore the coefficient of

zy becomes

$63]

CONE WITH GIVEN BASE

is

95

Hence the equation to the cone

It is to

be noted that by equating to zero the

coefficient
(3,

of zy,

obtain the equation to the polar of (a, respect to the given conic.

we

0) with

(The above method is given by de Longchamps, Problemes de Geometric Analytique, vol. iii.)
Ex.
Ans.
1.

and base

(i) a.r

Find the equation 2 2 = -h&# =l, z

to the cone
;

whose vertex

is

(ii)

y=
2

(a,

/J,

y)

(i)

(ii)

Ex. 2. Find the locus of points from which three mutually perpendicular lines can be drawn to intersect the conic 2 = 0, ax*-\-by* \.
y) is on the locus, the cone, Ex. perpendicular generators.) Ans. a
(If
(OL, /2,

1 (i),

has three mutually

Ex.

3.

Shew

perpendicular

lines

that the locus of points from which three mutually can be drawn to intersect a given circle is a

surface of revolution.

Ex. 4. A cone has as base the circle 2 = 0, #2 -f y2 + 2a#-f 26y=0, and passes through the fixed point (0, 0, c) on the 2-axis. If the
section of the cone

by the plane
lies

ZOX

is

a rectangular hyperbola,

prove that the vertex

on a fixed

circle.

Ex. 5. Prove that the locus of points from which three mutually 2 2= l9 perpendicular planes can be drawn to touch the ellipse x /a?+y*Jb z = 0, is the sphere # 2 |-# 2 -f s 2 = a 2 +b 2
.

"Examples

III.

1. Shew that the bisectors of the angles between the lines in which the plane ux +vy + wz=Q cuts the cone ax? + by*+ C2 2 =0 lie on the cone

u(b

c)

v(c-a)

_p

L ^.

w(a~fr)_ A ^
z

[Five concurrent lines are necessary to determine a cone of the second degree, and the form of the given result shews that the required cone is to pass through the coordinate axes and the two bisectors. Assume, therefore, that the required equation is

fyz+gzx+hxy=Q ............................... (1)

The given cone is The necessary and
contain the bisectors

o#2 -hJy2 -|-c22 = 0.

.............................. (2)

sufficient conditions that

the cone (1) should

may be

stated, (i) the plane

96

COOBDINATE GEOMETEY
;

|CH. vj.

of the plane

must cut the cone (1) in perpendicular lines (ii) the lines of section and the cones (1) and (2) must be harmonically conjugate.

From

(i),

............................... (3)

Again, four lines are harmonically conjugate if their projections on any plane are harmonically conjugate, and the equations to the proare obtained by eliminating z between the equations jections on to the plane and cones, and hence they are

z0

x\aitP + CM

+ Vcuvxy +y 2(bw2 + cv 2 ) = 0,
wh) +fvy =0,
2

z z

guy? -f xy (fu +gv Therefore the condition (ii) gives

= = 0.

fv(aw

-f

cu 2) +gu(bw 2 + cv 2 ) = cuv(fu+gv - wh) ; (cf. Smith, Conic Sections, p. 56.)

i.e.

afvw + bgivu + c/iuv=0 ...................

..... (4)

From

(3)

and

(4),

we obtain

=
u(
2.

ff

-c)

v(c-a)

A I w(a-b)J
on the cone

Shew

that the bisectors in Ex.

1 also lie

curves ?/ = 0, z2 = 2 they have a common vertex the plane 2 = meets them in two conies that intersect in four concyclic Shew that the points. vertex lies on the surface
2

3. Two = 46y, and

cones

pass

through the

4.

Planes through

OX

their line of intersection lies

5.

and OY include an angle a.. on the cone z 2 (#2 + y 2 + z2 )=

lies

Shew

that

Any

plane whose normal

2

on the cone

(b

cuts the surface ax

6.

+ c)x +(c + a)y 2 + (a + b)z2 = + by2 + cz2 ~l in a rectangular

lines given

hyperbola

Find the angle between the

by
b

c
7.

Shew

that the angle between the lines given

by

x+y + z
is 7T/2 if

Q,

ayz + bzx+cxy
I/a + l/i-f- 1/0

a + b + c=0, but

?r/3 if

= 0.

8.

Shew

that the plane a.r-{-&?/-f-cz=0 cuts the cone

in

two

lines inclined at

an angle
bc + ca

tan

+ ab

and by considering the value of this expression when a-f 6-f 0=0, shew that the cone is of revolution, and that its axis is x=*y=*z and
vertical angle tan" l 2\/2.

CH. vi.l
9.

EXAMPLES

III.

97

The axes being

rectangular, prove that the cone

contains an infinite number of sets of three generators mutually inclined at an angle ?r/3.

a line is drawn to meet three fixed 10. Through a fixed point If PQ PR is constant, prove that the intersecting planes in P, Q, R. locus of the line is a cone whose vertex is O.
:

11. The vertex of a cone is (#, 6, c) and the yz-plane cuts it in the curve F(y, z) Q, #=0. Shew that the 2.r-plane cuts it in the curva _/ = (), F( bx > cx-az\1=0. ?/ J a x a)
._

\x

if

12. OP and OQ are two straight lines that remain at right angles and move so that the plane OPQ always passes through the z-axis.

If

OP

describes the cone F(y/,r,

,?/j;)

= 0,

prove that

OQ

describes the

ril,
l#
13.

cone
14.

if

Prove that a3?+by u 2/a -f v'2/b + w2Jc = d.

Prove that

+ cz* + 2ux+2vy + 2tvz + d~

represents a

+
represents a cone, the coordinates of the vertex satisfy the equations

F^O, Fy = 0, F
is

geneous and
15.

=0, F^==0, where t is used to make equated to unity after differentiation.

z

F(.z',

y, z)

homo-

Prove that the equations

2/- 8yz - 4zx represent cones whose vertices are (-7/6,

16.
1/3, 5/6), (2, 2, 1).

should be coincident.
2 2 cm*_ cl + an __ am* + bP \ him '/ fmn gnl

fa+my

Find the conditions that the + nz=*Q and the cones

lines

of section

of the

plane

17. Find the equations to the planes through the s-axis and lines of section of the plane ux vy wz=Q and cone f(x, y, z)=Q,

the

and

prove that the plane touches the cone

oblique.)

if

P = 0.

(The axes

may be

18. Prove that the equation to the cone through the coordinate axes and the lines of section of the cone ll^2 -5?/ 2 -f 2 2 =0 and the = and that the other is 14y^-30-2:jp-f3^?/==0, plane 7,r-5?/-f common generators of the two cones lie in the plane Il#-f7y-f 7s =0* O BO.

98
19.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the common generators of the cones

[CH. vr.

bc-a2
ax
lie in

ca-b 2 .ab-c 2 __ ~~
by
cz

the planes
(be

a 2 )x+(ca

b 2)y +(a&

<?)z=Q.

20. Prove that the equation to the cone through the coordinate axes and the lines in which the plane lx+my+nz=Q cuts the cone

=Q

is

2 - 2fmn)yz + m(cP + an* l(bri* + cm fynl) zx + n(am +

2

z ^ represents a cone 21. Prove that the equation *JJx+fgy + that touches the coordinate planes, and that the equation to the reciprocal cone is fyz+gzx+hxyO.

W - Zhlm)xy =

0.

Prove that the equation to the planes through the origin perpendicular to the lines of section of the plane lx+my + nzQ and the cone ax2 + b* + cz 2 = Q is
22.

x*(bn
23.

+ cm2) +y* (cl2 + an 2) + z 2 (am2 + bl2) - Zamnyz - Zbnlzx - Zdmxy =

If a line

OP, drawn through the vertex

of the cone

such that the two planes through OP, each of which cuts the cone in a pair of perpendicular lines, are at right angles, prove that the locus of OP is the cone
is

64]

CHAPTER

VII.

THE CENTRAL CONICOIB8.

64.

The locus

of the equation

4-^

/\ (O)

-^2-T2 + ^

^2 x

/,,2

nZ *

=i 1

9 that the equation (1) represents the surface generated by the variable ellipse
'

We

have shewn in

c2

100

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. VII,

whose centre moves along Z'OZ, and passes in turn through The surface c) and (0, 0, +c). every point between (0, 0, The section is the ellipsoid, and is represented in fig. 29. by any plane parallel to a coordinate plane is an ellipse. Similarly, we might shew that the surface represented

by equation

(2) is generated

by a variable

ellipse

whose centre moves on Z'OZ, passing in turn through every point on it. The surface is the hyperboloid of one The section by any sheet, and is represented in fig. 30.
plane parallel to one of the coordinate planes
is

YOZ

or

ZOX

a hyperbola.

surface given by equation (3) is also generated by a variable ellipse whose centre moves on Z'OZ. The ellipse
is

The

given by O v

tAs

*# II

]A
/V

64,65]

DIAMETERS AND DIAMETRAL PLANES

101

c <C k imaginary if between the planes surface

is

and

<

hence no part of the

c.

lies

z=

The surface

is

the hyperboloid

of

two
is

sheets,

and

is

represented in fig. 31. The section to one of the coordinate planes YOZ,
If

by any plane

parallel

ZOX

a hyperbola.
these surfaces,

(x\ y' 9 z}

is

any point on one

also

of

on it; hence the origin bisects all z) x\ ( y\ chords of the surface which pass through it. The origin is the only point which possesses this property, and is called
is

the centre.
65.

The surfaces

are called the central conicoids.

Diametral planes and conjugate diameters. equation of the form

An

represents a central conicoid. The equations to any line = A, 2 = /x, and it meets the surface in parallel to OX are 2/

the points

-__ --

and hence the plane YOZ

bisects all chords parallel to

OX.

chord of the conicoid which passes through the centre is a diameter, and the plane which bisects a system of Thus YOZ is the parallel chords is a diametral plane.

Any

diametral plane which bisects chords parallel to OX, or Similarly, the shortly, is the diametral plane of OX. diametral planes ZOX,

XOY

bisect chords parallel to

OY

and OZ

The three diametral planes YOZ, are such that each bisects chords parallel to the line of intersection of the other two. They are called
respectively.

ZOX, XOY

The diameters X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ are such that the plane through any two bisects chords They are called conjugate diameters. parallel to the third.
conjugate diametral planes.
If the axes are rectangular, the diametral planes ZOX, XOY are at right angles to the chords which
bisect.

YOZ,

they Diametral planes which are at right angles to the

chords which they bisect are principal planes.

The

lines of

intersection of principal planes are principal axes. if the axes are rectangular the equation a

Hence

102

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.VU

represents a central conicoid referred to its principal axes as coordinate axes,

a given point A, (a, ft y) meets a central conicoid ax +by 2 +cz* = l in P and Q; to find the
66.

line through
2

lengths of
If
I,

AP and AQ.

are the direction-ratios of a line through A, the coordinates of the point on it whose distance from A is r

m, n

are

a+r, /3+mr, y+nr. If this point T*(al + 6m + en ) + 2r(aa.l + bj3m + cyn)

2 2 2

is

on the conicoid,

+ aa
OD

+6/3

+ cy2 -l==0 ......... (1)

This equation gives two values of r which are the measures of AP and AQ.
Ex.
1.

If

is

the diameter parallel to

is

APQ, AP. AQ :OD 2

is

constant.

any diameter of the conicoid and OR and OR' AD 2 AD' 2 is constant. are the diameters parallel to AD and AD', ~ .4Ex.
2.

If

DOD'

OR

OR

Ex.
is

3.

If

AD, AD' meet the

conicoid again in

E and

E',

constant.

AE

2 2 2 Tangents and tangent planes. If aa + b/3 + cy = 1, the point A, (a, ft y) is on the conicoid one of the values 66 is zero, and A coinof r given by the equation (1) of cides with one of the points P or Q, say P.

87.

If, also,

aal -f b(3m + cyn = 0,

the two values of r given by the equation are zero, i.e. P and Q coincide at the point (oc, ft y) on the surface, and the line
A, (a,
|8,

APQ
y)
is

is

a tangent to the conicoid at A. Hence, if a point on the surface, the condition that the

line

x-GL
I

m
is

should be a tangent at A,
If

aod + b/3m+cyn = Q ...................... (3)

we

eliminate

I,

m,

between
all

(2)

and

(3),

we

obtain

the equation to the locus of

(a, ft y), viz.,

the tangent lines through

or

65-68]

THE TANGENT PLANE

lines at (a.
/3,

103

Hence the tangent

which
68.

y)

lie

in the plane

aoLX + bfly
is

+ cyz = 1,
/?,

the tangent plane at (a,

y).

plane should touch the conicoid ax2 +by 2 + cz 2 !.

If the point of contact is (a,
/3,

To find

the condition that the

y),

the given plane

is

represented

by the two equations

Therefore
and, since (a,
/?,

oc=

/8

ap
y)
is
Z
2

= r-

>

bp
2

7=
cp
ri2

on the

conicoid,
o

The two tangent planes which are Ix+my+nz Q are given by

Cor.
lx
7

parallel

to

+ my + nz
,

II

2
,

*/
*

2
,

2
7?/

Cv

h-pH O

Ex.

1.

Find the locus of the point of intersection of three mutually

perpendicular tangent planes to a central conicoid. If the axes are rectangular and

+ *T +y7> r=1

>

2 3>

represent three mutually perpendicular tangent planes, squaring and adding, we obtain

Hence the common point

with the conicoid.

of the planes lies on a sphere concentric (It is called the director sphere.)

Ex. 2. Prove that the equation to the two tangent planes to the conicoid do?2 4-fty2 -fc^2 = l which pass through the line
s

(Use the condition that

u+ Aw'0 should

be a tangent plane.)

104
Ex.
3.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the equations to the tangent planes to
Zx - 3j/ -f 6z - 5.

[OH. vn.

which pass through the line x -h 9y - 3z = Ans. 2x- 12t/-f9z =5,

Ex. 4. If the line of intersection of two perpendicular tangent planes to the ellipsoid whose equation, referred to rectangular axes, is

passes through the fixed point

(0, 0,

Jfc),

shew that

it lies

on the cone

Ex. 5. Tangent planes are drawn to the conicoid a. through the point (a, /?, y). Prove that the perpendiculars to them from the origin generate the cone
(a
is

a
the cone

-ro

Prove that the reciprocal of this cone

and hence shew that the tangent planes envelope the cone
2

l)(a<xH

proceed to define the a point with respect to a conicoid, and to find its polar of
69.

The polar

plane.

We now

equation.
If any secant, APQ, through a given point A Definition. meets a conicoid in P and Q, then the locus of R, the har-

monic conjugate of A with respect to P and Q, of A with respect to the conicoid.

is

the polar

FIG. 32

Let A, R (fig. 32) be the points (a, 0, y), ( 17, ), and let APQ have direction-ratios I, m, n. Then the equations to
are

69,70]

THE POLAR PLANE

66,

106

and, as in
roots of

r t r2 the measures of
,
,

AP and AQ,

are the

+ b/3m + cyn)
Then, since AP, AR,

Let p be the measure of AR. in harmonic progression,

AQ

are

And from
therefore

the equations to the line

-fx = /p,

q-^

Hence the locus of (, ??, ) is the plane given by aoix + b(3y + cyz = 1
,

which
(7or.

is

called the polar plane of (a,

If

y).

is

on the

surface, the polar plane of

is

the

failed to notice the similarity between the There is a to corresponding loci in the plane and in space. equations close analogy between the equations to the line and the plane, the

tangent plane at A The student cannot nave

and the sphere, the ellipse and the ellipsoid, the tangent or polar and the tangent plane or polar plane. Examples of this analogy will constantly recur, and it is well to note these and make use of the analogy as an aid to remember useful results.
circle

70. (-,
f (

Polar

lines.

It

is

evident that
(
*j,

&

y) passes through
1>

),

the polar plane of then the polar plane

if

Passes through

(oc,

(3,

plane of any point on a line AB then the polar plane of any point on PQ passes through that point on AB, and therefore passes through AB. The lines AB and PQ are then said to be polar lines with respect
to the conicoid.

the polar passes through a line PQ,

y).
if

Hence

The polar plane

the line

of

(a+r, (3+mr, y + nr) any

9

point on

ra
is

106

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
all

[CH. vn.

and, evidently, for

aoLx

values of
1

r,

passes through the line

+ b(3y + cyz

= = alx + bmy + cnz.

(1).

This

is

therefore the polar of the line

,

PQ

Ex. 1. If P, (#!, yu z\ Q, (o?2 ;/ 2 z2 ) are any points, the polar of with respect to ax* + oi 2 + cz*=l is given by oi/
,

are on the conicoid the polar of (Hence if P and intersection of the tangent planes at P and Q.)

PQ

is

the line of

Ex.
of the

Prove that the polar of a given line 2. two tangent planes through the line.
3.

is

the chord of contact

Ex.

Find the equations to the polar

of the line

with respect to the conicoid 2#2 -25?/ 2 -f22 2 =l. Prove that it meets the conicoid in two real points P and Q, and verify that the tangent planes at P and Q pass through the given line.

Ex.
point

4.

Find the locus of straight

lines

drawn through a

fixed

(a,

/?, y) at right angles to their 2 s =l ; (rectangular axes).

polars with respect to

Ans
Ex.

M-(JL\b
5.

Prove that

lines
$!.

through
y'l

(a,

/?,

polars with respect to

(y

ri;

+ |r "^Wk~^
yx) + (z

22

y) at right angles to their

generate the cone

- P)(CLZ -

y ) (ay

fix)

= 0.

What
Ex.
6.

is

the peculiarity of the case

when a
lines
__

bl

Find the conditions that the

m
Ans.

_ ~~
n
I'

_ ~~
f

n'

should be polar with respect to the conicoid

J? ""

Ex.

7.

Find the condition that the

OL
<?/

line
C

a
:

= yz

aa

z^
n

should

intersect the polar of the line ^"1, L con icoid ax 2 bf -f cz* = 1

= "v = Z m -^L n

with respect to the

A ns.
Ex.

(aa.1' -f

8.

sects the

l+ b/3'm + cy'n) = (all' + bmrri + cnri)(a<u*! + bfift + cyy' - 1). Prove that if AB intersects the polar of PQ, then PQ interpolar of AB. (AB and PQ are then said to be conjugate with

b/3m'

-f

cyri)(aoL

respect to the conicoid.)

70,71]

SECTION WITH

A GIVEN CENTEE
ft,

107

Section with a given centre. If (a, mid-point of the chord whose equations are
71.

y)

is

the

^^^
in

the equation (1) of

66

is

of the

form r2 = /c2 and therefore

,

aal + b(3m + cyn = Q ....................... (2)

Hence
the plane *

all
,

chords which are bisected at (a,

/3,

y)

lie in

/3,

This plane meets the surface in a conic of which (a,

is

y)

the centre.

Fia. 33.

Compare the equation

mid-point
is
(ex.,

to the chord of the conic

ax2 +by 2 =I whose

/?).

Ex.
Ans.

1.

in a conic

Find the equation to the plane which cuts whose centre is at the point (2, 3, 4).

Ex.

2.
is

The

locus of the

centres of parallel plane sections of a

conicoid

a diameter.

Ex. 3. The line joining a point P to the centre of a conicoid passes through the centre of the section of the conicoid by the polar plane
of P.

The centres of sections of a central to a given line lie on a fixed plane. parallel
Ex.
4,

conicoid that

are

Ex. 5. The centres of sections that pass through a given line on a conic, Ex. 6. The centres of sections that pass through a given point on a conicoid.

lie

lie

108

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of sections of
.

[CH.

va

Ex. 7. Find the locus of centres which touch our* + fty* + yz 2 = 1

a.

ax2 +by 2 +cz2 =l

Locus of mid-points of a system of parallel chords. It follows from equations (1) and (2) of 71 that the midpoints of chords which are parallel to a fixed line
72.

x
I
lie

y^ z
wi

n
Q.

in the plane

alx + bmy+cnz

This

is

therefore the diametral plane

(fig. 34).

which

bisects the

parallel chords

Flu. 34.

Compare the equation to the locus of the mid-points of parallel chords of the ellipse a
Ex.
1.
2

o^H-6y A ns. ax(x -/) 4- by (y - //) -f cz(z - It) = 0.

-f cz

Find the locus of the mid-points of chords of the conicoid 2 =l which pass through the point (/, </, h).

Ex. 2. Prove that the mid-points of chords of a,3? + by 2 + cz 2 l which are parallel to #=0 and touch x2 +y 2 + z 2 = r2 lie on the surface
by\bx* + bf + cz
73.
2

- br2 ) + cz\cx* + by2 + cz 2 - cr2 ) = 0.

The locus of the tangents drawn from a given

the secant APQ, (fig. 32), becomes a tangent, P, Q, R coincide at the point of contact, and hence the points of contact of all the tangents from A lie on the polar plane
point.
surface.

When

of A, and therefore on the conic in which that plane cuts the The locus of the tangents from A is therefore the

cone generated by lines which pass through

A and

intersect

72,73)

THE ENVELOPING CONE

109

the conic in which the polar plane of A cuts the conicoid This cone is the enveloping cone whose vertex is A. We

may
line

find its equation as follows

If

is

(a,

/3,

y),

and the

APQ, whose equations are

_ ~~
I

_ ~~

meets the surface in coincident points, the equation (1) of 36 has equal roots, and therefore

(1)

The
[a(x

locus of
2

APQ
2
)

is

therefore the cone

2

whose equation
2

is

- oc) + b(y -

+ c(z - y

+ b/3 + cy -!] = [oojfaj - a) + bj3(y - 0) + cy(z - y)]2

) ]

[oa

If

Ssa
may
be written
)S 1 = (P~S 1 )
^
2
,

and
this equation

i.e.

SSi

= P2

or

to the ellipse

Compare the equation 2 2

to the pair of tangents

from the point

(a, 13)

a# + 6y =l.

Ex. 1. Find the locus of points from which three mutually per2 2 2 pendicular tangent lines can be drawn to the surface cut + by + cz = I Ans.
Ex. 2. Lines drawn from the centre of a central conicoid parallel to the generators of the enveloping cone whose vertex is A generate a cone which intersects the conicoid in two conies whose planes are parallel to the polar plane of A.

Through a fixed point (, 0, 0) pairs of perpendicular drawn to the surface ajp+byt+cz2 **!. Shew that the plane through any pair touches the cone
Ex.
3.

jarigent lines are

(x-k)*

z2

Ex.
Ex.
4
<a

4.

=a 2 in
5.
2

The plane

z a meets any enveloping cone of the sphere a conic which has a focus at the point (0, 0, a).

/a

+y
.

/6

Find the locus of a luminous point if the ellipsoid + a/c 2 =l casts a circular shadow on the plane *=0.

Ans

^o,

5^+5=1

y-o,

5^+^-1.

110

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
6.

[CH.VIL

Ex.
planes,

S=0, ?=0, v=0 are the equations to a conicoid and two prove that S + X.uv0 represents a conicoid which passes
If

in which the given planes cut the given and interpret the equation S-f Aw'2 =0. Ex. 7. Prove that if a straight line has three points on a it lies wholly on the conicoid.

through the conies

conicoid,

conicoid,

(The equation

(1),

66, is

an identity.)

conicoid passes through a given point A and touches a Ex. 8. conicoid S at all points of the conic in which it is met by the given polar plane of A. Prove that all the tangents from A to S lie on it. Hence find the equation to the enveloping cone of S whose vertex is A.

Ex, 9. The section of the enveloping cone of the ellipsoid x2/a?+y2/b 2 + 22 /c2 =l whose vertex is P by the plane 2 = is (i) a parabola, (ii) a rectangular hyperbola. Find the locus of P.

Am.
locus of the tangents which are parallel to a given line. Suppose that PQ is any chord and that M is its mid-point. Then if the line PQ moves parallel to itself
74.
till

The

meets the surface in coincident points, it becomes a tangent and M coincides with the point of contact. Thereit

fore the point of contact of

a tangent which

is parallel

FIG. 35.

to a given line lies on the diametral plane which bisects all chords parallel to the line. This plane cuts the surface in

conic,

and the locus of the tangents

parallel to the given

line is therefore the cylinder

generated by the parallels to the given line which pass through the conic.

74,75]

THE ENVELOPING CYLINDER

111

Let (a, /3, y) (fig. 35) be any point on a tangent to a given line x/l^yfm z/n.

paratle)

Then

since,

by

73
cc

(1),

the line
2/ji^ ~~

~ oc
I

touches the surface

if

(aP+bm*+vn,*)(aa*+bp+^
the locus of (a,
2
2
/3,

y)

is
2

given by
2

(al

+ bm + cn

)(ax

+ by

+cz2

l)

= (alx + bmy + cnz^.

cylinder,

This equation therefore represents the enveloping which is the locus of the tangents.

The enveloping cylinder may be considered to be a limiting case of the enveloping cone whose vertex is the point P, (Ir ?nr, nr) on the line x/l=y/m=z/n, as r tends to infinity. By 73, the equation to the cone is
9

(a^ + fyH^2 -l)(^^

whence tne equation to the cylinder can be at once deduced.
Cx.
1.

Prove that the enveloping cylinders of the ellipsoid 2 /c =*l, whose generators are parallel to the lines

#
meet the plane

_z

z=0

in circles.

is the line of interEx. 2. Prove that the polar of a line section of the planes of contact of the enveloping cone whose vertex is A and the enveloping cylinder whose generators are parallel to AB.

AB

75.

we

In discussing the properties of the normals shall confine our attention to the normals to the ellipsoid,

Normals.

the most familiar of the central conicoids.

Consider the ellipsoid whose equation, referred to rect2 2 = angular axes, is x /a?+y /b*+z*/c* I. If the plane

is

a tangent plane whose point of contact

68,

is

(x\ y\ tf\

we

have, as in

112

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is,

fcitm

that

the direction-cosines of the outward-drawn normal

TW
at (x' y\
y

z')

are

^-5-*

^-> ^
T)Z

w?y

where p

is

the perpendicular

from the centre to the tangent plane at the point. equations to the normal at (x', y\ z) are therefore x x' y y' z-z' ,
px'
a*
fix. 1.

The

py'
62
c*

If the

normal at P meets the principal planes in

Q l9 G 2 G 3
,

shew that
Putting
for

pQi p G2 p G3 = fl2
.

jg

A
we
obtain

in the equations to the normal,

r==

pQ i

-p
of

a2

etc.

Ex.
dns.

2.

If
V2
4

2 PG? + PG 2 + PG 32 -F,

find the locus of P.

The curve

of
4

intersection
.2
-

the

given ellipsoid and the

dlhpsoid r

*+L + c i a
4

1,2

~2 *

a4

Ex.
that

3.

if it is

Find the length of the normal chord through P, and prove equal to 4PG 3 P lies on the cone
,

Ans.

Ex. 4. The normal at a variable point P meets the plane XOY in Prove that the A, and AQ is drawn parallel to OZ and equal to AP. locus of Q is given by

Find the locus of R

parallel to

if

OR

is

A P.
If the

drawn from the centre equal and A ns. a\& + b 2y* + cW = c4

.

Ex.

PQ
at

is

normals at P and Q, points on the ellipsoid, intersect. at right angles to its polar with respect to the ellipsoid.
5.

76.

The normals from a given

point.

If the
/3,

normal
then

(x', y', z')

passes through a given point (a,

y),

_ a
2

'L

&2
is

~ 2
X,

and

if

each of these fractions

equal to

$75.76]
Therefore, since

THE NORMALS
(x', y', z') is

113

on the

ellipsoid,

This equation gives six values of X, to each of which corresponds a point (x', y', z\ and therefore there are six points on the ellipsoid the normals at which pass

through (a,
Ex.
1.

/3,

y).
A.
is

Prove that equation (3) gives at least two real values of 2 2 2 2 (If F(A) = (A + a ) (A + & ) (A + F(A) 2 -b\ c2 and is positive when A= oo.) negative when A=

6^

Prove that four normals to the ellipsoid pass through 2. of the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the conicoid point
Ex.
c2

any

+ a2 ) + 2 2 (a 2
(1) that the feet of the
lie

It follows

from equations
y) = c y( y
2

normals

from

(oc, /3.

y) to the ellipsoid

on the three cylinders

z)

b z(ft

z\

x(y

= a?z(n

x),

Compare the equation

feet of the

to the rectangular hyperbola through the

(a., /J)

normals from the point

to the ellipse -^-f '4 Ct

= 1.

These cylinders have a common curve of intersection, and equations (2) express the coordinates of any point on The points where the curve it in terms of a parameter X.
meets a given plane
u x + vy + wz + d =
,

are given

by
meets

and as

this determines three values of X, the plane

the curve in three points, and the curve is therefore a cubic curve. The feet of the normals irom 'a, /3, y) to the six points of intersection of ellipsoid are therefore the
the ellipsoid and a certain cubic curve. If the normal at (#', y\ z'} passes through
(rx, ft,

y) and

has direction-cosines

I,

m,

n,

H4
and therefore

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

fcfl.vn

This shews that the normal whose equations are

m
is

a generator of the cone

.

X
Hence the
second degree.

"T~

7x

"l

CL

z
/3,

y
y)
lie

six normals

from (a,

on a cone of the

Ex. 3. If P is the point (a, /?, yX prove that the line the xes, parallels through P to the axes, and tne perpendicular from lie~on the cone. polar plane,
Ex.
4.

P PO, the

to its

Shew

that the cubic curve

lies

on the cone.
lie

Ex. 5. Prove that the feet of the six normals from (a, 8, y) the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the cone

on

== A 0.

Ex. 6. The generator's of the cone which contains the normals from a given point to an ellipsoid are at right angles to their polars
with respect to the
ellipsoid.

such that its a fixed point and P a variable Ex. 7. point Shew that tne locus of P is the to AP. is at polar plane right angles cubic curve throuh the feet of the normals from A.
is

Ex. 8. If P, Q, R ; P', Q', R' are the feet of the six normals from is given by lx+my + a point to the ellipsoid, and the plane nz~p,

PQR

then the plane P'Q'R'

is

given by

(If P'Q'R' is given

by

l'x

+ m'y+riz=p',

equation (3) of

76

is

the

same as

Ex.

9.

If A, A' are the poles of the planes

PQR,

P'Q'R',

AA' 2 -OA 2 -OA' 2 =2(a2 +62 +c2 ).

Conjugate diameters and conjugate diametral planes Of the ellipsoid. If the equation to the ellipsoid
77.

76,77]
is
cc

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS

115

and

2 2 2 02/c2==: l the axes are conjugate diameters /a +2/ /^ the coordinate planes are conjugate diametral planes,

any point on the ellipsoid, the diametral plane of OP has for its equation, (72),

(65).

If P, (x l9

2/1

>

z i) is

xx a2
Let Q, (#2 2/2 ellipsoid, then
,
>

zz.

2)

be any point on this plane and on the

Hence, if Q is on the diametral plane of OP, P diametral plane of OQ.

If the diametral planes of OP and OQ intersect in the diameter OR, (fig. 36),

is

on the

on the diametral planes of OP and OQ, and therefore P and Q are on the
R
is

diametral plane of OR that is, the diametral plane of OR is the plane OPQ. Thus the planes QOR, ROP, POQ are the
;

diametral planes of OP, OQ, OR respectively, and they are therefore conjugate

FIG. 36.

diametral planes, and OP, OQ,

If R is
(o5 3 , ?/ 8 ,

OR

are conjugate diameters.

z 3 ),

we have
,

W+ 6
i
1

i_i + c^""
,

'

a2+ 6 2

+ c2_ 2
i

These correspond exactly and shew that

'

to equations (A)

and

(B) of

53,

a* b' c

a' b'

are the direction-cosines of three mutually perpendicular

116

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

|cn.va
53,

lines referred to rectangular axes.

Therefore, as in

we

deduce,

a
i
>

etc., etc.;

3>

2/3

>

^
ellipsoid
is

If

the

axes to

which the
(c') give,

referred

are

rectangular, equations

on adding,

Hence the sum of the squares on any three conjugate

From the last equation we is constant. the volume of the parallelepiped which has deduce that OP, OQ, OR for coterminous edges is constant and equal
semi-diameters
to abc.

and

lr ,

Again,
r,
,

normals to
plane x = 0,

A p A 2 A3 are the areas QOR, ROP, POQ nr (r=l, 2, 3), are the direction-cosines of the the planes QOR, ROP, POQ, projecting A x on the
if
,

we

obtain

.,

similarly,

-, m^ = cay,
,

7i

A1 =

abz*

Therefore, squaring and adding,

we

have,

by

77]

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS-EXAMPLES
1.

117

Ex.

Find the equation

is
'

to the plane

PQR.
l
l

If the equation

lx+my + nz=p, then lx +my l +nz Ix2 + my 2 + nz 2 = /?, lx$ + my^ + nz3 = p.
,

Multiply by

# u #2 x3

respectively,
l

and add
etc.

then by

(c')

and

(D')

Ia?=p(x +x2 + x3 ),

The required equation

is

therefore

that the plane at the centroid of the triangle

Ex.

2.

Shew

PQR touches the

PQR.

^.2

ellipsoid

.-+2L + a b c

^2

~2

Ex.

3.

Prove that the pole of the plane

PQR

lies

on the ellipsoid

Ex. 4, The locus of the foot of the perpendicular from the centre to the plane through the extremities of three conjugate semi-diameters
is

a
Ex.
5.

OQ, OR,
Ex.
6.

Prove that the sum of the squares of the projections of OP, on a given plane, is constant. (i) on a given line, (ii)

Shew

cone of the second degree.

that any two sets of conjugate diameters 59, Ex. 6.) (Of.

lie

on a

Ex. 7. Shew that any two sets of conjugate diametral planes touch a cone of the second degree. (Apply 61, Ex. 4.) Ex. 8. If the axes are rectangular, find the locus of the equal 2 2 2 2 2 njugate diameters of the ellipsoid 3?/a +y /b +z /c =l. If r is the length of one of tne equal conjugate diameters,

-\

r*

a*

b*

where ?, m, n are the direction-cosines. generator of the cone

Therefore the diameter

is

OF

a
Ex.
9.

Shew

that the plane through a pair of equal conjugate

diameters touches the cone

x2

2 /o

2-.A2_

2\

== ^ >

Ex.

10.

If A,

/it,

v are the angles between a set of equal conjugate

diameters,

OR are equal conjugate diameters, and S is Ex. 11. If OP, the pole of the plane PQR, the tetrahedron SPQR has any pair of opposite edges at right angles.

OQ

118

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
12.

[CH.VU
-

!TI, 7T 2 , 7T 3

is

are conjugate diameters and p l9 p^, p 3 If OP, OQ, are their projections on any two given lines, jPi7ri-F/Vr 2+/> 3 7r3 constant.

Ex.

OR

Ex.

13.

If,

through a given point, chords are drawn parallel to

of the squares of the ratios of the respective is constant.

OP, OQ, OR, the sum chords to OP, OQ, OR

Ex. 14.

The
-v2

locus of the point of intersection of three tangent

*2 If

niu

planes to -2 + ;^ + -3
x*

which are

parallel
z
2

to conjugate diametral
b2
c2

planes of

theorem

^ + ^ + y2=^+^+y2^ when become a=/3 = y ?

~-f
is

v*

+ -^ = 1,

wh ^ does this

Ex. 15. Shew that conjugate diameters satisfy the condition of Ex. 8, 70, for conjugate lines.

Since the plane POQ, (tig. 36), bisects all chords of the conicoid which are parallel to OR, the line OQ bisects all

chords of the conic

ROQ which are

parallel to OR.

Similarly
;

OR

bisects all chords of the conic

and therefore OR and OQ But Q is any point on the ellipse therefore ellipse ROQ. OP and any pair of conjugate diameters of the ellipse in which the diametral plane of OP cuts the ellipsoid are
;

parallel to OQ are conjugate diameters of the

which are

conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid.

/ytti

']i&

y~

Ex.

16.

is

any point on the

ellipsoid -g

+ T^H
,

=1

an(^

^ an ^ ^

are the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral 2 2 2 2 2 2 = abc, plane of OP. Prove that OP = a -f b -f c -a. /3 and that a./3p whore p is the perpendicular from to the tangent plane at P.

Ex.

17.

ellipsoid

If 2a and 2/J are the principal axes by the plane lx + my + nz=Q, prove that

of the section of the

77,78]

PEOPERTIES OF THE CONE

119

The equation of a of one sheet referred to three conjugate diameters as hyperboloid

Conjugate diameters of the hyperboloids.
<v2

o/2

2 5

coordinate axes

is ^-0 2 a.

+ 7,0
/r

= 1. Hence

it

appears that the x- and

y-

/3, 0), and that y-axes meet the surface in real points (0., 0, 0), (0, the 2-axis does not intersect the surface. The 2-axis, however, interxP 22 y* sects the hyperboloid of two sheets whose equation is + ~~2 == l 2~/32 and these points are taken as the extremities at the points (0, 0, y), of the third of the three conjugate diameters. Hence, if P, (x^ y l9 zj, Q, (x2 y2 z2 ), R, (#3 y3 z3 ) are the extremities of a set of conjugate semi-diameters of the hyperboloid of one sheet,

--

a*
it follows,

b*

as for the ellipsoid, that

and

therefore, that

if

the axes are rectangular,

and
Similarly,
if

A 2 + A 22 - A 3 2 =
t

one of a set of three conjugate diameters of the hyper^

^2
'

,2

Doloid of

two

22

sheets, -^ -'TO a2 o 2

c2

-5

= 1,

intersects the surface, the othel

'

two do

not,

but they intersect the hyperboloid of one sheet,

and the points

if

P, Q,

of intersection are taken as their extremities. Hence are the extremities, and the axes are rectangular, we have

and

Aj

- A22 - A32 = i (6V - c2 a2 - a262>

THE CONE.
78.

A homogeneous equation
y

of the form

represents a cone.
(

If (&', y' z') is

#',

y',

z') lies

also

any point on the cone, on the cone, and therefore we

may consider
the centre.

the cone as a central surface, the vertex being The coordinate planes are conjugate diametral

planes and the coordinate axes are conjugate diameters. We easily find, as in the case of the other central
conicoids, the following results
:

120

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
at (x' y\
9

JCH, vii

The tangent plane

z) has

for its equation

axx

+ byy + czz = 0.
touches the cone
if

The plane lx+my + nz = The polar plane

The
section

of P,
aoix

(oc,

#, y)

is

given by

+ b(3y + cyz = 0.
is

whose centre

at (a,

ft,

y) has the equation

The diametral plane

The

of the line x/l = y/m = z{n is

alx + bmy + cnz = 0.

locus of the tangents drawn from P, (oc, /3, y) is the pair of tangent planes whose line of intersection is OP. They are given by

(ax

+ by 2 + cz*} (aoc2 + 6/32 + cy = (OJOUK + b(3y + cyzf.

2
)

The diametral plane of OP

is also

the polar plane of P.

FIG. 37.

Let OP, OQ, OR, (fig. 37), any three in P, Q, R. conjugate diameters of the cone, meet any plane The plane meets the cone in a conic, and QR is the locus
CoAJugate diameters.

harmonic conjugates of P with respect to the points in which any secant through P cuts the conic i.e. QR is the RP and PQ polar of P with respect to the conic. Similarly, are the polars of Q and R, and therefore the triangle PQR
of the
;

is

self-polar

with respect to the

conic.

Conversely, if

PQR

781
is

PKOPERTIES OF THE CONE

121

any triangle self-polar with respect to the conic in which the plane PQR cuts the cone, OP, OQ, OR are conjugate diameters of the cone. For the polar plane of P passes through the line QR and through the vertex, and therefore

OQR

is

the polar plane of

P,

and similarly, ORP, OPQ and OR.

<2

or the diametral plane of OP are the diametral planes of OQ

Ex. 1. The locus of the asymptotic lines drawn from l is the asymptotic cone conicoid aj? + by 2 + cz

to the

Ex.

2.

The hyperboloids
z 2 /c2

=1

- rfja* -

2
?/

/6

+ z2 /c2 =

have the same asymptotic cone. the two hyperboloids.

JBx. 3.
t/o

Draw

a figure shewing tke cone and

The section of a hyperboloid by a plane which a tangent plane of the asymptotic cone is a parabola.
4.

is

parallel

Ex.

If

a plane through the origin cuts the cones

in lines which form a harmonic pencil, 2 r2 7/ Z' //

.

it

touches the cone

*

by + c/3

ca.

+ ay
ax2
^2

__ ___
|

a/3

+ bau
2

__

For the following examples the axes

Planes generators touch

are rectangular.
2

Ex.

5.

which

cut
2

4-

by

-f cz

in

perpendicular

.2

b-\-c

+a

a+b

The lines of intersection of pairs of tangent planes to x. 6. ax2 -\-by'2 't-cz 2 = () which touch along perpendicular generators lie on
the cone
2 2 Perpendicular tangent planes to ax +by*+cz =C intersect

Ex.

7.

in generators of the cone

Ex. 8. If the cone A^2 4-By2 -f-C22 -h2F^4;2G^+2H^y==0 passes through a set of conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid 2 then Aa 2 4-B6 2 4-Cc 2 =0. /c =l,
Ex. 9. If three conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid meet director sphere in P, Q, R, the plane PQR touches the ellipsoid.
the

Ex. 10. Find the equation to the normal plane (i.e. at right angles to the tangent plane) of the cone cw^-f by2 + O22 =0 which passes through the generator xjl =y/m = z/n. A v (b c)x

A 7W.

2j

\Ji

122

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
11.

[CH. VII

Ex.

planes of the cone

Lines drawn through the origin at right angles to normal axz +by2 +cz*0 generate the cone

Ex.

12.

If the

each sets of

which pass through their four common generators are at right angles.

two cones o^+6?/2 +cj2 =0, auc*+/3y*+y=*Q have three mutually perpendicular generators, any two planes

THE PARABOLOIDS.
79.

The

locus of the equation

(2) '
*

^i~fe a*

V
c

The equation

(1) represents the surface generated

by the

variable ellipse z

x
k,
(JL

z
ty
\J

-2+^ =

2A;

This ellipse

is

imaginary

unless k

and

have the same sign, hence the centre of the

z

FIG. 38.

ellipse lies

on

OZ

if

c>0

and on OZ

if*

o<0.

The

sections

of the surface

by

planes parallel to the coordinate planes

are parabolas. Fig. 38 shews the form and The position of the surface for a positive value of c. surface is the elliptic paraboloid.

YOZ-

ZOX

79,80]

PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLOIDS

(2) represents the surface generated

123

The equation

by the
is

x
variable hyperbola

r^

= 2&

>

z = k.
its

The hyperbola

real for all real values of k,

and
X

through every point on Z'Z.

degenerates into the two lines -^
of the surface

centre passes in turn When k = () the hyperbola

I/

j^

= 0, z = 0. The sections
0=
k project on the

by the planes z = k,

plane

XOY

into conjugate hyperbolas

vl

whose asymptotes are

to

z = 0, ^9 or

n>=0.

The

sections

by planes parallel r

YOZ,

are parabolas. The surface is the hyperbolic paraboloid, and fig. 39 shews the form and position of the surface for a negative value of c.

ZOX

80.

Conjugate diametral planes.

An

equation of the

form
represents a paraboloid. Any line in the plane XOY which passes through the origin meets the surface in two coincident points, and hence the plane XOY is the tangent plane at the origin. The planes YOZ, ZOX bisect chords Each is therefore parallel to OX and OY respectively.

Such pairs of parallel to the chords bisected by the other. planes are called conjugate diametral planes of the paraboloid

124
81.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Diameters.
If

[CH. VIL

the point (a, equations to a line through A are

is

/3,

y),

and the

m
the distances from

to the points of intersection of the line and the paraboloid are given by

r2 (aiH6m 2 )+2r(aai + 6/3m~70 + aa2 +

If

^ -2y =
2

0. ...(1)

and therefore a line parallel to the 0-axis meets the paraboloid in one point at an infinite distance, and in a point P whose distance from A is given by
one value of r
is infinite,

= m = 0,

Such a

line is called a diameter,

and P

is

the extremity of

the diameter.

Hence ax2 + by 2 = 2z represents a paraboloid, referred to a tangent plane, and two conjugate diametral planes
through the point of contact, as coordinate planes. One of the coordinate axes is the diameter through the point
of contact.
If the axes are rectangular, so that the tangent at O is at right angles to the diameter through O, plane O is the vertex of the paraboloid, and the diameter through O The coordinate planes YOZ, ZOX are then is the axis.

principal planes.

Ex.

What

surface

is

represented by the equation xy =

82. Tangent planes. find, as in 67, the equation to the tangent plane at the point (a, /3, y) on the paraboloid,

We

If lx

+ my + nz=p

is

a tangent plane and (a,

/?,

y)

is

the

point of contact,

= -I
and therefore
I*

an

Q -m p on ^ = -=
?n 2

-y *

i= -p n

81-83]

TANGENT AND DIAMETRAL PLANES

2

12ft

I Hence 2n(lx + my + nz)-\---^-^- = a u

is

the equation to
is parallel

the tangent plane to the paraboloid which

to the

plane lx+my + nz 0. If the axes are rectangular and

2n r (l,x + mry + n rz)

represent we have,
three

72
(A/

+ JL + '=Q

2
9

(r=l,

2, 3),

mutually perpendicular tangent planes.

by

addition,

and therefore the

locus of the point of intersection of three mutually perpendicular tangent planes is a plane at right angles to the axis of the paraboloid.

Ex. 1. Shew that the plane &r -6y ~z=- 5 touches the paraboloid x2 ?/ 2 * ~ Z9 an(l find the coordinates of the point of contact. o o 2i o

Am.
Ex.
/y*Z -'-

(8, 9, 5).

2.

Two

perpendicular

tangent

planes

to

the

paraboloio

= 22 -p^-

nt&

intersect in a straight line lying in the plane

#=0.

Shew

that the line touches the parabola

x = 0,
Ex.
3.

2 y = (a + 6) (23 -f a).

Shew

to the paraboloid ax'2

+ 6y = 22 is given by 2 2 2 2 2 = (o.r + by 2z)(aa + i^8 2y) (ao-r -f bfy -z- y)

2

that the locus of the tangents from a point

.

(a., /?,

y)

Ex. 4. Find the locus of points from which three mutually perpendicular tangents can be drawn to the paraboloid. Ans.

has equations = y/m = z/n, the diametral plane of OP, i.e. the locus x/l of the mid-points of chords parallel to OP, is given by Hence all diametral planes are parallel alx + bmy n = ().
83.

Diametral planes.

If

line

OP

to the axis of the paraboloid, and conversely any plane If OQ, whose parallel to the axis is a diametral plane. equations are x/l' y/m' z/n\ is parallel to the diametral

plane of OP,

aU'+bmm'=0........................ (1)

126

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.VII

Hence OP

is parallel to the diametral plane of OQ, and the diametral planes of OP and OQ are conjugate. Equation (1) is the condition that the lines alx bmy^Q,

al'x

+ bm'y

Q,

in

the plane

diameters of the conic

z~k, should be conjugate ax2 + by 2 %k. Hence any plane

meets a pair of conjugate diametral planes of a paraboloid in lines which are parallel to conjugate diameters of the
conic in

which the plane meets the

surface.
of parallel

Ex. 1. The locus of the centres of a system sections of a paraboloid is a diameter.

Ex.
2.
6.r2 -f 6// 2 20. it bisects.

plane

The plane

3,r-f

4y=l

is

a diametral plane of the paraboloid

.

Find the equations to the chord through

^-9-=
X2
If -2 CL to

x-3

(3, 4, 5)

which

y-4
10

z-5
15-

Ex. 3. Any diametral plane cuts the paraboloid in a parabola, and parallel diametral planes cut it in equal parabolas.

81 The normals.
paraboloid,
(#',

+ 72 = 20 u

1/

represents an elliptic

referred

rectangular axes, the normal at

>

z')

has for equations

__

y
#.'

y' __z

z*

~?
a2
If this

"""!

b2

normal passes through a given point (a,

a
..

x' ...

t^lBMWWBteiB lBMWW
'

y'

x'

_
1
'

/8,

y),

z'
-

^fl

y'

a2
. a2a m Therefore x =
, ,

P
,

==

'

and
(

This equation gives five values of X, and hence there are five points on the paraboloid the normals at which pass

through a given point.

Ex.
1.

Prove that the

lie

feet of the

normals from any point to the

paraboloid

on a cubic curve.

83,84]

EXAMPLES

IV.
(OL, /?,

127
y) to the paraboloid
lie

Ex. 2. Prove that the normals from on the cone

___

X-VL y-/3
Ex.
Ex.
plane
3.

=
z-y
lies

Prove that the cubic curve

on this cone.
(a,
/?,

4. lies 5.

Prove that the perpendicular from on the cone.

In general three normals can be

y) to

its

polar

Ex.

to the paraboloid of revolution # 2 + */ 2 = 2az, but if the point lies on the surface 27a(.r 2 -f# 2 ) + 8(a-z) 3 = 0, two of the three normals coincide.

drawn from a given point

Ex.

6.

Shew

to the paraboloid

that the feet of the normals from the point (a, #2 +y 2 = 2az lie on the sphere

(3,

y)

Ex. 7. Shew that the centre of the circle through the feet of the three normals from the point (<x, /J, y) to the paraboloid #2 -f y 2 2az is
,

4'

4'

r\
2

*
1.

Examples IV.

Two

asymptotic lines can be drawn from a point P to a conicoid l and they are at right angles if P lies on the cone
y

2.

The

lines

in

ouv2

+ /3y* + yz2 =

which the plane lx + my-\-m = Q cuts the cone are conjugate diameters of the ellipse in which it
1J
2j

cuts the ellipsoid -o4-'ro-f-o = r a2 i 2 c2 the cone

3.

JT^

JC

l.

Prove that the

line

7=m=n I

1J

lies

on

)^ + ^( y ^
;

P and

tangent plane at

P
at

in S.

P and
4.

The normal at P meets the are points on an ellipsoid. meets the tangent plane at the normal at in R If the perpendiculars from the centre to the tangent planes 2 :p lu Q are p l p2 prove that PR

Q
,

QS=p

on

tangent planes at P and Q, points passes through a fixed point A, (<x, /?, y), and is Shew that the locus of the mid-point parallel to the plane XOY. of PQ is the conic in which the polar plane of A cuts the surface

The

line of intersection of the

oo?2 -hiy 2

+ C22 ==l,

5.

Shew

the axis of

that the greatest value of the shortest distance between x and a normal to the ellipsoid #2/a 2 +y2/b 2 +z2/c 2 =l is

6-c.
6. Plane sections of an ellipsoid which have their centres on a fixed straight line and touch given straight line are parallel to a a parabolic cylinder.

128
7.

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
OP, OQ,

|CH. vn.

OR

are conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid

At

and R tangent

lines are

their distances from O. plane at right angles to

OP

drawn parallel to OP, and p l9 p 2 are The perpendicular from O to the tangent
is/>.

Prove that

8.

Conjugate diameters of

a^2 -f b^ 2 4- c\z2 = 1
in P, Q, R.

meet a^x2 + b 2 y2 -f c,2z2 = 1

Shew

that the plane

PQR

touches the conicoid

where

-3 =
>

ol

--a
i

c{

9. The ellipsoid which has as conjugate diameters the three straight lines that bisect pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron touches the

edges.
10. Shew that the projections of the normals to an ellipsoid at P, Q, R, the extremities of conjugate diameters on the plane PQR, are concurrent.

11.

to

If through any given point (a, /3, y) perpendiculars are drawn 2 2 2 2 2 2 any three conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid X la + y /b + z /c =l,

the plane through the feet of the perpendiculars passes through the fixed point / r /
\
2

2 2 2 >2 a a /a -H?/ /6 -f z /c

If perpendiculars be drawn from any point P on the ellipsoid 2 = to any three conjugate diametral planes, the l plane through the feet of the perpendiculars meets the normal at P at a fixed point whose distance from P is
12.

where
at P.

is

the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane

13. Find the locus of centres of sections of a conicoid that are at a constant distance from the centre.

14.

through the axes (which are rectangular) are yz zx xy = 0. Deduce that the lines through a given point P, which are per2 2 2 2 2 \) lie pendicular to their polars with respect to x /a*+y /b -\-z /c a right circular cone if P lies on one of the lines upon 2 - 2 2 2= 2 c ) * a 2 )2y 2 = (a 2 - b 2 ) 2z 2 (ft (c
.

Shew

that the equations to the right circular cones that pass

15. Chords of a conicoid which are parallel to a given diameter and are such that the normals at their extremities intersect, lie in a fixed plane through the given diameter.

OH. VIL]

EXAMPLES

IV.

129

16. The perpendiculars from the origin to the faces of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the feet of the four normals from a point to 2 the cone a#2 -l-&y 2 -f C3 = 0, lie on the cone

17. P, Q, R ; P'i Q'> R' are the feet of the six normals from a point 2 Prove that the poles of the to the ellipsoid xP/a?+y*/b + z*/c*=l.

planes
18.

PQR,

P'Q'R'

lie

on the surface

,-

S-j

2
(.r

The normals

at

P and

P',

points of the ellipsoid

meet the plane XOY in A and A' and make angles Prove that PA cos (9+ P' A' cos 0' =0.

0,

&

with PP'.

19. The normals to x*/a*+y*lb*+s?/cP = l at all points of its intersection with lyz + mzx + nxy = () intersect the line

_ __ = ~ - a2 ) m (6 2 - c 2 )(a 2 - 6 2 ~~ n 2 - c 2 )' (c ) a*)(6*

20. Shew that the points on an ellipsoid the normals at which intersect a given line lie on the curve of intersection of the straight ellipsoid and a conicoid.

The normals to .r2/a 2 -f ?/2 /6 2 4- *2 /c2 = 1 at points of 21. with x/a+y/b+z/c = l lie on the surface
cazx

its intersection

d
22.

Prove that two normals to a.r2 + by 2 -f C2 2 = 1 nz=p, and that they are at right angles if

lie

in the plane

a (b + c)P}

=2

2
{

(6

- cpniW}

23. The locus of a point, the sum of the squares of whose normal distances from the ellipsoid x 2/a'2 +y 2 /b 2 + z 2/c 2 = I is constant, (= 2 ), is

24,

If the feet of the six normals

from

(OL, /?,

y) are

C*r,yr

V),
2

r=l,

2, ...6),

prove that
25.
nftf

a o.2

^i j

+6

/J2

^1 )
'il

+ c2 y2

(-)

= 0.
P
to the ellipsoid

If the feet of three

&L
"^

*f

""a+M+l^l ^ e n ^ie a 2 6 2 c2
A

njA

the normals from T Z

pl ane r

"+i a b

+ -= If ^e c
'

feet of the other three

lie in

the plane - + rH a o c

^y

H=

0,

and P

lies

on the line

130
26. If A,

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
B
are (04,

[CH.VII.

at the points

where

AB

fl lf

),

(o. 2 , /3 2 , 7*)>

cuts the conicoid

I

the pair of tangent planes S~ax^ + by 2 + cz 2 1=0 is

JI

given by

S 8 P -2P P 8 P U +S P *=0,
1
1

and the

pair of tangent planes that intersect in

AB, by

where

S^acL^+bfi^ + cy^-l,

etc.;

--l, etc.;

27.

If P, (x v

y l9

2j),

Q, (^2 y 2
,

2 2 ),

R,

(.r3 ,

y3

^3 )

are the extremities

!

of three conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid

-i-

T2 +

~
2

:=

OP=r OPQR

lf

OQ = r

2,

OR = r3

prove that the equation to the sphere

can be wntten

and prove that the locus of the centres of spheres through the origin and the extremities of three equal conjugate semi-diameters is
1

2(a

2 2 o:

+ 62/ + cV) = (a2 + 6 2 + c2 )2

85,86]

CHAPTER

VIIL

THE AXES OF A PLANE SECTION OF A CONICOID,

85.

We

have proved,

54, Exs. 2, 3), that

every plane

section of a conicoid is a conic,

sections are similar

and that

parallel plane

and similarly situated

conies.

We now

proceed to find equations to determine the magnitudes and directions of the axes of a given plane section of a given conicoid.
General method for determining the axes. If the lengths of the axes of a conic are 2oc and 2/3, and <x> r /?, the conic

>

has two diameters of length 2r, and they are equally If r = oc or /?, the two diameters of inclined to the axes. length 2r coincide with an axis. Hence to find the axes

which a given plane cuts a conicoid, we first form the equation to a cone whose vertex is the centre, C, of the conic and which has as generators the lines of length r which can be drawn in the plane from C The lines of section of this cone and the to the conicoid.
of the conic in

given plane are the semi-diameters of length r of the conic. If 2r is the length of an axis, these are coincident, or the plane touches the cone, the generator of contact being the axis. The condition of tangency gives an equation which determines r the comparison of the equations of the given
;

plane and a tangent plane to the cone leads to the

cosines of the generator of contact.
86.

direction-

Axes of the section of a central conicoid by a

plane through the centre.

Let the equations, referred to rectangular axes, of the conicoid and plane be

132

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of the conicoid
jm,

[CH. vin.

The centre
section.

is

also the centre

of

the

If X,

are

the direction-cosines of a semir,

diameter of the conicoid of length Therefore is on the conicoid.

the point

(X?', p.r, i/r)

Hence the semi-diameters

generators of the cone

of the conicoid of length r are

x2(a-I/t*) + y\b-l/r*) + z\c-I/r*) =

.......... (1)

cone and plane are the semithe conic of length r. Hence, if r is the length of either semi-axis of the conic in which the plane lx + my + nz = Q cuts the conicoid, the plane touches the
lines of section of the

The

diameters of

cone,

and therefore

or

roots of this quadratic in r2 give the squares of the semi-axes of the section.

The

If 2r is the length of

an axis and

X,

/x,

are the direction-

cosines, the given plane touches the cone (1) along the line x/\ y/jji z/v, and therefore is represented by the

equation

Therefore
I

n
............ ^
'

These determine the direction-cosines of the axis of

length
conicoid
2r.

Since the extremities of the semi-diameters of length r of the 2 lie upon the sphere o;2 +y2 -h2 =r2 the equation of the cone them may be obtained by making the equation to the conicoid through homogeneous by means of the equation to the sphere. Thus the cone is
>

2 L 2 ax* + by s + cz 2 =
t
i

which

is

another form of equation

(1).

86]

AXES OF CENTEAL SECTIONS

1.

133

Ex.

Prove that the axes of the section of the conicoid lie on the cone l by the plane i?+my + n =

(From equations

(3)

we deduce

that

Ex. 2. Prove that the cone of Ex. 1 passes through the normal to the plane of section and the diameter to which the plane of section is diametral plane. Prove also that the cone passes through two sets of Ex. 6, 77.) conjugate diameters of the conicoid. (Cf.

Ex.

3.

Find the lengths

(i)
(ii)

of the semi-axes of the conies given

by

Ans.

(i) -64,

'45

(ii) 3*08,

'76.

Ex.

4.

Prove that the equation of the conic

its
is

referred to

principal axes,

approximately

Ex.

5.

Prove that the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the

-_

ellipsoid of revolution
a,

a2
2

+~2 c
2

= ^ ^y
2

^e
2

P^ ane lx + my+nz=Q, are

2 )

ac (I2 +

m + n )* {a (l + m + c
2

n2

and that the equations

to the axes are

m
Ex.
6.

-I

0'

nl

mn

2 2 -(Z +ra )'

Prove that the area of the section of the

ellipsoid

by the plane lx + my + nz =

is

where p
is

is

the perpendicular from

the centre to the tangent plane which

parallel to the given plane.

The section of the conicoid 7. plane to the cone

Ex.

900

a^2 + 6j/2 + ^2 =l by a tangent

b+c c+a a+b

is

a rectangular hyperbola.

Ex. 8. The section of a hyperboloid of one sheet by a tangent plane to the asymptotic cone is two parallel straight lines. What is the corresponding section of the hyperboloid of two sheets which has the same asymptotic cone ? Ex. 9. Central sections of an ellipsoid whoso area envelope a cone of the second degree.
is

constant

1S4

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[en.

vnt

Ex. 10. If AJ, A 2 , Ao are the areas of three mutually perpendicular ~ 2 central sections of an ellipsoid, + A 2 2 + A 3 ~ 2 is constant.

Ar
2

Ex.

11.

One of

the axes of each section of the ellipsoid r

to the cone

a*

-, $- + tf = 1

by a tangent plane

y +z*=x

lies

on the cone

What
Ex.

is

the plane
12.

XOY

the nature of the section of this cone by a plane parallel to Sketch the form of the cone. ?

Prove that the axes

-=
I
\
,

of sections of the conicoid

which pass through the e r

line
c

=n
7

lie

on the cone
7

c,

(mz

ny) H

a, -- (nx - \a-b, -lz)

(ly

. - mx) = 0.
.

87.

Axes of any section of a central

ax
if
*

conicoid.

Let the

equations, referred to rectangular axes, of the conicoid

and

plane be

+ by* + cz* = I,
(3*

lx

+ my + vz=p.

Then
plane

C,

is also

the centre of the section, the represented by the equation

(oc,

y)

is

Therefore
I

,** = n
,

>

................ (1)

p
*, ^
rP
,

Hence aaf+btp + rf^jft r ^ ^

J ^r^^ say.
^

rP

The equation
through

to the conicoid referred to parallel axes

2

is
2

ax
or

+ by* + cz*+ 2 (aouc + b/3y + cyz) + aa + &^ + cy - 1 = 0, ax* + by* + cz + 2(aoLx + bpy
2
2
A:

where

=l

Po

^V 2
r

rP

The equation
If X,

to the plane is

now

drawn

are the direction-cosines of a line of length /*, i/ from C to the conicoid,

r2 (aX2

+ 6//2 +

ci/

+ 2r (aaX +

bfifJi

+ cyi/) - k2 = 0.

If the line lies in the

given plane

and therefore, by

1 ),

aaX + &/3/x + cyv = 0.

87]

AXES OF NON-CENTRAL SECTIONS

r2 (aX z +b{j?

135

Hence

+ cv*)-k2 (\z +/j?+tt) = Q,

and therefore the semi-diameters of the section of length r lie on the cone

the length of either semi-axis of the section, the plane touches the cone. Therefore
If
is

(2)

And, as in

86,

the direction-cosines of the axis of

length 2r are given by

7i

Comparing these equations with equations (2) and (3) of 86, we see that if oc and /3 are the lengths of the semiaxes of
the section
or

semi-axes of
koi

by the plane lx + my+nz = Q the the section by the plane lx + my + nz~p are
t

and

&/3,

rf p* a V/ 1 ~l-2' pV 1 -^' Po
I

and that the corresponding axes are parallel. We thus have another proof for central surfaces of the proposition that parallel plane sections are similar and similarly
situated conies.

equations (4) it follows that if A, A are the areas of the sections of a conicoid by a given plane and the

From

parallel plane through the centre,

A=A

(1
\

P \ -^j, where p /

to the given p, p are the perpendiculars from the centre Thus the area of the plane and the parallel tangent plane. 2 2 z x* y e P^ anb section of the ellipsoid -2+ /g+^^l
c

^^

18
2 2

(a'

+6 m +
2 2

136

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. VIIL

The student should note that the equation to the cone through all to the conicoid would be obtained the lines of length r drawn from by making the equation

It would be of the equation jp+y 2 + z 2 = r 2 of the fourth degree, while for our purpose we require a cone of the second degree. The cone chosen passes through the lines of length r which lie in the given plane, and these lines alone need be considered.

homogeneous by means

WF~OC /OP /Wl-OC /OP

2

is a given semi-diameter of a conicoid and OA( = o.), are the principal semi-axes of the section of the diametral Prove that in C. meets plane parallel to plane of OP. the principal axes of the section of the conicoid by this plane are

OB( = /8),

Ex.

1.

OP

A
,

AOB

OP

2
,

and deduce equations

(4),

87.

(Take OP, OA, OB,

as coordinate axes.)

Ex. 2. Find the coordinates of the centre and the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the ellipsoid 3x 2 -f 3y 2 -h 6z 2 = 10 by the plane
2

1\

J44

v/44

Ex. 3. If OP OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipsoid prove that the area of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane PQR is two-thirds the area of the parallel central section.

Ex. 4. Find the area of the section of the by the plane x\a +ylb+z/c = l.
.

xi
ellipsoid

2
?/

Z2

-f

H
c

=1

3\/3

Ex.
>

5.
o y&

Find the locus of the centres

o
fjo

of sections of the ellipsoid

2
).

~+T7 + -7 = l 2 1
cr c
A Ans.

y+*t

whose area

is

constant,

= mfc

Ex.
cut

X -n- +T a
?/

999
6.

Prove that tangent planes to ^r-f-fo- -^7 4-1 =0 which a fot ct Z "" ^ == ^ *n e ses of constant area Trk2 have their points o "ip
surface
.r

or?/

of contact

on th

+'- + --

22

Ex. 7. Prove that the axes of the section whose centre is P are the straight lines in which the plane of section cuts the cone containing the normals from P.
Ex.
.4n*.
8.

surface 4yz
(i)

Find the lengths of the semi-axes of the sections of the - 6xy = 8 by the 4- 5zx planes (i) x + y z - 0, (ii) 2x + y - z = 0.
2, V3".
(ii)

2, 2.

Ex.

9.

Prove that the axes of the section of

f(x, y, 2)

=o

88]

AXES OF SECTION OP PARABOLOID

lx+my+nz0 are given
J,

137

by the plane

by

m, n)

where A = be / 2 etc. Prove also that the axes are the

,

lines in

which the plane cuts the cone

Ex.

10.

Prove that the axes

of the section of the cone

arf + byt + cz 2

by

the plane lx + my +
i 2

nzp
,

are given
* 2
2

by
"2
...

_
'

*Po*i*
2

where
88.

, 2

n = P + m H---r2
, ,

+ r W** +P

cpfr* + p*

section of a paraboloid. equations to the plane and the paraboloid are

Axes of a given

If the

z 2 lx+my+nz=p, ax +by = 2z,

the centre of the section, (a,

ft,

y), is

given by

aa
I 9

~m~
fc/3

~
p

Whence

aoc2

,io9 + 2- o = 2y
to (a,
i>,

Changing the origin

87,

we

find that X,

/x,

y) and proceeding as in the direction-cosines of a semi/3,

diameter of length r of the section, satisfy the equation 7iV2 (a\ 2 + 6/x 2 ) -^ 2 (X 2 + /x2 + 2 ) = 0.
1/

The semi-diameters are therefore the

plane cuts the cone
2 2 2 2 x*(an r -pj) f y (6nV -^

lines in

which the

2 )

- ^2
^2

jt)

= 0.

Hence the lengths of the axes are given by

I 2

or

a&n

V - wV p
2

{(

+ &) n2 + am2 -f 6?2 } + p<*(l* + mz + %2 ) =

by

and the

direction cosines

138

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[OH.

vm.

Ex. 1. Find the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the paraboloid 2x 2 + y 2 = z by the plane x + 2y + z=4. Ana. 6-28, 1 -68.
Ex. 2. A plane section through the vertex of the paraboloid of revolution x 2 -{-y 2 =2az makes an angle with the axis of the surface. Prove that its principal semi-axes are a cot 6 cosec 6, a cot 0.
Ex.
3.

xy=az by
Ex.
4.

Prove that the semi-axes of the section of the paraboloid the plane lx + my + nz=Q are given by

a2

~ +^
b2

Find the locus of the centres of sections of the paraboloid =2z which are of constant area irk 2
.

Ans. a 2
Ex. 5. Given that the radius of curvature at a point P of a conic whose centre is C is equal to CD 3 /o./2, where a. and /5 are the semi-axes and CD is the semi-diameter conjugate to CP, find the radius of curvature at the origin of the conic ax 2 -fit/ 2 = 2z, lx + my + nz=Q.

A ns.

(I

+ mrf (am* 4- bl*)~

(I*

+ m* -f w 2 )"*
3*

Ex. 6. Planes are drawn through a fixed point (ex., /?, y) so that 2 their sections of the paraboloid or + fry = 2s are rectangular hyperbolas.

Prove that they touch the cone

<*-r)

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.
the equation to a conicoid, can be thrown is the equation to a into the form S + Auv 0, where S =
89.

If F

= 0,

= represent planes, the common points = sphere and u 0, v of the conicoid and planes lie on the sphere, and therefore the sections of the conicoid by the planes are circles.
circular sections of an ellipsoid. The equa tion, referred to rectangular axes, of the ellipsoid,
90.

The

can be written in the forms

89-92]

CIRCULAR SECTIONS

139

Hence the planes

cut the ellipsoid in circles of radii a, 6, c respectively. If 6 a f, only the second of these equations gives real planes, and therefore the only real central circular sections

> >

of the ellipsoid pass through the

mean

axis,

and are given

by the equations

a
Since parallel plane sections are similar and similarly situated conies, the equations

c
all

=^

give circular sections for

91.

values of X and p.

j4?&y

<tt;o

circular sections of

an

ellipsoid

which are

not parallel

lie

on a

sphere.

The equation 1

^("-o

+ ry+T, C \a* b~
2

/X 2

V*

Z2
L

\
)

+
c
/

(?V,^^H-V^^ -x)(^ \a c /\a

,

represents a conicoid which passes through the sections, and if k = 6 2 the equation becomes

a
which represents a sphere.
92.

Circular
of
90,

sections

method

we

hyperboloids. By the deduce that the real central circular

of the

sections of the hyperboloids

140

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
by

[CH.

via

are given
(i)

of the central circular sections of the hyperThe planes given by boloid of one sheet is a.

The radius

do not meet the hyperboloid of two sheets in any real They are the planes through the centre parallel points. to systems of planes which cut the surface in real circles.
Ex.
1.

Prove that the section of the hyperboloid

OL

~ - ^-^=1
O
C
.

by

the plane ~\/a 2 + 6 2 +-\/i 2 -<? 2 CL C

=A

is real if

A2

>a

+c2

Ex.

2.

Find the
8.

real

central

circular sections of the ellipsoid

Ans.

x2 -4z2 =Q.

Ex.

3.

Prove that the planes

2^+3^-5 = 0,
in circles

the hyperboloid

-#*+ 3y-H222 =75

which

2.r-3z + 7 = meet lie on the sphere

3#2 + 3#2 + 3s2 + 4r + 362-- 110 = 0.

Ex.
4.

Prove that the radius of the

circle in

a
cuts the ellipsoid

-Vo 2
22

which the plane

-VP":: c2 =A +c
^8

? /2

~+r2+-"2

== l

Ex.

5.

Find the locus of the centres of spheres

1

of constant radius

k which

#2 7/2 z 2 = cut the ellipsoid -} + j5+ -3

in a pair of circles.

(Use

91.)

Chords of the ellipse o?2/a 2 -i-y 2/6 2 =l, e=0, are drawn so as to make equal angles with its axes, and on them as diameters circles are described whose planes are parallel to OZ. Prove that these 2 = 2a2 62 circles generate the ellipsoid 26V+2ay + (a
Ex.
6.

+&V

93.

Circular

sections

of any

central

conicoid.

An

equation of the form

f(x, y, z)

=a

92,93]

SECTIONS OF CENTRAL CONICOIDS

It

141

represents a central conicoid.

{(w /Vr^
it 2/>

may

be written

v\ z)

\ A

Hence

if

f(x, y, z)

represents a pair of planes, these planes cut the conicoid in For a pair of planes circles.

a-A,
h,

h,

= 0.

6-X,
f>

9>

c-X

It can be shown This equation gives three values of X. that these are always real, and that only the mean value
1 gives real planes.

Ex.

1,

Find the

real central circular sections of the conicoid

3#2 -f-V

The equation may be written

If 3^4- 5?/ 2 -h32 2 + 2o- \(.r? 4- y 2 4- z2 ) = represents a pair of planes, A 3 -11 A 2 + 38 A -40=0, or A = 2, 4, or 5. For these values of A the

equation to the planes becomes

The

real circular sections correspond therefore to

A = 4 and have

equations

x -z+y=0,
Find the equations
2

*-*-y=0.

Ex.

2.

to the real central circular sections

of the conicoids,
(i) 5?/
(ii)
(iii)

e^2 4- 1 3?/2 + 6^2 -

Ans.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(.r-2y-

(x+
2(^7 -f- zf

10?/(o;

+ ^) 4- 9y2 = 0.
to the circular sections of the conicoid

Ex.

3.

Find the equations

T
Ans.
1

II

7,

h*f4--=A, CLOC
144, 145.

See the author's Coordinate Geometry of Three Dimensions,

142

COORDINATE GEOMETKY
4.

[CH.

vnt

Ex.

Find the conditions that the equations

should determine a circle. The equation /(.r, y> z) - X(^ +y 2 -f z2) = is to represent two planes, one of which is the given plane. Therefore e

,y,*)-A(o;2+^

+ *2

)^
V.

&

7/1

71 J

Whence, comparing
2 irc 2 4- cm x __

coefficients of y*,

ZJT, ,ry,

we obtain
2

- 2///w

_ cP + an* - Zgnl __ am ~ ""

-f

2klm

(We assume here that ^, wi, n are all different from zero. If Z = 0, the conditions become (A = a), gr = A=0, (c-a)m 2 ~2/??m-f(6-a)?i2 =0.)
94.

Circular sections of the paraboloids. = 2z may be written in the forms,

The equation

aa;

+ 67/ - (0-x + 0-t/ + O-^ + 2z) = 0.

2

Hence if a> &>0, x\a which meet the paraboloid

circular sections are given

represents real planes in circles, and the systems of

fy

= bz*

by
x\Ja
b

x\Jab + z\/b = X,
If,

^\/6

/>t.

however, a or 6

is
2

negative, the only real planes are

those given

by ax

+ by

= Q.

The equation

is

the limiting form of

tends to zero, and therefore the sphere containing the circular sections is in this case of infinite radius, and the
as
fc

circular sections are circles of infinite radius,

lines.

They
1.

straight are the straight lines in which the plane z =

(

i.e.

cuts the surface,

Ex.
Ans.

79).

Find the

circular sections of the paraboloid

Ex. 2. Find the radius of the circle in which the plane cuts the paraboloid 53^2 + 4y 2 Qz. An*, r*

894,95l
95.

UMBILICS
The

143

centres of a series of parallel plane sections of a conicoid lie upon a diameter of the conicoid

Umbilics.

and the tangent plane

at an extremity of the diameter is

sections. If, therefore, P and P' (fig. 40) parallel to the plane are the extremities of the diameter which passes through

the centres of a system of circular sections of an ellipsoid, the tangent planes at P and P' are the limiting positions of the cutting planes, and P and P' may be regarded as circular section of zero circular sections of zero radius.

FIG. 40.

radius

is

called

an

umbilic.

It is evident

from the form

of the hyperboloid of one sheet that the smallest closed section is the principal elliptic section and that the surface

has therefore no real umbilics.

To find
If P,
is
(

the umbilics of the ellipsoid -o * L

x2

+ T^ + -o = l. C b*
L

v2

z2

j/,

is

an umbilic, the diametral plane of OP

Therefore the equations

a central circular section.

represent the same plane.

2

Hence

x/a

-6 2
M2

and therefore

These give the coordinates of the four umbilics.

144

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of the hyperboloid of

|CH. vin.

The umbilics

two sheets

^~P~^ =1
are real and given

by

JJx. 1.

Prove that the umbilics of the

ellipsoid lie on the sphere

Ex. 2. Prove that the perpendicular distance from the centre to the tangent plane at an umbilic of the ellipsoid is ac/b.
Ex.
are
3.
2

Prove that the central circular sections of the conicoid

the umbilics

(a-6)#

+ ay 2 + (a-f 6)^ = 1 are at right angles and that J * + & y =0, z= VzrT^TM' given by *= *2a(a + o) *2a(a-6)
?;

Ex.

4.

Prove that the umbilics of the conicoid -~-r +

a-\-b

v2

~H a

-a
2
.j

=1

are the extremities of the equal conjugate diameters of the ellipse

y=0, a + 6 + a-6 = 1.
17

-^ -^

.r2

22

Ex.

5.

Prove that the umbilics of the paraboloid

*

^2

^2

-r,-f T^

= 2*

are

Ex. 6. Deduce the coordinates of the umbilics of the from the result of Ex. 4, 92.

ellipsoid

*
1.

Examples V.
;

Prove that

if

A lf

fa, Vi

A2

fa, v 2 are the direction-cosines of the

axes of any plane section of the ellipsoid

~+^+~ = i

- a 2)
2.

2 J c^a - 6 )

If At,

A2 A 3
,

S n S 2 , S3 are the areas of the sections of the

T
1>
It

ellipsoids -^ d

+ O Ca 0+
A,
2
.

""~
f

~"2+/52"*"~2 Ow *j

=1
2 /^a.

three conjugate diametral

planes of the former,

V V

A/ A 8 _
,

^~^V^

: ,

aW

jffl

"^

cV'

3.

If A,,

A2 A 3
,

are the areas of the sections of the ellipsoid

951

EXAMPLES
,

V.

145

by the diametral planes of three diameters of lengths rly r2 r3

,

mutually perpendicular semi-

2 aO

b*

!_>

'

c*

>

4.

Through a given point

(ex.,

/3,

y) planes are /*

drawn
nji
frit

parallel to

three conjugate diametral planes of the ellipsoid --f To4--o=l. Shew * r jo O C Q, that the sum of the ratios of the areas of the sections by these planes
to the areas of the parallel diametral planes
5.
is

a 2 B2

<j-~T~2
least area

Prove that the areas of the sections of greatest and

CL

of

the ellipsoid

^~j^^" G v~^ O
y

which pass through the fixed

line

7ra c

where rly r2 are the axes

of the section

by

the plane
6.

^+^+- = a b
c

0.

Prove that the systems of circular sections of the cone

are given

also give circulai by x^a sections of the cone (a-f-^^-f-^-f /x)y 2 -h(c-f /x)22 =0.

+ by* + 2 =0, a >b>c, bz\jb c = \, and that these

cut?
<?2

7. Any tangent plane to a cone cuts the cyclic planes in lines equally inclined to the generator of contact.

of tangent planes to the cone ax*+ by*+cz'2 =0 cuts the cyclic planes x\Ja-b z\fb-c=Q in lines which lie upon a right circular cone whose axis is at right angles to the plane of contact.
8.

Any pair

9.

The plane --hf -f- = l a b c

1

cuts a series of central conicoids whose

principal planes are the coordinate planes in rectangular hyperbolas. Shew that the pole of the plane with respect to the conicoids lies on a cone whose section by the given plane is a circle.

OP, OQ, OR are conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid, axes and S is the foot of the perpendicular from O to the plane PQR. Shew that the cone whose vertex is S and base is the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral plane parallel to the plane PQR has constant volume 7ra6c/3\/3.
10.
a, 6,
Cj

11. If two cones with the same vertex have the same systems of circular sections, their common tangent planes touch them along per-

pendicular generators.
12.

The normals
ac
,

to the ellipsoid

?_

a2

+^ +
6*

=l
c2

at

all

points of a

central circular section are parallel to a plane that

cos"" 1 -;
,

makes an angle

= with the

section.

B a,

146
13.
fy,

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

|CH.

via

Tf r n r are the axes of a central section of an ellipsoid, and ? the angles between the section and the circular sections, #2 sin

.sm02 =
and
least axes of the ellipsoid.

where a and
14.

c are the greatest

fixed point which is the pole of a circular section of x* ?/ 2 z 2 the hyperboloid -a + fjj ~2 = 1 are drawn planes cutting the surface o a c

Through a

in rectangular hyperbolas.
lie

Shew

that the centres of these hyperbolas

is

on a hxed

circle

whose plane

parallel to

one system of circular

sections.
15.

The

locus of the centres of sections of the cone a

is

such that the sura of the squares of their axes the conicoid
c

constant,

(=

2
),

is

a]' 1

\a
x*

16.

The area

of a central section of the ellipsoid

z* is

2+1^+-$^

constant.

Shew

that the axes of the section

lie

on the cone

" a*-p*f< 4
a
V

V-

where p is the distance from the centre of a tangent plane any of the planes of section.

parallel to

17. Prove that the tangents at the vertices to the parabolic sections 2 2 l are parallel to generators of the cone of the conicoid oo;2 4-<?

+6/

18.

Prove that the normals to central sections of the

**
a*

ellipsoid

y*
2
ft

#"
c
2

'

which are of given eccentricity

e, lie

on the cone

Find the locus of the centres of sections of eccentricity

19.

e.

Prove that the normal at any point P of an

of the ellipsoid.

ellipsoid is
yfi
/2

an axis
2

of

some plane section

is

If the ellipsoid

is

-2
is

and P

the point

(a/,

y, z'\ shew that the length of the axis

where
at P.

is

the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane

CH. vin.J
20.
2

EXAMPLES

V.

147

The normal section of an enveloping cylinder of the ellipsoid 2 2 2 2 Prove that the plane of a?/a +y /b +z*/c =] has a given area irk contact of the cylinder and ellipsoid touches the cone
.

999
_.+
y
z
i

=Q

21.

Prove that the locus of the

foci of parabolic sections of the

paraboloid

2 aj?+by =2z is ab (20 - ax2 - by 2 ) (ax2 + by2 ) = a2x* + b2y 2

Prove that the equation and normal at an umbilic plane

22.

to a conicoid referred to the tangent as .ty-plane and 2- axis is

a(x

+y2 ) + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2wz = 0.

moves
Z

If a variable sphere be described to touch a given conicoid at an

umbilic, it meets the conicoid in a circle whose plane to itself as the radius of the sphere varies.
7
77

parallel

099
l

23.

If

== through the centre of the ellipsoid -2 + /2 + -2

Per "

pendicular is drawn to any central section and lengths equal to the axes of the section are marked off along the perpendicular, the locus of their extremities is given by

where
24.

r2

= x2 +y2 + z2

(The locus

is

the Wave Surface.)

Prove that the asymptotes of sections of the conicoid

on the surface

which pass through the

line

#=A,

y=0

lie

*;=0,

If the section of the cone whose vertex is P, (a, /5, y) and base ax 2 +by 2 =l, by the #^0 is a circle, then P lies on the plane conic ,y=0, cr#2 foe 2 = l, ana the section of the cone by the plane
25.

(a
Is

also a circle.

IX.

CHAPTER
GENERATING
96. 1

IX.

LINES.

Ruled surfaces. In cones and cylinders we have examples of surfaces which are generated by a moving Such surfaces are called ruled surfaces. We straight line. shall now prove that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the
hyperbolic paraboloid are ruled surfaces.
2

The equation

-g CL

+ rj

y2

02

C 2~^>

which represents a hyper-

boloid of one sheet,

may

be written,

Whence

it

appears that the hyperboloid

is

the locus of the

straight lines

whose equations are

a
a
where X and
ft

a
b)

(1) ^ '

+c=

/A

l-; bj

......... (2) v '

It is obviously are variable parameters. impossible to assign values to X and p. so that the equations Hence the (1) become identical with the equations (2).

equations give two distinct systems of

lines,

no member of

one coinciding with any member of the other. As X assumes in turn all real values the line given by the equations (1) moves so as to completely generate the hyperboloid. Similarly, the line given by the equations (2) moves, as jm varies, so as to generate the hyperboloid. The hyperboloid of one sheet is therefore a ruled surface and
1

See Appendix, p.

iv.

96]

GENERATING LINES

149

can be generated in two ways by the motion of a straight

line.

(See

fig.

41.)

In like manner the equation

a2
which represents a hyperbolic paraboloid, may be written

FIG. 41.

evident that the paraboloid either of the variable lines given by

it is

Whence

is

the locus ot

a x a

T"

y_z ^^
b

X
"~

a
os

.y-

2/_ 9x ft
o

'

y_z Y
o

">

yu

y_ 9^ TT ^M
b

The hyperbolic paraboloid

is

therefore a ruled surface

150

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
in

[CH.

ix

and can be generated

straight
line.

(See

fig.

two ways by the motion of a The generating lines are 42.)

CL

parallel to

one of the fixed planes

-^ =
(j

FIG. 42

Ex.

1.

CP,

CQ are any

conjugate diameters of the ellipse

C'P', C'Q' are the conjugate diameters of the ellipse 6= -c, drawn in the same directions as and CQ.

x2

CP

2^
Cv

Prove that the

/^

2?/
-f

hyperboloid

-^ O

-z =1 ^
C

is

generated by either PQ' or P'Q.

Ex, 2. A point, " m," on the parabola y = 0, ex2 = 2a 22, is (2am, 0, 2cm2 ), u 2 2 2 and a ?i," on the parabola ,r=6, cy = -2b z, is (0, 26/i, -2cn ). point, Find the locus of the lines joining the points for which, (i) W=TZ, (ii) m= -n.
Ans.

a2

-W

Section of a ruled surface by the tangent plane at a point. Since a hyperboloid of one sheet or a hyperbolic paraboloid is generated completely by each of two systems
97.

of straight lines, there pass through any point P, (fig. 43), of the surface, two generating lines, one from each system. Each of these meets the surface at P in, at least, two

coincident points, and therefore the lines

lie

in the tangent

96,97]

SECTION OF CONICOID BY TANGENT PLANE

P.

161

plane at

The tangent plane at P is therefore the plane the generators which pass through P. But any through plane section of the surface is a conic, and therefore the
section of the surface

by the tangent plane at P is the conic composed of the two generating lines through P. It follows that if a straight line AB lies wholly on the conicoid it must belong to one of the systems of generating For AB meets any generating line PQ in some point lines. But P, and AB and PQ both lie in the tangent plane at P.

Fio. 43.

the section of the surface

sists of

by the tangent plane

P,

at

P con-

the two generators through

of the generators.

and therefore AB

must be one

Again any plane through a generating line is the tangent plane at some point of the generating line. For the locus of points common to the surface and plane is a conic, and the generating line is obviously part of the locus. The locus must therefore consist of two straight lines, or the plane must pass through the given generating line and a second generating line which meets it. It is therefore the
tangent plane at the point of intersection. The intersection of a cone or cylinder with a tangent
plane consists of two coincident generators. The ruled conicoids can therefore be divided into two classes according

152

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. ix,

If the generators are distinct the tangent planes at different points of a given generator If the generators are coincident, are different, (see fig. 43).

as the generators in which are distinct or coincident.

any tangent plane meets them

the same plane touches tba surface at

generator.

all

points of a given

three points of a straight line lie the straight line lies wholly on the conicoid.
98.

//

on a conicoid

any point on the line through (a, ft, y), whose direction-ratios are I, m, n, are oc-f Ir, /3+mr, y+nr. The condition that this point should lie on the conicoid
of

The coordinates

be written, since F(x> y, z) second degree, in the form

F(x

y, 0)

may

is

of the

If

three
is

equation
values of
conicoid.

points of the line lie on the conicoid, this satisfied by three values of r, and therefore

A = B = C = 0.
r,

The equation is and every point

therefore satisfied
of

by

all

the

line

lies

on the

99. To find the conditions that a given straight line should be a generator of a given conicoid. Let the equations to the conicoid and line be

x
I

oc_y
line,

/__

n
j3+mr, y+nr),
lies

The point on the the conicoid if

r2

(oi+lr,

on

^ + 6m +
2

cri*)

+ 2r(aod + b/3m + cyri) + a<x +&/3 +cy2 -l==0.

2 2

If this equation is

an

the conicoid, and is a required conditions are therefore

identity, the line lies wholly on generator of the conicoid. The

+cy* =1,
al*

..................... (1)

0; ..................... (2)

+bm*

+cri*

=0 ...................... (3)

97-99]

THE GENERATORS THROUGH A POINT

163

Equation (1) is the condition that (a, /3, y) should lie on the surface equation (2) shews that a generating line must lie in the tangent plane at any point (oc, /3, y) on and from (3) it follows that the parallels through the it
;
;

centre to the generating lines generate the asymptotic cone

(1), (2), (3) shew that through any a central conicoid two straight lines can point (oc, /3, y) of be drawn to lie wholly on the conicoid, the direction-ratios

The three equations

of these lines being given

by equations

(2)

and

(3).

By
;

Lagrange's identity,
2

we have
2 (acd + &/5m) = ab(oLm

(al

+ 6m2 )(aoc + fy82 )

2

/3Z)

whence, by

(1), (2), (3),

The values
have opposite

of

signs,

the quantities a, 6, c only ruled central conicoid

n are therefore real only if ab and c which can only be the case if two of are positive and one is negative. The
:

therefore the hyperboloid of one sheet. From equations (2) and (4) we deduce the direction-ratios of the generators through (oc, /3, y),
is
I

m
c

Similarly, the conditions that the line

oi_y ~~
I

__z ~~

should be a generator of the paraboloid axz + by* = 2z are,

aa2 +&

= 2y,

..................... (1)

aod+bftm-n^O ....................... (2)

....................... (3)

only if Equation (3) is satisfied by real values of I a and b have opposite signs. The only ruled paraboloid
:

164
is

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. ix.

therefore the hyperbolic paraboloid. The direction-ratios of the generating lines through (ex, /3, y) are given by
I

m
I

II

-I
in

The following examples should be solved

factorising the equation to the surface as in conditions in 99.

96, (ii)

two ways, (i) by by means of the

Ex.
/**2

1.
*2

Find the equations to the generating

pass through the points

lines of the hyperboloid

|<2

~+%---J==l which
A

(2, 3,

-4),

(2,

-1,

).

#-

""

-2

'

~~^-T

Ex.

2.

Find the equations to the generating lines of the hyperboloid = Q which pass through the point ( - 1, 0, 3).

Ex. 3. Find the equations to the generators of the hyperboloid y 2 z2 2"Hb~" ^2 I which pass through the point (a cos ex., 6 sin a, 0).

An

a sin OL

b cos

a.

Ex. 4. Find the equations to the generating lines of the paraboloid = (x+y+z)(2jc-\-y-z) 6z which pass through the point (1, 1, 1).

THE SYSTEMS OF GENERATING

100.

LINES.

We

shall call the

systems of generating lines of the

hyperboloid of one sheet which are given by the equations

a a

a
a
c

(1) v 7

/UL

the X-system and /x-system, respectively.

99-102]

THE SYSTEMS OF GENERATORS

two generators of the same system
(1)
intersect.

155

101.

No

For the equations

and
b/'

a
a
c~~~

X
'

'

c~~

'

'

wliich are obviously inconsistent.

Otherwise,
//,-system
if P and Q are any points on any generator of the and the generators of the A-systeni through P and Q

meets the hyperboloid in the sides intersect at R, then the plane of a triangle. This is impossible, since no plane section of a conicoid is of higher degree than the second.

PQR

102.

Any

generator of the \-system intersects

any

gene-

rator of the ^-system. From the equations (1) and

(2),

a
X

~a
fJL

c
~~

b
~~
X/UL

b
1

Whence, adding and subtracting numerators and denominators,

#_
a
The equations a

X + /z
1

y
b

\fji

5 ==
c

^
1

/^

+ X//'

I+X/UL'

These determine the point of intersection.

both reduce to
(5)

But equation (5) represents the tangent k=*l/k'=\ffi. at the point of intersection of the generators. Hence plane the plane through two intersecting generators is the tangent
if

plane at their common point. (Cf. 97.) If, in equation (3X k is given, the equation represents

156

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. ix.

a given plane through the generator.

reduces
to equation (5) a generating line through
if is

= X/&. /z

But the equation Hence any plane

a tangent plane.

Ex. Discuss the intersection of the A-generator through P with the /^-generator through P' when P and P' are the extremities of a diameter of the principal elliptic section.

To find the locus of intersection of perpendicular generators. the points of The direction-cosines of the X- and /x-generators are
103.

Perpendicular generators.

given by, (42),

I/a

__m/b__ nfc ^

I/

a __m/6 _ ~

nfc
at right

The condition that the generators should be

angles
is

which may be written

a2 (X+/z) 2 +6 2 (l-X/z) 2

4^
1

and shews that their point of intersection

1

+ X/X

'

+ X//

'

1+X/X

lies

on the director sphere

locus

The

is

therefore the curve of intersection of the

hyperboloid and the director sphere. Or if PQ, PR are perpendicular generators and PN is normal at P 102 the planes PQR, PNQ, PNR are mutually perpendicular by
;

tangent planes, and therefore

lies

on the director sphere.

The projections of the generators of a hyperboloid on a principal plane are tangents to the section of the hyperboloid by the principal plane. The projections of the X- and /x-generators on the plane
104.

XOY

are given

by

102-104]

THE SYSTEMS OF GENERATORS

167

which may be written

Whence

the envelope of the projections

2

is

the ellipse

3=0,

^=i-K 6 a
2
2

Similarly, the projections on the planes YOZ,

ZOX

touch
if

the corresponding principal sections. The above equations to the projections are identical

Hence equal values of the parameters give two generators which project into the same tangent to the = 0, x2/a? + y 2/b 2 =l. The point of intersection, P, ellipse 2 of the generators given by X = /x = is, by 102,
/x.

A=

i.e. is

(a cos

oc,

6 sin a, 0),

where

= tan ( T ""

*s

there-

fore

the

point on
is

eccentric angle

principal elliptic section whose and the generators project into the a,

the

tangent

z = 0,

x y -cosoc+fsinoc=l, C/ Cv

(fig. 44).

103, the direction-cosines of the X-generator are 2 proportional to 1

From

2X

or, since

X = tan K-

/7T

a\
<r
),

a sin a,
l

o cos a,

c.

Therefore the equations

to the X-generator through P are

_
a
sin oc

6sinoc _ z
b cos oc
c

Similarly, the equations to the //-generator are

a sin a

~"

6 cos

~~c"
,

Ex. Prove that the generators given by A = i*>= Ijt are parallel, and that they meet the principal elliptic section in the extremities of
a diameter.
1

See Appendix,

p. iv.

158

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Let P and Q,
(fig. 44),

TCH. ix.

105.

be the points on the principal

elliptic section

the

whose eccentric angles are a and /3. Then X-generator through P intersects the /x-generator

through

at the point, R,
/

X + /x
/7T

,1

X/x

/x\

where

GL\

X-tan^-^y
sm

and

M = tan (4

/7T

"" /3\

2 /'

Whence the

coordinates of R are

2
>

c tan

^ /3-a
.,

Fio. 44.

Now

the coordinates of any point on the hyperboloid

can be expressed in the form

a cos
therefore
if

sec 0,

b sin 6 sec 0,
"
0, 0,"

tan

<f> ;

is

the point
.

0=^^
or
0+<f>

/3+oc

and

^ = ^2^,
^

/3-ot

= /3>

0-^ = a.

Similarly, it may be shewn that the /x-generator through P intersects the X-generator through Q at the point "#, <f>" Suppose now that P remains fixed while Q varies, so that
ix is

constant and

j8

variable.

R then moves along a fixed

1051

EXAMPLES ON THE HYPERBOLOID

159

generator of the X-system, and in any position $ Hence for points on a generator of the A~system
constant.

= (x.
$
is

Similarly,

by supposing Q

to remain fixed

and

P to vary, we can prove that for points on a given generator is constant. of the /z-sy stem 6 +
Ex.
1.

If

is

"
0,

<,"

(fig. 44),

shew that the equations

<

to

PQ

are

0=0, 66 cos Q +f sin0 = cos </>, and deduce that \J

0-<=a, 6+ = /3.
</>"

Ex.

2.

The equations
:

to the generating lines through " #,

(/>

are

#-acos 08ec(ft__y-sin 6 sec ~~

Ex. 3. If (a cos generating line
sec
(/>,
,

~~

_z

- c tan

<f>

6 sin
.

sec <, c tan <) is a point

,
/

on the

+ _ X (l+*\ f-=l(i-*Y a c \ bJ a c A\ 6/
ft

prove that tan

(h 1 ^=-

A
^-,

and hence shew that for points of a given

is

generator of the A-system #-</>

constant.

Ex.

4.

Prove that the equations

determine a hyperboloid of one sheet, that # a given generator of one system, and that on a given generator of the other system.
/

is
<

is

constant for points on constant for points

y*

4-?/2

(The equation

to the surface is

--^-

= 1.

\
)

Ex. 5. Find the locus of R if P and Q are the extremities of conjugate diameters of the principal elliptic section.

We
Ex. Ex.

have #-</>=a, #+<

c.

of the planes z
6. 7.

= a.^,

whence

<=
.

-,

and R

lies in

one

Prove also that

If

RP 2 + RQ 2 =a 2 +6 2 +2c 2

and A' are the extremities of the major axis of the and any generator meets two generators of the same system through A and A' respectively in P and P', prove
principal elliptic section,

thatAP.A'P'^+c2

Ex. 8. Prove also that the planes APP', A'PP' cut either of the real central circular sections in perpendicular lines. Ex.
lateral
9.

generators whose vertices are " 6r

If four

of the hyperboloid
,

form a skew quadriprove that

<f>r"

r= 1,

2, 3, 4,

160

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
10.

[CH.

IX

Ex.

Interpret the equation

a point on the hyperboloid. [The equation represents the pair of planes through the origin and the generators that intersect at (#', y' 9 z').]

where

P, (x

y,

z') is

Ex. 11. Prove that the generators through any point P on a hyperboloid are parallel to the asymptotes of the section of the hyperboloid by any plane which is parallel to the tangent plane at P.

Ex.
is

12.

Prove that the angle between the generators through P

given by

- p(,*-a*the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane P from the centre.

at

where p P and

is

r is the distance of

Ex. 13. All parallelepipeds which have six of their edges along generators of a given hyperboloid have the same volume. If PQRS is one face of the parallelepiped and P, P' Q, Q' R, R' S, S' are opposite corners, we may have the edges PS, RP', S'R' along generators of one system and the edges SR, P'S', R'P along generators of the other system. The tangent planes at S and S' are therefore PSR, P'S'R', and are parallel, and therefore SS' is a diameter. Let P, S, R be (xl9 y 19 z^ Similarly, PP' and RR' are diameters. Then the volume of the parallelepiped is s 2 ), (^a* #3> ^3)(^2* #2 twelve times the volume of the tetrahedron OPSR, (O is the centre).
;
;

Denoting

it

by V, we have
i

V-2

-2<y

f
/j/

%
*3

^if.2

a2

2%, a
2

2^|^ a2

a
But
;

^\^l 2

'5'

*1 = &\ + F F~'?~ 1>

,yl
-I

^*^2_

"a*""

i 1

'

ana, since R and plane at R,

are on the tangent plane at P, and

S on the

tangent

Therefore

^T( - 4* = 4a6c.

106]

THE GENERATORS OF THE PARABOLOID

Q

161

and Q' which are not on Ex. 14. Find the locus of the corners the given hyperboloid. is the point Since QS and PR bisect one another,

and hence

lies

on the hyperboloid

106.

The systems of generators of the hyperbolic

paraboloid.

We

shall

now
2
i/

state

the

results

for

the

hyperbolic paraboloid -g

ih = 22 corresponding to those

which we have proved for the hyperboloid. is left as an exercise for the student. The point of intersection of the generators

Their proof

a
is

+ b -2 / 'a - b = r
if

...................... (2) v '

given by

The

direction-cosines of the generators are given

by

and hence the locus of the points of intersection of perpendicular generators and the plane
is

the curve of intersection of the surface

The plane
a

passes through the generator (I) and is tangent plane at the point of intersection of that generator and the generator of the /^-system given by /z = X/&.
projections of the generators on the planes YOZ, envelope the principal sections whose equations are

The

ZOX

BO.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Ten.

ix

2 point on the second parabola is (2am, 0, 2m ), and if X = ^c = m, the generators of the X- and /z-systems corresponding to these values project into the tangent to the

Any

parabola at

k<

m."
is

Any

point on the surface

given by

and the equations

to the generators

through

"
r,

"

are

a
Ex,
1,
i8

or sin 9
6

-A

0-

r2
-5-

cos 20

Shew

that the angle between the generating lines through

(#1 y> z )

given by

Ex.

2.

Prove that the equations

determine a hyperbolic paraboloid, and that the angle between the " generators through "# </> is given by
, /

{(b

^2 ) 2

+a 4 cos + 2a 2 (& 2 + c 2 )cos 2 gcosh2^^

4
(9

3.

Prove that the equations

2,r

= ae**, y = be* cosh

6,

= ce* sinh
is
is

determine a hyperbolic paraboloid, and that 6 + <f> points of a given generator of one system, and #-</> given generator ot the other.

constant for constant for a

Ex. 4. Planes are drawn through the origin, O, and the generators 2 through any point P of the paraboloid given by z*-y =az. Prove 1 that the angle between them is tan"" where r is the length of OP.
,

ct

Ex.

5.

Find the locus

of the perpendiculars

from the vertex of

the paraboloid -g

^ = 20 to the generators of one system.

Ex. 6. The points of intersection of generators of xy~az which are inclined at a constant angle a lie on the curve of intersection of the
paraboloid and the hyperboloid

106-109]

CONICOID

THEOUGH THEEE GIVEN LINES

lines.

163

Conicoids through three given equation to a conicoid,

107.

The general

contains nine constants, viz., the ratios of any nine of the ten coefficients a,b, c, ... to the tenth. Hence, since these are determined by nine equations involving them, a conicoid can be found to pass through nine given points. But we have proved that if three points of a straight line lie

on a given conicoid, the

line is a generator of the conicoid. Therefore a conicoid can be found to pass through any

three given non-intersecting lines.

108.

The genial equation

tt

to a conicoid through the

is

two

given lines

= 0?\

tt'

= =

t;'f

\uu' + fjiuv' + wu' + pvv' = 0,

and v = 0, or since this equation is satisfied when ^ = and t/ 0, and contains three disposable when u' =

constants, viz. the ratios of X, n, v to

p.

109.

To find

the

equation

to the

conicoid through three

given

non-intersecting Lines.

If the three lines are not parallel to the same plane, planes drawn through each line parallel to the other two

form a parallelepiped,

(fig.

45).

If

the centre of the

164

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. ix,

parallelepiped is taken as origin, and the axes are parallel to the edges, the equations to the given lines are of the

form,
(1)
7/

= 6, 3 = -c;

(2) s

= c, z = ~&;

(3)

x = a, y = -6,
a

The general equation to 2a, 26, 2c are the edges. conicoid through the lines (1) and (2) is

where

Where # = a, y =
and
if

6 meets the surface

we have
must be

x = a,

T/

6 is a generator, this equation

z.

satisfied for all values of

Therefore
,

b
,

= c(
is

rt

ci

2a6

->

and the equation to the surface

ayz + bzx + cxy + oibc = 0.

Flo.

46.

The origin evidently

which pass through
central surface,
(Of.
it,

bisects all chords of the surface

and therefore the surface

is

and

is

therefore a hyperboloid of one sheet.

47, Ex. 1.)

line

If the three lines are parallel to the same plane, let any which meets them be taken as z-axis. If the lines are
,
,

A1 B1 A 2 B 2

A3 B3

(fig.

46),

and the 0-axis meets them

in

109-111]
,
,

LINES

WHICH MEET FOUR GIVEN LINES

165

Cp C 2 C 3 take A^ as cc-axis and the parallel to A 2 B 2 through C t as y-axis. Then the equations may be written
(1)
2/

= 0,

= 0;

(2)

# = 0, s = a;

(3)

lx+my = 0,

z = (3.
(3) is

The equation

to a conicoid through the lines (2)

and

If

y = 0,

is

a generator, the equation

must

l\x*-x(/jL/3+vloi)+pOil3 be satisfied for all values of x, and therefore

and hence the equation to the surface

z{lx(oi
/3)

is

fimy }

+ oi(3my = 0.

Since the terms of second degree are the product of linear factors, the equation represents a hyperooiic paraboloid.
110.
If A, B,

The straight

lines

which meet four given

lines

number

are three given non-intersecting lines, an infinite of straight lines can be drawn to meet A, B, and C.

For a conicoid can be drawn through A, B, C, and A, B, C are generators of one system, say the X-system, and hence all the generators of the //-system will intersect A, B, and C.

which does not meet A, B, and C, meets the conicoid in general in two points P and Q, and the generators of the //-system through P and Q are the only lines which intersect the four given lines A, B, C, D. If,
fourth
line, D,

however, D

and

C, it

a generator of the conicoid through A, B, belongs to the X-system, and therefore all the
is

generators of the //-system meet

111.

all

the four
be

lines.

If three straight lines can

drawn

to

given non-intersecting lines

generators of a conicoid.

A, B, C, D,

then A,

meet four B, C, D are

If the three lines are P, Q, R, each meets the conicoid through A, B, C in three points, and is therefore a generator.

Hence D meets the conicoid of intersection of D and P,

generator.

in three points, viz. the points

Q, R;

and therefore D

is

166

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
;

[CH. ix.

C, C' are points on X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ. Ex. 1. A, A' ; B, B' Prove that BC', CA', AB' are generators of one system, and that
of a hyperboloid. B'C, C'A, A'B are generators of the other system, Ex. 2. A, A' ; B, B' C, C' are pairs of opposite vertices of a skew drawn on a hyperboloid. Prove tnat A A', BB', CC' are
;

hexagon

concurrent.

Ex. 3. The altitudes of a tetrahedron are generators of a hyperboloid of one sheet. Let A, B, C, D be the vertices. Then the planes through DA, perpendicular to the plane DBC, through DB, perpendicular to the plane DCA, and through DC, perpendicular to the plane DAB, pass through one line, ( 45, Ex. 6, or 44, Ex. 22). That line is therefore coplanar with the altitudes from A, B, C, and it meets the altitude from D in D, and therefore it meets all the four altitudes. The corresponding lines through A, B, C also meet all the four altitudes, which are therefore generators of a hyperboloid.
Ex. 4. Prove that the perpendiculars to the faces of the tetrahedron through their orthocentres are generators of the opposite system. Ex. 5. Prove that the lines joining A, B, C, D to the centres of the circles inscribed in the triangles BCD, CDA, DAB, ABC are generators of a hyperboloid.

The equation to a hyperboloid when two seating generators are coordinate axes. If two
112.

inter*
inter-

secting generators are taken as #-axis equation to the surface must be satisfied

and

7/-axis,

the

when y = z = 0,
Suppose that

by

all

values of x

and by
it is

all

values of y

when z = x = 0.

ax 2 + by 2 + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz = 0.

Then we must have

a = u = 0, and & = v = 0,

and therefore the equation takes the form

Suppose now that the
line joining the point of intersection

of the generators to the centre is taken as 2-axis. Then, since the generators through opposite ends of a diameter

are

parallel,

the

lines

2/

= 0,

= 2y;
0, y).
f

# = 0, z = 2y

are

generators, the centre being (0,

Whence

/=# = 0, y=-w/c
and the equation reduces to
cz2

+ 2hxy + 2wz

0.

112,113]

PROPERTIES OF

A GENERATOR

167

Ex. 1. Prove that (y + mz)(z + njc)-{-kz = Q represents a paraboloid which passes through OX and OY. Ex. 2. The generators through a variable point P of a hyperboloid meet the generators through fixed point O in Q and R. If OQ: OR
,

constant, find the locus of P. and OR as x- and y-axes, and the line joining Take centre as z-axis. The equation to the hyperboloid is
is

OQ

to the

It

may be

written

+ %hxy + 2 wz = 0. = 0, z(cz + 2w) + 2/ij;y

cz~

and hence the systems

z

of generating lines are given

by

= 2A/xy,

[JL(CZ -f

%w) -f # = 0.

= belongs to the X-system and corresponds to A 0; OY belongs to the /z-system and corresponds to /z=0. If P is (. ??, C), the generators through P correspond to

OX

Where a
therefore

generator of the /x-system meets

OX,

2wA Similarly, and P therefore lies on the plane x ky.

OR = -

OQ = - 2w/x, = - w/hr).
= - wf/h^

[OQ and OR may

plane

be found more easily by considering that the

at

PQR is the tangent plane hr)X -f h^y + (c+ w)z -f M= 0.]

Ex.
3.

P whose equation
(ii)

(see

134)

is

Find the locus

If
2

of
2

if (i)

OQ OR = F,
P
lies

on a cone whose vertex Ex. 4. constant, OQ~ 4-OR~ is O and whose section by a plane parallel to OXY is an ellipse whose equal conjugate diameters are parallel to OX and OY.
is

that the projections of the generators of one system on the tangent plane at any point envelope a conic. Take the generators in the given tangent plane as OX and OY, and the normal at O as OZ. The plane z = \y is a tangent plane, (97), and the projection on OXY of the second generator in which it meets the surface has equations

Ex.

5.

Shew

of a hyperboloid

Whence

the envelope of the projections

2

is

the conic

= 0,

(gx +fy + w)

= %chxy,

Properties of a given generating line. If we have a system of rectangular axes in which the cc-axis is a generator and the 0-axis is the normal at the origin,
*113.
the equation to the hyperboloid
is

of the form,

by
or

+ cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx + ZJixy + 2wz = 0,

168

COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
of generating lines are given

[CH. ix.

The systems

by

The #-axis belongs

fjL

= 0. The

to the //-system generator of the A-system

'

and corresponds to through the point

(a, 0, 0) is

given by

~~

The tangent plane

generator and OX.
or

at (a, 0, 0)

is

Its equation is
Jioiy

the plane through this therefore \y = z,

+ z (go. + w) = 0.
0,

Let

P, (oc,

0,

0),

P', (a',

0)

Then the tangent planes

at P

and

be points on the #-axis. P' are at right angles if

*
Therefore
constant for

lf

-r

if

is

the point

(->T~^>

>

CP-CP'
)'

is

all

through OX. C OX. If the origin is taken at the central point, the equation (1) must take the form oca' = constant, and therefore = 0, and oux'= w*/h*. The equation to the conicoid <7 when OX is a generator and O is the central point, OZ is
the normal at O, and the axes are rectangular,
is

pairs of perpendicular tangent planes is called the central point of the generator

therefore

by
Ex.
1.

+ cz + 2fyz + 2hxy + 2wz = 0.

2

Find the locus of the normals

to a conicoid at points of a
0, 0)

given generator. Taking axes as above, the equations to the normal at (a,

are

X ~~ CL

=Z

3L
Ao.

and

paraboloid whose equation is hxz = wy. its vertex at the origin.

L.

The

locus of the normals

is

therefore the hyperbolic

It has

OX and OZ as generators,

Ex. 2. The anharmonic ratio of four tangent planes through the same generator is the anharmonic ratio of their points of contact. The tangent plane at (oir, 0, 0) is kcLry + wz^Q, whence, by 38, Ex. 4, the anharmonic ratio of the planes is
(OL3

-OL2 )(OL 1 -OL4 )'

113,114]

CENTRAL POINT AND PARAMETER

169

Ex. 3. Four fixed generators of the same system meet any generator of the opposite system in a range of constant anharmonic ratio.
Ex. 4. Find the locus of the perpendiculars from a point on a hyperboloid to the generators of one system. Take O, the point, as origin, and a generator through O as Take the normal at O as OZ, then XOY is the tangent plane at O. The equation to the hyperboloid is 2 2 = by -f cz + 2fyz -f Zgzx + ^hxy -f 2wz 0.

OX

The systems

of generators are given

by

The locus of the perpendiculars to the generators of the X-system the cubic cone

is

*114.

The central point and parameter of distribution.

in

Taking the axes indicated

conicoid
is

113 the equation to the

The equations

to the

system of generators to which

OX

belongs are

= being given by X 0. The direction-cosines generator of this system are proportional to

OX
and therefore the shortest distance between and OX has direction-cosines proportional to
0,

of

this generator

2/A-l,

c\.

Hence the limiting position of the shortest distance, as X tends to zero, is parallel to OY. Again, any plane through the generator is given by
This plane meets
S.D. if

OX where x = w/hk.
1-4/X 7 k=? ^,
(c

It contains the

^.e.li

ve

6)X

squares and higher powers of X being rejected.

170

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
s.D.

[CH. ix.

Therefore the

meets

OX where
b)\

_ w(c
Since x tends to zero with

X, the limiting position of the the central point of a given generator is Hence S.D. is OY. the point of intersection of the generator and the shortest

distance between

it

and a consecutive generator

of

the

same system. The equation y = \(2fy + cz + 2w) represents the plane

shortest distance,

through the X-generator parallel to OX. S> is given by

Therefore the

rejecting X

2
,

etc. is

Again,
C S

if

the angle between the generator and OX,

bc\ z -2f\
/i

- 2/A+ l)2 +4c2 2 XH4/i 2X 2 (2/X- 1)2

X 2 and higher powers be
rejected,

whence,

if

limit of the ratio S/0, as X tends to zero, is called the parameter of distribution of the generator OX. Denoting
it

The

by p, we have

2 w\

the central point and the tangent planes at and A' are at right angles, OA OA' = p*.
Cor.
If
is
.

Ex,

1.

If the generator

"
<

"

of the hyperboloid

is

given by
is

x - a cos y-b .-!:=- sin x =

<f>
</>
-

-c
"$!," prove that
<ft
'

and 6
.

the angle between the generators

<fr

"<" and
2
<ft t )

a2 62 sin 2 ( eft - <k) + <*2 c2(sin 2 2 2 2 (a sin <H-6 cos 22 22 d6 i ^ j that -rr = and deduce ^u
8in gfl

- sin

<H^

+ 6 2<*(co8 - cos <fc)2

4.

114]

EXAMPLES ON THE CENTEAL

2.

Ex.
tt

"
<f>

and

"

Prove that the shortest distance, " is given by </>j

8=

-8,

POINT, ETC.

171

between the generator's

2abcsm

d> 1

<f>

1 ,1 that ana deduce .1

1
4.

-TT
rf<

Ex.
"

3.

Prove that the parameter of distribution for the generator

sty + c
2

Ex.

4.

If

is

the distance of any generator of the hyperboloid

#2
2
'

y2
7\2

Z2
2

==

from the centre, and

Ex.
" <."
5.

is its

parameter of distribution,

D 2p = abc.
"
<

Find the coordinates of the central point of the generator

to the plane

tho generator

The equation "

" through the generator

parallel to

^"
2

is

x
a

u
'?

cos

& *r y ^ ^ n^ V1 -f - cos f **M -f sin 2yi

\Lt

O 2

T*I 1

= 0.
/\

Whence

and a consecutive generator

1
.

the direction-cosines of the S.D. between the generator "<* of the same system are proportional to
.

-! C os<4

be
i
<ft

The
If
S.D.

coordinates of any point, O, on the generator are

a (cos

<

k sin <),

6 (sin <^-\-k cos <),

c.

O is the central point the normal at O is perpendicular to the between the generator and a consecutive generator of the same
Hence we
find
,__
c2 (fr 2

system.

- a 2 )sin

COR

<fr

and the coordinates

of the central point are given

""
2
</>

by
<

x y "" as (62 +c 2 )cos</> 63 (c 2 + a 2 )sin

<?(b

- a2)sin

<j>

cos

in 2 ^

+ c2a 2 cos2^

Ex.

6.

Find the locus

of the central points of the generators of

the hyperboloid.

The equation
by eliminating
<

to a surface containing the central points is obtained between the equations for the coordinates. It is

172

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
7.

[CH. ix.

Ex.

For the generator

x*
of the paraboloid

y2
given by
is

y
2X,

11

~+f
,

z := T>

-^-ja^z

prove that the parameter of distribution

int is

and that the central P

Prove also that the central points of the systems of generators

the planes ~|^=0. r aJ frt

lie

on

Ex. 8. If G is a given generator of a hyperboloid, prove that the tangent plane at the central point of G is perpendicular to the tangent plane to the asymptotic cone whose generator of contact is parallel

toG.
Ex. 9. pair of planes through a given generator of a hyperboloid touch the surface at points A and B, and contain the normals at points A' and B' of the generator. If Q is the angle between them, AB A'B' , .a 2 ~" 7 prove that tan =
.

A
.

AB ~A'B"

Ex.

10.
is

point O,

makes an angle

where p

P of a generator, central with the tangent plane at O, p tan 0=OPf the parameter of distribution
If the tangent plane at a point

Examples VI.
line lx of the hyperboloid generator 2 "*=p' , and a
1.

Prove that the

+ my + nz + p
x*/a+y /b+z
2

0,
2

/c

=l

l'x+m'y+n'z-{~p'=Q
if

is

a
,

aP+bm2 +cn2 =p 2

2.

Shew

that the equations

represent for different values of A generators of one system of the hyperboloid yz +zx+xy-\- 1=0, and nnd the equations to generators of the other system. x2 v2 z2 3. Tangent planes to -a+T5--2=l, which are parallel to tangent planes to
c2a 22

cut the surface in perpendicular generators.

4.

The

drawn

shortest distances between generators of the same system at the ends of diameters of the principal elliptic section of the o
frti

hyperboloid -2-Hr2~~2 = l

^ e on
cxy

^ e sur aces whose equations are

^

abz

OH. ix.J

EXAMPLES

VI.

175

5. Shew that the shortest distance of any two perpendicular members of that system of generators of the paraboloid y(&r + 6 ?/)=,

which
6.

is

perpendicular to the y-axis,

lies in

the plane a*z = b.

Prove that any point on the

lines

lies

on the surface

yz+zx+xy+y+z^Q,
system of lines which
lies

and
on

find equations to determine the other the surface.

7.

The four

conicoids, each of
lines,

given non-intersecting
8.

which passes through three of four have two common generators.

lines

Prove that the equation to the conicoid through the

u = Q=v,

u'=0=v',

Aw -f pv + A

V + /zV =
'

= lu + mv + l'u
lu + mv
-j-

m'v'

\u + fiv _ A V -f v I'u'
JJL

m'v'

9.

Show

that, in general,

two generators of the hyperboloid

if

can be drawn to cut a given generator at right angles, and that meet the plane 2=0 in P and 5 PQ touches the ellipse

they

10. If from a fixed point on a hyperboloid lines are drawn to intersect the diagonals or the quadrilaterals formed by two fixed and two variable generators, these lines are coplanar.

Through a variable generator #-?/ = A, x+y = 2z/\, of the 2 2 paraboloid ^ -;/ ==22 a plane is drawn making a constant angle <x with the plane #=y. Find the locus of the point at which it touches
11.

the paraboloid.
12. Prove that the locus of the line of intersection of two perpendicular planes which pass through two fixed non-intersecting lines is a hyperboloid whose central circular sections are perpendicular to the lines and have their diameters equal to their shortest distance.
-v

13.

Prove that

if

the generators of

^4- '4 --2=1 be drawn through

to

the points where

it is

met by a tangent

they form a skew quadrilateral with two opposite angles right and the other diagonal of which is a generator of the cylinder

angles,

14.

The normals

y
to -3

+^--2=1

at points of a generator

meet

the plane z-0 at points lying on a straight line, and for different generators of the same system this line toucnes a fixed conic.

174
15.

COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the generators of cue2 + 6y 2 + cz2 = 1 through
planes

[CH.
(4?! ,

y^

+ byy + czz - I)(o#.r2 -f byy2 -f <**2 -IX

l l

16.
/2

The generators through

fijl

points on the principal elliptic section

is

?&

of

-2-f-p--2

= lj

such that the eccentric angle of the one

double the

accentric angle of the other, intersect on the curves given

by

17, The planes ot triangles which have a fixed centre of gravity and have their vertices on three given straight lines which are parallel to the same plane, touch a cone of the second degree, and their sides

are generators of three paraboloids.

18.

The cubic curve

meets the conicoid a^2 +6 y2 -f cz2 =l in six points, and the normals at these points are generators of the hyperboloid
f

19. Prove that the locus of a point whose distances from two given lines are in a constant ratio is a hyperboloid of one sheet, and that the projections of the lines on the tangent plane at the point where

meets the shortest distance form a harmonic pencil with the generators through the point.
it

The generators through P on the hyperboloid fL+2^ ^--i meet the plane jz=0 in A and B. If PA PB is constant, find the
20.
:

locus of P.
If the median of the triangle auv /3y yz=0, parallel to the fixed plane
21.

PAB

in the last

shew that P

example is lies on the

8urface
22. If A and B are the extremities of conjugate diameters of the principal elliptic section, prove that the median through P of the triangle PAB lies on the cone

23.

A and B

are the extremities of the axes of the principal elliptic

-v2

9/2

section of the hyperboloid

of the section.

-^+ TJ$

>2

-3= 1> and

through A and G 2 through B. Two hyperboloids are drawn, one through T, G,, OZ, the other through T, G 2 OZ. Shew that the other common generators of these hyperboloids lie on the surface
,

G,,

G2

are generators of

T is any line in the plane the same system, G passing

l

c\a

CH. ix.]
24.

EXAMPLES

VI.

17*

Prove that the shortest distances between the generator

-=-cosa-sinoL, a c
and the other generators
points lying in the plane
of the

f-^ b 6

same system, meet the generators in

a
25.
If the generators

through P, a point on che hyperboloid

whose centre

is

the tetrahedron of the planes z~

O, meet the plane z=Q in A and B, and the volume of OAPB is constant and equal to abc/G, P lies on one
c.

CHAPTER

X.

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.
Confocal conicoids are conicoids whose principal Thus the equation sections have the same foci.
115.

represents, for

any value of

X,

a conicoid confocal with

a^fc

*~
2
G>

'

since the sections of the conicoids

by the planes YOZ, ZOX,

if

XOY

are confocal conies.

Again,

arbitrary values are

assigned to

in the equation

and

being constants,

we

obtain the equations to a

system of confocal conicoids. If this form of equation be chosen to represent a confocal a is called the primary semiaxis.

The

sections of the paraboloids

by the planes YOZ, ZOX,

consist of confocal parabolas,

and

hence the paraboloids are confocal.

116.

The three confocals through a

there

point.

Through

any point
ellipsoid,

pass three conicoids confocal with a given an ellipsoid, a hyperboloid of one sheet, and a
sheets.

hyperboloid of two

115,116]

THE CONFOCALS THROUGH A POINT

x2
-% CL
2
\-

177

The equation

+ + A -2 A OfSr C

ij

z2
-

r = l represents any A

conicoid confocal with the ellipsoid -g confocal passes through (oc, /3, y),

or

/(X)^(a -X)(6 ~X)(c

-X)-a2

2
(Z>

-X)(c ~X)

This cubic equation in X gives the parameters of three confocals which pass through (a, /3, y). Suppose that

>6>

c.

When

X=

oo,

a2

fc

2
,

c2

-oo,

Hence the equation /(X) =

such that
a2
b2

has three real roots X t X 2 ,X S

,

>\> > X > > X

2

c2

a hyperboloid of two sheets, a hyperboloid of one sheet, or an ellipsoid, according as X = X!, X 2 or X 3 As X tends to c 2 the confocal ellipsoid tends to coincide
Therefore the confocal
is
,

with that part of the plane

XCY

enclosed within the ellipse

= 0,

x
ft

2 5
t

-5

+ r^r
ri

2
-

s*^

~>

=1

and the confocal hyperboloid of

one sheet tends to coincide with that part of the plane which lies without the ellipse. As X tends to b 2 the confocal hyperboloid of one sheet tends to coincide with that
part of the plane
of the hyperbola

ZOX which
y = 0,

lies

between the two branches

z2
i

x2
s

12 +

=1

and the confocal

hyperboloid of two sheets tends to coincide with the two portions of the plane which are enclosed by the two branches
of the hyperbola.
If

X = a 2 the confocal
,

is

imaginary.

The

above

ellipse

and hyperbola are

called the focal conies.

Ex. 1. Three paraboloids confocal with a given paraboloid pass through a given point, two elliptic and one hyperbolic.
BO.

178

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
2.

[CH. x.

Prove that the eqration to the confocal through the point of the focal ellipse whose eccentric angle is OL is
Ex.
(a
2

- b'2 ) cos V.

___ _
(a
2

- 62 ) sin 2a.

c2

- a 2 sin 2a - 6 2 cos 2oc

which has a system

Ex. 3. Prove that the equation to the confocal is of circular sections parallel to the plane

x=y

y*
2

(c

-a

)(a

-6

(6

2 -

c )(a

-6

117.

Elliptic coordinates.

Since X 3 X2 X 3 are the roots

,
,

of the equation /(X) = 0,

Therefore

a2

-\

___

_
~

c2 -\-(tt2 -X)(62 -X)(c 2 -X)

'

__
2
/

(a -X)(Z> -X)(c

-X)

Hence, by the rule for partial fractions,

2 2 2 ~ (a -X2 )(a 2-X22 )(a2 -X 3 ) (6 -a )(c -a )
1
'

2 2 2 _(6 ~ -X2 )(6 -X 2 )(6 -X3 ) P C

o2

'

These express the coordinates a, /3, y of a point P, in terms of the parameters of the confocals of a given conicoid that pass through P and if the parameters are given, and
;

the octant in

known, the position of P is uniquely determined. Hence X 1( X2 X 3 are called the elliptic coordinates of P with reference to the fundamental conicoid x z/a2 +y z /b*+z*/cz =l.
lies is
,

which P

Ex.
I

1.
i

If
2

<Zj,
i

2,

t?la?+y' /b +z*lcf

=l which

are the primary semi-axes of the confocals to pass through a point (a, /3, y),

117-119]

PROPERTIES OF CONFOCALS
loci

179

Ex.

2.

What

are represented by the equations in elliptic

coordinates,
(i)
(ii)

(iii)

+ A 2 +A 3 = constant, A 2 A 3 A 3 A -f A! A 2 = constant, = A! A 2 A 3 constant?

A!
-ft

Ex.

3.
/%

If Aj,
A/2

A 2 A3
,

are the parameters of the paraboloids con-

focal to
Of

= 2-z which [-7-

pass through the point (a,

/?,

y),

prove that

b-a

'

p
b

- A 3)

a-b

_ A! 4- A 2 -f A 3 - a
118.
to

Oonfocals cut at right angles.

The tangent planes

two confocals at any common point are at right angles. Let (x v y v z x ) be a point common to the confocals to
ty

cc

-5+f5-f-s = l 2
h*
c

22

l,

whose parameters are r

2 2

\ and A.
^

Then

Therefore, subtracting,
v
v
I

"/

\ /

"""""

vf

and
(x v

this

is

the

condition

that

the

tangent planes at

yv

%i) to

the confocals should be at right angles.

at a point to the three conare mutually perpendicular.

Cor.
focals

The tangent planes

which pass through
it

touching given plane. One conicoid contouches a given plane. focal with a given conicoid For the condition that the plane lx+my+nz=p should touch the conicoid
119. Confocal

vz.,

^ =

aX.

determines one value of

180

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. x.

Ex. 1. given plane and the parallel tangent plane to a conicoid are at distances p andp from the centre. Prove that the parameter of the confocal conicoia which touches the plane ia pQ2 p 2
.

Ex. 2. Prove that the perpendiculars from the origin to the tangent planes to the ellipsoid which touch it along its curve of intersection with the confocal whose parameter is A lie on the cone

Two conicoids touching given line. confocal with a given conicoid touch a given line and the tangent planes at the points of contact are at right angles.
120.

Confocals

The condition that the

touch the conicoid
rf

line
j

=Z2

V should

y*

V1Z viz -

Va

V _+ F +_ -X + -X + c ~XA^-X 6^
*
2

<*

fe

m
gives

two values

of X.

Let the equations to the two confocals be

and

let

the line touch the

,

first

at

P,

(x ly

y l9 zj and the
the tangent

second at Q, (# 2

Then, since planes to the confocals at P and Q,

7/ 2
,

2 ).

PQ

lies in

Therefore, subtracting,

^2
which
is

2/1^2

the condition that the tangent planes should be at

right angles.

120-122]

PROPERTIES OF CONFOCALS

181

Parameters of confocals through a point on a conicoid. If P is a point on a central conicoid, the parameters of the two confocals of the conicoid which pass through P are equal to the squares of the semi-axes of the central section of the conicoid which is parallel to the tangent plane at P, and the normals to the confocals
121.

at P are parallel to the axes.

Let

P,

(x v y l9

zj

lie

on the conicoid

x2 v 2 22 = 1-5 -^ + j + c o a
/

Then

the parameters of the confocals through P are given by the

equation

x\ 2

or

X a2 (a 2 -\V

y*
i

6 2 (6 2 -X)^o 2 (c 2

-0

-A)

But the squares

conicoid

of the semi-axes of the section of the

XX by the plane a

Therefore the values of X are the values of r2

the
direction-cosines

of the

Again, semi-axis of length r are

.

given by

and therefore the axis is parallel to the normal at (x l9 y lt zj to the confocal whose parameter is equal to r2
.

Locus of poles of plane with respect to confocals. The locus of the poles of a given plane with respect to the conicoids confocal with a given conicoid is the normal to the plane at the point of contact with that confocal which touches it
122.

Let a confocal be represented by

tf
',"

y
2

*
,

h2

,
'

and the given plane by

Ix

+ my + nz = l.

182

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
if

[CH. X.

Then,

(,

y,

f) is

the pole of the plane with respect to

the confocal,

Whence

771

a straight line at right angles to the given plane. Again, the pole of the plane with respect to that confocal which touches it is the point

Therefore the locus of

*;,

f)

is

of contact.

which

is

Hence the point therefore the normal

of contact

is

on the

locus,

to the plane at the point of

contact.

Normals to the three confocals through a Three conicoids confocal with a given conicoid
123.

point.

Fio. 47.

pass through a given point P, and PQ, PR, PS, the normals at P to the confocals, meet the polar plane of P with respect
to the

given conicoid in Q, R, S. To prove that PQ = X 1 /p 1 PR = X.2 /> 2 PS = X3/p s

, ,

where

p l9 p2 p3
,

are the perpendiculars

the tangent planes at P to the confocals, the parameters of the confocals.

from the centre to and \ v X 2 X3 are

,

122-125]

AXES OF ENVELOPING CONE

(fig. 47),

183

If the coordinates of P,

are (a, 8. y), the equations

toPQare
Pi

~
PQ = r,
the coordinates of

Hence,

if

are

But Q

is

on the polar plane of

P,

and therefore

Rearranging, this becomes

C

+ (^-\)(-2 (a2^Xi) 6
Therefore r = Xi/p^
124.
jT/te

a2

-\

^2
2

(6

-Xi)

+^

^2

Similarly,

PR = \^p 2 and PS = X 3/p3

self-polar

tetrahedron

PQRS

with respect

to

the given conicoid.

Substituting X a for p^, the coordinates of

Q become
Q with

a2

-^

A!

o2

Xx

>

-o c2

^-Xj

Whence

the polar plane of x r

respect to the conicoid

is

given by

-u

and therefore is the tangent plane at P to the confocal whose parameter is X t or is the plane PRS. Similarly, the polar planes of R and S are the planes PQS, PQR, and, by
,

hypothesis, the polar plane of P

125.

is

the plane QRS.

Axes of enveloping

cone.

The normals

to

the

three confocals through cone whose vertex is P.

P are

the axes of the enveloping

Since the tetrahedron

the conicoid, the

PQRS is self-polar with respect to triangle QRS is self-polar with respect

184

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
common
section of the conicoid

[CH.

and enveloping cone by the plane QRS. Therefore, (78), PQ, PR, PS are conjugate diameters of the cone, and being mutually perto the

pendicular, are the principal axes.

126.

tion to
its

Equation to enveloping cone. To find the equathe enveloping cone whose vertex is P referred to
will

be of the form Ax2 + By*+Cz* = Q. Since the tangent planes at P to the confocals are the coordinate planes, C, the centre of the given conicoid, is

principal axes.

The equation

pv

p2

2> 8 ),

and the equations to PC are

But the centre of the section of the cone or conicoid by the plane QRS lies on PC, and therefore its coordinates are of the form kp v kp2 kpp and the equation to the plane QRS is, ( 71),
,

By

23, the plane

QRS makes
its

intercepts
is

\/p v
also

X 8 /p3 on the axes, and therefore

'

equation

Therefore

ABC
l

\ A2

A3

r/x,

i/x 2
is

and the equation to the cone

127.

Equation to conicoid.

given conicoid referred to through P as coordinate axes.

To find the equation to the the normals to the confocals

form

The equation

will be of the

3
,

it.

The centre ( p v p 2 /> 3 ) The equations to the chord parallel

bisects all chords

through

to

OX

are

125-127]

EQUATION TO ENVELOPING GONE

185

and hence the equation obtained by substituting -p -PS for x y> z in (*) viz
>

rpv

>

Pf
,

X2
2

P/^JPi^-pJ T?
X3
I

Xj

X2

r>**__i\\

X3

takes the form Lr

+ M = 0.
A:

Therefore

Xx

X2

X
is

and the equation to the conicoid

are the parameters of the confocal hyperboloids Ex. 1. If A and through a point P on the ellipsoid
//,

prove that the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane a c at P to the ellipsoid is Prove also that the perpendiculars to vA/z the tangent planes to the hyperboloids are
.

/(q2-x)(fc2-A)(^A)
V

-*
, ,

'

p
of the three confocals to

Ex.

2.

If

A t A 2 Aj are the parameters

that pass through P, prove that the perpendiculars from the centre t the tangent plane at P are

V
Ex. 3. If #1, confocals to
>j,

/(q'

(A2 -A 1 )(A3 -A 1 )

'

Cj

a2

62 , c2
2

#3,
2

&3 , c3 are the axes of the

2
2 /?*

<x

*p

which pass through a point (#, y, ^), and p i9 p%, p3 are the perpendiculars from the centre to the tangent planes to the confocals at the point, prove that

Ex. 4. If aj, &i, Cj ; a 2 , 62 , c2 ; a3 , fc3 , c3 are the axes of the confocals to a given conicoid through P, show that the equations, referred to the normals at P to the confocals, of the cones with P as vertex and the focal conies as bases, are

186

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
5.

[CH.

Prove that the direction-cosines of of the cones satisfy the equations generators
Ex.
ri*

the

four

common

2 3

(The intercepts on these generators by the ellipsoid are called the bifocal chords of the ellipsoid through the point P.)

Ex.

8.

Prove that the

bifocal chords of the ellipsoid

through a point P on the surface lie on a right circular cone whose axis is the normal at P and who sesemi- vertical angle is cos" 1 -^- r, v where A n A 2 are the parameters of the confocals through P. Ex. 7. If the plane through the centre parallel to the tangent plane at P meets one of the bifocal chords through P in F, then

A^

PF = a.

Ex. 8. P is any point on the curve of intersection of an ellipsoid and a given confocal and r is the length of the central radius of the If p is to the tangent to the curve at P. ellipsoid which is parallel the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane to the ellipsoid
at P, prove that pr
is

constant.

CORRESPONDING POINTS.
128.

Two

points,

P, (x,

y,

z)

and

Q,

i/,

),

situated

respectively on the conicoids

-2 -f r2+~2==l,
are said to correspond

~2

+ ^2H

2- 1

when

IT 3 fjS' c^T
If P and

are

any points on an

ellipsoid

and P and
ellipsoid,

Q' are the corresponding points

on a confocal
on the

PQ^P'Q.
Let P and Q,
(x, y, z), (
q, ^) lie

ellipsoid

and

let P'

and

Q', (x', y', z'\

(,

rf,

')

be the corresponding

points on the confocal

128,129]

CORRESPONDING POINTS
a
-=

18?

Then
Therefore

-rr=' -=-/4W' Va2 -\ a Va2 -\

etc

and hence

which proves the proposition. Ex. 1. If P is a point on an ellipsoid and

point on a confocal whose parameter
is A,

OP ~OP' = A,
2

P' is the corresponding

2

where

is

the centre.

Ex.
P',

2.

Q',

OQ', OR' are mutually perpendicular. Ex. 3. If P", Q", R" are the corresponding points on a coaxal ellipsoid, OP", OQ", OR" are conjugate diameters. Ex. 4. An umbilic on an ellipsoid corresponds to an umbilic on
P, Q, R.

are conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid, and OP, OQ, R' are the points of a concentric sphere corresponding to

OR

Prove that

OP

any confocal
Ex.
5.

ellipsoid.

and

Q are any points on a generator of a hyperboloid and Q' are the corresponding points on a second hyperboloid. Prove that P' and Q' lie on a generator, and that PQ = P'Q'.
P'

P and

THE FOCI OF CONICOIDS.

The locus of a point such that the square on its distance from a given point is in a constant ratio to the rectangle contained by its distances from two fixed
*129.
l

(I)

planes

is

conicoid.
to the locus
is

The equation

of the

form

7c

(Ix

+ my + nz +p)(l'x + m'y + n'z +p')>

which represents a conicoid. 1 (II) The locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point is in a constant ratio to its distance, measured
parallel to
J

a given

plane,

from a given

line, is

conicoid.
first

That a conicoid could be generated by the method (I) was pointed out by Salmon. The method (II) is clue to MacCullagh.

188

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

[OH.X.

Choose rectangular axes so that the given plane is the xy -plane and the point of intersection of the given line and given plane is the origin. Let the fixed point be
(<*> 09 y) v~> r> //

and the fixed

17,

line
)

have equations T = T.
I

Of*

I/

&

The

plane through (,

parallel to the xy-pl&ne

(
,

meets the

given line
distance of

in
(

the point
i/,

^,

V72>

Wf

), /

and therefore the

from the

line

measured parallel to

the given plane

is

given by

{(HD'4-3)'}'
Hence the equation to the
locus is

which represents a
In
(I) the

conicoid.

equation to the locus is of the form and in (II) of the form X0 (u2 +^ 2 ) = 0, where

A0

and w = (),
is

= represent planes. In either case, if S reto the locus, the equation the equation presents a pair of planes In (I) the planes are real in
?;

S-A^O

they are imaginary, but the line of intersection, u = 0, ^ = 0, is real in both cases. These suggest the following definition of the foci and directrices of a conicoid
(II)
:

a conicoid and X, a, /3, y can be found so that the equation S A0 = represents two planes, real or imaginary, (a, /3, y) is a focus, and the
is the equitation to

If S =

line of intersection of the planes is the corresponding

directrix.

If the planes are real

the

first

species,

if

y) a focus of they are imaginary, a focus of the

shall call (a,
/3,

we

second species.

Lemma.
the

If the equation F(#,

y,

s)=0

represents a pair of planes^

three planes passing

equations

^=0,

^~-=0,

=
^s~

represent

through their line of intersection,-

129,130]
If F(#, y, z)==uv y

FOCI

AND DIREOTEICES

189

where u==ax+by+cz+d and v==a'#-f b'y + c'z+d\

&'i/,

then

^=at>+aX ^=&v +
is

^=+<?X
To find
the

whence the proposition

*

evident.

130.

Foci of ellipsoid and paraboloids.

foci of the ellipsoid

The equation
n
n

-x^-^^o
is

...(i)

to represent a pair of planes,

and hence, by our lemma,

the equations

represent three planes through the line of intersection. The three planes pass through one line if

= ~2,
The
line

<*

= 0;

or

X=

=
p,

or

is,

But the

line is the line of intersection of the planes

(1),

given

by equation

and therefore the coordinates

of

any point

on the line satisfy equation (1). Therefore, substituting from the equations to the line in equation (1), we obtain
/j2

2
o a

(i)

TO

^1

an ^ * n ^is case

>

a=

190

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. x.

Hence, (i) there is an infinite number of imaginary in the i/2-plane lying on the imaginary ellipse
z2

foci

and the corresponding

(ii)

directrices are imaginary.

foci in the zee-plane

There is an infinite number of real lying on the hyperbola

y = 0,
and the corresponding
(iii)

z2

directrices are real.

There

is

an

infinite

number

of real foci in the xy-pl&ne

lying on the ellipse

z = 0,

-^_ -fL =
2

l,

(the focal

ellipse),

and the corresponding

directrices are real

The

directrix corresponding to a point (a, 0, y) on the

focal hyperbola has equations

and

a2
therefore, since -* 2

v2
6
r2

19 2

c2

= 1,

the directrices corresponding to points on the focal hyperbola lie on the hyperbolic cylinder

X2(a 2 -b 2 )

s2(6 2 ~o 2 )

Similarly, the directrices corresponding to foci on the focal ellipse lie on the elliptic cylinder

which

lie

55

1301

FOCI OF ELLIPSOID
a point on the
focal hyperbola,

191

If (a, 0, y) is

8 -** a

+ a2 6 2

a2 *-*
IA>

v2 /
2

'

where the equations to the directrix corresponding to = 3= But the equations to the planes (a, 0, y) are x
through the
sections, are

line

#=

3=

parallel to the real circular

Therefore any point on the focal hyperbola is a focus of the first species, and the ellipsoid is the locus of a point the

square on whose distance from a focus of the first species is proportional to the rectangle under its distances from
the two planes through the corresponding directrix parallel to the real circular sections.
If (a,
ft,

0)

is

a point on the focal

ellipse,

a2

where the equations to the directrix corresponding to Now the equation to a plane (a, /3, 0) are x = g, y~*j.
through
P, (#', y'y z') parallel to

a real circular section

is

19?,

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

|CH.

and hence this plane meets the directrix x = point P', whose coordinates are
**

y = q in the

21

ir'

^VC""^/'
the distance of P from the directrix, measured parallel to the plane. It is given by

~'\

The

distance PP'

is

Hence any point on the focal ellipse is a focus of the second species, and the ellipsoid is the locus of a point whose distance from a focus of the second species is proportional to its distance, measured parallel to a real circular section, from the corresponding directrix. By the same methods, we find that the points on the
parabolas
9

(i)x = 0,

J^=-2*+a;
x2

(ii)

= 0, J*L = -2z+6 i/
These parabolas are
directrices

are foci of the paraboloid

called

v2
\-j-~2z.

the focal parabolas.

The corresponding

generate the cylinders

If

(0,

/3,

y)

is

any point on the

focal parabola in the

yz-plane,

= a-6/ y f-lvH
,

6/3 \

ab \

a-b/

^i)

1,

a^

(z

y+ct). ' Y
focal parabola in the

V2

If (a, 0, y)
za;-plane.

is

any point on the

130]

FOCI OF PARABOLOIDS

193

ab

Whence the
signs and
Cor.

species of the foci can be determined if the relative magnitudes of a and 6 are given. All confocal conicoids have the same focal conies.

Ex.
conies

1. is

Prove that the product of the eccentricities of the

unity.

focal

Ex.

2.

2 = 0.

Find the equations

to the focal conies of the

Am. #=

hyperboloid

Ex. 3. If intersects the

is a point on a focal conic, the corresponding directrix normal at P to the conic.

Ex. 4. If P is a point on a focal conic the section of the conicoid by the plane through P at right angles to the tangent at P to the
conic has a focus at P.

Ex. 5. If P is any point on the directrix of a conicoid which and corresponds to a focus S, the polar plane of P passes through S is at right angles to SP.

Ex. 6. The polar plane of any point A cuts the directrix corresponding to a focus S at the point P. Prove that AS is at right angles to SP. Ex. 7. If the normal and tangent plane at any point P of a is conicoid meet a principal plane in the N and the line QR, point the polar of N with respect to the focal conic that lies in the principal

QR

plane.
lines

Ex. 8. Prove that the real foci of a cone lie upon two straight through the vertex (the focal lines). Ex. 9. Prove that the focal lines of a cone are normal to the cyclic

planes of the reciprocal cone.

Ex. 10. The enveloping cones with vertex P of a system of confocal conicoids have the same focal lines, and the focal lines are the
generators of
the confocal

hyperboloid of

one sheet that passes

through

P.

* Examples VII.
1. If the enveloping cone of an ellipsoid has three mutually perpendicular generators the plane of contact envelopes a confocal.

2. The locus of the polars of a given line with respect to a system of confocals is a hyperbolic paraboloid. 3. Through a straight line in one of the principal planes, tangent planes are drawn to a system of confocals. Prove that the points of contact lie in a plane and that the normals at these points pass through a fixed point in the principal plane.

B.Q.

194
4.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Shew
by a given plane

[CH. x.

confocals
5.
it is

that the locus of the centres of the sections of a system of is a straight line.

If PQ is perpendicular to its polar with respect to an ellipsoid, perpendicular to its polars with respect to all confocal ellipsoids.

Any tangent plane to a cone makes equal angles with the planes through the generator of contact and the focal lines.
6.

7. Through any tangent to a conicoid two planes are drawn to touch a confocal. Prove that they are equally inclined to the tangent plane to the conicoid that contains the tangent.
8. The locus of the intersection of three mutually perpendicular planes each of which touches a confocal is a sphere. 9.

The sum

the focal lines

10.

is

of the angles that constant.

any generator

of a cone

makes with

and of a cone focal lines touch a right circular cone whose axis is the line of intersection of the tangent planes which touch the cone and the and OQ.
along

The four planes through two generators

OP

OQ

OP

11. The planes which bisect the angles between two tangent planes to a cone also bisect the angles between the planes containing their line of intersection and the focal lines.

conicoid of revolution is formed by the revolution of an foci are S and S'. Prove that the focal lines of the enveloping cone whose vertex is P are PS and PS'.
12.
ellipse

whose

13. The feet of the normals to a system of confocals which are parallel to a fixed line lie on a rectangular hyperbola one of whose asymptotes is parallel to the line. 14. tangent plane to the ellipsoid tf/a 2 +y 2/b* + z*/c 2 = l intersects the two confocals whose parameters are A and /x. Prove that the enveloping cones to the confocals along the curves of section have a common section which lies on the conicoid

15. The three principal planes intercept on any normal to a confocal of the ellipsoid a^/a 2 +# 8 /& 2 + * 8 /c 2 =l, two segments whose ratio is constant. Also the normals to the confocals which lie in a given plane lx-\- my-\-nz=0 are parallel to the line
i

Ix
TT^2

__

- my __ =
J3~-2

nz

^1

52-

16. The cone that contains the normals from P to a conicoid contains the normals from P to all the confocals, and its equation referred to the normals to the confocals through P as coordinate
...

CH. x.j

EXAMPLES

VII.

195

17. Normals are drawn from a point in one of the principal planes Prove that they lie in the principal plane or to a system of confocals. in a plane at right angles to it, that the tangent planes at the feet of those in the touch a parabolic cylinder, and that the principal plane tangent planes at the feet of the others pass through a straight line lying in the principal plane.
18. If tangent planes are drawn through a fixed line to a system of confocals the normals at the points of contact generate a hyperbolic paraboloid. Shew that the paraboloid degenerates into a plane when the given line is a normal to one of the surfaces of the system.

fixed points on the same normal to an ellipsoid are drawn to their respective polar planes with regard perpendiculars to any confocal ellipsoid. Prove that the perpendiculars intersect and that the locus of their intersection as the confocal varies is a cubic
19.

From any two

curve whose projection on any principal

hyperbola.
20.

plane

is

a rectangular

Find the parabola which

is

confocals

a?
r-

+ 75

~r +
?/

the envelope of the normals to the

}

z*
i2
.

= 1 which lie in the plane fa + my + nz p

the plane
b*)z/n

and prove that

its directrix lies in

a *)ylm + (a 2 -

= 0.

21. If A, /z, v are the direction-cosines of the normal to a system of parallel tangent planes to a system of confocal conicoids, express the coordinates of any point of the locus of their points of contact in

the form

where
22.

#,

6,

c are the principal axes of a particular confocal of the

is

system.

Deduce that the locus

a rectangular hyperbola.
ellipsoid,
its

If A,
a, 6,
is
c,

axes

v are the parameters of the confocals of an /x, through a point P, the perpendicular from P to

polar

plane

of length

(a

- A) + cVi/A(6 2 - /*) + a 2 6 2 A/x(c 2 - v) f*

;

23. Through a given line tangent planes are drawn to two confocals and touch them in A, A' B, B' respectively. Shew that the lines AB, AB' are equally inclined to the normal at A and are coplanar

with

it.

are points on two confocals such that the tangent 24. If P and are at right angles, the plane through the centre planes at P and and the line of intersection of the tangent planes bisects PQ. Hence shew that if a conicoid touches each of three given confocals at two points it has a fixed director sphere.

Q Q

[CH. XI.

CHAPTER XL
THE GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE,
certain

the equations to loci, (tangent planes, polar planes, etc.) connected with the conicoid, when the conicoid is represented by
131.

In Chapter VII.

we have found

an equation referred to conjugate diametral planes as

We shall in this chapter first find the coordinate planes. equations to these loci when the conicoid is represented
of the second degree, and then discuss the determination of the centre and principal planes, and the transformation of the equation when the principal planes are taken as coordinate planes.

by the general equation

Constants in equation of second degree. general equation of the second degree may be written
132.

The

Ffe

2/>

z)

s ace2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2(jzx + 2hxy

or

f(x, y, z)

+ 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.

and therefore a conicoid can be found to satisfy nine conditions which each involve one relation between the constants e.g. a conicoid can be found to pass through nine given points no four of which are coplanar, or to pass through six given points and touch the plane XOY at the origin, or to pass through
It contains nine disposable constants,
;

three given non-intersecting lines.

conicoid is to pass through a Ex. 1. given conic. disposable constants will its equation contain? Is the same when the conicoid is to pass through a given circle ?

How many
number the

131-133]

CONSTANTS IN EQUATION
to a conicoid

197
<

Ex.

2.

The equation

through the conic z=Q,

= 0,

is

where

a, 6,

c,

d are

disposable constants.
at

Ex. 3. The equation to a conicoid that touches the plane 2 = an umbilic at the origin and touches the plane lx+my+nz=p is

where

A,

//,

v are disposable constants.

Ex. 4. Find the equation to the conicoid which passes through 2= the circle ^+3/ 2ao?, z=0, and the points (6, 0, c), (0, 6, c\ and has the z-axis as a generator.

133.

Points of intersection of line and conicoid.

/3,

equations to the straight line through A, (a, direction-ratios are I, m, n, are

y),

The whose

n '

and the point on

coordinates a.+lr
f

this line

whose distance from A

It lies

is

r has

/3+mr, y+nr.

on the conicoid

if

that

is, if

F(a, 0,

y) +r

+OT

+n+ry0, m,

)-

Hence the straight line meets the conicoid in two points P and Q, and the measures of AP and AQ are the roots of
the equation
If
(i)

(2).

F(oc,

ft,

y)

= 0,
f(l 9

(ii)

z+ m

+n

= 0,

(iii)

m, n) = Q,

equation (2) is satisfied by all values of r, or every point on the line lies on the conicoid. The conditions (ii) and (iii)
n, and therefore through give two sets of values for I any point on a conicoid two straight lines can be drawn to lie wholly on the conicoid. They are parallel to the lines
: :

in

which the plane

198

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
.

[CH.

XL

cuts the cone f(x, y, z) = 0, (cf 60). They may be real, or coincident, as in the cases of the hyperboloid imaginary,
of one sheet, the ellipsoid,
134.

and the cone, respectively.

plane. If F(GC, /3, y) = 0, conicoid, and one root of equation (2) is zero.

The tangent

A A

is

on the

coincides

with P or with Q.

If also

both roots of equation (2) are zero, and P and Q coincide The line is therefore a at A, which lies on the conicoid.
tangent line to the surface at
A.

If

we

eliminate

Z,

m, n

between the equations to the

through A in

line

and equation

(3),

we

obtain the equation to the locus of the tangent lines

all possible directions.

drawn

The equation

is

and hence the locus

above equation

is

may

a plane, the tangent plane at be written

A.

The

3F

3F

3F

now, F(#, y, z) be made homogeneous by the introduction of an auxiliary variable t which is equated to unity
If,
y

after differentiation, equation (4)

is

equivalent to

= 2F(a, = 0.
Ex.
1.
(i)

/3,

y,

*),

(Euler's Theorem),

Find the equations to the tangent planes at

xy
cz,
(ii)

(#',

y\

z')

on

Ans.

(i)

x\x'+yly'-zlz'^\,

(ii)

Ex. 2. The bisectors of the angles between the lines in which any tangent plane to z^ kxy meets the planes #=0, y = 0, lie in the planes

133,134]

THE TANGENT PLANE

(1, 2, 3)

199

Ex. 3. Find the equation to the tangent plane at hyperboloid

on the

and the equations

Ans.
(i)

to the

2y+z

two generators through the point. (ii) the equation (i) and 4r-3y-f-2=0,

Ex. 4. Find the condition that the plane touch the conicoid F(#. y, z)
If the point of contact is (a,
/?,

Ix+my + nz+p = Q

should

y),

then

.zZL
represent the same plane.

+ tZj- =0, t
Therefore

and

3F 3F 3F 3F 3. 3/3 3y ._ =-1.=:^^= 3^ =
I

-2A,

say. '

Hence

UOL+V/3 + ivy + d+

jt?A

= 0.

And
since the point of contact must lie in the given plane. Therefore eliminating a., /?, y, A, we obtain the required condition, viz.
:

a,

A,
b,

g,
/,
c,

u,
v,

=0.

h>

m
n

g,
u,
I,

/,
v,

w,
rf,

w,
n,

p
touches xy = cz
if

m,

p,

Ex.

5.

Prove that
Prove that
AZ
2

Ix -f my + nz

=p

dm + np=Q.
l if

Ex.

6.

lx+my+nzp
2 2
,
i

touches /(JT, y,

z)

-f

Bw + Cft + 2Fwrc-h2G?iZ4-2H^tt=?
a, A,
,

where

or
/.

and

3D c)D A A = ^r- D = ^r, B

etc.

oc>

A,

o,

Ex. 7. If the axes are rectangular, prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to tangent planes to

Ex. 8. Prove that the locus of the point of intersection of three = mutually perpendicular tangent planes to/(#, ?/, z) l is the sphere
.

(Cf.

68, Ex. 1.)

200 Ex.
9.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Prove that the plane 2y-2z = l
2
2

[CH. xi.

is

a tangent plane to the

surface

=0.

Prove also that the lines of intersection of the given plane and the planes 2r-f 3=0, 2^-2^-f 1 =0 lie on the surface.
Ex.
at
10.

two points

If two conicoids have a of the generator.

common

generator, they touch

If the generator is
*
2

taken as

.r-axis,

the equations to the conicoids are

c'z

+ 2fyz + 2gzjc + 2hxy + 2vy + 2wz =0, + 2fyz + Zg'zx + Zh'xy -f 2 v'y + 2w'z = 0.
at (a,
0,

The tangent planes

They are coincident

0) are

if

This equation gives two values of

OL.

Ex. 11. If two conicoids touch at three points of a common generator, they touch at all points of the generator, and the generator has the same central point and parameter of distribution for both
surfaces.

Ex.

12.

Tangent planes

parallel to the given plane

are

drawn

xc. Shew

to conicoids that pass through the lines #=0, # that the points of contact lie on the paraboloid

2=0,

x (cue + fiy + yz) = c(cuc + fty).

Ex. 13. If a conicoid passes through the origin, and the tangent = plane at the origin is taken as 2 0, the equation to the surface is 2 ax* -f by + cz* -f 2fyz -f- Zgzx -f- 2/uty -f Zwz *= 0.
of a Ex. 14. If a set of rectangular axes through a fixed point conicoid meet the conicoid in P, Q, R, the plane PQR meets the in a fixed point. normal at

Ex.

15.

If

u r ==arX+bry + CrZ+dr

r=l,

2, 3,

prove that the tangent planes at

(i)

(#', y', z')

to the conicoids

A1

(ii)

are given

by

(i)

AjW

(ii)

A^j
ur
'

where
Ex.
16.

= a^ -f 6r/ + erf + dr
2
t

Prove that

u^ + A v
t

-f

2 \2 v i v z + Aa^2 2 = ^

the planes represents a conicoid touching = ^. of intersection with the line

^ = 0, w =0 at their points
2

^=0

135]

THE POLAR PLANE

The polar
plane.

201

If any secant through A meets and if R is the harmonic conjugate Q of A with respect to P and Q, the locus of R is the 135.

the conicoid in

P and

polar of A.
If

is (a, /3,

y) and the equations to the secant are

x
I

a*_y ~~

P_z y ~~
n

'

then rv r2 the measures of AP and AQ, are the roots of the equation
,

m,

n)+rl+m+n
is (
i;,

+ F(oL

ft,

y)

= 0.

Hence

if

and the measure of AR

is p,

ay
and
Therefore
oc

i/),

/?

and the equation to the locus of becomes

i;,

^),

the polar plane,

3F

= 0.
Ex.
1.

Find the equations n

to the r polar
(Cf.

of
70.)

^r

with respect to the conicoid F(^, y, z)=0.

Ex.

2.

Prove that the

.a?I

lines

q._iy ~~

__- y ~~
n

x
'

<*

__y ~~

___ ~~

I'

mf

COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
are polar with respect to the conicoid
,'dF
F(.r, y,

[CH.
if

XL

z)=0

3F A BF

.,3F

BF

=0 and
'

Ex. 3. Any set of rectangular axes through a fixed point O meets a given conicoid in six points. Prove that trie sum of the squares of the ratios of the distances of the points from the polar plane of O to their distances from O is constant. (Take O as origin, and use 54, Ex. 9.)

Ex.

4.

Prove that
2

A!

/!

+ A2

tt

2
2

+ A3

?/

2
3

+A

V=

represents a conicoid with respect to which the tetrahedron whose

faces are

t^=0, u 2

Q>

w 3 = 0, u 4 = Q

is self -con jugate.

Ex. 5. Find the equation to the conicoid with respect to which the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and the plane

is

self -con jugate,

and which passes through the points (-a,

0,

0),

(0,

-6,0), (0,0, -c).

Ex.
section

6.

All conicoids which touch a given cone at its points of a given plane have a common self -con jugate tetrahedron. by

136.

The enveloping
I

cone.

The equations

x-cL^y-fi^z-y

represent a tangent if equation (2) of The condition for equal roots is

fc,

133 has equal

U/l

roots.

m, n) =

/
\

T <^l

U-f

Therefore the equation to the locus of the tangents drawn from a given point (a, /3, y) is
4F(a, 0, y)/(#-a,

y-0, z-y)

But

F(a+fl-a,

+ y-0, y-fz-y)

136-138]

ENVELOPING CONE AND CYLINDER

203

Therefore the equation to the locus becomes

4F(a, ft y)F(s, y, z)
2
,

A y)}

"I

3F

,3F

Ex. 1. If a cone envelope a sphere, the section of the cone by any tangent plane to the sphere is a conic which has a focus at the point
of contact.

Ex. 2. The tangent plane to a conicoid at an umbilic meets any enveloping cone in a conic of which the umbilic is a focus.
Ex.
3.

Find the locus

of a

the sphere
casts a parabolic

#2 + y2 + z z _ % az ~ Q

luminous point which moves so that

shadow on the plane

zQ.

Ans.

= ~2a. The enveloping

cylinder.

137.

equal roots used in the last any point on a tangent drawn parallel to the fixed line

From the condition for paragraph we see that (a, /3, y),

a^j/^z
I

iC
f
.

lies

on the cylinder given by

4F(a, y, z)f(l,

m, n ) = (jg+ m <*+ w g)

Ex. cylinder whose generators make an angle a. with the s-axis 2 2= Prove that the eccentricity of 2az. envelopes the sphere x +y' + z its section by the plane 2 = is sin a.
<2

138.

The

locus of the chords which are bisected at

If (a,
ft,

the given point, point of the chord whose equations are

y),
I

a given point.

is

the mid-

the equation
F(oc,

#
,

takes the form r 2 = &2 and therefore

3F_

204

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
all

[CH.

XL
in

Hence

chords which are bisected at (a,

/8,

y)

lie

the plane given by

The
which
Ex.

section of the conicoid

(a,
/3,

by

this plane is

a conic of

y)

is

the centre.

Find the locus of centres of sections of

which touch
An*.

+ yV/J2 +*2/y 2 = 1. 2 a^fc*+cy)H/^c# + a*) +

a?l<*?

139.

The diametral

plane.
all

that the mid-points of

line

Equation (1) of 138 shews chords drawn parallel to a fixed

x__y
I

_z
n
is

lie

on the diametral plane whose equation 3F 3 7

6

+m.

Ex. 1. Find the central circular sections and urabilics of the following surfaces
:

(i)

(ii)
(iii)

y -yz-2zx-xy-4=Q.
/2

An*,

(i)

x+y-z=Q, o?~y+^=0;

x_y
(ii)

T-^ = 2

==:t

x =y
l

==

\3'

15'
(iii)

le^S^-S^

^^

15'

#+2=0, #+y+2=0;

the umbilics are imaginary.

Ex.
circles
lie

2.

Prove that the umbilics of conicoids that pass through the

on two equal hyperbolas in the 2#-plane.

140.

The principal planes.

diametral plane which

it

is

at right angles to the chords which

bisects is

a principal

138-140]

THE PEINCIPAL PLANES

is
7

205

plane.

If the axes are rectangular, the diametral plane

whose equation

6^--

3F 3F + dx m^ dy
,

3F
dz

\-n

=A 0,

or

x(al + hm+gri) +y(hl+ bm +fri)

+ z(gl +/m + en)

is

at right angles to the line

..

it

al+hm+gn = hl+bm+fn = gl+fm+cn

j

-i

-I

n*

If each of these ratios is equal to X, then

(1)

Therefore X

is

a root of the equation

a-X,
h,

h,

g =0,

6-X,
f>

9,

c-X

or

a,
h,
(7.

where D =

h,
b,
/

Or

if

As

etc.,

the equation

may

f
\j

T-

be written

This equation

is called

the Discriminating Cubic.

It gives

three values of X, to each of which corresponds a set of values for l:m:n, and by substituting these sets in the

equation

3
reduces to
)

which, by means of the relations

(1),

\(lx+my+nz)+ul+vm+wn
we
the conicoid.

............ (2)

obtain the equations to the three principal planes of

206

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the principal planes of the conieoids
2
:

[CH.

XL

Ex.

(i)
(ii)

Ux*+Uy + 8z*-tyz-4zx-8xy + l8x-l8y + 5=(),

3x2 + 5y 2 +W-2yz+2zj;-2xy + 2x+ I2y + Wz + 20=0.

Ans.

(i)

X = 6, A = 2,

12,
3,

18;

(ii)

6;

x+y + Zz^O, x+y-z=0, x-y + 1=0; #-*-2 = 0,

If

141.

Condition for two zero-roots.

D = 0, then

.ind therefore A, B,

C have

the same sign.

Therefore

if

D = and A + B + C = 0, A = B = C = 0, and therefore we have Hence if the discriminating cubic has also F = G = H = 0.
two
zero-roots, all the six quantities A, B, C,
is

F,

G, H, are

zero and f(x, y, z)

142.

a perfect square.

If the discriminating cubic has one zero-root, the corresponding principal plane either is

Case of one zero-root.

at an infinite distance or

may
''

to a fixed line.

For

if

A = 0,

be any plane at right angles the equations (1), 140, give

G~
or

m_n
F

~C'

-_ =
N/A

m
N/B

n
=-=,,
v/C

(141). *
A, B,

/omx

These determine a fixed direction, since

zero.
,

are not
140,

The corresponding

principal plane has,

by

the equation

and

is

at

an

infinite distance if

\/Au+N/Bt>+Vcw^O,

or

may be any
/y

plane at right angles to the fixed line

ni
!

~= = ===-->
In the
first

iy

if

;s

a paraboloid whose axis in the fixed direction, in the second, an elliptic or hypercase the conicoid
is

bolic cylinder or pair of intersecting planes line of intersection is in the fixed direction.

whose axis or

141-143J

INDETERMINATE PRINCIPAL PLANES

207

Ex.

1.
(i)
(ii)

Find the principal planes of the surfaces

Ans. (i) at infinity

(ii)
i_^
i

A = 14, 26,0; j?+2y+3^ + l=0, x+4y-3z+l = 0, the plane

:

A=14,
^

27,

right angles to

0; =v^

2.r-# + 32 = l, #4-53/4-2=2, any plane at

l'

jg

Ex 2. Verify that the principal planes in Exs. mutually at right angles.

143.

140, 142 are

If the discriminating Case of two zero-roots. cubic has two zero -roots the equations (1), 140, when = 0, all reduce to X Jal + \/6m + Jen = 0,

and therefore the directions of the normals to two

principal planes are indeterminate.

of the

These planes, however,

must be at right angles to the plane \/ and they may be at an infinite distance, (if ul or at any distance from the origin, (if
a parabolic cylinder and the axes oi normal sections are parallel to the plane

In the

first

case the surface

is

Jax+Jby+\/cz =
in the second the surface
is

a pair of planes parallel to

\/ax
Ex.
1.
(i)
(ii)

+ Jby + Jcz = 0.

For the surfaces

#2 +3/ 2 -f* 2 -2y*-f Izx- Zxy- 2# -4#-2z 4-3=0,

#2 +3/ 2 -fz 2 -2yz-f 2?-2j?y-2,r+ 2y-2z-3 = 0,

X = 3,

0, 0.

The determinate

principal plane

is

x-y + z = Q.

If

are taken as coordinate planes the equations transform into

3
2

= 2x/6r; - 3,

- 2\/3 -3 = 0.
is

Ex.

2.

and base the parabola y2 ==4ar, z=0

the locus of

If one of the principal planes of the cone whose vertex is parallel to the fixed plane

is

the straight line

_?? m Cm

+-- +
I

m \l

----

208

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH. XI.

THE DISCRIMINATING
144.

CUBIC.
real.

All the roots of the discriminating cubic are The equation may be written,

We may assume a>6>c.

Consider

Corresponding values of X and y are

-oo,

c,

b,

+ 00,
2
,

+ 00,

-/*,

-/

+00.

FlO. 48.

Hence from the graph,

equation
i/-(X)

(fig.

48), it

has real roots

appears that the and /S, such that

Consider

now y = <f>(\).

When X=oo,i/=oo;

144, 145]

THE DISCRIMINATING CUBIC

20U

when
\=oc,

2/=-{(a-i
are real;

where

\/a-

&>

\/a

when

where

\/6

/3,

\/c

/3

are real.

Hence from the graph we see that the equation has three real roots, X p X 2 X 3 such that X 3 </3<X 2 <oc<X r
,

The above proof fails if a and ft, the roots of the = equation ^(X) 0, are equal. In that case, however, we have 6 = 0, and/=0; and therefore the cubic becomes
the roots of which are easily seen to be
145.
all real.

The

factors of

/(,

y,

z z z)-\(x*+y +z ).

If

is

root of the discriminating cubic,

+ ezz + 2fyz + 2gzx + Zkxy - X 2 + y 2 + zz) is the product of two factors of the form ax + fty + yz. Only
ax*+by
z
(a;

one of the three roots leads to real values of a,

/8,

y.

For

- 2 - 2 (a \)c + (6 \)y* + (c X)z + 2fyz + Zgzx + Zhxy

and therefore

is

of the form

where

u and

v are linear functions of

x, y, z,

with real

=i
[(fcc

-f

22 2Gz* 4- A* by +/z) + (C*

a
)

J,

if

A=0 and therefore G a = AC.

B.G.

210
coefficients.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
X and ^(\)
X = X 1 X 2 X3 are as follows
,
,

[c. XL

Reference to the graphs shews that the signs

for
:

of b

6-X,
5

Hence f(x,
according as
coefficients

y, z)

\(x
,

L%2 M 2 ^2
X = X1
,

+ y + z ) takes the forms L2 u + M 2 2 L u2 M v 2

2
2 2

t>

X2

or

X3

The
to

factors

with real
root,

correspond

therefore

the

mean

X2

(Cf.

93.)

To find the 146. Conditions for equal roots. tions that the discriminating cubic should have,
roots equal,
(ii)

condi(i)

two

three roots equal.

The cubic

is

X, h,
9>

h,

g
c

= 0.

6-X,
f>

/ -*i

Therefore, as in

141, if

is

a root of the cubic,

have the same

(i)

sign.

If

is

a repeated root, 0(X) =

and

and therefore

(&-X)(c-X)=/

2
,

(c-\)(a-\)=g\\

........

'

and hence, (corresponding to F = G = H = 0), we have

also

(a-\)f=gh, (6-X)5f = /t/, (c-\)h=fg....... (B)

Any
(c

one of the three sets of conditions,

2
,

_A)(a-X)=<7

(a-\)(b-\) = W,

(a-X)/=^,
(c-\)h=fg,

(A')

-X)(a-X) =

2
,

(c')

145,146]
is

THE PEINCIPAL DIBECTIONS

sufficient.

211

both necessary and

For

if (A') is

given, substi-

tuting for we obtain

X from the third equation

in the first two,

(b-\)g = hf,

(c-\)h=fg,
2
.

whence
Therefore,
X,
if

(6-X)(c-X)=/
is

none of the three quantities

not equal to
a, b or
c,

/, g,

is zero,

the repeated root,

and we have

9k # *_ & --~ -j, \=

hf-- r c

fy
-7-

/
or
^

9
F

>

X=^=-= T .................. h f
ff

....... (\\ v1;

If /, one of the three quantities /, (/, h, is zero, then, from (A), X b or c. If X 6, then A 0, and

If

\ = c, then

(7

= 0, and
is zero,

one of the three quantities must be zero, and we have

Therefore
if

another

or
or

The equations (1) and (2) give the conditions for a of equal roots and the value of the roots in each case.
(ii)

pair

If the three roots are equal to X,

also satisfies the

equation
0,

or

(a-X)+(6-X)+(c-X)=0.

But,

by

(A),

Therefore X = a = 6 = c, and /= g
this case

h = 0.

The

conicoid in

must be a sphere.

212
147.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The

[CH. xi.

principal directions. tions determined by the equations

We

shall call the direc-

al+hm+fin_hl+bm+fn_gl+fm+cn_ A) ~~ m ~ n ~ I
or
?n = n
21
*dl

'dm

= *dn = A, 2m 5 2n

the principal directions.

If \
I,

is

root of the discriminating cubic giving values

m, n

of the direction-cosines of

a principal

direction,

X=/(Z, m, n).

21

2m 2n

o/ 2 2(/

+m
.

> 2

+7i

?\ 2

2%e principal directions corresponding to two distinct roots of the discriminating cubic are at right
148.
angles. If X x>

X 2 are the

roots,

and

l)

l)

'

2,

2>

n2

are the

corresponding direction-cosines, then

l
l

\l

=z^j~>

etc.;

2^X2 =

etc.

and therefore
which proves the proposition.
149. Oases of equal roots,
(i)

If

of the discriminating cubic, and principal direction corresponding to

X2 = X3

X x X 2 X3 are the roots there is a definite

,

but the equations

"dL

reduce to a single equation which

direction-cosines of

is

satisfied

by the

any direction at right angles to the principal direction corresponding to Xr

147-149]

INDETERMINATE PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS

213

Suppose that we have

,

and

A 2 = a-

= &-=c/
9
'l

Then the equations

gl 2
all

become
since the

+/m 2 + (c - X 2 ?i2 = = g hl% + hfm% +fgn% 0.

)

And

sum

of the roots of the cubic is a-f b+c>

>

-i

and hence the equation

(a

- \) l + hm + g^ =
l

may

be written

The three equations corresponding

to

\ therefore give
The

single to X 2 is the condition that the equation corresponding n 2 should be at right directions given by gh hf:fg, 12 2
:

which determine a

definite principal direction.

angles. If we

have
/i

A 2 = X 3 = a, # = 0,

= 0, and (6-aXc-a)^/2

the equations corresponding to X 2 and

\ are

If

X 2 = X 3 = 0,
be

then

D = 0,
ab = /t2
;

ca = g*,

and the equations corresponding to X 2 and

X! are

= 0,

214
If

COORDINATE GEOMETKY

[CH.

XL

the discriminating cubic has three equal roots, any direction is a principal direction. For X = c6 = 6 = c, and /=<;=: /i = 0, and the equations for principal directions
(ii)

reduce to

_m_n
is

The reason
to
it.

is

obvious.

l~~m~~n The surface

a sphere, and any

plane through the centre bisects chords at right angles

up, if the discriminating cubic has distinct there are three mutually perpendicular principal roots, If it has two or three repeated roots, three directions.

To sum

mutually perpendicular directions can be chosen whose

direction-cosines
satisfy

the

equations of

147,

which

determine the principal directions. Therefore in all cases we can transform the equation, taking as new rectangular
axes three lines through the origin whose direction-cosines satisfy the equations
"dl

_ ~~
__

'dm

_^
'

where X
150.

is

a root of the discriminating cubic.

//,

Transformation of f(x,

z).

3,

2 X3 2 /(#> 2A z) transforms into A^-f X 2 j; n2 Let o 0*7, o have direction-cosines l v v 7i t Z2 2 to the roots X 1? X 2 X 3 of the cubia TI s S corresponding
.

m
,

Then x = l^+ l#i + 1

etc.

^= l^x + mjj + n^z

etc.

We

have also

And

similarly,

149-151]

DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRES

tj,

215

Hence, multiplying by

respectively

and adding,

or
Ex.
1.
(i)

f(x,y,z)
In Ex.
(i),

140,
8,ry

14r2 -f- 1 4y 2 + Sz2 - 4yz -4zx(ii)

transforms into 6

2 -f 1 2rj

+ 18f*.
2
.

In Ex.
2

1, (i),

142,

2o;2 -f

20y
2

+ l&;2 -12yz-f 12o#

(i),
2

transforms into 14

-f26r;

(iii)

In Ex.
2

143,

^ +y +z -2yz+2zx-2jcy transforms
Ex.
2.

into 3

2
.

Prove that the conicoids

2ayz + %bzx + Zcxy =
1,
if

can be placed so as to be confocal

THE CENTRE.
151.
If there is

a point O, such that when P

is

any point
P',

on a conicoid and PO is produced its own length to P' is also on the conicoid, O is a centre of the conicoid.

If the origin is at a centre, the coefficients of the equation to the conicoid are zero. Let the equation be
f(x, y,

x, y>

z in

z)+2ux + Zvy + 2wz+d = 0.

P
7

Then

if

is (x' 9 y', z'\

is

(-#',

-i/', -z'),

and

/(&', y',

f(x', y',

z')+2ux'+2vy'+2wz'+d^Q, - Zux' - 2ry' - 2wz' + d = 0. z')

ux'+vy'+wz' =
is
x', y', z'

Therefore

...................... (1)

Hence, since equation (1)

satisfied

by an

infinite

number

of values of

other than the coordinates

of points lying in the plane

we must have

216
152.

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
To determine
the centres of the conicoid

[CH.

XL

F(x,y,z) = Q.
Let (a, /8, y) be a centre. and the equation becomes
F(X+OL,
or
f(x, y, 2

Change the

origin to (a,

/8,

y)

)+^+2/^g+z^;+F(a,

0, y) = 0.

Therefore, since the coefficients of x, y, z are zero,

Cor.

The equation

to

any diametral plane

is

of the

form

and therefore any diametral plane passes through the

centre or centres.
153.

The central
1

planes.

The equations
f

^p

2
1

^ = aa>+%+fl *+ u==0

................... (!)

~-/^+%+/^+^ = 0,

................... (2)

represent planes which we may call the central planes. Any point common to the central planes is a centre.

Multiply equations

(1), (2), (3)

by

A, H,

respectively

and add

then, since

= D and

/iA

+ &H+/G = 0,

etc.,

-D
f*.
.f
i

Similarly,

y=

Lji/ M/

cr/)f ^^ DC/ ^^ r \AJ

>

p/t.

z-

We
I.

have to consider the following D=0, single centre at a

finite distance,

cases, (cf.

45) :

(ellipsoid,

hyper-

boloid, or cone).

152-154]
II.

THE CENTRES
single centre at
infinite distance,

217

D = 0,

an (paraboloid),

AU+I
ill.

D = 0,

line of centres at

(elliptic

or hy-

finite distance,

perbolic cy-

(central

planes pass through one line and are not

parallel,)

pair of intersect-

linder,

ing planes),

IV. A, B, C,

F, G, H,

line of centres at
infinite

an (parabolic cylinder).

all zero,

distance,

fu=f=gv,

(central planes parallel but not

coincident,)

V. A, B, C,

F, G,

H,

plane

of

centres,

(pair of parallel
planes).

all zero,

(central

planes

coincident,)
If is at a centre. a centre (a, (3, y) at a finite distance, and the conicoid has the origin is changed to it, the equation becomes 154.

Equation when the origin

or, since

W
f(x, y,

3F

This becomes, on substituting the coordinates of the centre found in 153,

- do

Cor.

If F(#, y, z)

= represents a cone, S

and

218

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
1.
(i)
(ii)

[CH.

XL

Ex.

Find the centres of the

conicoids,

14#2 +14# 2 +82 2 -4#2-42.r-8^+18.r- 18^+5=0, 3#2 + 53/ 2 + 332 -2.?/2+22,r~2.r?/ + 2.r + 123/4-102 + 20=0,

(iii) 2.r

(iv)

(v)
(vi)

+ 20/ + 182 2 -12#2 + 12.r# + 22.r + 6y-22-2=0, 5x +26y*+Wz* + 4yz+l4:ZJC + 6xy-8x -18y- 102 + 4=0, #2 +#2 + 22 -2y2 + 22.r-2ji#-2a7-4#- 22 + 3=0, #2 +#2 + 22 -2j/2 + 22,r-2,ry-2,r + 23/-22--3=0.
2

An*,

(i)

(-g,

g, o),

(ii)

(-1, -|, -^),

(iv)

(iii)

the central planes

is

are parallel to the line

-^-=f =|, 3 1 y

*z| =B -2 =s ?2 11 lo
1

the line of
is

centres, (v) the central planes are parallel, plane of centres.

(vi)

,r-y+2=l

the

(ii)

Ex. 2. If the origin become

is

changed to the centre, the equations

(i)

and

Ex. 3. If the origin is changed to (5, 0, -3), or to any point on the line of centres, the equation (iv) becomes

Ex.

4.

ellipses

2 2 ^/a +//6 = l, 2=0

Prove that the centres of conicoids that pass through the 2 2 ^/a 2 +2 /c =l, y=0 lie on the lines
;

Ex. 5. The locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through two given straight lines and two given points is a straight line.
Ex.
6.

If F(,r,

;/, 2,

represents a cone, the coordinates of the

vertex satisfy the equations

3F ~ 3F == 3F == 3F == n
5

5~~ ox

^~
oy

T~ oz

"rvl

U-

ot

Ex. 7. Through the sections of a system of confocals by one of the principal planes and by a given plane, cones are described. Prove that tneir vertices lie on a conic.

Ex.
circle

8.

#2 +?/ 2 = 2<&r, 2=0, and have

9.

Prove that the centres of conicoids that pass through the OZ as a generator, he on the cylinder
conicoid touches the axes (rectangular) at the fixed

Ex.

points (a, 0, these points

0), (0, 6, 0), (0, 0, c), and its section by the plane is a circle. that its centre lies on the line

through

Shew

Ex. 10. Shew that the locus of the centres of conicoids which touch the plane 2=0 at an umbilic at the origin, touch the plane #=rt and pass through a fixed point on the 2-axis, is a conicoid which touches the plane 2=0 at an umbilic.

155]

REDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION

11.

219

Ex.

Variable conicoids pass through the given conies

of their centres is a conic in the plane

shew that the locus

y =0.

Ex. 12. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through two conies which have two common points.

REDUCTION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION. 1

Case A D^f 0. There is a single centre at a finite distance, ( 153, Change the origin to it, and the equation becomes
155.
:

I).

The discriminating cubic has three non-zero roots, A 1? A 2 A 3 and there are three determinate principal directions, (A^Ag^Ag), or three directions that can be taken The lines as principal directions, (Ag- A 3 or A 1 = A 2 = A 3 ).
,
, ,

through the centre in these directions are the principal axes of the surface. They are the lines of intersection
of the principal planes.

Take these

lines as coordinate

axes, and the equation transforms into

a hyperboloid of one sheet, a hyperboloid of two sheets, or a sphere, if If S = 0, the surface is a cone.
is

The surface

thus an

ellipsoid,

Ex

1.

tf+y^+z^-fyz-^zx-Zxy-Sx-ty is

The discriminating cubic

TOU Whence
x A A = 4,

--^-, - -

A3 -3A 2 -8A 4-16=0.

A
;

4,

2 a9

-/^,

say

For the centre

#--z-3=0,
# = 1,
'

These give

S
is

y=

1,

2=-!.

The reduced equation

1

therefore

-4r2-a2y 2 -f /?222 =1, and

iv.

re-

presents a hyperboloid of two sheets.

Cf.

Appendix, p.

220
Note.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xi.

If the roots of the discriminating cubic cannot be found by be determined by a corollary of Descartes' inspection, their signs may Rule of Signs "If the roots of /(A)=0 are all real, the number of In positive roots is equal to the number of changes of sign in /(A)." the above case, /(A)== A 3 3X 2 -8A 16, and there are two changes of
:

sign,

and therefore two

2.

positive roots.

Ex

Reduce
(i)
(ii)

(in)

2/-f to + 2,r-4y + 6s + 5=0.

(ii) 3a7
2

Ans.

(i)

^-f 2/4-4*2 = l,

-f-2/-4^=4,

(iii)

156.

CaseB: D = O,
is

There

a single centre at

infinity,

153,

II.).

If

^i> ^2> ^3 are the roots of the discriminating cubic, X 1 ^0, are the direction-cosines X 2 r0, A 3 = 0, ( 141). If Z3 3
,

m %
,

of the principal direction corresponding to

X3

and and therefore

l -*

hl^

^ H

+ 6m3 +fnz = 0, = ^ = ^3+ G Ub + vH+wG

it

Hence ul3 +vm3 +wn& ^=0. Denote The principal plane corresponding
(142).

by

k.

to

X3

is

at infinity,

wu Where

r the line
xu

^
,
>

OC

meets the surface,

L m* we have

L =y 8=Z y=r
>

n* o
3

(op +W3 3^

^
2

^c

^cr\

3y

+ F((X

'

^'

y)=0

'

which, by means of the equations of

147,

may

be written

or

+ F(a,/3, y) = 0, + 2/cr + F(a, y ) = 0.

(3,

Therefore

any

line

in

the principal

direction correfinite

A s meets the surface in one point at a and one point at an infinite distance.
sponding to
If the line

= -. = ^

156]
is

REDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION

(x',

221

normal to the tangent plane at

y',

z'\

a point of

the surface,

BF

3F

3F

3F

2k.

Hence such points as

(x', y',

z)

lie

on the three planes

(1)
............... (2)

(3)

But
parallel to r = F
I*

te+ m3P +3P3 =

2

'

therefore the three planes pass through a line which

is

=
>

n3

Therefore there
the normal
is
is

is

only one point on the surface at which

parallel to the line

-^-= r = ra 7i Z
3 3

OP

11

*Z
.

That point r

the vertex of the surface.

(1), (2), (3),

Its coordinates are given

by

the equations

(which are equivalent to two

y, 0)

independent equations,) and the equation F(x,

'^C*
*^CT

= 0.

^\C*

But

Fx,,z = $x
(1), (2), (3)

Hence any two of the equations

equation

and the

determine the vertex.

To reduce the given equation, change the The equation becomes vertex, (#', y', z'\
y,

origin to the

or

f(x, y, z)

+ 2k(ljc + m3y + nzz) = 0.

into

through the vertex in the principal has directiondirections as coordinate axes, so that o
lines

Take the three

1

cosines

3,

s,

n 3 and the equation transforms

,

222

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
surface
is

[CH.

xt

The
,

therefore a paraboloid.

Since,

from

(1), (2), (3),

3F

3F

+ W2
,

'

the principal planes corresponding to X x and X 2 pass through the vertex. The new coordinate planes are therefore the two principal planes at a finite distance and the tangent

plane at the vertex.

Ex.
1. is

The discriminating cubic

A3 -5A 2 -f2A=0.
Whence
,

x X=

5-\/l7 A
2
,

For the principal direction corresponding to A3

and

The reduced equation The equations #=y, *=0.

is

therefore oL?x2 +/32y2 + -j=z=Q.

v2

for the

vertex give

^=y=2;=0, and the

axis

is

Ex. 2. The following equations represent paraboloids. Find the reduced equations, the coordinates of the vertex, and the equations
to the axis.

^
(ii)

Ans.

(i)y + 3*W;

(1,1/2,5/2);

= 0;
157.

(1,

-9/4, 3/4);

Case 0: D=0, Au+Hv+Gt; = 0, A=0. There is a line of centres at a finite distance,

153, III.)

The discriminating cubic has one

(a8 in

zero-root,

X8 giving
,

156),

l^m,^ AH G'
=

or,

since

QH-AF,

156,157]

REDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION

y

223

Q and the principal plane corresponding to X 3 is indeterminate, ( 142). It may be any plane at right angles to Fx = Gy = H#.

In this case ul3 + vm3 + wn 3

The

line of centres

has equations
Q,

ax + hy+gz+u
which may be written

uf

~T_
l/F

y ~G
1/G

vq

wh
_*
1/H

Hence
centres.

s,

3,

n3

are the direction-cosines of the line of

Any

point on the line of centres has coordinates

r ~~~ ~~~ ~ vg + r wh+r

If

we change
f(x
,

the origin to

it, F(cc,

y, z)

becomes

y,

or, since

M
,,

y,

u zf v 2 *)+-- +,
,

Transform now to axes through the centre chosen whose directions are the principal directions, and the equation
further reduces to

where

rf-

if

If d'=f=Q, the surface is an elliptic or hyperbolic cylinder; d' 0, it is a pair of intersecting planes.

Ex.

1.
is

The discriminating cubic

Whence

A = 3<\~, 0;
0,

a.

2
,

-^8

2
,

0,

say.

Corresponding to A 3 =0, we have

5
3
-j-

2m3 - n 3 = 0,

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
and therefore
and Hence there

[CH. xi.

k =*&. =
5

*, 1

ul3 + vm z +im z =Q.

is

a line of centres, given by 2# + by -f 2 = 0, y 4-2^=0. on this line is (-1, 0, 0). Change the origin to it, and the point given equation becomes

which reduces to
Ex.
(i)

What surfaces are represented by 2. 2 2y -2^+2z#-2#3/-#-2# + 3*-2==0,

2

(ii) 26a; -f

20/+ 102
6o;
2

-4j/2~16eo;-36^-i-52a7-36j/-162;-f 25=0?
axis

Ans.

(i)
(ii)

- 2/=l, 14r2 +42y2 =l,

2^+3 = 2^ = 2$- 1

axis

#=y-l=z-l.

Ex.

3.

Prove that the equation

line

represents a pair of planes which pass through the and are inclined at an angle 2 tan~ a \/2.

x+3=y=z+l

158.

CaseD: A = B = C = F=G = H = O,
IV.).

There is a line of centres at infinity, ( 153, X 2 X3 are the roots of the discriminating cubic, x
,
,

If

If

19

m %
1
,

are the direction-cosines of the principal

direction corresponding to
/t

\ 19

since

2 / = 6c,

2
gf

= ca,

and

=a6, we have
1

+ \/acn _
l

whence

And since ufvg^Q, u\fb v\/a=f=Q, or um^^ Let o Oiy, O^be a set of rectangular axes whose directioncosines are llt m ly ^ Z2 m 2 7i 2 i3 9?i3 7i 3 Then Z2 m2 nz
;
, ,

^s
(

m %
s>

149).

satisfy the equations for principal directions, The equation to the surface referred to o Oiy, o

is

therefore
1

+ vm +
l

by

Sreekanth

158,159]

EEDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION

l^2 +
Z

225

Now
and we can choose

mm +
x

7i 7i
x

= 0,

2,

?Ji

2,

7i

to satisfy also

ul 2 + vm 2 + wn 2 = 0.

Then n^ul^ + vm^ + wn3) = u(n^

Therefore,
if

n 3l 2 )

v(m2 n^

7i 3 2 ),

+ vm3 + ^7i3

is

denoted by

wv

Writing u^ for ull +vm surface becomes

+ wnv
d

the

equation

to

the

2 X^ + 2^8 + 2^0 + d = 0,

u*
e;

or
1

X1

which

may

be reduced, by change of origin, to

The The
xi

therefore a parabolic cylinder. latus rectum of a normal section

surface

is

= 2w = 2{(Wc~W5)H(Wa-Wc)H(^^
1

Case E: A=B = C = F=G = H = O, uf=vg=wh. There is a plane of centres, ( 153, V.). As in Case D, X 1 = a + 6+c, A 2 = X 3 = 0, and
159.
_

Jo,

\/5

*Jc

But

since

^/= vg = w/i, u_
\/a

t;

ti;

\/6

%/c'

and therefore

u 2 + i;m2 + um2 = u?3 + vm$ + wn% = 0.

The equation
and the surface
to the surface therefore reduces to

is

a pair of parallel planes.

226
160.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

XL

Reduction when terms of second degree are a perfect square. The following method of reduction is applicable to Cases D and E, and is the most suitable

method when the

numerical.

coefficients in the

given equation are

Since

A = B = C = 0,

f(x, y, z)

is

a perfect square.

Hence
vy + 2wz + d.
If,

(Case E), -7= = -^ = -,= = k, the equation becomes

ni

/ii

/lii

+ Jby + Jcz) + d = 0,
and represents a pair of
parallel planes.

But

if,

(Case D),

-^ =-/=>

the equation

may

be written

Now

choose X so that the planes

V = 2x(\Ja - u) + 2i/(XN/6 - 1;) + 2^(X\/c - w) + X 2 - d =

are at right angles.

This requires that

A^

Then take rectangular axes with U = 0, V =

coordinate planes
b

as

new

=0,

17

= 0,
A and

so that

N/a

+ +c
fe

and the equation reduces

2

to

(a + 6 + c) =
identity,

But,

by Lagrange's

160, 161]

EEDUCTION OF GENERAL EQUATION

227

therefore the reduced equation

may

be written

Ex.

Reduce the equations

(i)

x*

+
2

y*+z*

(ii) 9o7
2

+ 4/4-4*2 + 8y* 4- I2zx+l2xy + 4x+y 4-1024-1=0.

(ii)

An*,

(i) 6,r

-2V6tf-3=0,

x*=

161.

Summary

of the various cases.

In the reduction

of the general equation of the second degree with numerical coefficients the following order of procedure is generally the most convenient
:

If the

terms of second degree form a perfect square,

proceed as in 160. If the terms of second degree do not form a perfect square, solve the discriminating cubic.
If

the three roots are different from zero, find the centre
^C"
"x-^CT

(<*>

&

y) from the equations

is

^C*

= 0, and

the

reduced equation

If one root,

X8

is zero, find Z3 ,

s,

n3 from two
,

of the
k.

equations

~
Ov*

= ^- =
C/TTi'Q

^= ^^3

0.

Evaluate ulz + vm3 + wn 3 ==

If ^^=0, the reduced equation is

If

fc

= 0,

there

is

a line of centres, given by any two of

6, y)

the equations *

on

it

= = 0. Choose (a, ay oz as centre, and the reduced equation is

ex

any point

228

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Reduce the following equations
:

[CH.

XL

Ex.
(i)

(ii)
(iii)

(iv)

(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

(ix)

(x)

5^+26y +102 +4y0+142jp+6^y-8^-18y- 10^+4=0, 4#2 + 9y2 + 3632 -36yz + 24^-12^/-10^+15y-302 + 6= 2 lly +14y*+8^ + 14^-6#-16# + 2z-2=0, 2^2 -7^2 + 222 -10^-8^-10^+6jr+ 12^-62 + 5=0.
2 (i) 3,*
2 2 +2y +6* =l,

Ans.

(ii)

14a?2 +26/==2x/9]2,

(iii) ( v)

14r2 -27y2 =l,

(iv) (vi)
(viii)

(vii)

(ix)

3^-4y 14^ + 87^ = 1, 2 2 2 3.r + 4# - 182 = 1,

-12^2 =l,

(x) x* +

2/ - 4* 2 = 0. two
of the roots of the

162. Oonicoids of revolution.

If

discriminating cubic are equal and not zero, the equation = reduces to F(x, y, z)

+ = 0, .................... (i)
or
or

X 1 (a?+y 8 )+2fe =

................... (ii)

A^+^Hd'^O
The surface
is

.................... (iii)

therefore,
(ii),

(i),

an

ellipsoid, hyperboloid, or

cone of revolution,

a paraboloid of revolution, or (iii), a right circular cylinder. These are, if we exclude the sphere, the only conicoids of revolution, and therefore the conshould represent a surface of ditions that F(#, y, 0) = revolution are the conditions that the cubic should have a
repeated root different from zero,
viz., (

146),

or or
or

\ = a, \= \=
b,
c,

(6~ a )(o-a)=/,

= 0,
/=0,

h = 0;

......... (2)
......... (3)

(c-b)(a-b)=g

z
,

h=0, /=0;
gf

(a-c)(6-c)=/i

2
,

.......... (4)

162]

CONICOIDS OF EEVOLUTION

229

If equations (1) are satisfied,

F(OJ,

y, z)

s A^a;2 + 1/ 2 + z2) + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz+d

And
line

therefore

any plane

^ parallel to the plane -,4-

CC

1i

+^=
'

cuts the surface in a circle.

The

axis of the surface

is

the
is,

through the centres of the circular sections, that the perpendicular from the centre of the sphere
Its equations are therefore

to the planes of the sections.

Similarly, the axis are

if

equations (2) are satisfied, the equations to

x + u/a _ y + v/a _ z+wfa

Ex.

1.

ellipsoid

Find the right circular cylinders that circumscribe the a*a*

parallel to the line

The enveloping cylinder whose generators are x/l=y/m=z/n has equation

Conditions (1) give

which can only be satisfied if ab=c, or (If <z=6=c, the ellipsoid becomes a sphere, and any enveloping cylinder is a right cylinder.) Using conditions (2), (3), (4), we obtain
or
or

l=m=n0.

m=,
n=0,

real values for If a 6 c, the second only of these equations gives the direction-cosines of a generator, viz.,
I

> >

wt

If

is

the repeated root of the discriminating cubic,

230

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
to the cylinder is

[CH. xi.

The reduced equation

or

Ex.

2.

Find the right

circular cylinders that can be inscribed in

the hy perboloid
Ant. 4(j<?+2y z -3z'i

+ ty - & = 1.

Ex.

3.

Prove that

focus.

represents a paraboloid of revolution, and find the coordinates of the Ans. (I, 2, 3).

Ex. 4. Find the locus of the vertices of the cones of revolution that pass through the ellipse

Ex. 5. The locus of the vertices of the right circular cones that circumscribe an ellipsoid consists of the focal conies.

Ex.

6.
'

If /(#, y,

z)=0 represents a
g
A

right cone of serai- vertical

anglea

\f

Ex. 7. If /(#, y, z) = l represents an ellipsoid formed by the revolution of an ellipse about its major axis, the eccentricity of the
generating ellipse
is

given by

# -h b + c __

gh

Ex. 8. If the axes are oblique, F(x, y, of revolution if

/(.r, y, s)
is

2)=0 represents a conicoid

&vy cos
v)

- k(x* +y2 4- 22 + 2y2 cos A + 2&# cos p +

a perfect square. Hence shew that the four cones of revolution that pass through the coordinate axes are given by ayz + bzx+cxyQ y where

9 sm z ~

444
sin 2 .

-a
s^ 2 ^
2t
.

b
cos 2 ^

2 sm 9 7r

&

cos2 &
~~

or

cos'

a TA 2

~~^
-

or
9

sm

2M
* ^-

cos 2 2*

v'

A cos j 2t

,u

JL

cos^^ 2t

9 v sin 2 .

2t

Ex. 9. Find the equations to the right circular cones that touch the (rectangular) coordinate planes. Ans. aP+y*+z2 %yz%zx2xy=:(), (one or three of the negative signs being taken).

1631

INVARIANTS

231

INVARIANTS.
163.

If the equation

to

a conicoid F(x

y, 0)

is trans-

formed by any change of rectangular

axes, the expressions

D,

a+b+c,
remain unaltered in

A + B + C,

value.

If the origin only is changed, f(x, y, z) is unaffected,

and

therefore
If

a+b + c, A + B + C,

and D are unaltered.

the coordinate axes be turned about the origin so that f(x, y, z) is transformed into

now

then

f(x y, z)
y

\(x* + y

+z )
2

becomes

If

f(x, y,

z)-

represents

two

planes,

And X is the ivill also represent the planes. in both equations, therefore the equations
a-X,
h,
ff>

same quantity

h,

= 0,

X,

/tj,

gl

6-X,
f>

/
c

~*
In each the
coefficient of

have the same and therefore

roots.

Xs

is

unity,

Again becomes

if

the origin

is

changed to

(a,

/3,

y), F(#, y,

z)=0

f(x,

y,*)+

+y

232

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
of S,
1
a,
h, 3*

[CH. XI.

Hence the new value

3F
-^W

h,

b,

J>

Iff 7\fi
f)

1
f,
1

3F

C>

2 By"
.

3F

3F

SF

2?v7' 6 OOL

9SS' A Oy ffafry) 2?^' A Ofj

Multiply the numbers in the first three columns by <x, )8, y respectively, and subtract the sum from the numbers
in the fourth

column

then apply the same process to the

rows, and

a, h,
^7 ^

^,
b,
/
/
'

</,

u =S.
v

/,
'

u,

t>,

w,

c?

Therefore S
If the

is

unaltered by change of origin.

axes be

now turned about

the origin so that

becomes

then
transforms into

F(,

y,

0)-A(a

If F(x, y, 0)

X(cc

+y 2 +22 -fl) =

represents a cone

163]

INVARIANTS

233

will also represent the cone.

And X being the same quantity

in both equations, the equations

Xf
'

Ji>

u
i

f Ji> c i
/*

u "\

>

w
/%/

have the same roots. In each equation the coefficient of X 4 is unity, and therefore the constant terms are equal, i.e. S = S'. Hence S is invariant for any change of rectangular
axes.

Ex.
a,
/?,

1.

If /(#, y, z) transforms into cuc +/3y 2 + yz 2, are the roots of the discriminating cubic.
>2

prove that

Ex.
is

2.

If the origin is unaltered,

Aw2 -f Bv 2 -f Cw 2 -h 2 F vw 2Guw -f 2Hwv

-f-

invariant.

Ex.

3.

If

ao; 2 -f 63/2 +C2 -f 2/^2

2

+ 2^^-f 2A,ry,

at^

2 -f 6j3/ -f c t 2

are simultaneously transformed,

remains unaltered.

Ex. 4. If any set of rectangular axes through a fixed origin meets a given conicoid in P, P' Q, Q' R, R', prove that
;
;

w
v

n\

pp/2

OP .OP
2

/2

QQ 4._R-R' OQ .OQ OR OR'

/2

/2

2'

1
'

OP.OP'^OQ.OQ' OR. OR'

are constant.

Ex. 5. Shew by means of invariant expressions that the squares of the principal axes of a normal section of the cylinder which envelopes the ellipsoid #2 /a 2 +#2/& 2 +22/c 2 ==l, and whose generators are parallel to the line xll=ylm = zjn^ are given by

Examples VIII.
1.

Prove that

5#2 -f5/-f 822 -h 8^ + 8^-2^ + 12^- 12^ 4-6=0 represents a cylinder whose cross-section is an ellipse of eccentricity
l/\/2,

and

find the equations to the axis.

234
2.

COORDINATE GEOMETKY
Find the eccentricity
of a section of the surface

[CH.

XL

by a plane through the

3.

line

x=y=z.

What

is

the nature of the surface given by

/(

)=l

if

-^=6-|U-.f
and
real cone
2
2

=0?

4. Prove that the cylinder intersection of the conicoids

through the curve of

x 2 + az 2 = 2cy,
are given

-f bz

by

5.

Prove that three cones can be drawn through the curve of

intersection of the conicoids

and that their vertices form a right-angled

6.

triangle.

Prove that
ct/

represents a paraboloid touching the surface points of section by the plane lx + my +

axis
is

m\.

az2 +by2 +

<

=1

at

its its

Prove also that

parallel to the line

^-^-= -. m n

7.

Shew

that the conicoids

are equal in all respects.

8.

Prove that

if

a? -f b 3

+ c3 = Zabc and

represents either a parabolic cylinder or a hyperbolic paraboloid.

9.

If F(or, y,

*)=0 represents a

cylinder, prove that

as

3s

as

3S
-?ST-

and that the area

of a

normal section

is TT

OH. xi.]
10.

EXAMPLES
if

VIII.

235
of revolution,

Prove that

F(x, y,

)=0 represents a paraboloid

we have
and that
if it

represents a right circular cylinder

we have

also

7 9 ^~
11.

'

The

principal planes of /(#, y,

#,

z)

=I
z

are given

by

y,

=0,

a? ay
3F
where
F(,r, y,

a*

3F

3F

)=0

is

the cone reciprocal to /(or, y, *)-0.

12. Prove that the centres of conicoids that touch vertex and at all points of its generator y = kx, kz = m,

yz~mx
lie

at its

on the line

13. Prove that z(ax+by + cz) + ouv-\- /3y=0 represents a paraboloid and that the equations to the axis are

14.

A hyperbolic
^=-; and

yl

paraboloid passes through the lines

=^ = --ao^sc

'Y*

t/

has one system of generators parallel to the plane

?=0.

Shew

that the equations to the axis are

a
15.

'

*= - h and
;

Paraboloids are drawn through the lines y=0, 0=A, #=0, touching the line #=a, y=&. Shew that their diameters through the point of contact lie on the conoid

16.

Given the ellipsoid of revolution

that the cone whose vertex is one of the foci of the ellipse 3=0, 2 2 #*/a +y /6 ==l, and whose base is any plane section of the ellipsoid is
2

Shew

of revolution.
17.

The axes
(

six points

a, 0, 0), (0,

of the conicoids of revolution that pass through the 6, 0), (0, 0, c) lie in the coordinate planes

or on the cone

^"
18.
circle

_ *2 2

+ "TF" + ~/"" a
i

22 *

_ ^2
4/

a/

*&

_ 7/2 V

xv

Prove that the equation to the right circular cylinder on the through the three points (a, 0, 0), (0, fc, 0), (0, 0, c) is

236
19

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
Find the equation
to the paraboloid

[CH. xi.

which has

y=: Z -k

= Q, # = Z-f =

as generators and the other system parallel to the plane 2=0. Find also the coordinates of the vertex and the equations to the axis.
20. The axes of cylinders that circumscribe an ellipsoid and have a cross-section of constant area lie on a cone concyclic with the ellipsoid. 21.

x+ y+

y=

A conicoid touches the plane 2=0 and

in

is

cut by the planes

#=0,
b.

two

circles of variable centres

but constant radii a and

o.

Shew

that the locus of the centre

w
A

is

-f) +

y - M*=

22. A, B, C are the points (2a, 0, 0), (0, 2ft, 0), (0, 0, 2c), and the circle is circumscribed about the triangle axes are rectangular. conicoid passes through this circle and is such that its OAB. are rectangular hyperbolas which sections by the planes #=0, y = O, C and A respectively. Prove that pass through O, B and C the equation to the conicoid is

= 0,
where A and
such conicoids
/UL

is

are parameters, the sphere

-22

and that the

locus of the centres of

~ax by-cz=0.

23.

Shew

vertices of the tetrahedron

that the equation to the conicoid that passes through the whose faces are

#=0,
and
is

y=0,

2=0,

j?/

such that the tangent plane at each vertex

is

is

parallel to the

opposite face,

a
24. Shew that the equation to the ellipsoid inscribed in the tetrahedron whose faces are #=0, y=0, 2=0, #/a-hy/6-f 2/0=!, so as to touch each face at its centre of gravity, is
3.r2

-^
Shew
and that
that
its

+ 3y2~ +

3^ 2

~?

+ 3?/2 + ~6c

ca

ab

~ +i _ a

its centre is at the centre of gravity of the tetrahedron equation referred to parallel axes through the centre is

^0-^4- f!jJ^ 4-^4-^- JL *# ^ c^bc ca a&~24*

25.
If the feet of the six

normals from P to the ellipsoid

r2

a
lie

_4.^_4.. - l + 2+ 2 A
-2

u*

22

upon a concentric conicoid of revolution, the locus of

is

the cone

yV

zW

x^

CH.

XL]
of

EXAMPLES
symmetry

VIII.

237

and the axes

of the conicoids lie

on the cone

represents a pair ot that the planes bisecting the angles between them are planes, prove given by =0
26.

If

ax

<2

+ by2 +cz2 + Zfyz 4- 2gzx+%hxy=Q

ax + hy+gz, F' 1
,

hx -t-fy/-f/z,

G :I

gx+fy + H- 1

27.

Prove that

- OL/3 represents a cylinder whose axis

t

is

#_ o.= y - /?= - y.

OH. XII,

CHAPTER

XII.

THE INTERSECTION OF TWO CONICOIDS.

plane meets a conicoid in a conic, and therefore any plane meets the curve of intersection of two conicoids The curve of in the four points common to two conies.
164,

Any

intersection is therefore of the fourth degree, or is a 'quartic

curve.

have a common generator, any plane which does not pass through it meets it in one point and meets the locus of the other common points of the conicoids in three points, and therefore the locus is a cubic curve.
If the conicoids

Thus the quartic curve

of intersection of

two

conicoids

may

consist of a straight line

,

and a cubic curve.

Ex. The conicoids zx=y2 xy~z have OX as a common generator. Their other common points lie on a cubic curve whose equations may be written xt, y = 2 z=t3, where t is a parameter.
,

Again, an asymptote of one of the two conies, in which a given plane cuts two conicoids, may be parallel to an

asymptote of the other.

In that case the conies will inter-

sect in three points at a finite distance, and the locus of the common points of the two conicoids which are at a
finite distance will

be a cubic curve.

have seen that three cylinders pass through the feet of Ex. the normals from a point (OL, #, y) to the conicoid
gp __ Q^
4/

We

Their equations are ^

or

==

ax

z__ti =

_ <y
L

by
zx(c

cz

yz(b

- c) -

byy+cftz^Q,

- a) - COLZ+

ayx =0,

xy(a-b)~ a

164, 165]

CONICOIDS WITH
is

COMMON GENERATORS

239 be

Their curve of intersection

written

a cubic curve whose equations

may

-c
One asymptote
of

any

plane section of the first lies in the plane

--b-c
and one asymptote
of

'

any plane

section of the second lies in the plane

c

-^= a

Hence any plane meets the two cylinders in two conies such that an asymptote of one is parallel to an asymptote of the other, and
the conies therefore intersect in three points at a finite distance.

that the locus of the

The cubic curve common to two conicoids. Suppose common points of two conicoids S t and S 2 coftsists of a common generator AB and a cubic curve.
165.

generator, PQ, of S v of the opposite system to AB, meets S2 in two points, one of which lies upon AB and the

Any

FlO. 49.

other upon the curve. Let P, fig. 49, be the first of these points and Q the second. The plane containing AB and PQ meets the curve in three points, one of which is Q. But
all

points of the curve lie upon S x and the plane intersects S t in the lines AB and PQ, therefore the other two points
lie

upon AB or PQ, or one upon AB and one upon PQ. lie upon PQ, for then PQ would meet the surface S2 in three points, and would therefore be a generator

must

Neither can

940

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
.

[CH.

xn.

of S2

Therefore the cubic curve intersects the

common
P move

generator AB at two points. Let AB meet the curve in R and along AB. As P tends to R, Q tends
limit

S,

and

let

to P, so that in the

a tangent at R to the surface S 2> and the plane of AB and PQ is then the tangent plane at R to the surface S 2 But the plane of AB and PQ is tangent plane And therefore at P to the surface S x for any position of P.

PQ

is

the surfaces S x and S 2 have the same tangent plane at R. But we have Similarly, the surfaces also touch at S.
proved,
134, Ex. 10), that if two conicoids have a common generator, they touch at two points of the generator. Hence the locus of the common points of two conicoids
(

which have a common generator consists of the generator and a cubic curve, which passes through the two points of the generator at which the surfaces touch.
Ex.
1.

The
as a

conicoids

bx^-yz- Izx + 2#y + 2#+2y = 0,

2,r
2

............. (1)

-*.r+# + ?/=0,

............................... (2)

have
is

OZ

common
*.r.

given

common
obtain

byy =

generator.
find

this plane meets the cubic curve to the conicoids, substitute in equations (1) and (2).

To

Any

plane through the generator

where

The points The remaining point

from
(3)

x #(5 + 20-*(* + 2)+2(* + l) = 0, .................. (3) -z + * + l =0................... (4) #=0, 2x corresponding to # = lie upon the common generator.
of intersection of the plane and cubic has, coordinates
z

We

and

(4),

#=*(* + !),

= (2* + l)(* + l); and y^tx=$(t + \)......... (5)

a variable parameter, so that we may take the equations (5) represent the curve. The points where the curve meets the common generator OZ are given by =0, =-1. They are the points (0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 0). It is easy to verify that the common tangent planes at these points are y =0, x+ y = 0.

But

t is

to

Ex.

2.

Prove that the conicoids

have

x~yz as a common generator.

_(4**+4* + 3)(l~*)

Prove that the plane

meets the cubic curve which contains the other

common

points in the

int

8(1-0
4* 3

+ 5*'

165, 166]

CONICOIDS

WITH COMMON GENEEATORS

241

shew that the cubic meets the common generator at the origin and the - and verify that the surfaces have the same tangent point x=yz
,

planes at these points.

166.

Oonicoids with

common

generators.

The cubic

curve

may O

degenerate into a straight line and a conic or

P,
(fig.

into three straight lines.

be the points of the common the measure generator at which the surfaces touch and let Take OP as 0-axis and O as origin. Let OX of OP be y. and PG be the other generators of the conicoid S x which

Let

arid

50),

pass through

O and
PG

P.

Take OX

as #-axis,

and the
a=

parallel

through O

to

as i/-axis.
2/

Then, since

= 0, y = 0;
are generators of S 19
its

= 0, = 0;
may

= y,

equation

be written
(1)

Pia. 50.

since the tangent planes at the origin and (0, 0, y) to S 2 is to S 2 are y = 0, x = respectively, the equation 2 = ....... (2) 2h^y 2yy

And

a^ + btf + 2yz + 2g^x +

at (0,
0, z')

The tangent planes

and hence
B.O.

to

8 l and S 2 are given by

all

if

ggi

the surfaces touch at

Q

points of the

242

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH.

xn.

shall consider meantime the common generator OZ. case where g=f=g r From (1) and (2), by subtracting, we obtain

We

h)=:Q

>

......... (3)

clearly represents a surface through the common It is in general a cone, having OZ as points of S l and S 2 a generator, and in general, the locus of the common points

which

S l and S 2 is a cubic curve which lies upon the cone. But if equation (3) represents two intersecting planes, the cubic will degenerate. The condition for a pair of planes is
of

If 6 1

= 0. = 0, PG, whose equations are x = 0, z = y, is a generator

b l (g l
2

g)

= 0, and

hence

of

S 2 and equation (3) then becomes equivalent to # = 0, a 1aj + 20(gf 1 -gr)+2y(A 1 -A) = 0.
,

Hence the common points of S x and S2

in the plane

lie

upon a conic

and the two common generators, OZ and PG,

<c

in the plane

= 0.
If, also,

The plane of the generator of S 2 conic then passes through OX, and is therefore a tangent The conic therefore becomes two plane to both conicoids. one of which is OX, and the other a generator straight lines,
0^
is
.

= 0, OX

of the opposite system. system, and the conic

same consists therefore of OX and a The complete generator which intersects OX and PG. of the common points of S l and S 2 is then a skew locus quadrilateral formed by four common generators.
of the
If

But OX and PG are

the conicoids touch at

all

points of
(3)

the

common

generator

QZ,ggv and equation

becomes

which represents a pair of planes through OZ. If these planes are distinct, they meet the conicoids in two other common generators of the opposite system to OZ. If they are coincident the conicoids touch at all points of a
second

common

generator.

166]

EXAMPLES OF INTEESECTION
1.

243

Ex.

The

conicoids

2#2 -y* - 5*2 - 6yz - 3zx+4xy - 2r+ y -f 62=0 have two common generators and a common conic section. (The generators are #=0, 3/4-2 = 1 y = 0, z+,r=L)
;

Ex.

2.

The

conicoids

have

OX

for a

common

generator.
o?

Find the locus

of their other

common
Ex.
3.

points.

Ans. ar-f 1=

-2y = 4z, and

conicoids

The

4s;

- Gyz -

Wzjc + 7xy + 2z=

Have four common generators.

(y=0,
Ex.
4.

= 0;
The

2=0,

^=0

.r=0,

3y~22=l

conicoids

have two common generators and touch at all points of these generators.
Ex.
5.

Prove that the intersection of the conicoids

2 2 4-23-^4-2=0,

y -2y-,r-l=0

is

a quartic curve whose equations

may be

written

Ex. 6. Find the points of intersection of the plane #-9y-4 and the quartic curve which is common to the parabolic cylinders 2 224-10^-3/4-26=0, y -2y -# + 2=0.
Ans.

Two
7.

coincident at (17,

5,

-7)

(2, 2,

-4)

(82, 10, -2).

Ex.

Prove that the conicoids

3#2 +4z2 - 4yz -zx -

touch one another at all points of the common generator a?=y=e, and that their other common generators lie in the planes

Ex.
points

8.
lie

If two cones have a common generator, their other common on a cubic curve which passes through both vertices.

Ex.

9.

If

to a given plane

two paraboloids have each a system of generators parallel and touch at two points of a common generator of the
all

system, they touch at

points of the generator.

844

COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
10.

[CH.

xa

Ex.

Prove that the three cylinders

z(a-x)~a?, x(a-y) = a? pass through a cubic curve which lies on the surface xyz + a?=Q. Ex. 11. Prove that if the cubic curve
y(a

z)=a

x
meets a conicoid

~t=3

y ~~t^~V

2
Z

Shew

in seven points, it lies that the curve lies upon the cylinders

~7-~c wholly on the conicoid,

G! ^yz(b

- c)-

2y + 22=0,

C 3 = ^y(a -6) and hence that the general equation

to a conicoid through it
is

Prove that the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through the curve is

and that

this surface is also the locus of the mid-points of chords of the curve. Shew that the lines

y y

22 a-b
2=

__.
;

a-c

b-c

22 - - 22
X=

b-a'

y c-a J c-b

are asymptotic to the curve,

and that the locus of the centres passes

through them and through the curve. Ex. 12. Prove that the general equation to a conicoid through the cubic curve given by = x g ^ fl
s

^
Verify that this surface

and that the

locus of the centres of such conicoids

is

the surface

is

also the locus of the mid-points of chords

of the curve.

Ex.

13.

The equations
{

to a cubic curve are

*

x = a^ 3 + 6^ 2 + c

Prove that the given by wu=v*, where

2 3 y = a,/ -f b 2 t + erf, z = a3 + b3 t* + c3 t. cone generated by chords through the origin

t,

is

^r

etc.;
2, 3,

oa\

Shew that the curve lies on each have a common generator),

and that the

of the conicoids, (two of

which

locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through

0.

it is

167]

INTERSECTION OF
14,

TWO

CONICOIDS

245

Ex.

Prove that the equations

v=s

determine a cubic curve, which lies upon three cylinders generators are parallel to the coordinate axes.

whose

Ex.

15.

Prove that the cubic curve given by

_ X~
lies

upon the conicoids

where

=B^
3A
etc.;

4-

B 2 y+ B 3z+B 4

+ D4

If A, B, C,

are the points

each of the conicoids passes through two of the lines BA, AD, DC. The equations w3w 1 =^ 22 represent cones whose vertices are D and A respectively. The curve passes through A and D and touches BA at A and
,

u^u^

DC

The

at D. centres of conicoids through

it lie

on the cubic surface

2 (a 4

The cones through the intersection of two conicoids. Four cones, in general, pass through the curve of intersection of two given conicoids, and their vertices are the summits of a tetrahedron which is self-polar with
167.

intersection. respect to any conicoid through the curve of If the equations to the conicoids are

S s ax 2 + by* + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy

V + 2f'yz + Zg'zx + Zh'xy

5

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH.

xn.

the equation S + XS'=0 represents a conicoid through the curve of intersection. This conicoid is a cone if

h+\h',

= 0,
v+\v'

u+\u',

v + \v',

w+\w',

and this equation gives four values of X. If these are \ 19 X 2 X 3 X 4 then (a, /3, y), the vertex of the cone corresponding to \ v is given by
, , ,

where S a E=-

etc.

ooc

Again, the polar plane of (a,

/3,

y)

with respect to S-f//S' =

x
tt

has for equation

#(S +/xS'a ) + ^(S/3 + /*S 0) + z(S v

+^^

which by means

of the relations (1) reduces to

The polar plane

through Hence this plane is plane with respect to the conicoid S the polar plane of (a, /3, y) with respect to the three cones corresponding to X 2 X 3 X 4 and therefore passes through
7
.

of (a, {3, y) with respect to any conicoid the curve of intersection is therefore the polar

the vertices of these cones.

vertices of

Thus the plane through the

of the cones is the polar plane of the fourth vertex with respect to any conicoid of the system,

any three

or the four vertices form a self -polar tetrahedron.

If two conicoids 168. Conicoids with double contact. have common tangent planes at two points they are said to have double contact. If two conicoids have double contact and the line joining the points of contact is not a common generator,

their curve of intersection consists of two conies. If the points of contact are A and B, any plane through AB meets the conicoids in two conies which touch at A

and

B,

Take AB

as y-axis

and any two

lines

through

167,108]

CONICOTDS WITH DOUBLE CONTACT

247

a point on AB as x- and z-axes. Let the conies in which the #y-plane cuts the conicoids be

and

Then the equations

to the

two conicoids are

f+z(lx+my + nz+p) = Q, ............ (1) f+\x*+z(l'x + m'y + n'z+p') = Q ............. (2)

But the sections of the conicoids by the yz-plane also touch at A and B, and therefore their equations are of the
forms

0(JM) = 0,

0(2/,z)

+ X'22 = 0.
are given

The

sections of the conicoids

by the plane x =

and therefore

m=m
(2),

and p=p'.

From

(1)

and

by

subtraction,

we have

common points of the two conicoids lie in two which pass through AB, or the curve of intersection planes consists of two conies which cross at A and B. If AB is a common generator of the two conicoids, the other common points lie on a cubic curve, which may, as we have seen in 166, consist of a straight line and a
therefore the
conic, or three straight lines.

In either case the

points

two planes. In the first case, if the generators AB and AC meet the conic in B and C, the coniFor the tangent coids touch at the three points A, B, C.
lie

in

common common

plane to either conicoid at B is the plane containing AB and the tangent to the conic at B, and the tangent plane to either conicoid at C is the plane containing AC and
the tangent to the conic at C; also the plane BAC is the common tangent plane at A. In the second case, the

common

points of the conicoid lie on the sides of a skew quadrilateral and the conicoids touch at the four vertices.

248

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xn.

// two conicoids have two they touch at two points, at least

169.

common plane

sections

The
meet

line of intersection of the planes of the sections will the conicoids in two common points A and B. The

tangents to the sections at A are tangents to both conicoids at A, and therefore, since two tangents determine the tangent
plane at any point, the conicoids have the same tangent plane at A. Similarly they touch at B. If one plane section consists of two generators CA and CB, the conicoids If the other also consists of two generators also touch at C.
the conicoids touch at their point of intersection, and thus touch at four points.
analytical proof is equally simple. equation to one conicoid, and

The

If

S=

is

the

represent the planes of the common sections, the equation to the other conicoid is of the form

If u'

is

the point (a,

/?,

y),

then
(1)

= aoi+bj3+cy + d = 0, and v =a'oi + b'(3 + cy+d' = Q.

The equation
to the tangent plane at

to the second

conicoid

is

xS a + yS
or,

ft

by

(1),

+ zS y + S + X (uv' + vu') = 0, xS a + yS + zS y + S = 0,
t

ft

which represents the tangent plane at A to the first conicoid. Hence the conicoids touch at A, and similarly they touch
at B.
170. The general equation to a conicoid having double contact with S = 0, the chord of contact being u = 0, u = 0, is

S + Xu2 + 2/jiuv + vtf = 0.

For the tangent plane at A is xSa + y Sp + zS y + S + 2\uu' + 2/ji (uv' + vu') + 2i/tw' = 0,
t

or,

since

u' = v' = 0,

xS a + ySp + zSy + S

= 0.
B.

Thus the conicoids touch at A, and similarly, at Again, three conditions must be satisfied if a conicoid is

to

169-171]

CIRCUMSCKIBING CONICOIDS

249

touch a given plane at a given point, and therefore the general equation should contain three disposable constants,

which
Cor.

it

does.

focus of a conicoid

is

a sphere of zero radius

conicoid,

which has double contact with the

sponding directrix
171.
is

and the

corre-

the chord of contact.

Circumscribing conicoids. If two conicoids touch at three points A, B C and none of the lines BC, CA, AB is a common generator, then the conicoids touch at all points of their sections by the plane ABC. Since the conicoids touch at B and C, their common points
f

two planes which pass through BC, ( 168). Since these planes pass through A, they must coincide in the plane ABC. The curve of intersection of the surfaces consists therefore of two coincident conies in the plane ABC, and the surfaces touch at points of their section by the
tie

in

plane.

When two
one
is

conicoids touch at aJl points of a plane section said to be circumscribed to the other.

If two conicoids have a common plane section, their other of intersection lie in one plane. points

Ex.

1.

Ex. 2. If three conicoids have a common plane section, the planes of their other common sections pass through one line.

Ex. 3. The locus of a point such that the square on the tangent from it to a given sphere is proportional to the rectangle contained by its distances from two given planes is a conicoid which has double contact with the sphere.
Ex.
4.

Two

conicoids which are circumscribed to a third intersect

in plane curves.

Ex. 5. When three conicoids are circumscribed to a fourth, they intersect in plane curves, and certain sets of three of the six planes of intersection, one from each pair of conicoids, pass through one line.

Ex.

6.

Prove that the

ellipsoid
2

and sphere given by

-f-5/ + 14z =200,

2

5(.

+y 2 +*2 )-64r + 36* -{-20=0

is

have double contact, and that the chord of contact Ex.

7.

#=8, 2=2.

polar planes with respect to section pass through one line.

If a system of conicoids has a common conic section, the them of any point in the plane of the

250

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
8.

[CH. xn.

Ex.
Ex.

If

two conicoids have two common generators of the same

system, they have two other

9.

common

generators.

The

centres of conicoids which have double contact with

the surface
at its points of intersection with the chord the plane z=0 in a circle, lie on the line

r=a, y=/3, and

intersect

Z=Z Q '

jL_Jl = i_i.
aa.
b/3

b'

Ex. 10.
ellipsoid

A sphere of
its

constant radius r has doable contact with the

^2
centre

+ ^2 + = 1 a* i* ?
lie

zz

'

Prove that

must

on one of the conies

r X2

Examine when the contact is real and within the ellipsoid. Cf. 130.

when

the sphere

lies

wholly

Ex. 11. If a conicoid is circumscribed to a sphere, every tangent plane to the sphere cuts the conicoid in a conic which has a focus at the point of contact.
Ex. 12. If a conicoid is circumscribed to another conicoid, the tangent plane to either at an umbilic cuts the other in a conic of which the umbilic is a focus. Ex.
13.

Any two

enveloping cones of the conicoid

aa? +
2

fey

+ w2 = l

whose

vertices lie

on the concentric and aomothetic conicoid

have double

contact.

Ex. 14. The centres of conicoids which have double contact with a given conicoid so that the chord of contact is parallel to a given line lie in a given plane. Ex. 15. If two cones have a common circular section, they have double contact, and if the line joining their vertices meet the plane of the circle in P, the chord of contact is the polar of P with respect to the circle.

Ex. 16. If a sphere has double contact with an ellipsoid, the chord of contact is parallel to one of the principal axes, and the angle between the planes of the common sections of the sphere and tne ellipsoid is the same for all chords parallel to a given axis.

172, 173]

CONICOIDS

THROUGH EIGHT POINTS

251

Conicoids through eight given points. An infinite number of conicoids can be found to pass through eight
172,

given points.

Take A and B any other two

fixed points.

Then one

conicoid can be found to pass through A and the eight given points, and one to pass through B and the eight given Let the equations to these conicoids be S = 0, S' = 0. points.

The equation S + XS' =

through
all

S = 0,

S'

= 0,

represents a conicoid which passes the points common to the conicoids given by and therefore through the eight given points.
;

value can be assigned to the parameter X therefore an infinite number of conicoids can be found to pass

And any

through the eight given

points.

= = is a points of S 0, S' Hence all conicoids through eight given quartic curve. points pass through a quartic curve.
The
locus of the

common

Cor.
points,

One
but

conicoid, in general, passes through nine given

the ninth point lies on the quartic curve through the other eight, an infinite number of conicoids passes through the nine.
if

173.

The polar planes of a given point with respect

to

the conicoids through eight given points

pass through a

fixed line. Any conicoid through the eight points is given by S XS' = 0, where S = and S' = represent fixed conicoids through the points. The equation to the polar plane of with respect to the conicoid S + XS' = is /3> y)

Hence, whatever the value of through the fixed line

X,

the polar plane passes

Ex. 1. If four conicoids pass through eight given points, the polar planes of any point with respect to tnem have the same anharmonic
ratio.

Ex. 2. The diametral planes of a given line with respect to the conicoids through eight given points pass through a fixed line.

252

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. XIL

Ex. 3. The polars of a given line with respect to the conicoids through eight given points lie on a hyperboloid of one sheet. If A!, (04, ftu yi) and A 2 (04 /J2 y 2 ) are points of the given line, ~ and we denote u c n
,
,
.

by P ai

and

^Soj+ySft+^S^ + Stj, by

S + AS'=Oare
The

then the equations to the polar of AjA 2 with respect to the conicoid

locus of the polars

is

therefore given by
fltj

PP'
<ti

P O^r P'

o
ttl

\J.

Ex. 4. The pole of a given plane with respect to the conicoids through eight given points lies on a cubic curve, the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common generator. Let A x (0.1, &, yOi A 2 (-2 A 3f (<x3 /33t y 3 ) be three points 72)* of the fixed plane. Then the pole of the fixed plane with respect to the conicoid S-f- AS' = is the point of intersection of the polar planes of AI, A 2 A 3 and therefore is given by
,

&

Pa t

+ AP ai = 0,
'

Po2

+ AP'a* = 0,
,

Pas

+ AP'a - 0.
3

The

locus of the pole

,

is

therefore the curve of intersection of the

,

hyperboloids

p aj p ag ~" p as p 03 _ ^j r

p ag p a^ "~ p r ra

03

Ex.
points

5.
lie

The

centres of conicoids that pass through eight given

on a cubic curve.

174. Conicoids
S'

through seven given points.

If

s = 0,

S" = 0, are the equations to fixed conicoids through the seven given points, the general equation to a conicoid

= 0,

through the points

is

S + AS' + //S" =

........................ (1)

fixed conicoids intersect in eight points whose coordinates are given by S = 0, S' = 0, S" = 0, and therefore

The

evidently satisfy the equation (1). Therefore all conicoids which pass through seven given points pass through an

eighth fixed point.

Ex. 1. The polar planes of a given point with respect to the conicoids which pass through seven given points pass through a fixed
point.

Ex. 2. The diametral planes of a fixed line with respect to the coincoids which pass through seven given points pass through a fixed
point.

Ex. 3. The poles of a given plane with respect to the conicoids which pass through seven given points lie on a surface of the third
degree.

174]

EXAMPLES
4.
lie

IX.

253

Ex.
points

The centres of the conicoids which pass through seven given on a surface of the third degree. The
vertices of the cones that pass

Ex.
points

5.
lie

through seven given

on a curve of the sixth degree.

Examples IX.
1. Tangent planes parallel to a given plane are drawn to a system of conicoids which have double contact at fixed points with a given Prove that the locus of their points of contact is a hyperconicoid. bolic paraboloid which has one system of generators parallel to the

given plane.
2. Tangent planes are drawn through a given line to a system of conicoids which have contact with a given conicoid at fixed points A and B. Prove that the locus of the points of contact is a hyperboloid which passes through A and B.

3.

The

feet of the
lie

straight line

normals to a conicoid from points on a given on a quartic curve.

4. The edges OA, OB, OC of a parallelepiped are fixed in position, and the diagonal plane ABC passes through a fixed line. Prove that the vertex opposite to O lies on a cubic curve which lies on a cone

that has
5.

OA, OB,

OC

as generators.

variable plane

ABC
is

axes,

which are rectangular,

centre of the sphere

OABC

in A, B, C.

passes through a fixed line and cuts the Prove that the locus of the a cubic curve.

6. The feet of the perpendiculars from a point (<x, /J, y) to the generators of the paraboloid xy cz lie on two cubic curves whose equations may be written

1+**
shortest distance between the fixed line .r=a, 2 = 6, and the = generator y A, Ao?=z, of the paraboloid xy=z, meets the generator in P. Shew that the locus of P is a cubic curve which lies on the
7.

The

8. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids that pass through a given conic and a straight line which intersects the conic.
9. Two cones have their vertices at an umbilic of an ellipsoid and meet the tangent plane at the opposite umbilic in two circles which

cut at right angles.

ellipsoid lie in

two

Shew that tneir curves of intersection with the planes, each of which contains the pole of the other.

10. If a cone with a given vertex P has double contact with a given conicoid, the chord of contact lies in the polar plane of P with respect to the conicoid.

254

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH. xn.

variable plane ABC meets the axes in A, B, C, and is at a 11. cone passes through the constant distance p from the origin. curves of intersection of the ellipsoid whose semiaxes are OA, OB, OC, and the planes OBC, ABC. Prove that its vertex lies on the surface

12.

When two
AB.
is

conicoids touch at all points of a

common

generator

AB, the
13.

line joining the poles of

any given plane with respect to them

intersects

a given chord of a cubic curve. Prove that an infinite be found to pass through the curve and through AB, and that one of these will touch a given plane which passes through AB at a given point of AB.

AB

number

of conicoids can

The

z-axis is a

chord of the curve

Prove that the equation to the conicoid which passes through thf curve and the z-axis and which touches the plane 2# = 3^ at the point
(0, 0, 2) is

14.

Prove that the conicoids

have a

common

generator

x=y=z, and

pass through the cubic curve

z ~~

3t

+ 2'

which touches the generator at

t

1,

1,

1).

15. If two conicoids, C and C 2 have double contact, and the pole with respect to C l of one of the planes of the common sections lies on C 2 then the pole of the other also lies on C2
,
.

16. Find the locus of the centres of conicoids of revolution that circumscribe a given ellipsoid and pass through its centre.
17. P is any point on the curve of intersection of two right cones whose axes are parallel and whose semivertical angles are a. and CL. If d and d' are the distances of P from the vertices, prove that

e/co8a.rf'cosa/

is

constant.

18. If a variable conicoid has double contact with each of three confocals it has a fixed director sphere.

a Prove that two paraboloids can be drawn to pass through small circle on a given sphere and to touch the spnere at a given given point, and prove that their axes are coplanar.
19.

are the generators of a hyperboloid through a 20. OP and Prove that the two paraboloids which point O on the director sphere. contain the normals to the hyperboloid at points on OP and intersect in a cubic curve whose projection on the tangent plane at is a plane cubic with three real asymptotes.

OQ

OQ O

IH.

XTI.]

EXAMPLES

IX.

255
#-axis, the y-axis,

21. The sides of a ,nd the lines

skew quadrilateral are the

y = 0,
i(l pa iva

Ix+mz 4-1=0;

#=0,

l'y

+ mz + l =0.

Prove that the general equation to a conicoid which touches the

vhere

a.

I'

or

I'

-4

(/z

'/o) (

#1/0).

22. Give a geometrical interpretation of the equation of the conicoid n Ex. 21 in the case when a~ = l'.
if the joins of the mid-points of AB, ; AC, DB ; are taken as coordinate axes, the equation to any conicoid kD, is of the form hrough the four sides of the skew quadrilateral

23.

Prove that

CD

BC

ABCD

vhere
ii)

is

A=-l?

a parameter.

What

surfaces correspond to

(i)

A = l,

24.
>ass

Find the locus of the centres of hyperboloids of one sheet that through the sides of a given skew quadrilateral.

of a tetraIf a conicoid passes through the edges AB, BC, the pole of the plane bisecting the edges AB, CD, AC, tedron, vill lie on the plane bisecting the edges AB, CD, AD, BC.
25.
26.

CD

BD

If the intersection of two conicoids consists of a conic and two straight lines through a point P of the conic, the sections of the coni:oids by any plane through P have contact of the second order unless -he plane passes through the tangent to the conic at P, when the contact is of the third order.

and a conicoid S have two plane sections S t and S 2 each touch S along one of the jurves of section. Prove that if S and S 2 pass through P, they touch it P and have a common conic section lying in the polar plane of P
27.

jommon.

cone, vertex P, The conicoids

arith

respect to S.
If
;

28.
Dj,
in

three cones and 19 2 3 have their vertices collinear intersect in plane curves, then C 3 C l intersect also 2 plane curves and the six planes of intersection pass through one

C C3
,

line.

29. If conicoids pass through the curve of intersection of a given conicoid and a given sphere whose centre is O, the normals to them From lie on a cone of the second degree, and the feet of the normals lie on a curve of the third degree which is the locus of the centres 3f the conicoids.

conicoids are inscribed in the same cone and any secant the vertex meets them in P, P' Q, Q'. Prove that the lines through 3f intersection of the tangent planes at P, Q ; P, Q' ; P', ; P', Q' lie
30.
;

Two

in

one of two fixed planes.

256

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

xn.

are along generators 31. The aides of a skew quadrilateral of a hyperboloid, and any transversal meets the hyperboloid in P u P 2 in A n A 2 , Bj, B 2 and the planes ABC, BCD, CDA, Prove that

ABCD

DAB

P 2 A 2 .P 2 B 2
32.

curve is drawn on the sphere jfi+yV + zt a 2 so that at any the latitude is equal to the longitude. Prove that it also lies on point the cylinder x?+y* ax. Shev that the curve is a quartic curve, that its equations may be written

and that
33.

e values of t for the four points in which if ^, 2 ^3? *4 a ^ e the curve meets any given plane, t^t^t^l.
,

The general equation

to a conicoid through the feet of the

normals from a point to an

ellipsoid,

S = 0,

is

S + AC! + MC 2 -f vC 3 = 0,
where

C^O

C 2 = 0, C 3 =

represent cylinders through the feet of the

normals.

Prove that the axes of paraboloids of revolution that pass through the feet of six concurrent normals to the conicoid a#2 -H by* + cz2 = l are parallel to one of the lines

-a+b+c a-b+c a+b-c

34.

Prove that the cone whose vertex

is (a, 0,

0)

and base

intersects the cone

whose vertex
2

is (0, 6,

0)

and base

r2

in a parabola of latus

rectum

Va^
line

(A figure shows that the cones also touch along the

175. 176J

CHAPTER
A

XIII.

THE CONOIDS.
by a straight line fixed point and intersects a given which passes through a curve, and a cylinder is the surface generated by the parallels to a given straight line which intersect a given
175.

cone

is

the surface generated

curve.

These are the most familiar of the ruled surfaces.

class of ruled surfaces, the conoids,
:

Another important

may

be defined as follows a conoid is the locus of a line which always intersects a fixed line and a given curve and is If the given line is at right parallel to a given plane.
angles to the given plane, the locus is a right conoid. Ex. The hyperbolic paraboloid is a conoid, since it is the locus of a line which intersects two given lines and is parallel to a given plane,
(

50,

Ex.

3).

176.

The equation

to a conoid.

If the coordinate axes

be chosen so that the given line is the 2-axis and the given plane the #i/-plane, the generators of the conoid will project
the given curve on the plane x = l in a curve whose Let P, (1, y lt t ), be equation, let us suppose, is z=f(y).

any point
(0, 0,
1 ),

of this curve

then z l =/(2/ 1 ).

The generator

of

the conoid through P

is

the line joining P to the point

and therefore has equations x!_ y _z z^

T ~^~~^~'

Eliminating y l and zv between these equations and the

equation ^1 =/(2/ 1 ),
viz.,

we

obtain the equation to the conoid,

*

Ex. 1. Find the equation to the right conoid generated by lines which meet OZ, are parallel to the plane XOY, and intersect the circle #=a, /2 +*2 =r2 Ans. x*(z*-r*+a?* =0,
.

B.Gk

258

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY

CCH. xni.

Ex. 2. The graph of csin#, from 6=0 to 0=2r7r, is wrapped round the cylinder x*+y2 *sr* so that the extremities of the graph Lines parallel to the plane XOY are drawn to meet coincide on OX. OZ and the curve so formed. Prove that the equation to the conoid
they generate
is

rtan"" 1

-=sin~ 1 ~.
C

Ex.

3.

Prove that

if

r=2, the equation

to the locus

becomes

(The locus

is

the cylindroid.)

FIG. 51

Ex.
cut
all

4.

helix.

The curve drawn on the right cylinder x2 +y*=a? so as to the generators at the same angle is called the right circular The coordinates of any point on it are easily seen, (fig. 51),
by
helix
lines parallel to the plane is the helicoid, (fig. 52).

to be given

intersect the z-axis

its

The conoid generated by and the

equation
is

XOY

which
that

Shew

0==ctan

-i^

where

^ atantx.
to intersect

Ex. 5. Lines and the curves

parallel to the plane

XOY are drawn

2

OZ

Find the equation to the conoids generated.

An,,
(i)

177]

SUKFACES IN GENERAL
6.

259

Ex.

Discuss the form of the conoids represented

(i)

by

= 4acx,

(ii)

= yz*

Ex.

7.

c cosec 0, cases in which

Conoids are constructed as in Ex. 2 with the graphs of c tan 0. Find their equations, considering specially the

r=l and r=2.

x
r=l,
c

Ans.

r=2,
Ex.
8.

A curve is drawn on a right

cone, serai-vertical angle a, so

same angle, /?, and a right conoid is generated by lines which meet the curve and cut OZ at right angles. Prove that the coordinates of any point on it are given by
as to cut all the generators at the

where

m = sin <x cot

SURFACES IN GENERAL.

177.

We

shall

now

obtain some general properties of

surfaces which are represented by an equation in cartesian In the following paragraphs it will somecoordinates.

times be convenient to use

ordinates.

*/,

f to denote current co-

The general equation

where ur stands
x> y, z of degree

of the

nih

degree

may

be written

for the general

r.

homogeneous expression The number of terms in ur is

in

and therefore the number of terms

or
r== o
-

-9 i.z.o

in the general equation is

= IN -f i,

say.

Hence the equation contains N disposable constants, and a surface represented by an equation of the nih degree can be found to satisfy N conditions which each involve one relation between the constants.
Ex.
stants,
1.

and a surface represented oy a cubic equation can be found

In the general cubic equation there are 19 disposable conto

pass through 19 given points.

260 Ex.
If
2.

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
M=O,

[CH.

xm.

A cubic surface contains 27 straight lines, real or imaginary. # =0, w=0, ^=0, 1^=0, ^=0 represent arbitrary planes,

the equation
contains 19 disposable constants, and therefore can be identified with any cubic equation. Suppose then that the equation to the given surface has been thrown into this form. Clearly the lines

^=0,

^ = 0;
^,=0;

w=0,

1^

= 0;

w=0,

w =0;
t

w=0,
lie

w=0,

^ = 0; w=0,

1^ =

upon the

surface, so that the surface contains at least nine straight

lines, real or

Consider

now

imaginary the equation

of one sheet which intersects the surface It represents a hyperboloid at points which lie in the plane Kw+X.w { = 0. Now K can be chosen so that this plane is a tangent plane to the hyperboloid, and then the common points lie upon the two generators of the hyperboloid which are in the plane. Thus the surface contains two other straight lines. But since each of the sets of quantities u, v, w\ u v , v i9 w l can be divided into groups of two in three ways, there are nine hyperboloids, each of which has two generators lying upon the surface. The surface therefore contains twenty-seven straight lines, real or

imaginary.

178.
line

The degree of a

surface.

If

an arbitrary straight
is

meets a surface in

points the surface

of the

nil

degree.

Consider the surface represented by the equation of the

nth

degree,

F(,

17,

f)

= 0. The

straight line

whose equations

m
are given

n
(a?,

meets the surface at points whose distances from

y, z)

by
y>

F(S +

^ y+m,,

+/,)-<>,

*)+M^+ m^+^) F

This equation gives

values of

p,

and therefore the

line

178-180]

THE INFLEXIONAL TANGENTS

261

n points. Hence the locus of an of the 7&tb degree is a surface of the n ih degree. equation th Cor. Any plane section of a surface of the 7i degree is
meets the surface in
a curve of the
179.
7i

th

degree.
If in equation (1)
(x, y, z) is

Tangents and tangent planes.

of the last paragraph, F(x, y, the surface. If also

= 0, 2)

the point

on

the equation gives two zero values of p, and the line meets the surface at (x, y, z) in two coincident points. If therefore
c)F

3F
*dy*

3F
3z

fix'

are not all zero, the system of lines whose direction-ratios satisfy equation (2) touches the surface at (x, y, z\ and

the locus of the system

is

the tangent plane at

(x, y,

z\

which

is

given by

If the equation to the surface is

made homogeneous by

the introduction of an auxiliary variable t which is equated to unity after differentiation, the equation to the tangent

plane

may

be reduced, as in

134, to the

form

Ex.

1.

of the surface

Find the equation to the tangent plane at a point (x, y, z) = a3 Ans. /# -I- r)/y 4- C/z = 3. r/f
.

Ex.
lie

2.

The

feet of the

normals from a given point to the cylindroid

upon a
180.

conicoid.

ratios

The inflexional tangents. Two values of the l:m,l:n can be found to satisfy the equations 3F 9F

32 F

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
formed by equating to zero the
coefficients of

[CH. XIIL
2 p and p in

The lines through (x, y, z) whose 178. equation (1) of directions are determined by these values meet the surface
in three coincident
points.

That

tangent lines through

(x, y> z)

system of there are two which have

is,

in the

contact of higher order than the others. They are called the inflexional tangents at (x, y, z\ They may be real and distinct, as in the hyperboloid of one sheet, real and
coincident, as in a cone or cylinder, or imaginary, as in

the ellipsoid.

The

section of the surface

by the tangent plane

at a

ih degree, and any line point P on it is a curve of the n through P which lies in the tangent plane meets the curve P is therefore a double point of in two coincident points. the curve. The inflexional tangents at P meet the curve in three coincident points, and are therefore the tangents to

the curve at the double point. Hence, if the inflexional tangents through P are real and distinct, P is a node on the curve if they are real and coincident, P is a cusp if they are imaginary, P is a conjugate point.
;
;

181.

The equation

=/(

n\

^ie

equation to the

surface is given in the form =/( */), the values of p corresponding to the points of intersection of the surface

and the

line

^_3r-y_- :? ~ m ~ n
I

( (

p)

are given

by

where

p=*>

3z

<?

= x-> r = ^~s'

30

32

32
SE=
>

=
its

Hence the tangent plane at

and the

(x, y, z)

has for

equation

inflexional tangents are the lines of intersection of the tangent plane and the pair of planes given by

180-182]

SINGULAR POINTS
inflexional tangents

263

Ex.

1.

The

through any point of a conoid

are real.

One

therefore real.

inflexional tangent is the generator through the point, Hence the other must also be real.
:

and

is

Or thus

The

inflexional tangents are real, coincident, or imaginary

2 according as rt-s

0.

For the conoid z=

and hence
Ex.
point
2.

rt

- s2 = -

~4/'
inflexional tangents
3

Find the equations to the

the surface
2

(#, y, z) of

(i)

r?

f=4c,
*

(ii)

>?

=a
;

through a

3
.

Ans.

(i) v '

^f.azlf.t^ -2 2 3#

iz5=^ = tf 4c

Ex.

3.

Any

point on the cylindroid

is

given by

Prove that the inflexional tangents through "w, 0* have for

equations
"-

u sin 3 ^
cos ^

==
u cos 3 ^
sin ^

2c cos 2 2^

2- c sin 2^
Ex.

4.

Find the locus of points on the cylindroid at winch the

inflexional tangents are at right angles.

182.

Singular points.

If at

a point

P, (x, y>

z\ of the

surface

every line through P meets the surface in two coincident P is then a singular point of the first order. The points.
lines

through P whose direction-ratios satisfy the equation

meet the surface in three coincident points at

P,

and are

264

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xin.

the tangents at the singular point. The locus of the system of tangents through P is the surface

Singular points are classified according to the nature of the locus of the tangent lines. When the locus is a proper

a conical point or conic node, when it is a pair of distinct planes, P is a biplanar node or binode, when the biplanes coincide, P is a uniplanar node or unode.
cone,

is

The whose

six tangents through a singular point P, (x, y, z\ direction-ratios satisfy the equations

have four-point contact with the surface at P, They correspond to the inflexional tangents at an ordinary point of
the surface.
Ex.
1.

For the surface

the origin the cone

is

a conic node.

The

locus of the tangents at the origin is

The

six tangents

which have four-point contact are

^=0, #+2=0;
Ex.
2.

2=0,

For the surface

the origin

is

a binode.

The

six tangents

with four-point contact are

#=0, 2^ + 32=0; y=0, 2-a;=0;

The
have a
Ex.

#=0, #+0=0;
2=0,

y=0, 3z+,r=0;

#+2y = 0;

sections of the surface by the planes triple point at the origin.

3.

= 0, #-y=0. ^+2^ + 32=0, #-y-2=0,

2

The equation

to a surface

is

of the

form

Prove that there is a unode at the origin, that the section of the surface by the plane 2=0 has a triple point at the origin, and that the three tangents there, counted twice, are the tangents to the surface
with four-point contact.

182,183]

SINGULAR TANGENT PLANES

to a surface
is

265

Ex.

4.

The equation

of the

form

Shew
Ex.

that the section of the surface

by any plane through

OZ

has

a cusp at the origin.

5.

For the surface

ay + z(ax
prove that the origin

+ 2/iry + fy2 ) + z\cx + dy) = 0,

is a binode and that the line of intersection of the biplanes lies on the surface. Shew that the plane cx + dy=0 is a tangent plane at any point of OZ.

Ex.

6.

Find and

classify the singular points of the surfaces

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

aV-6y=^(<?-^),
xyz=

(iv)

Ans. (i) (0, 0, 0) is binode ; (ii) (0, 0, 0) is conic node ; (iii) (0, 0, 0) conic node, (the surface is formed uy revolution of the curve 2 2 = (iv) (a, a, a) is a conic node. x(x* + 3y*)~3a(x -y ), 2 0, about OX)
is
;

Find the equation to the surface generated by a variable 7. c) and intersecting the circle passing through the points (0, 0, 2 2 z=0, # -fy =2a.r, and shew that the tangent cones at the conical points intersect the plane z=0 in the conic
Ex.
circle
2

(c

- 4a 2)^2 + cV =

a<?x.

Ex. 8. If every point of a line drawn on a surface is a singular Find the nodal lines of the surfaces point, the line is a nodal line.
(i)
(ii) (iii)

Ans.

(i)

#=#=0;

(ii)

# = ?/=();

(iii)

y =2=0,

y- 2.r=2=0.

Ex.

9.

Prove that the

2-axis is a nodal line

on the surface

any point

(0, 0,

y) being a binode at which the tangent planes are

*

= 0.
two
real

Prove also that if r and p have the same sign there are u nodes lying on the nodal line.
Ex.
10.

For the surface

a nodal line with unodes at the points

prove that the s-axis

(0, 0,
).

is

(0, 0,

- 2),

have seen that the 183. Singular tangent planes. at a point P of a surface meets the surface tangent plane
in

We

a curve which has a double point at

P.

The curve may

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
have other double
points.

[CH.

xm.

another double point, the plane contains the inflexional tangents to the surface A plane at Q, and is therefore the tangent plane at Q.
If

is

a tangent plane at two points of a surface is a We may likewise have planes touching double tangent plane.

which

is

at three points of the surface or triple tangent planes, and tangent planes touching at four or more points of the
surface.

Or we may have a tangent plane which touches the

surface at all points of a curve, as the tangent plane to a cone or cylinder. Such a plane is a singular tangent plane or
trope.*

Ex. 1. For the cubic surface uvw+u^w^Oj the planes M=0, #=0, w=0, ^=0, ^=0, 1^ = are triple tangent planes. The intersection of the plane ^=0 and the surface is the cubic curve = = consisting of the three straight lines ^ = ^=0, ^ ^ 0, u=w =Q. These lines form a triangle and the three vertices are double points, so that the plane u = is tangent plane at three points.
1

Ex.

2.

Find the singular point on the surface

a are singular tangent planes.

and shew that the planes 2=

Ex.
3.

Sketch the form of the cone

and shew that the planes

generators. The sections

2\/2<y/=

02 each touch it along

two

Ex.

4.

by planes parallel to XOY are lemniscates. Prove that the planes z= c are singular tangent planes
'

to

the cylindroid

THE ANCHOR-RING.
Ex. 5. The surface generated by the revolution of a circle about a line in its plane which it does not intersect is called the anchor-ring or tore. If the straight line is the z-axis and the circle isy=0,(#-a)2 +*2 =& 2 (a> 6), shew that the equation to the surface is
,

(x* +y* +z*

+ a*~ 62 )2 = 4a2(#2 +y 2

).

Prove that the planes z~

* For an adequate discussion
is

b are singular tangent planes.

of the singularities of surfaces the student referred to Basset's Geometry of Surfaces. An interesting account of the properties of cubic surfaces with methods for the construction of models is given in Cubic Surfaces, by W. H. Blythe. Rummer's Quartic Surface (Hudson) contains an exposition of the properties of various quartio
surfaces.

183]

THE WAVE SUEFACE

6.

267

Ex.

of the surface
parallel

Prove that the polar equation of the curve of intersection and the tangent plane #=a-6, referred to a line 2 2 to_OY as initial line, is r =4a sin(a- 0)sin(a.+ 0), where
Prove that the inflexional tangents at (a -6, r
0,

Ex. Ex. where

7,

0) are

#=-&, y\lbZ'Ja^b.
8.

sin

The tangent plane which passes through OY is oL=6/a and it touches the surface at the two points
0,

zx tan

OL,

2 2 (acos a, 0, a cos a. sin a), (-#co8 a, Where it meets the surface we have

-a cos a. si no.).
;

x sin OL = z cos OL,

therefore
2
(a?

(x

+y2 + z2 +a2 - b 2 )2 = 4a 2(#2 +y2)

2 2 2 +y 2 + z 2 -a 2 cos 2a) 2 = 4a%r +y) - 4a (a; +y2 + z 2 ) cos2a, = 4a2(.r2 -f #2 ) sin 2a. - 4aV cos2a,

Hence

#2 + (y

a sin ex.) 2 -f z 2 = a2

Therefore the curve of intersection of the surface and the tangent plane consists of two circles which intersect at the points of contact 2 2 a cos a sin a). (acos a, 0, a cos a sin OL), ( acos a, 0,

THE WAVE SURFACE.

If

N'ON

is

normal to any central section of the

ellipsoid

^j.^j.^-1 2 a 8
a
6
c
;

'

and lengths OA, OA' OB, OB' equal to the axes of the section are measured along ON and ON', the points A, A', B, B lie upon a surface Since the axes of the fourth degree, which is called the wave surface. of the section by the plane lx+my+nz=Q are given by
;

the equation to the wave surface

is

where r2 = ^2 -f- y2 -f z2

The

equation, on simplification, becomes

If the plane of section of the ellipsoid passes through one of the axis is an axis of the conic in which the plane cuts principal axes, that the ellipsoid. Thus one of the axes of any section through Y'OY is equal to b. The remaining axes of such sections coincide in turn with the semi-diameters of the ellipse y=0, x2/a 2 +z 2/c 2 = I. Hence the points A, A', B, B corresponding to sections through Y'OY, describe a circle of radius b and an ellipse which is simply the above ellipse
;

turned through a right angle, and whose equations are therefore

y=0

268

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. XIII.

=\. The circle and this ellipse clearly form the intersection of the wave surface and the plane y=0. The result can be immediately verified by putting y equal to zero in the equation to the surface, when we obtain

Similarly, the sections of the surface by the planes the circles and ellipses given by

#=0, z=0 are

Fig. 53 shews an octant of the wave surface. b If a c, the only two of these circles and ellipses which have common points lie in the plane ,y=0, and the points are given by

> >

Fio. 53.

such as

The wave surface consists of two sheets, one described by A and A', the other by points such as B and B'. The

points sheets

only where the axes of the central sections are equal. since there are only two real central circular sections, and the radius of each is 6, the only four points common to the two sheets lie on the normals to the central circular sections, and are at a distance b from the centre. They are given by
will cross

Hence

-==

and are thus the points of intersection of the plane y =0, as clearly should be the case.

circle

and

ellipse in the

If P is one of these four points, the section of the surface by the plane y=0 has a double point at P, and the plane y=0 is not a tangent plane at P. This suggests that P is a singular point on the wave surface. Change the origin to P, (, 77, ), noting that

The equation becomes

183]

THE WAVE SURFACE

is

269

and hence P

a conical point. Thus the wave surface has four and they are the points of intersection of the circle and ellipse which form the section or the surface by the plane y=Q. Since any plane section of the surface is a curve of the fourth
conical points,
if

degree,

the surface has a singular tangent plane, the intersection

of the tangent plane with the surface will consist of two coincident conies, or the plane will touch the surface at all points of a conic. and R, the singular Any plane will meet the conic in two points tangent plane in the line QR, and the surface in a curve of the fourth and R. Considering, then, the sections touches at degree which

by the coordinate planes, we see that any real singular tangent plane must pass through a cdmmon tangent to the circle and Their equations are ellipse in the plane y =0.
of the surface

QR

and the common tangents are

easily

found to be given by
,

y = 0,
or

N/^lftp
ax
4- cz

by
77,

JW^&z = Wa2 -c2 = abc, y = 0,

-N /

where (,

is

one of the singular points.

If the equation to the surface is /(a?, y, 2)=0,

^-=0 when y=0,

2.r-plane is parallel

and hence the tangent plane at any point of the to OY, and therefore the plane

at least a double tangent plane. can be written in the form

is

Now

the equation to the surface

6 2 (r2 - a 2 )(r2

- c2) + (a2 - 6 2)(r2 - c2 ).r 2 - (6 2 - c2)(r2 - a 2)*2 = 0,

or

-c')f-(r
on one

^
points of these spheres

Therefore the plane axg + cz=abc meets the surface at points lying of the spheres

lie in

But, subtracting, the plane

we

see that the

_ .

common

or

ax+cz

Thus the plane meets both spheres in the same circle, or the section by the plane consists of two coincident circles, and therefore the plane is a singular tangent plane. The wave surface
of the surfac3

has therefore four singular tangent planes.

270
184.

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
The
indicatrix.

[CH. XIIL

If the tangent plane and normal at a given point of a surface be taken as the plane = and the 0-axis, and the equation to the surface is then
z =/(#,

y\

this equation

may

be written

where p,

q, r, s, t

are the values of

at the origin

or, since

p = q = 0,
y

in the neighbourhood of the origin to be small quantities of the first order, z is of the second order, and therefore, if we reject terms of the

Hence,

if

we

consider x and

third

and higher

orders,

we have

as

an approximation to

the shape of the surface at the origin the conicoid given by

This conicoid
cylinder
if

is
.

rt = s2

a paraboloid if rt^=s2 and a parabolic In the neighbourhood of the origin the

y

and conicoid by a plane parallel to the tangent plane, and at an infinitesimal distance h from the section of the conicoid is the conic given by it, coincide
sections of the surface
;

z = h,

2h = rx 2 + 2sxy + ty 2

which

is

called the indicatrix.

The

inflexional tangents are

2

given by

z = o,

rx

+ 2sxy + ty = 0,

and are clearly parallel to the asymptotes of the indicatrix. Hence if the inflexional tangents are imaginary, the indicatrix is an ellipse, and the origin is an elliptic point on the surface; if they are real and distinct, the indicatrix is a hyperbola, and the origin is a hyperbolic point and if they are coincident, the indicatrix is two parallel straight lines, and the origin is a parabolic point. At an elliptic point the shape of the surface is approximately that of an elliptic paraboloid, and therefore the surface lies on one side of the tangent plane at the point.
;

It is said to be synclastic in this case.

At a hyperbolic

184,185]

THE INDICATRIX

271

point the shape is approximately that of a hyperbolic paraboloid, and the surface lies on both sides of the tangent
plane.

At such a point
1. 2.

it is

said to be anticlastic.

Ex.

Ex.
y,

MHO.

Every point on a cone or cylinder is a parabolic point. Find the locus of the parabolic points on the surface
(#, y, z)

he direction of the inflexional tangents through

are given

PFXX -f w 2 Fyy + rfiFn + 2mnFyz + ^nlF^ + 2lmFxv = 0.

Hence the
inflexional tangents coincide
*XX)
if

*XV)
yyi

=0.
Fy*,

,.(1)

Fy*,

Fy

F,
Fx
But Fx
is
,

F2y Fy

F,
F,,

Fz

therefore

a homogeneous function of x, y, z, t of degree (w-1), and xFxx +yFxy + zFxz + tFxt (n \)Fxy etc., means of which equation (1) can be reduced to by
}

Fxx
'

Fx
FV *yy)
y*>

y*j y

This equation determines a surface whose curve of intersection with the given surface is the required locus.

Ex.

3.

Prove that the points of intersection of the surface

and the coordinate planes are parabolic points. Ex. 4. Prove that the parabolic points of the cylindroid
lie

upon the

lines

#-y=0, z=c #+y=0,

;

-c.

is

Prove that the indicatrix at a point of the surface z=f(x,y) 5. a rectangular hyperbola if (1 +p*)t + (l +q*)r-2pqs = 0. Ex. 6. Prove that the indicatrix at every point of the helicoid Ex.

- = tan"" li-

is

a rectangular hyperbola.
of the surface xyz-a(yz+zx-\>ocy), at which a rectangular hyperbola, lie on the cone

Ex.

7.

The points
is

the indicatrix

If x, y, z are 185. Representation by parameters. functions of two parameters it, and v and are given by the

equations

x =Mu, v\

y =/2 (t*,

v),

=/3 (u,

v\

272

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

xin

the locus of the point (x, y, z) is a surface. For u and v can be eliminated between the three equations, and the elimination leads to an equation of the form F(x, y, 0) = 0.

The tangent
plane

we may

find the equation to the tangent proceed thus. The equation is

plane.

To

But
and

since x, y, z are functions of

u and

v,

F^ + Fyy + F z
v

z v

= 0.
xu y v
is
<>
-

Therefore

=
cv

^~
xuzv

These give the direction-cosines of the normal.

The equation

to the tangent plane

?-*.

n~y>

-* =

" Ex. 1. Find the tangent plane at the point " u Q on the for which
y

helicoid,

for

" Ex. 2. Find the tangent plane at the point U, which

"

on the cylindroid,

and prove that its intersection with the surface consists of a straight line and an ellipse whose projection on the plane z=0 is the circle
>

- u(x cos 6 -y sin 0)=0.

Ex. which
Ex.

3.

is 4.

Prove that the normals at points on the cylindroid for constant lie on a hyperbolic paraboloid.

Prove that the equations

,#=a 1 A + &i/x-l-CiA,//<,
where

ya^X + biii

-j-

2 A/x,

z == #3 A -h 63/4

+ c^\fA
if

determine a hyperbolic paraboloid

if

A^O, and
tfj
.

a plane

A=0,

A=
A + 0,

15

&!,

Ex.

5.

If

prove that the equations

the origin and which

determine a cone whose vertex generators the lines

is

has as

185]

EXAMPLES

X.

273

Examples X.
1,

Prove that the surfaces

have each four conic nodes whose coordinates are

(1,1,1),
2.

(1,~1, -1),

(-l,l,-i),

(_i, -1,1).

Prove that the surface

(x+y+z-df^xyz
has binodes at the points
3.

(a, 0, 0), (0, a, 0), (0, 0, a).

Prove that the

line

2#=a, z=0

is

a nodal line on the surface

2

cz\x -a) + by(2z- a) = 0, and that there is a unode at the point where it meets the plane y0. Prove also that the section of the surface by any plane through the nodal line consists of three straight lines, two of wnich coincide with the nodal line.
4.

Prove that the surface

contains an infinite number of straight lines. Examine the nature of the sections by planes through the line # = 3 ?/-z = 0.
t

5.

Prove that the equation

a(y-b)(z-c)*-b(x-a)(z + cy* = represents a conoid which is generated by lines parallel to the plane XOY which meet the line x=a, # = &. Shew also that the normals to the surface at points of the generator x/a=y/b, z=0, lie on the hyperbolic paraboloid

ab(bx
6.

- ay)(ax+ by -a?- 62 ) = ce(a2 +

x? 4- y 3 4- z3 - %xyz = a 3

ft

2 2

Shew

that the equation

represents a surface of revolution, generating curve.

and

find the equations to the

the point (a, 7. Prove that the perpendiculars from generators of the cylindroid

/?,

y) to the

lie

on the conicoid

2 2 7(*-a) + y(y-/J) +2c(^^

8.

Prove that the only

real lines lying

on the

are

Shew also that the section of the surface by a plane through one of these lines consists of a straight line and a conic. Determine the y 4-2=0 which meets the position of the plane through the line surface in a conic whose projection on the ys-plane is a circle.

#=,

B.Q<

274

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

CH

xm

9. Shew that an infinite number of spheres with centres on the 2 #y-plane cuts the surface (,r +y*)(#+tf)+^(a;~a)=0 at right angles, and find the locus of their centres.

10.

Discuss the form of the surface

2 fz + Ikxyz + IcW Zatfy = 0.

Shew that it is a ruled surface, and give a geometrical construction for the generator through a given point of the parabola in which it meets the #y-plane. Prove also that any point on its curve of inter2 section with the cylinder #2 +y 2ay is given by

x = 2a sin
11.

cos
6,

#,

y = 2a cos

0,

= k (sec
A,

- tan
A' are
;

0).

P,
6,

P' are

(a,

c\

(-,

-6,

-<?);

(a,

6,

-e),

and C, C' are (-a, 6, c), (-a, -6, c) Prove that the equation to the surface 6, c), (a, -6, -c). (a, generated by a conic which passes through P and P' and intersects
(-a,
-c);
B,
B' are

the lines AA', BB',

CO'

is

that this surface contains the lines, A A', BB', CC', PA, PB, Examine the shape of the surface at the PC, P'A', P'B', P'C', PP Shew that any point on PP' is a singular point, and that origin. P and P' are singular points of the second order, (that is, that the locus of the tangents at P and P' is a cone of the third degree).

Shew

an

are the parameters of the confocals through a point P of 2 2 2 2 -f 2 /c = l, centre O, prove that the points on 4-y ellipsoid the wave surface which correspond to the section of the ellipsoid by the diametral plane of OP are given by
12.

If A,

\i

2 2 ,r /tf

2-

_22
-

'

_
2

22 --^
2

'

and the corresponding expressions obtained by interchanging A and/x.

186,1871

CHAPTER

XIV.

CURVES IN SPACE.
186.

The equations

to a curve.

The equations

together represent the curve of intersection of the surfaces = and f2 (x, y, z) = 0. If we eliminate given by f^x, y, 0)

between the two equations, we obtain equations of the form

first x,

and then

y,

y=/s(*)>
If,

=/4<*) ...................... (1)

t,

now, z be made to depend upon a variable

<j> 3

and

= being connected by the equation z take the form = =

y
fa(t),

(t),

the equations (1)

fc(0.

Hence the coordinates of any point on the curve of intersection of two surfaces can be expressed as functions
of a single parameter. Conversely, the locus of a point

whose coordinates are

* = fc(),

given by

x^^(t\
a parameter,

y = fc(),
is
t

where

t is

the curve of intersection of two

leads to
0)

For the elimination of of the form =

surfaces.

two equations

y^ y)

y*^

= 0>
of intersection
40, 41, 76, 165.)

which represent two cylinders whose curve

is

the locus of the point.

187.

(Compare

The tangent.
to
x, y,

To find

the equations to the tangent

at

a given point
Suppose that
t.

a given curve.

meter

We

z are given as functions of a parashall throughout use the symbols x', x", .,

276
ft
*

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
i

[CH. xiv.

etc.
is

to denote

-77, -TO, ... etc.,

unless where another

meaning

Let the given point, P, be (#, y, z\ and let Q, (x+Sx, x + Sy, z + Sz) be a point on the curve adjacent to P. Then, if #=/(),
expressly assigned to them.

x+ Sx=f(t+St),

r?/ 2

'

=xx"
Similarly,

JJ/2

y + Sy = y+y'St+y"r^ + ...
Stz

z+Sz=z+z'St + z" nr +.... IThe equations to PQ are

Now,

as

tends to
is,

P, 8t

tends to zero, and the limiting

P, is

position of PQ, that

the tangent at

given by

of
y'

If the equations to the curve are

Fi (>

y>

= 0,

F2 (a;,

y, z)

= 0,

we have

/3 _

therefore

3y *dz whence the

Cor.

^y

te

?w

3#

32;

ox ty

*dy ?>x

direction-ratios of the tangent are found.

section of

The tangent at a point P to the curve of intertwo surfaces is the line of intersection of their
P.

tangent planes at

187-189]

DIRECTION-COSINES OF TANGENT
to the

277

Ex.
IX

1.

Find the equations

" " tangent at the point 6 on the

Ex.

2.

Shew
is

section of the ellipsoid

that the tangent at a point of the curve of inter#2/a2 +y2/62 4-z2/ c I an(^ the confocal whose

parameter

is

given by

*(-*)
a 2(62 ~c2)(a2 -A)

6 2(c2 -a 2 )(6 2 - A)

y(n-y)

*(-*)
c 2(a 2

-6 2)(c2 -A)'

Ex. 3. Shew that the tangent at any point of the curve whose equations, referred to rectangular axes, are

#=3*, y=3J makes a constant angle with the line

2
,

z=2* 3

188.

The direction-cosines of the tangent.

If the axes

are rectangular, and P, (x, y, z) and Q, (x Sx, y Sy, z+Sz) are adjacent points of a given curve, Sr, the measure of PQ,
is

given by

S r* =

^2 + ^2 +

Let the measure of the arc PQ of the curve be

Ss.

Then

Lt -T- = 1, and therefore

Ss

or

s
x, y, z

a;

where

are functions of

and

x'

// T*

-j->

etc.

Hence

the actual direction-cosines of the tangent at P are

x'
/

y' 3
~~7>

z'
~~7>

m* UI

s
0,

dx _ ds
7

>

dy _
ds
7

fZ_
>

_
ds
z
7

dz

aO tan <x, prove that -^= a sec a, and that the length of the curve measured from the pointwhere 0=0 is adsecoL. (Compare fig. 51.)
Ex.
1.

For the helix # = acos

y=a sin 0,

Ex.

2.

Prove that the length of the curve

between the points where t=ti and t=t2 is 4\^2a(^2 -^). that the curve is a helix drawn on a cylinder whose base and making an angle of 45 with the generators.
,

Shew
is

also

a cycloid

plane. The locus of the normals to a curve at a point P is the plane through P at right angles to
189.

The normal

278

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xiv.

the tangent at P. If the axes are rectangular the equation to the normal plane is

190.

Contact of a curve and surface.

If P, P 1? P 2

...
,
. . .

Pn

Pn points of a given curve, lie on a given surface and P 1? P 2 tend to P, then in the limit, when P1? P2 ,...Pn coincide

with
at
P.

P,

the curve and surface have contact of the

n ih

order

To find ike conditions that a curve and surface should have contact of a given order. Let the equations to the curve and surface be

and

let

F(<)

Then the roots of the equation F() = are the values of t which correspond to the points of intersection of the curve and surface. If the curve and surface have contact of the first order at the point for which t = t l9 the equation F() = has two roots equal to t v and therefore

=
and clearly J
,
, ,

and

=0,
,

dF
-,
.

dt

?/ 'df dz = ?>f dx + ^ dy + ^- -rr-^

.
,

-,-.-

dx

dt^

dy dt

dz dt^

If the contact is of the second order, the equation has three roots equal to t v and therefore

F()=0

And

generally,

if

the contact

is

of the

ili

order,

Ex. 1. Find the plane that has three-point contact at the origin with the curve

x= ^_^ y= p_^

^_ L

Ans.

ar-

189-191]

THE OSCULATING PLANE

279

Ex.

2.

may have

Determine a, /*, b so that the paraboloid 2z= closest possible contact at the origin with the curve
the order of the contact
?

What
Ex.
3.

is

Ans. a/45 = A/ -3 = 6/5 = 1/54.

Fourth.

Find the

inflexional tangents at (x ly
z{ )

y l9

Zj)

on the surface

The equations
The

to a line

through (x^ y

t ,

may be

written

inflexional tangents are the lines

t

with the surface where

Q.

For

all

values of

which have three-point contact we have

,

dx _,
"77

dy
~T7

dz

dt

^i

at

^>

'

_^ ~rT
a^

Hence

for three-point contact at (^j,

^,

^),

we have

(ii)

- 4cZ +

tyiZim ^y^n

= 0,

(iii) ^ 1

Therefore

(Compare 181, Ex. 2.) Ex. 4. Find the lines that have four-point contact at
the surface
direction-ratios satisfy foi7i==0, f2 -?M2 -

(0, 0, 1)

with

The

Ex. 5. Prove that if the circle Ix + my + ?iz = 0, jr2 has three-point contact at the origin with the paraboloid

Deduce the
191.

result of

88,

Ex.

5.

The osculating
and Q and

curve,

If P, Q, R are points of a R tend to P, the limiting position of the

plane.

plane

PQR

is

the osculating plane at the point

to the

P.

the equation osculating plane. Let the coordinates be functions of a parameter

To find
(x,

be

z).

The equation

to

any plane

is

and P of the form

t

If this plane and the curve order at (#, y, z\ we have

have contact of the second

ax+by + cz+d
ax'+by'+cz'
'

0,

=0, =0.

280

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY
6,

[CH.

xiv

Therefore, eliminating a, to the osculating plane,

1

c y d,

we

obtain the equation

_/y
f' x,

fit

?.?
,

1l'

*' z

Ex.

1.

Find the osculating plane at the point "0" on the helix

Am.
Ex. meets
2.
it

For the curve

in three points
t

plane at

#=3, v=3 2 2=2 3 shew that any plane and deduce the equation to the osculating
, ,

A ns.

Zt^x

- 2^ + 1 =

2^

Ex. 3. Prove that there are three points on the cubic ^=a^3 -f 6, 2 y=3c -h3rf, z=3et+fi such that the osculating planes pass through the origin, and that the points lie in the plane 3cex+afy = Q.

Ex. 4. P and Q are points of a curve and Prove that the limiting position of the plane
the osculating plane at P.

PT

is

PQT

as

the tangent at P. tends to P is

#2/a 2 +y2/& 2 + 22 /c2 = l.

(OL, /J,
A
'

Ex.

5.

Normals are drawn from the point (a, /?, y) to the ellipsoid Find the equation to the osculating plane at
a4#

y) of the cubic curve through the feet of the normals.

____
**'",

6V

LI +

n U

Ex. 6. Shew that the condition that four consecutive points of a curve should be coplanar is
=0.
.y",

*"'
*'"

/",

Ex.

7.

Prove that the equations

determine a parabola, and find the equation to the plane in which

lies.

it

Ex.

8.

Shew

that the curve for which

cis

a-t
the plane

b-t

a plane curve which

lies in

192.

To find

the osculating

plane at a point of the curve

*/,

of intersection of the surfaces /( */, ) = 0, 0( The equations to the tangent at (x y, z) are

y

= 0.

191,192]

THE OSCULATING PLANE

is

281

and therefore the equation to the osculating plane the form

of

That this plane should have contact of the second order with the curve, we must have

and

\{x"fx +y"fy +z"fz }

But

= x'fx +y'fy +z'fz

= fJi{x"<t>x +y"<i> v +*"<{>,}. and x'fa+y'<h+affc = 0,

...(2)
...(3)

and therefore equation (1) is an identity. This is to be expected, since any plane through the tangent to a curve has contact of the first order with the curve. Differentiating the equations
(3),

we

obtain

whence ky

(2) the equation to the osculating plane is

Ex.

1.

of intersection of the cylinders

Prove that the osculating plane at (x^y^ ,) on the curve x2 +z*=a 2 i/ 2 4-z2 =b? is given by 3- zzf - a4 - 4 xx? _yj/i zz? 6
,

""'"

tf

P
of the curve of inter-

Ex.

2.

Find the osculating plane at a point

section of the conicoids

We have
.henc.
where
Jl

axx' + byy' -f czz' = 0,

f,,,
J

= 6y-c)8, jB=ca~ay, C=a/3 bcL. = 2c; / =^=/^=0; Again, /**=2a, ^=26, /

is

<#>^=2a,

etc.

Therefore the required equation

which reduces

to

2(-#)

282

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
etc.

[CH. XIV.

The equation may be further transformed. 2 = 2 We have (x/-a$ Zfe -C^ -(a-a)=0, Hence the equation may be written
.-a) =

= -(J&2 or
CAifr,

Ex.

3.

Shew

that at

(a/,

y\

/),

a point of intersection of the three

confocals,

~+

-9

^l'

..

+ 19

==
/ ,24.,|

^'

is

the osculating plane of the curve of intersection of the given by xja* + ft ) n((# + n) "" + a + A) c^(c 2 + X)

first

two

^(y

"

Ex. 4. Prove that the points of the curve of intersection of the sphere and conicoid
at which the osculating planes pass through the origin, a r A b r A c r
lie

on the cone

6~c
193.

c-o

The principal normal and binormal. There is an infinite number of normals to a curve at a given point, A,

Pro. 54.

on it, and their locus is the normal plane at A. normals are of special importance, that which
osculating plane at

Two
lies

of the

in the

A and

is called

the principal normal, and

193]

PRINCIPAL NORMAL AND BINORMAL

is

283

that which

called the binormal.

perpendicular to the osculating plane and is In fig. 54 AT is the tangent, AP the

principal normal,

osculating plane,

AB the binormal; the plane ATP and the plane ABP is the normal
called the rectifying plane.

is

the

plane.

The plane ABT

is

We
at

A the

shall choose as the positive direction of the tangent direction in which the arc increases, and as the

positive direction of the principal normal, that towards which the concavity of the curve is turned. shall then

We

choose the positive direction of the binormal so that the positive directions of the tangent, principal normal and

binormal can be brought by rotation into coincidence with

the positive directions of the x- y-, and 0-axes respectively. Let us throughout denote the direction-cosines of the
9

tangent by
principal normal

19

by

2,

m m

ly

^\\
7i
2
;

2,

binormal by v
Then, (188),
,

L. WQ, O 5'
"

n<>.

dx

dy

dz

Again,
o
j*
/

191),
''&0
'2

//

Z/yy) _

yz

zy

rr

nt

//

~~^

w zx
/

//

/?

r* xz
ry

// '

^^ 3=

/yi

fvn
>

r^rti

ft fl

xy
1

/liVy

/ t

11}

== whprp v ^ '* Al^JL C

* J"l
JL

Gt'tX/

0*
.

vy

*AJ X-/

yx

at

rJ+

AFP V3UV^

t '

(by Lagrange's identity).

But,
(

188),

and therefore
' *

+ y'2 + s' = s'2 x'x" + y'y" + z'z" = sV.

x'*
2
,

ns
y'z"-z'y"
z'x"-x'z"

x'y"~y'x"
1

We have

also

L-

284

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. XIT.

Therefore

_
2

z'(z'x"-x'z")-y'(x'y"-y'x")

+ y"* + Z"2- S "* 2 x"(x' + y'* + z' ) x (x'x" + y'y" + z'z")

s '-2jX "2
2

'

'*"-2
x"s'-x's"

"z

"*-"*

and

similarly,

-J2 .-..,

y"*'-y'"
/

/_//.>

//a

//.i

//o>

n2 =
through the origin to the binormals

Ex.
lie

1.

Prove that the

parallels

of the helix

2 = 2 2 2 2 upon the right cone a (x +y ) fc z

#=acos0,

y=asin0,
.

z=0
is

Ex.

2.

Prove that the principal normal to the helix

the normal

to the cylinder.

A 1 and A 2 are points of a given curve so that the arc A X A 2 is positive and of length 8s and the angle between the tangents at A and A 2 is S\fs, the
194. Curvature.
If
a

ratio -j- gives the average rate of uS

change in the direction

of the tangent over the arc

is

A^.
is

The
by

rate of change at

Ax

that measured by the Lt -^,

--^,

and

is

called the
1/p,

curvature of the curve at A.

is

It is

denoted by

and p

called the radius of curvature.

195. Torsion.

a point of any

direction of the osculating plane at curve which is not plane changes as the
If

The

point describes the curve.

Sr

is

the angle between

the binormals at

A l and A 2 the
,

ratio

y gives the average

$

rate of change of direction of the osculating plane over the

arc

A X A2
is

The rate
^7

of change at

At

is

measured by the Lt -^,

It is

that

by -y-, and is called the torsion at A,. * x as by l/o-, and o- is called the radius of torsion.

denoted

193-197]

FBENET'S FORMULAE

285

The formulae for 196. The spherical indicatrices. curvature and torsion are readily deduced by means of spherical indicatrices, which are constructed as follows.
the origin, O, draw in the positive directions of the tangents to the curve, radii of the sphere of unit radius whose centre is O. The extremities of these radii form a
the spherical indicatrix of the Similarly, by drawing radii in the positive tangents. directions of the binormals, we construct the spherical
is

From

curve on the sphere which

indicatrix of the binormals.

197. Frenet's formulae.

In

figs.

55, 56, let

A 1? A 2 A 3
,

...

be adjacent points of a given curve, and let O^, be drawn in the same directions as the tangents

2,

3 , ...

AT AT M 3 AT
1

>

'

2>

'

'

' * '

and O6 1 O6 2 O63
,

. . .

in the

same

directions as the binormals

A I B I> A 2 B 2> A 3 B s>

Then

are adjacent points on the indicatrices of the tangents and binormals.

t
l9

2,

3,

...

b l9 6 2 63
,

...

Fio. 55.

Since

O^ and

Ot2 are parallel to adjacent tangents to the

curve, the limiting position of the plane t^Ot^ is parallel to the osculating plane of the curve at A r Hence the tangent

being the limiting position of ^<2 is at right angles to the binormal at A r And since it is a tangent to the sphere, it is at right angles to the
at

to the indicatrix
>

2 3

...

radius Ot ly and

gent

A^.

therefore at right angles to the tanTherefore the tangent at ^ to the indicatrix

is

286
is

COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
,

[CH. XIV.

Let parallel to A 1 P 1 the principal normal at A r as the positive direction of the tangent to the inus take dicatrix, the positive direction of the principal normal.

'

B,

T,
B,

FIG. 56.

Since the sphere is of unit radius, the measures of the arc tJ 2 of the great circle in which the plane ^O^ 2 cuts the sphere, and of the angle tjOt* are equal, and hence the

measure of the arc

the indicatrix.
of the indicatrix
sense,

is S\{s.
'

Let

SOL

measure the arc

If

t^

of

Then

&x
S\I,

we take

the arcs

and great circle through t l9 t 2 in the same the limit is +1, and since we have fixed the positive

direction of the tangent to the indicatrix at t l9 we thus fix the sign of S\[s. Hence we have, in magnitude and sign,

^
&\js

&x

da.

Again, ^ is the point (1 19 v TI I ), and therefore, by 188, the direction-cosines of the positive tangent at ^ to the
indicatrix are

dL
'

doC

doL
x

Whence
,

or,

by ^

y -v (1),

._. m __cZm ~^, L dm* ~ = dL m =-^> ^ p ds p ds

__cZ
t

Tin 2

_dn^ = -7
doL

>

n9

>

Further, if we consider O p O 2 cone of the second degree, the planes ^O^, 2O 3 are ultimately tangent planes, and therefore their normals O& p O& 2
,

p O< 3 to be generators of a

-"^ ds

dn*

.(A)

are generators of the reciprocal cone.

Hence the limiting

197]

FRENET'S FORMULAE

287

i.e. the tangent plane to the position of the plane reciprocal cone, is at right angles to Ot l9 and the limiting position of bj)^ i.e. the tangent at 6 X to the indicatrix
y

\O\

^6263...

at right angles to Ot v Besides, the tangent at a tangent to the sphere, and is therefore at right angles &! is to O6 r Therefore the tangent at b l to the indicatrix 6 1 62 63
is
. . .

is

that

the principal normal at A r Suppose direction is that of the principal normal. positive If the measure, with the proper sign, of the arc 6 1 6 2 of
parallel to
its

A^,

the indicatrix

is S(3,

then the measure of the arc

is Sr,

b^ of

the
If

great circle in the plane bfib^

and

Ltj-=l.

we take the arcs in the same sense so that the limit is +1, since we have assigned a positive direction to the tangent at 6 X to the indicatrix, we fix the sign of ST. Hence we
have, in magnitude and sign,
os

Ss

ds

Again, the coordinates of 6 X are

3,

3,

n3 and
,

hence the

direction-cosines of the positive tangent at b l to the indicatrix are

mi

/.

Therefore
r\

o^o

l^-rZ,
* - = TJ a2 ^
,

Or,

by J

/o\
(2), ' v

ds

&

ds

7-^,

8
a-

, = -=-^ ................ (B> v

ds

We

have

also,

l*+l*+l* = l.
1

Hence

ds

*ds
(B),

ds

Therefore, by (A) and

~=
9

/*

<>

i.
a-

s
.

.,

dm*
ds

Similarly, -7-^= J

m, TM. dn* -- -- -^ ds s p
i

^,

cr

or

results (A), (B), (c) are exceedingly important. are known as Frenet's Formulae.

The

They

COOEDINATE GEOMETKY

[CH. xiv.

We 198. The signs of the curvature and torsion. have agreed that the positive direction of the tangent at ^
to the indicatrix t^t^ ... is that of the principal normal. But if the positive direction of the principal normal is that towards which the concavity of the curve is turned, the
direction at
t
l

of the arc

t^

is

that of the positive direction

figs.

of the principal normal, (see and p are always positive. S\fs

55, 56).

Therefore,

SOL,

also agreed that the positive direction of the tangent at &! to the indicatrix 6 1 6.2 63 ... was the positive direction of the principal normal. The direction at 6 1 of the arc 6 X 62 is

We

the positive direction of the principal normal for a curve such as that in fig. 55, but is the opposite direction for a

For the curve in fig. 55, the apparent rotation of the principal normal and binormal as the arc increases is that of a left-handed screw, and such curves are therefore called sinistrorsum. For such a curve For the curve in fig. 56, the S/3, ST and or are positive. apparent rotation is that of a right-handed screw, and such curves are said to be dextrorsum. For this class of curve 8r and or are negative. (J/3,
curve such as that in
fig.

56.

To find the radius of curvature. From (A), 197, by squaring and adding we
199.

obtain

T\

But
TT Hence

6,

*^ = -7,

V
8

^
8

therefore -j 0,8

rl? ^k*

T'Y O
t'

Q O
7*

V
O/

8?e

Therefore, since

Za;'

= s and ZccV^sV,
/2
,

198-201]

THE RADIUS OF TORSION

s,

289

the length of the arc measured from a fixed point, so that t = s, then s'=l, s" = 0, and
Cor.

If the coordinates are functions of

The student should note the analogy between these formulae and those for the radius of curvature of a plane curve.
Ex.
200.

Deduce equation

(1)

from the result of Ex.

10,

23.

To find
equations

the

direction-cosines

of the principal

normal and binormal.

From

(A),

197,

x"s'-s"x'

-i

Similarly,

* = p y'V-s'V 7=^8

n2 = p
,

z'Y-s'Y
S^
.

Again, since

V m = ~, 8
l

TI X

= Z*
8

and

= m^

.,

Similarly,

= p zx

xz
o
-73
,

%=

xy
/>
/ o 3

yx'

Compare
Cor.
If
t

193.

= 8, we

have.

d*x

d*v

d*z

ds*

-. df}' ds
and from
cr

etc

201.

To

find

the radius of torsion.

-,-?
C(/S

From
200,

Frenet's

formulae,

(B),

we have

= -2 -2,
or

Differentiating with respect to

t,

we

obtain

"-zy),
(1)
B.O.

290

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xiv.

Similarly,

^+3m sV' = X^'''-^

3
or

p
p

-( 2 )
...(3)

and
Multiply

??^ +
or

3V *"=p(ay^
2

(1), (2), (3)

by

2,

2,

n% respectively, and add,

and we have

x"a'

which, on substituting p

for

z>

etc.,

becomes

z'
c",

y",

z"

Ex.

1.

Find the radii of curvature and torsion of the helix

We have
Therefore

Hence and
Therefore

;/=acos0, / = = x'* +/ 2 + ^ = a2 sec2ou ^ = - a cos ^, y" = - a sin 6, z" = 5" = 0, = - a cos 0, z " = 0. x'" = a sin 0,

#'=-asin0,
s'

and

-5-

-re

a sin 0, a cos 0, a sin O

y

a cos a sin a cos

a/sin
a.
2
,

6,
0,
0,

a tan a

tana

whence
Ex.
2.

cr

cos

oc.

For the curve

#=3, y = 3

z=2

3
,

prove that

Ex.
Ex.

3.

For the curve ^=2a(sin- 1 A + A\/l- A2),

#=2aA

2
,

z=4aA,

prove that
4.

p=

-or- = 8aN/l

-~

2
.

For a point

of the curve of intersection of the surfaces

z
-,

p= -cr=
0=\/6aA, prove

Ex.

5.

For the curve #=\/6aA 3

y=a(l+3A2),

that <r=y 2/a.

Ex. 6. Find the radii of curvature and torsion at a point of the 2= az. curve ar+y*=a *>
An*. p2

=-\*'

201,202]

TANGENT TO A CURVE
to

291
oc

202. If the tangent with a fixed line cr =

a curve makes a constant angle

p tan a.

Take the

fixed line as z-axis.

Then
3

and
p
Therefore

=
and
7i8

as

= 0, (197,

(A)).

n^Q,

=sina.

Again,
Therefore

^+^=-^ =
a-

= 0,(197,(c)).

p tan a.

Ex. 1. For the curves in Exs. 2, 3, 4, 201, shew that the tangent makes an angle of 45 with a fixed line, and hence that /> = cr. Ex. 2. If a curve is drawn on any cylinder and makes a constant 2 angle a, with the generators, /o=p cosec o,, where l/p and l/p are the curvatures at any point P of the curve and the normal section of the
cylinder through P. Take the 2-axis parallel to the generators of the cylinder. Then if 8s, 8s l are infinitesimal arcs of the curve and normal section, _ cfoi dz , d?z Tf r> / \ -7-=sm<x., -i- = cosoc and -7-2 = 0. If P is (#, y, z),
.
-

i^? +M) Whence

,

A and

sr?
of the helix
-

the result immediately follows.

Ex.
.

3.

Apply Ex. 2
^,
,
,

to

shew that the curvature

,.

cos 2

is

--a

. ,

then deduce that the torsion

If p/cr
is

^,

is db

Ex.

4.

constant the curve

2 ^

is
3
,

a helix.

Since

p
Therefore
Similarly,

=$ ds
, ,

and

*?=<r

ds

dL^kdl^. 3 1

^=3 + ^, where ^
l
,

is

an arbitrary constant.
.
.

n l =knz -\rkz and adding, we obtain ^r^, + k^mi + ^3^! = 1 nx Multiplying by v l 2 2 2 2 Hence, since ^1 + ^2 + ^3 = l-l-^ and therefore k l9 K^ k^ cannot all be zero, the tangent to the curve makes a constant angle with the

m^km^k^
,

fixed line

x
A/1

l?~lc~Tf* A/3 A/2

Parallels drawn through points of the curve to this line generate a cylinder on which the curve lies, hence the curve is a helix.

a right circular helix. curve is drawn on a parabolic cylinder so as to cut all Ex. 6. the generators at the same angle. Find expressions for the curvature

Ex.

5.

If

p and

cr

are constant, the curve

is

and

torsion.
is

Ans. If the cylinder

#=a

y = 2a, and the angle and cr=

2
,

is a.,

292
203.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The
circle of curvature.
If P, Q,

[CH. xiv.

a curve, the limiting position of the circle tend to P is the osculating circle at P.

R are points of PQR as Q and R

the definitions of the osculating plane and the curvature at P, it follows immediately that the osculating
circle lies in
is

From

the osculating plane at P, and that its radius the radius of curvature at P. It also follows that the

centre of the circle, or the centre of curvature, lies on the principal normal, and therefore its coordinates are

We

can easily deduce the radius and the coordinates of

the centre by means of Frenet's formulae. If (a, /3, y) is the centre and r the radius of the circle of curvature, the equations

be taken to represent it. Since the sphere (2) has three-point contact with the curve at (x, y, z\ differentiating twice with respect to s and applying Frenet's formulae, we have

may

i*, ............ (3)

0,

............ (4)

-/> .......... (5)

And

since the centre (a,

/3,

y)

lies

in the osculating

plane, (1),

l^x-aL) + m^y^^)+n^z-y)^Q.......... (6) Square and add (4), (5), (6), and

Therefore,

by

(3),

r = p.

Multiply

(4), (5), (6)

by l v
05

2 , lz

respectively,
I

and add, and

<X=

2 p.

Similarly,

Therefore
204.

y /3 = <x = #+ 2 p,

2 />,

y=

n2p.
z+n^p.

/8

= 2/ + m2p, y

The osculating

sphere.

If P, Q, R,

of a curve, the limiting position of and S tend to P is the osculating sphere at P.

S are points the sphere PQRS as Q, R

203,204]

THE OSCULATING SPHERE

293

To find the centre and radius of Assume that the equation is

the osculating sphere.

Then, for four-point contact at (x, y, z), entiating three times with respect to s,

we have on differ-

= R*, ............ (1) -y) = 0, ............ (2)

y)*

-y)=

-/> .......... (3)

or,

by

(2),

3 (x

- a.) + m3 (y - /3) + ns (z - y) = <rp,

P' = ?> ^ ds

......... (4)

where
Whence, as in
203,

we deduce

^
and

a = x + I2 p

Izpp,

y + m<ip

3 o-/),

y=

These shew that the centre of the osculating sphere, or centre of spherical curvature, lies on a line drawn through the
centre of circular curvature parallel to the binormal, and distant <rp from the centre of circular curvature.
Cor.
If a curve is
cr

is

drawn on a sphere
p2
&--.

of radius a,

R = a,
can be

and therefore
deduced.

=a

Hence,

if

is

known,

cr

P
Further,
if

^79

we

differentiate

a2 = /> 2

+(^)^ we

eliminate the constant

satisfied

a and obtain a

differential equation

by

all

spherical curves

curve is drawn on a sphere of radius a so as to make a Ex. 1. constant angle a with the plane of the equator. Shew that at the point whose north-polar distance is 9, p=a(l

294

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
by
202,
o

[CH. XIV.

We have,
Also

a2 -

cr=pcotoL. dz ,
ds

and -r=smoL.

But

z=aco8 0,
9

therefore -/ = ds

- a sin 6 -y-.
ds

Whence
Integrating,

pdp
^/a
a __

__a

sin

Q dd

p2

cos

a.

we

obtain
>v/a
2

-/)

acos #sec<x-f-&,

where 6 is an arbitrary constant. If /o=a when # = ?r/2, 6=0, and then

Ex.
(1, 2,

2.

3)

Find the equation to the osculating sphere at the point on the curve

Ans.

Ex. 3. Find equations to represent the osculating circle at (1, 2, 3) of the curve in the last example. s. The equation to the sphere and 0=3.
Ex.

is

Prove that at the origin the osculating sphere x = a^ + 36^2 + 3c^, y = a2 t 3 + 3&2 *2 + 3c2 t, z = =0. r, given by 2y,
4.
3

of the curve

26, 2
,

26

0,

Ex. 5. Find the curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of the tangents. The direction-cosines of the tangent are ?2 , 2 w 2 , ( 197), and if

SOL is

an infinitesimal
if

arc,

Lt
is

So. ?rr
oy/"

= l.

Hence,

the curvature

Po

1
,

If the torsion is

or

= 7^%>

as in Ex.

1.

204]

EXAMPLES ON CURVATURE AND TORSION

easily find
,

295

Whence we
where
Ex.
6.

dp j =~f- and
as

dcr

<r ==-7-.

ds

Prove that the radii of curvature and torsion of the spherical

indicatrix of the binomials are -7=^

and

>

' ,

curve is drawn on a right circular cone, seniivertical Ex. 7. angle OL, so as to cut all the generators at the same angle ft. Shew that its projection on a plane at right angles to the axis is an equiangular spiral, and find expressions for its curvature and torsion.

Pro. 57.

of the cone as origin and the axis as -s-axis. Let C, be the projection of P, the point considered, on the axis, and CP and OP have measures r and R respectively. Then if CP makes an angle 6 with OX, r, are the polar coordinates of the projection of P on any plane at right angles to the axis. From fig. 58 we obtain

Take the vertex

fig. 57,

(1)
J

Whence
which
is

dr

= cot/3 sin a dQ,

and has
as integral

the differential equation to the projection

where k = cot

B sin a. and A

is

arbitrary.

COOKDINATE GEOMETEY
Again, from
(1),

[CH. XIV.

-^= cos a cos /3, and

therefore the tangent to the

curve makes a constant angle y with the s-axis such that

= coso.cos/3.

We have therefore
Since
-5-5

-j-g

= 0,
=

o-

= p tan y

=0,

FIG. 58.

Now

#=rcos0,

y=
s,

and, using dashes to denote differentiation with respect to

r'=sinoLCOs/J, and
rff

by

(1),

= sin/3.
;

Therefore

#'=/ cos 6 - sin /3 sin #, of' = - (/ sin 4- sin j8 cos

2

0) #,
-

= r' sin 0+ sin /2 cos - sin j8 sin 6) ff y" = (r' cos

y'

Hence
fsmy'
Ex.
8.

and

cr=ptany= sin air

'
' *

' r

/3

cosy*

Deduce equations (1), Ex. 7, by differentiating the equations 2 2 2 2 2 #2 +3/ 2 =r2 #2+# =* tan a, x +y*+z*= R
,

and applying

#.a/ -f yy' 4-

^ = R cos

/3.

Ex. 9. The principal normals to a given curve are also principal normals to another curve. Prove that the distance between corresponding points of the curves is constant, that the tangents at a constant angle, and that there corresponding points are inclined at must oe a linear relation between the curvature and torsion of the
given curve.
If O, (#, y, z) is a point on the given curve, O', the corresponding point on the second curve has coordinates given by

204]

EXAMPLES ON CUEVATURE AND TOESION

O

297

where OO'

for origin and OT, OP, If we take is of length r. the tangent, principal normal, and bi normal as coordinate axes,

OB

and O'
to

is (0, r, 0).

The tangent

to the second curve

;

is

at right angles

OP

or 00', and therefore

cliT

^=0

i.e.

mi

-r(^

Hence, since
Again,
if

m = m3 =0, -T-=O,
1

and r

is

constant.

'==-,

etc.,

we have

therefore, at the origin,

and the tangent

that

to the second curve

.

makes an angle 6 with

OT such

tan0=
1-r/p

p
therefore, at the origin,

9 2

--9 --5~ 2
(TV
O"

'

II
OP, and
f '"-"'=<>,
rp'

But the binormal

therefore

to the second curve is at right angles to

rv
cr

or

Integrating,

we

obtain

where
or

-4 is

an arbitrary constant,
p/
cr

and thus there

Again, tan

is

a linear relation between the curvature and torsion.

t* I(T
.

0= ^

=^i, and therefore ^

is

constant.

This problem was

first

satisfy the conditions are

investigated by Bertrand, and curves which on that account called Bertrand curves.

Ex.

10.

curve

is

makes angles

and

ft

projected on a plane the normal to which with the tangent and binormal. If p 1 is the

radius of curvature of the projection, prove that

p=^

1
.

COOEDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH. XIV.

and R the points of the curve Let P be a point of the curve and distant 8s from P. Then, if the area of the triangle PQR is denoted

by A, -=Lt
whence the
205.
sion.

2A

-3.

Similarly for the projection

&' are the projections of

result.

A and

85.

=Lt^-, where A', But A'= A cos /?, and Ss' = 8s sin a.,

2A'

Geometrical investigation of curvature and tor-

The following geometrical investigation of the curvature and torsion of a curve is instructive. Let A 1? A 2 A 3 ... (fig. 59), be consecutive vertices of an equilateral polygon inscribed in a given curve, and let
,

M,

FIG. 59.

M 1? M 2 M 3
,

...

be the mid-points of the

are

sides.
,

Planes

MI CI S I> M 2 C2 S 2>
the sides.
planes

drawn through
l

M 1S M 2
;

...

normal to

M
1

x
,

M 2C

are the lines of intersection of the

similarly,

M 1 C 1 S M 2C 2 S 2

and M 3C 2 lie in Then C x is the centre of the circle through the points A x A2, A3 and its limiting position when A 2 and A 3 tend
,

and the plane A 1 A 2 A 3 the plane A 2 A3A 4 and so on.

M 2C 2

to Aj

is

the centre of curvature at

Ar

Let p denote the

205]

GEOMETRICAL INVESTIGATION
Ar

299

radius of the circle of curvature at

quadrilateral

From

the cyclic

C 1 M 1A2 M 2

At A2

2sinM C M 2
1
1

_
!

'

But

since the limiting positions of

A X A 2 and A 2 A 3 are

tangents,

A X A2

ds_

Therefore, since the limiting value of

C^

is

/>,

ds

and the curvature =

circle of curvature.

= -,
,

where p

is

the radius of the

Since the planes M 1 C 1 S 1 M 2 C 1 S 1 are at right angles to the plane A 1 A 2 A 3 their line of intersection C 1 S 1 is normal
,

is parallel to the plane A 1 A 2A 3 Therefore, in the limit, But since C 1 S 1 is the locus of points to the binormal at A r
.

C^

is the locus equidistant from the points A p A 2 A 3 and of points equidistant from A 2 A 3 A 4 S l is the centre of the
,
, , ,

C^

sphere through A 1? A 2 A 3 A 4 and the limiting position of S x is the centre of spherical curvature at A r Therefore,
,

the centre of spherical curvature lies on the line drawn through the centre of circular curvature parallel to the
binormal.

Since the limiting positions of C 1 S 1 and are parallel to consecutive binormals, we may denote the angle C 1 S 1 C 2 intersect at K, then C 1 K = C 1 S 1 5r. by ST. If C^Mg and

C^

C^

But C 1 K

differs

from C l M l

C 2 M 2 by an

infinitesimal of

higher order, and therefore

Hence,

if

R is the radius of spherical curvature at A^,

By

our convention of
is

193, the positive direction of the

binormal

that of

S^.

In our figure the curve

is

300

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xiv.

dextrorsum, and Sr is therefore negative. Also Sp is Hence, if the conegative, so that Sp/Sr is positive.
ordinates of
position of

Ax

are x
,

y
,

0,
,

and those of the limiting

S t are #

2/

x = projection

of MjC^-f projection of

C^ on OX,

Or
Similarly,

"""~"

The points S 1 S 2 S3 ... are consecutive points of a curve which is the locus of the centres of spherical curvature, and S^g, S 2 S 3 ... are ultimately tangents to that locus. The plane 8^83 or M 3 C 2 S 1 is ultimately an osculating plane to the locus, and hence the osculating planes of the
,

locus are the normal planes of the curve. Therefore, if are the angles between adjacent tangents and biS\fs, Sr

normals to the curve, and S\fsl9 S^ are the angles between adjacent tangents and binormals to the locus,

= l,

and

Lt

= l.

Hence, if infinitesimal arcs of the curve and locus are denoted by Sa and Ss v and the curvature and torsion of
the locus

by

l/p l

and

l/cr v
8s.
-T-T-

rrL pp l

Sa = T j-jJLt

Ss = T jLit

Ss.

Y~ Sr S

= orcrr
l

limiting positions of CjSj, C,^, ... are the generators of a ruled surface which is called the polar developable.

The

Since
1

C^

the normal planes to the curve are the tangent planes to the polar developable.
1

C1 S C2 C S and hence
1,

coincident, the plane touches this surface at all points of the generator

and CgSj are ultimately

205,206]

COOEDINATES IN TERMS OF ARC

301

Ex. 1. Shew that if dsl is the differential of the arc of the locus of the centres of spherical curvature,
,

RdR
etc.,

If

(A

T/,

) is

a point on the locus, and f>=-J*j cLs

Therefore, by Frenet's formulae, and since

,

RK
RR'

Ex.

2.

Obtain the result from

fig. 59.

Ex.

3.

Prove that

Pi ri

= ^~r-)
dp

0-1

= -^
or

-j-j

dp

and verify that

206.

pp^ov^

Coordinates in terms of a. If the tangent, principal normal and binormal at a given point O of a curve are taken as coordinate axes, and s measures the arc OP, we may express the coordinates of P in terms of 8. We have

= 8XQ +
where
origin.
cc^,

O"

OO

",

//x
,

...

are the values of

x',

x", x'",

...

at the

Similarly,

We

have therefore to evaluate #

is

7 ',

',

etc.

Since the tangent

the #-axis,
1,

<=

^=
is

0,

<=0.

Since the principal normal

the y-axis,

302

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xiv.

Again, by Frenet's formulae,

l

flT

_f2= Ct6*

P
Therefore

*
zo'" =
,

&"'=
P

5,

y*>"^ P
s3

3 Therefore, as far as the terms in s

we have

"
Gpcr

Ex.
point.

1.

Shew

that the curve crosses

its

osculating plane at each

If,

Unless

the osculating plane

at

1/cr is zero, z changes sign with s. is said to be stationary.

at any point, l/cr=0,

Ex. 2. Prove that the projection of the curve on the normal plane O has a cusp at O. What is the shape at O of the projections on the osculating plane and rectifying plane ?

and higher powers of s can be rejected, shew that the direction-cosines of the tangent, principal normal, and binormal at P
Ex.
3.

If s 2

are given by

In the following examples

and the arc

Ex,
4.

OP

and P are adjacent points of a curve,

principal normals at

is

of length

s.

The angle between the

(pa

O and

is

+o-)*.

Ex.

5.

The

shortest distance between the principal normals at

Sf)
,

and P

is of

length

and
2
/o
:

it
2
.

divides the radius of the circle of

curvature at

O in

Vp 2 -f (T2

the ratio

cr

Ex.
at

6.

O and P makes
Ex.
7.

The angle that the

with the binormal at

shortest distance between the tangents

O is */2cr.

O and
Ex.

P
8.

Prove that the shortest distance between the tangents

is ^/IS/ocr.

at

The

osculating spheres at

O and P cut at an angle

206)

EXAMPLES

XI.

303

Examples XI.
1. Shew that the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to the = tangents to the helix #=acos$, #=asin0, z cQy lie on the hyper-

boloid
2.

2222 curve
is

so as always to cut the generators at a constant angle OL. Shew that by properly choosing the starting point it may be made to coincide with the intersection of the helicoid with the cylinder 2r = c(00 cot -<2-0cota) > r> Q Find the equations to the prinbeing ordinary polar coordinates.
helicoid
cipal
3.

drawn on the

z=ct&ur l y/x

normal at any point.

Find f(&) so that #=acos#, y=asin0, z=f(0) determine a

plane curve.
4. If the osculating plane at every point of a curve pass through a fixed point, the curve must be plane. Hence prove that the curves of intersection of the surfaces #2 +y 2 +z2 = a2 2(x*+y* + 2*) = a* are circles of radius a.
,

5. A right helix of radius a and slope a. has four-point contact with a given curve at the point where its curvature and torsion are l/p and 1/cr. Prove that

a = ---70 p + ar*
6.

and

tan

a.

=
z

>

<r

For the curve x = a tan

0,

y = a cot 0,
2>/2a

= \/2

log tan 0,

7.

Shew

that the osculating plane at (#, y,

z)

on the curve

has equation
2
(ft

- c2 )( - x)(x + a)3 + (c2 - a2 )(?7 -y)(y + 6) 3 + (a2 - 6 2)(f- z)(* + c)3 =0.
8.

Shew that there are three points on the cubic x = a^ 3 + 36^ 2 4- 3c^ 4- c?! y = 2 ^ 3 + 362*2 + 3c2^ + ^2*

the osculating planes at which pass through the origin, and that they lie in the plane
"

#1

y>

a lf
9. If p, />!, p2 , p3 are the radii of curvature of a curve and its projections on the coordinate planes, and OL, /?, y are the angles that the tangent makes with the coordinate axes, prove that

sin e oL
,

sin 6 /:?
2

'

sin e y
2

1 ==

~2

Pi

sin 3 a cos

o.

sin 3 /? cos/?

sin 3 ycosy_

Pi

P2

Ps

304
10.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

FCH. xiv.

Prove that at the point of intersection of the surfaces ~1 y/^, where y=#tan#, the radius of curvature of the

inter-

section is

catenary, constant <?, is wrapped round a right circular radius a, so that its axis lies along a generator. Shew that cylinder, tne osculating plane at a point of the curve so formed cuts the tangent plane to the cylinder at the point at a constant angle tan^c/a.
11.
0,

s=ccosh^.)

&Z

Prove also that />=

r====,

<r=

==.
(ZZ*

12. If a curve is drawn on a right circular cylinder so that its osculating plane at any point makes a constant angle with the tangent plane at the point to the cylinder, then when the cylinder is developed into a plane, the curve develops into a catenary.

For the circular helix prove the following properties the normal to the cylinder is the principal normal at P to the helix ; the binormal at P makes a constant angle with the axis of the cylinder ; the locus of the centre of circular and spherical curvature is a helix ; if P' is the centre of circular curvature at P, P is the centre of circular curvature at P' for the locus.
13.
:

at

curve is drawn on a sphere of radius a, and the principal 14. normal at a point P makes an angle with the radius of the sphere 7/1
-I

to P.

Prove that r = a cos p

0,

-=
<r

-?-.

ds

15. If O, P are adjacent points of a curve and the arc that the difference between the chord OP and the arc powers of s higher than the third being neglected.
16.

OP

OP=s, shew
is
3

/24/>

Prove that

where dashes denote

differentiation with respect to

s.

17. If from any point of a curve equal infinitesimal arcs of length s are measured along the curve and the circle of curvature, the distance between their extremities is s?R/6p2cr. 18.

The

shortest distance between consecutive radii of spherical

cr
2
:

curvature divides the radius in the ratio

19.

2
(

\dp/
stant

$=0

curve is drawn on the paraboloid x2 +y2 =2pz making a conShew that its projection on the plane ex. with the 2-axis. angle
given by

is

where a=jocota, and

find expressions for its curvature

and

torsion.

CHAP, xiv.]

EXAMPLES XL

305

curve is drawn on a sphere, radius a, so as to cut all the 20. meridians at the same angle a. Shew that if 6 is the latitude of any point of the curve, a? tan a, a cos 6
21. point Q is taken on the binormal at a variable point P of a curve of constant torsion 1/cr so that PQ is of constant length c. Shew that the binormal of the curve traced by Q makes an angle with PQ.

22.

equal to

its

point moves on a sphere of radius a so that longitude. Prove that at (#, y, z)

its

latitude is

2a?-z

8a 2 -3e2

drawn on a right cone so Shew that the locus angle. curvature satisfies the same conditions.
23.

A curve is
same

at the

as to cut all the generators of its centres of spherical

24.

curve

so as to

is drawn on a paraboloid make an angle ?r/4 with the

of revolution, latus rectum c, meridians. Investigate the

curvature and torsion at any point in the forms

c2 /p2

= tan 2 <(l + 3 sin 2 - sin 4 = sin

</>

</>

<f>

being the angle which the tangent to the meridian through the point makes with the axis.

25. The normal plane at any point to the locus of the centres of circular curvature of any curve bisects the radius of spherical curvature at the corresponding point of the given curve.

curve is drawn on a right circular cone of semivertical 26. angle a. so as to cut all the generating lines at an angle /3. The cone Shew that is then developed into a plane.

p p
:

= sin OL

Vsin 2ex. cos 2/? H- sin 2 /?,

of the original curve

where p, p are the radii of curvature at a point and of the developed curve respectively.
27.

of a point of a curve are functions of a paraline drawn through any point (#, y, z) of the d^x d 2y d*z ,. ,. .,, ,. ,, curve, with direction-cosines proportional to -7-5- , -7^, -r-^, lies in the

The coordinates

meter

t.

Prove that the

Git

Git

Git

osculating plane at the point

and makes with the principal normal an

angl

curve is drawn on a cylinder of radius a and the cylinder is 28. developed into a plane. If p be the radius of curvature of the curve and pi the radius of curvature of the developed curve at corresponding
points, ~2
3

= Sm a

where

<

is

the angle that the tangent to the

curve makes with the generator of the cylinder through the point.
B.O.
IF

306
29.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xiv.

length equal to the radius of torsion, cr, being marked off the binomials to a curve of constant torsion, prove that p the along
,

radius of curvature of the locus so formed,

is

given by

^
%

2 =/> -f2cr

PQ Prove also that the direction-cosines of the binormal to the locus. referred to the tangent, principal normal and binormal of the original curve as axes, are

->/2p
30.

/4cr,

\/2p

/4cr,

N/2/> /2p.

Shew

A length c is measured along the principal normals to a curve. that the radius of curvature, p , of the locus is given by
) 2 (p -c) J

31. With any point of a curve as vertex is described the right Shew that its axis circular cone having closest contact at the point. lies in the plane containing the binormal and tangent to the curve and that its semivertical angle is tan" 1 3tr/4/o.

32. P is a variable point of a given curve and A a fixed point so is taken on the tangent at P so that that the arc AP = s. point is at right angles to the tangent the tangent at to the locus of at P to the curve. Prove that PQ = a-s, where a is an arbitrary constant. Prove also that if X 15 /*!, v l A 2 /x 2 v2 A 3 /XQ, v3 are the direction-cosines of the tangent, principal normal and binormal to the locus,

and that

its radii of

curvature and torsion are

<r(a
s)

(p 4- cr ~

) (a

s)

33. Prove that the radius of curvature, p l9 of the locus of the centres of circular curvature is given by

Pi

where

p' r ==-/-. dr

34. With any point of a curve as vertex is described the paraboloid Prove that its latus of revolution having closest contact at the point. rectum is equal to the diameter of the osculating sphere.

207]

CHAPTER XV.
ENVELOPES.
Envelope of system of surfaces whose equation contains one parameter. The equation
207.

%,
where a
is

y, 0, a)

= 0,

an arbitrary parameter, can be made to represent the different members of a system of surfaces by
assigning different values to
a.

The curve

of intersection
oc,

of the surfaces corresponding to the values

OL+&X,

is

given by
f(x, y,
z, oc)

= 0,

f(x,

y,z,GL+ SOL) = 0,

or

by

that

is,

by
f(x, y,
z,

a) = 0,

/0>

y> z>

a + 6 SOL) = 0,

where 6

a proper fraction. Hence, as SOL tends to zero, the curve tends to a limiting
is

position given
f(x,

by
~\

2/>

z,

= 0, oc)
is

/K y
The

*>

a) = 0.

This limiting position sponding to the value oc.

for all values of
Its equation is

called the characteristic corre-

locus of the characteristics

the envelope of the system of surfaces. obtained by eliminating a between the two
is

equations
/(a?,

0,

a)

= 0,

/(,

y, *> a)

= 0.

308

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

ICH. xv.

lie

Ex. Find the envelope of spheres of constant radius whose centres on OX. The equation to the spheres of the system is
characteristic

where a is an arbitrary parameter and r is constant. The = corresponding to a a. is the great circle of the sphere
which
lies in

the plane .T=OL, and the envelope

is

the cylinder

The envelope touches each surface of the system at all points of the corresponding characteristic. Consider the surface given by a = oc. The equations to
208.

the characteristic are

f(x, y,
z,

a) = 0,

f^(x, y,

z,

a) = 0.

to the envelope may be obtained by eliminatthe equations to the characteristic, and this ing a between may be effected by solving the equation f^(x, y, z, a) =
for a,

The equation

and substituting in

regard the equation f(x,

of x, y, z given

envelope. therefore

by f^(x. The tangent plane

= 0. Thus, we may z, <x) = 0, where a is a function y, z, a) = as the equation to the y, z, a)

f(x, y,

at (x, y, z) to the envelope

is

where

is

introduced to

make

homogeneous.

f^ = 0,

any and the above equation becomes

But

at

the equations /= 0, /^ = point of the characteristic

which represents the tangent plane at (x, y, z) to the surface /=0. Hence the envelope and surface have the same tangent plane at any point of the characteristic.
At any
point of the characteristic corresponding to

a=a, we have

/^+/ dy+//b+/*x.=0
f

and

/a =0,

fjte+fjiy +/&=(). But if (x,y,z) is a singular point on the surface /(#,y, 3, a)=0, ^s/ysa^ssO, and hence tne characteristic passes through the singular point. The locus of the singular points of the surfaces of the system

and therefore

208-210]
therefore
lies

THE EDGE OF EEGRESSION

on the envelope.

309

For any point of the locus the coequation to the tangent plane to the envelope are all zero, and the proposition thus fails for such points. Consider, for example, the envelope of the right cones of given semivertical angle OL, whose vertices lie upon OX and whose axes are The equations to the system and to the envelope are parallel to OZ.
efficients in the

The locus of the singular points of the system is OX, and the tangent planes to the envelope and surfaces are indeterminate at any point of the locus.
209.

The edge of regression.

acteristics corresponding to

The equations to the charvalues a and OL + SOL of a are

of any common point of these characterthe four equations, and therefore satisfy the istics satisfy

The coordinates

equations

(/=)__
are proper fractions. Hence, as SOL tends to zero, the common points tend to limiting positions
2

where 9 l and

given by

*-<*-

(I=L @L-

.......... (I

>

These limiting positions for all values of a lie upon a curve whose equations are obtained by the elimination of oc between equations (1). This locus is called the edge of
regression or cuspidal edge of the envelope.

210.
sion.

Each characteristic touches the edge of

regres-

We may

consider the equations

/=0, /a = 0,
where a is a function of x, y, z, given by /aa = 0, to represent two surfaces whose curve of intersection is the edge of
regression.

The tangent at (x,

y, z) to the

edge of regression

310
is

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xv.

surfaces.

the line of intersection of the tangent planes to the Its equations are therefore

At any point
a

of the edge of regression

we have /a =

= 0, and

the above equations become

which represent the tangent at

x,

y,

to

the

curve

f= 0, fa = 0,
Ex.
that
1.

i.e.

to a characteristic.
,

Find the envelope of the plane 3xt 2 -3yt+z=t3 and shew

is

its

edge of regression

the curve of intersection of the surfaces

y*=xz, xy=zz.

Ex.

2.

Find the envelope

of the sphere

Ans. (z* +y* 4- z 2 + a 2 - b 2 ) 2 = 4a 2 (^2 + y 2).

Ex. 3. The envelope of the surfaces /(a?, y, z, a, i)=0, b are parameters connected by the equation <(a, 6) = 0,
eliminating a and b between the equations

where a and is found by

==

/=0,

<

= 0,

^r~

Ex.

4.

a, i, c are

/ and
nating

<

of the surfaces /(#, ?/, 0, a, 6, c)=0, where parameters connected by the equation </>(a, 6, c)=0, and are homogeneous with respect to a, 6, c, is found by elimi-

The envelope

a, 6, c 5.

between the equations /=0,

of

<

= 0,

x^

9a

= r ^i

===

<f>6

9c

Ex.

Find the envelope

0.

the plane

lx+ my + nz=Q, where ^715. x^a +/b + z2 /c = 0.

Ex. 6. The envelope of the osculating plane of a curve is a ruled surface which is generated by the tangents to the curve, and has the curve for its edge of regression. The equation to the osculating plane is 2Z3 (-#)=0, where functions of s. characteristic is given by l$i 3 , 7& 3 , a?, y, Zj are

2J3 (-#)=0,
/

2J2 (-,r)=0,

(Frenet's formulae),

if?=M = tzf, HI
6j

ni l

which represent a tangent to the curve. point on the edge of regression is given by

=#, ??=y, t=z, an d the points of the edge of regression are the points of the curve.

whence

Ex. 7. Prove that the envelope of the normal planes drawn 2 2 through the generators of the cone ax + by'* + cz = is given by

210,211]

ENVELOPES-TWO PARAMETERS

311

211.

contains two parameters.

Envelope of a system of surfaces whose equation The equation

f(x,y,z,
a, 6)

= 0,

6 are parameters, may also be taken to reprea system of surfaces. The curve of intersection of the sent

where a and

surfaces corresponding to values a,

a.+&x

of a,

and

/3,

(3+Sfi of

b, is

given by

/(a,/3)=0,
or

by

/(.+*, /3+S/3)=0, /(a, 0) = 0,

are proper fractions. curve of intersection is given by

l

where

and

If

<S/3

= X&x,

the

and the limiting position as

SOL

and

S(3

tend to zero, by

and S/3 are independent, so that X can assume any value, and the limiting position of the curve depends on the value of X and will be different for different values The limiting positions, however, for all values of X of X.

But

(So.

will pass

through the points given by

These are called

characteristic

characteristic points,
is

and the locus of the

the envelope of the system of The equation to the envelope is found by elimisurfaces. nating a and 6 between the three equations
points
f(x y> z / \*> v > *>
>

a &)-o v, u)
<*, ,
,

Consider for example the system of spheres of constant radius whose centres are on the ^ry-plane. The equation to the system is

where a and 6 are arbitrary parameters, and r is constant. P(o,/3,0) and P'(a 4- So, /3 + S/3, 0)

Let

312

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xv.

be the centres of two spheres of the system. If the ratio 8/3/So. remains constant the direction of PP' is fixed. The limiting position of the curve of intersection of the spheres as P' tends to P along the line PP' is the great circle of the sphere, centre P, which is at right angles to PP'. But all the limiting positions pass through the ex* tremities of the diameter through P, whose equations are x=a^ y=/?, and these are the characteristic points. Their locus is the pair of
planes
z2

=r2

212.

The envelope touches each surface of

z, oc, /3)

the system at

the corresponding characteristic points.

Consider the surface f(x, y,

istic

= 0. The

character-

points are given

by

The equation

to the envelope

may

be obtained by elimi-

/3 between these three equations, and this nating may be effected by solving /00 = 0, /^ = for oc and /3 and

and

substituting in

/= 0.

Hence,
f(x,
T/,

we may

regard

z, oc,

= 0, /3)
9

f = 0,
ft

are functions of x y, 0, given by /^ = and as the equation to the envelope. The tangent plane to the envelope has therefore the equation at (x y, z)

where

oc

and

(3

But if (x, y, z) is a characteristic and the equation becomes

point,

/<*,

and f

ft

= 0,

which represents the tangent plane at (x, y, z) to the Therefore the envelope and surface have the surface. same tangent plane at a characteristic point.
Ex.
1.

Find the envelope

- cos

of the plane
j<f>

sin

<f>

+ b sin 6 sin

4- -

cos <i ^

=1

Ans. tf/a?+y*/b*+z*/c*=l.

Ex.

2.

Find the envelope of the plane

-X)* + (l + A __
where X and
An*.
/x

are parameters.

212,213]

DEVELOPABLE AND SKEW SURFACES

313

Ex. 3. Prove that the envelope of the surfaces /(or, y, z, a, 6, c)=0, where a, 6, c are parameters connected by the equation <(a, 6, c)=0, is found by eliminating a, 6, c between the equations

/-"
Ez.
4.

*-

--

where a, 6, and y and

Prove that the envelope of the surfaces /(#, y, 2, a, 6, c, c?) == 0, c, d are parameters connected by the equation </>(#, 6, c, e/)=0 are homogeneous with respect to a, 6, c, rf, is found by eliminating a, 6, c, rf between the equations /=0, <=0 and
<

Ex.

5.

Find the envelope of the plane Ix+my + nzp when = aW + b*m2 + A* 2 (ii) a2^2 + 6 2m 2 + Znp = 0. (i) jp2
,

(i)

^2/a2 -fy/6 2 +02/c2 =l,

(ii)

^2/a 2

that forms with the (rectEx. 6. Find the envelope of a plane angular) coordinate planes a tetrahedron of constant volume c?/Q. Ans. Zlxz =c3
.

Ex.

7.

A plane makes intercepts a,

6,

on the axes, so that

Shew that it envelopes a conicoid which has the axes as equal conjugate diameters.
a point P on the conicoid a 2.r2 -f-& 2y 2 -f c222 =l, perpendiculars PL, PM, PN are drawn to the coordinate planes. Find the envelope of the plane LMN.

Ex.

8.

From

Ans.
2= 2 2 2 2 l meets Ex. 9. tangent plane to the ellipsoid ^/a + ?/ /& -h* /<; the axes in A, B, C. Shew that the envelope of the sphere OABC is

RULED SURFACES.
213. Skew surfaces and developable surfaces. the equations to a straight line
If,

in

are functions of a single parameter t, we can eliminate the parameter between the two equations and
a, 6,
oc,

/5

thus obtain an equation which represents a surface generated by the line as t varies. The locus is a ruled surface.

314

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
ty

[CH. xv.

The two generators corresponding to values the parameter have for equations
~~

t+St of
}

a
Therefore,
if

~
b

>

a+Sa

~"

is

the shortest distance between them,

SoiSb-SpSa

But a + Sa = a+a'St-\-a" -~,,

...

etc.,

where dashes denote

if

differentiation with respect to t. higher powers of St are rejected,

'

Therefore,

cubes and

- a'b?

an infinitesimal of the same order as St if ^O. But if a'&'~ /3V = 0, then we have also ''-^^'-^^'^, and therefore d is at least of the order of St*. If, therefore, St is so small that St 2 and St* are inappreciable, c = 0, or the two generators are

Hence d

is

coplanar.

The

result

may

be stated thus

if a'6'

fa' = 0,
if

consecutive generators of the surface intersect, while oc'&' /3V =0, consecutive generators do not intersect.
If

consecutive

generators
if

intersect

the

surface
it

is

developable surface,
surface.

they do not intersect,

in this

is

a skew
If

and
sect,

B,

The name developable arises B and C, consecutive generators

way.

of a surface, interuntil it

the plane of B and

C may be turned about B

coincides with the plane of A and B, and thus the whole surface may be developed into a plane without tearing.

Clearly cones and cylinders may be so treated, and are On the other hand the therefore developable conicoids.
shortest distance

between consecutive generators of the

same system
(

114),

so

of a hyperboloid or paraboloid does not vanish, that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the

hyperbolic paraboloid are skew conicoids. Ex. 1. Shew by means of Exs. 5 and 7, 206, that the tangents to a curve generate a developable surface and that the principal normals generate a skew surface.

213,214]

TANGENT PLANE TO A EULED SURFACE

that the line given by that the line
Q

315

Ex.
Ex.

2.

Shew Shew

y = tx-&, z=t*y-t generates

4
),

a developable surface.
3.

,r=3^+2*(l -3*

y= -2fc+*2 (3 + 4*2)

generates a skew surface.

214.

The tangent plane

to a ruled surface.

We may

regard the coordinates of any point on the surface as functions of two variables t and 0, given by the equations

The tangent plane

az

at
OL,

(t,

z)
ri

has for equation

bz
p,

gz
1

a'z+a.',
a,

b'z

+ p,
6,

or
a'z+a.',
0,
i- e '

=0,
b'z+/3',
0,

("" a~oL)(b'z + /3')~(rj

bp)(a'z+GL)==()

(1)

This equation clearly represents a plane passing through

the line

which
If

is

the generator through the point

f

(t, z).

a'ft

b'a.'

= 0,

or

-p^-^^k,

say,

where k

is

some

function of

t,

equation (1) becomes

and
is

is

involves

therefore independent of t only, and since when t

is

0.

The equation then

given, the tangent plane

If

given, the generator the same at all points of the

is

generator.
a'/3'

fr'a/^O, the equation (1) contains z

and

t,

so that

the plane given by (1) changes position if t is fixed and z varies, or the tangent planes are different at different
points of a generator. Hence the tangent plane to a developable surface is the same at all points of a generator ; the tangent planes to a

skew

Cor.

surface are different at different points of a generator. The equation to the tangent plane to a developable

surface contains only one parameter.

316
215.

COOEDINATE GEOMETKY
The generators
of a
If the equations

[CH. xv.

developable surface

are

tangents to a curve. x = az+a.,

y = bz+(3; y = (b + V8t)z +fi+ &8t

x = (a+ a'8t)z +OL+ a.'St,

represent consecutive generators of a developable surface, their point of intersection is given by

aaf

bff

a.'

t,

These express the coordinates in terms of one parameter and hence the locus of the points of intersection of conis

secutive generators of a developable By differentiation, we obtain

a curve.

^7g

az,

^2

-_
T/,

oz

>

and therefore the tangent _x equations a

to the curve at (#,

z) has for

_?/
-

or

=a
(x, y, z).

which represent the generator through

216.

Envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter. We have seen that the equation to the tangent
plane to a developable involves only one parameter, ( 214, We shall now prove a converse, viz., that the Cor.).

envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter is a developable surface. Let

where

a, 6,

c,

are functions of a parameter

t,

be the

equation to the plane.

characteristic
<H/

is

given by

^ = 0,
and
therefore, since

= 0,
iy,
,

u and

u' are linear functions of

the characteristics are straight lines and the envelope is a ruled surface. Two consecutive characteristics are given by

215,216]

PROPERTIES OF DEVELOPABLES
clearly lie in the plane

317

and these
intersect.

u + u'St~Q,

and therefore

Hence the envelope is a developable surface. The edge of regression of the envelope is given by
any point on the edge

and hence,

if (x, y, z) is

of regression,

ax+by+cz+d = 0, a'x+b'y+c'z+d' = 0,
a"x+b"y + c"z+d" = Q ................... (1)
But the coordinates
are functions of
t.

of

any point on the edge

(]),

of regression

Therefore, from

ax'+by'+cz'=z -( a'x + b'y + c'z+d') = Q,

and

ax" + by" + cz" =

see that

whence we

+ (a"x + V'y + c"z + d") = 0, the plane ag+by + cg+d Q has three-

point contact at (x, y, z) with the edge of regression, or is the osculating plane. Thus a developable surface is the locus of the tangents to, or the envelope of the osculating its edge of regression. planes of,
Ex.
1.

Find the equations to the edge of regression of the develop2,

able in Ex.

The point

213. of intersection of consecutive generators is given

by

z=t\ y=2* and these equations may be taken to represent the edge
,
,
:

#=3*2

of regression.

Ex. 2. Find the equations to the developable surfaces which have the following curves for edge of regression
(i)

o?=6*,

#~3*

2
,

s=2*3

(ii)
(iii)

#=acos#, # = e*,

y=asin#,
y=e~"
e
j

z=cQ;

Ans.

(i)
(ii)

a- 2 (xy 9z) = (x* 12y)(4y Zzx)

where

Asin #) #=a(cos and X are parameters.

(iii)

#=

Ex. 3. Find the edge of regression of the envelope of the normal planes of a curve. A normal plane is given by

Z^-aO-Q.
And by
Frenet's formulae,

we have

for the edge of regression,

318

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
n 2 ^3> = x + l%p
>

[CH.

XV

Multiplying by

an(l adding,
3crp',

we deduce

and

similarly,

- m3oy>', 77 =y + mtf

Hence, the edge of regression is the locus of the centres of spherical curvature. The envelope is the polar developable, ( 205).
217.

The condition that

If

developable surface.

=/( >?) should represent a =/( *j) represents a developable

surface, the equation to the tangent plane

involves only one parameter. if t is the parameter,

Let <f>=px + qy

z.

Then,

and hence, by the elimination of t, we can express p and Now if u and v are functions of x and as functions of q. y the necessary and sufficient condition that u should be a
c 3(u, v) = 0.* A 3 tunction ot v 13-7 ( 3(0, y)

...

Therefore for a developable surface,

Py
q*>

that

is,

r, O

s
v

necessary condition

is

therefore rt

s2

= 0.
S,

Again,
r
s2

rx + sy,
8.

sx + ty
L

Therefore,

if

= 0,

<f>

is

a function of
is rt

q.

Hence, the

necessary and sufficient condition

*

= 0.

This

may be proved

as follows

If

w=/(v),

ux

and
and therefore
/^
/

^y=%/ (^)> uxvy - uv vx = 0.

\

Hence ^7^

3 (^,

(~0
2/)

is

a necessary condition. J

It is also sufficient.

For

if

uxvy - UyVx =0,

ux __uy du __ ~ "" vx ~~vy Vxdx + v^dy cfa;*

Therefore

dv=0
v,

if

the variation of

or u

rfu=0, and hence the variation of u depends only on is a function of v.

EXAMPLES ON EULED SUEFACES

Ex.
1.

319
the surfaces

By

2 considering the value of rt-s , determine

if

a?y

xy=z(z-cf are developable.

Ex. 2. Shew that a developable can be found to circumscribe two given surfaces. The equation to a plane contains three disposable constants, and the conditions of tangency of the plane and the two surfaces give two equations involving the constants. The equation to the plane therefore involves one constant, and the envelope of the plane is the required developable,
Ex. 3. Shew that a developable can be found to pass through two given curves.
2

= 0, y2 = 4o# # = 0, y 2 = 4bz
;

Ex.

4.

Shew

that the developable which passes through the curves 2 is the cylinder ?/ = 4a#-f- 4bz.

Ex. 5. Prove that the edge of regression of the developable that 2 = passes through the parabolas 2 0, y^~\ax\ #=0, (y a) =4az is the
curve of intersection of the surfaces
(a -f y)
2

= 3a(a? +y + z\
first

(a + ?/)

= 27a 2 r.
is

Any
and

plane which touches the \z +

parabola
,

myx + am2
- w).

touches the second, A = w/(l a plane which touches both is

if it

Therefore the equation to

f(m) = am Eliminate m between

~ m 2 (a+y) + m(x +y + z) -#=0.

and the required result

Ex.
6.

is

easily obtained.

Shew that two cones pass through the curves #2 4-2/ 2 =4a 2 2 = 0; #=0, ?/ 2 = 4a(2+a);
,

and that their

vertices are the points (2a, 0,

2a),

2a, 0,

2a).

Ex. 7. Shew that the equation to the developable surface which passes through the curves
is
2 2= 4a2 (bz.v + ay 2 )(c 2y + az2), (<#yz- bc x) edge of regression is the curve of intersection of the

and that
conicoids

its

22

that the edge of regression of the developable that x a, y 2 = 4az is given by the parabolas #=0, z 2 4ay passes through

Ex.

8.

Shew

3.r_?/__

~~I~"3(a-,a?)'

Ex. 9. Prove that the edge of regression of the developable that 2 2 2 2 2 = passes through the circles 2 0, # -f?/ =a .r=0, y -f2 =&2, lies on the
,

cylinder

320

COOEUINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xv.

Ex. 10. Prove that the section by the #y-plane of the developable generated by the tangents to the curve

is

given by
.

Z == 0, '

a\d> + c
x*
5

2
)
,

V\b* + c ~
)

2
)

_ (a2 ?*

y*

2 2 Ex. 11. An ellipsoid #2/a2 +y 2/b2 +z /c =I is surrounded by a 2 Shew that the boundary of the z 2 =a 2 luminous ring .#=0, y + shadow cast on the plane 0=0 is given by 2 2 y _ a
.

~~

generator of a skew surface. B3 are any three consecutive generators If AJJp A 2 B 2 A 3 of a skew surface, a conicoid can be described through The conicoid will be a paraboloid if the AjB^ A 2 B 2 A3 B 3 generators are parallel to the same plane, as in the case of any conoid, otherwise it will be a hyperboloid. If P is any point on A 2 B 2 the two planes through P and AjBj, A3 B3 respectively, intersect in a straight line which meets A 1 B 1 and A 3 B 3 in Q and R, say. Now PQR meets the conicoid in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore is a generator of the conicoid. Hence the plane of A2 B 2 and PQR is tangent plane at P to the conicoid. But PQR also meets the surface in three ultimately coincident points, and therefore is one of the inflexional tangents through Therefore the P, the other being the generator A 2 B 2 A 2 B 2 is also the tangent plane to the plane of PQR and Thus a conicoid can be found to touch a surface at P.
218.

Properties of a
,

given skew surface at all points of a given generator. We can deduce many properties of the generators of a skew surface from those of the generators of the hyper-

For example, it follows from 134, Ex. 10, that if two skew surfaces have a common generator they touch at two points of the generator; and from 113, Ex. 1, the locus of the normals to a skew surface at points of a given
boloid.

generator is a hyperbolic paraboloid. Since the surface and conicoid have three consecutive
generators in common, the shortest distance and angle

218]

PROPERTIES OF SKEW SURFACES

321

between the given generator and a consecutive generator Hence the generator has the same are the same for both. central point and parameter of distribution for the surface

and conicoid. Thus it follows that if the tangent planes at P and P', points of a given generator of a skew surface, are at right angles, and C is the central point,

CP.CP' =
where S
is

-<S 2

the parameter of distribution. The locus of the central points of a system of generators of a skew surface is a curve on the surface which is called

line of striction.

Ex, 1. Prove that the paraboloid which touches the helicoid y/# = tanz/c at all points of the generator ,rsin 0=ycos #, z = c$ is c(x sin 6 y cos 0) + (z c6)(x cos 6 +y sin 6) = 0.

Prove also that the parameter of distribution and that the line of striction is the 2-axis.

of

any generator

is

Ex. 2. Prove that the conicoid which touches the surface y^z at all points of the generator x z^ # = 2c is y(x+ 3z) = 26'(3.r-f z\ and that the normals to the surface at points of the generator lie on the
paraboloid
z*

x2 = c(y

2c).

Ex. 3. For the cylindroid 2(.r2 + ?/2 ) = 2rary, prove that the paracos is meter of distribution of the generator in the plane x sin

2w cos 26.

Qy

Ex. 4. If the line x=az + a., y = fo-f/?, where a, 6, a, /? are functions of , generates a skew surface, the parameter of distribution for the generator is (oL y/ _.'/

Ex.

5.

If

the

line

ZZ,
I

(where
distribution for the

71

generates generator

a skew surface, the parameter of

is

d/3
dl,
19

dy
dn
n
should generate a developable

dm,
m,
line

Deduce the condition that the

surface.

Ex. 6. Apply the result of Ex. 5 to shew that the binomials of a given curve of torsion I/a* generate a skew surface and that the parameter of distribution for any generator is the corresponding value
of
<r.

Ex.

skew

Prove that the principal normals to any curve generate a 7. surface, the line of striction of which intersects the normal at a
x

B.Q.

322

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xv.

are any pair of distance po-2/(p 2 -{-o- 2 ) from the curve, and that if P, to the on a normal such that the tangent planes at P and points a a 4 a 2 surface are at right angles, CP -p <r /(/o + cr ) where C is the point of intersection of the normal and the line of striction. (Apply 206, Exs. 4, 5.)

CQ=
is

Ex. 8. Shew that a given curve surface generated by its binomials.

Ex.
9.

the line of striction of the skew

If the line

x = az + cL,

y=bz+ft

generates a skew surface, the ^-coordinate of the point where the line of striction crosses the generator is

- al>(a'B' + 6'q/)
Ex.
10.

For the skew surface generated by the

line

prove that the parameter of distribution of the generator and that the line of striction is the curve

is

f (1

+ 2*2 )2

Ex.

11.

If the line

n
generates a skew surface, the point of intersection of the line of striction and the generator is

mr,

where
Ex.
12.

r=
Deduce the

- my')
2,(mn

^7

,a

inn)*

results of Exs. 7

and

8. is

Ex. 13. The line of striction on a hyperboloid of revolution principal circular section.

the

Ex.

14.

Shew

that the distance measured along the generator

#-acos0 _y - b sin ~~
a sin
bcosO
l,

__ ~~

of the hyperboloid #2/a 2 +3/ 2 /& 2 -2 2 /c 2 = section to the line of striction, is

from the principal

elliptic

c\a*

fc

sin

cos 0(a 2

Examples XII.
1.

O
O

is

#y-plane. to PO.

a fixed point on the z-axis and P a variable point on the Find the envelope of the plane through P at right angles

is a fixed point on the 2-axis, and a variable 2. plane through cuts the jry-plane in a line AB. Find the envelope of the plane at right angles to the plane AOB. through

AB

CH. xv.]

EXAMPLES

XII.

323

in a conic so 3. Find the envelope of a plane that cuts an ellipsoid that the cone whose vertex is the centre of the ellipsoid and whose base is the conic is of revolution.
4.

variable

S3

Given three spheres S l? S 2 S 3 S x and S 2 being fixed and S 3 Prove that the radical plane of and with its centre on S^ and S 2 envelopes a contcoid.
,

5. The envelope of a plane such that the sum of the squares of its distances from n given points is constant, is a central conicoid whose centre is the mean centre of the given points.
6. Prove that the envelope of the polar planes of a given point with respect to the spheres which touch the axes (rectangular) consists

of four parabolic cylinders.

ellipsoid given line envelope a parabolic cylinder.
7.

Prove that sections of an

which have their centres on a

8. Any three conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid meet a fixed sphere concentric with the ellipsoid in P, Q, R. Find the envelope of the plane PQR.
9.

in A, B, C, so that

plane meets three intersecting straight lines OX, OY, OZ OA OB and OB OC are constant. Find its
.

envelope.
sets of three mutually perpendicular 10. Through a fixed point Prove that the lines are drawn to meet a given sphere in P, Q, R. is a conicoid of revolution. envelope of the plane

PQR

11.

Find the envelope of a plane that cuts three given spheres

circles.

in

equal

12. Find the envelope of planes which pass through a given point and cut an ellipsoid in ellipses of constant area.
13. O is a fixed point and P any point on a given circle. envelope of the plane through P at right angles to PO. 14.

Find the

Find the envelope of the normal planes to the curve

#2/a 2 +y 2/6 2 + z 2/c2 = 1,

15.

x* +y* + z 2 = r2
of the normals
*2 z
i

the confocals

The tangent planes at the feet 2 x y

I

from

(OL, /?,

y) to

--I

a 2_X^6 a

-A

c2

-A
is
),

envelope a developable surface whose equation

(9C

2 2 AB) = 4(3B - A )(3AC - B

2

where A, B,

are the coefficients in the equation in

ou?
""

t,

py

"

yz

16.

P, Q,

The normals from O to one of a system of confocals meet it in R P', Q', R'. If the plane PQR is fixed and O and the confocal
;

vary, find the envelope of the plane P'Q'R'.

324

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xv.

17. Prove that the polar planes of (, 77, ) with respect to the confocals to xP/a+yt/b + zZ/cl are the osculating planes of a cubic curve, and that the general surface of the second degree which passes through the cubic is

where

P = abc - bcx - cayrj -

18.

Shew

of the rectifying developable, of a curve are given by

7

that the coordinates of a point on the edge of regression i.e. the envelope of the rectifying plane,
7

a
.,

etc.,

etc.,

4- (tan
as

0)

where tan0=p/(r. Prove also that the direction -cosines of the tangent and principal normal are proportional to l\p ltfr, etc.; 3/0 4- ^cr, etc., and that the radii of curvature and torsion are

_J
19.

*/_!

and

T^nff) *U(tan 0) I ^ds ds

If the conicoids

p*/_L_Y <frU(tsng)
I

ds

are confocal and a developable is circumscribed to the first along its curve of intersection with the second, the edge of regression lies on

20.

A developable surface passes through

y=0,

the curves

^ = (a~6)(2^~5);
edge of regression

x=0, y*=(a-b)(
on the cylinder

prove that

its

lies

21.

Shew

that the edge of regression of the envelope of the plane

x
is

the cubic curve given

r

by

(o-o)(6-a)'
22.

__
(c-6)(a-6)'
(a-c)(6-c)'

Prove that the developable surface that envelopes the sphere 2 2 - 2/ci! = 1 meets the ^2+^2+22=02 and the hyperboloid ^/a +y /62
plane

y=0 in

the conic
a
z2

CH. xv.
23.

EXAMPLES
2

XII.

325

A developable surface is drawn through the curves -A z=c; a+y = =-c;

,

l,

shew that

its section

2y = cos a 4- A cos /?,

24.

by the plane z=0 is given by 2# = sin where tan a A tan /3.

a.

+ sin

/?,

If the generator of a skew surface make with the tangent and principal normal of the line of striction angles whose cosines are A

and

/x,

prove that

line of striction. 25.

=^, where p
P

is

the radius of curvature of the

Prove that the

line

line of striction

on the skew surface generated

z

by the

x
cos

a cos
cos

h~~*

_y - a sin
sin

?
2

0~ sin ~ cos -

22
a,
,

is

an

ellipse in the
is
(

plane 2y-f-2=0, whose semiaxes are

-, 0,
J.

and

whose centre

ICH. xvi.

CHAPTER XVL
CURVATURE OF SURFACES.
proceed to investigate the curvature at a point on a given surface of the plane sections of the surface which pass through the point. In our investigation we
219.
shall

We now

make

use of the properties of the indicatrix defined

in

184.

If the point is taken as origin, the tangent plane at the origin as #;y-plane, and the normal as z-axis, the equations

to the surface

and indicatrix are

z = h,

>

= raj2 + 2sxy + ty z
z

Fio. 60.

Curvature of normal sections through an elliptic If rt s2 >0 the indicatrix is an ellipse, (fig. 60). point. Let C be its centre, CA and CB its axes, and let CP be any
220.

219-221]

CURVATURE OF NORMAL SECTIONS

Then,
if

327

semidiameter.

is

the radius of curvature of the

normal section OCR, p = Lt 5^;, and therefore the

CP 2

radii of

curvature of normal sections are proportional to the squares of the semidiameters of the indicatrix. The sections OCB,

OCA, which have the greatest and least curvature, are called the principal sections at O and their radii of curvature
are the principal
radii.

If

p l9

/o 2

are the principal radii, and

If the axes

OX and OY

are turned in the plane

XOY

until they lie in the principal sections OCA, the equations to the indicatrix become

OCB respectively,

or

= h,

'--+
Pi

P2

and the equation

to the surface is

Pi If

P2

angle 9 with the principal section OCA, the coordinates of P are r cos 0, r sin 0, h. Hence, since P is on the indicatrix,
2/6
.

CP = r, and

the normal section

OCR makes an

_ cos

2
, i

sin 2 0.
3

r*
,,

Pi

P2
sin 2
t

therefore

= cos

2
1

Pi

PZ

where p
221.

is

the radius of curvature of the section OOP.

Curvature of normal sections through a hyperIf rt

s2

bolic point.
(fig. 61).

<0,

the indicatrix

is

a hyperbola,

The inflexional tangents are real and divide the surface into two portions such that the concavities of normal sections of the two are turned in opposite directions. If we consider the curvature of a section whose concavity
is

turned towards the positive direction of the z-axis to be

328

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. XVI.

positive, then the positive radii of curvature are proportional to the squares of semidiameters of the indicatrix

z = h,

2k = rx 2 +2sxy + ty*,

(fc>0),

(1)

and the negative

radii of curvature are proportional to the

squares of the semidiameters of the indicatrix

= -h, -2h = rx*+28xy + ty 2

z

(&>0)

(2)

Fio. 61.

section of algebraically greatest curvature passes through the real axis of the indicatrix (1), and the normal section of algebraically least curvature through the
real axis of the indicatrix (2).

The normal

These indicatrices project

on the ory-plane into conjugate hyperbolas whose common 220, the asymptotes are the inflexional tangents. As in of greatest and least curvature are the principal sections If the axes OX and OY lie in the principal sections.
sections the equations to the indicatrices are

=
If p l9
sign,

71,

= 1;

(2)

*=

-ft,

or

~-=-l.
2

p 2 measure the principal radii in magnitude and

a*

and therefore the equations

Pi

to the indicatrices are

Pz

Pi

Pz

221,222]

CURVATURE OF NORMAL SECTIONS

to the surface is

329

and the equation

Pi

P2

The radius of curvature of the normal section that makes an angle 9 with the 2#-plane is given by
I_cos
P
222.
2

sin 2
P2

Pi

Curvature of normal sections through a para2 s = 0, the indicatrix consists of two If rt bolic point. The inflexional tangents parallel straight lines, (fig. 62).

Fio. 62.

coincide,
its

and the normal section which contains them has curvature zero. The normal section at right angles to

the section of zero curvature has

maximum
sections.

curvature.
If

These two sections are the principal

OX and
to

the principal sections, the indicatrix are z=h #2 = a 2

lie

OY

in

equations

the

where a = CA.

The

finite principal

radius p l

is

given by

Hence the equations

z = h,
If

to the indicatrix
/V2 /y2

and surface are

2h = -;
Pl

2*=-+....
Pl

is

the radius of curvature of the section

principal section

OOP which

makes an angle 6 with the

OCA,

Pi

330

COOEDINATE GEOMETRY
If r =
t

[CH.XVL
is

223. Umbilics.

and

= 0,

the indicatrix

circle and the principal sections are indeterminate, since all normal sections have the same curvature. Points at which

the indicatrix
224.

is

circular are umbilics.

The curvature of an oblique

section.

The

re-

between the curvatures of a normal section and an oblique section through the same tangent line is stated in Meunier's Theorem If p and p are the radii of curvature
lation
:

of a normal section

and an
cos
0,

oblique section through the

is the

same tangent,
sections.

p~p

where 6

angle between the

If the

tangent plane at the point

is

taken as ccy-plane,

the normal as 0-axis, and the common tangent to the sections as cc-axis, the equations to the indicatrix are
z = h,
2/i

= ra2 + 2sxy + ty 2

and, (see

fig.

60),

The equations

to

QQ' are
l

y = h tan 0, z = and where QQ' meets the surface,

2h = rx 2 + 2sxh tan

x and y are small quantities of the first order, h is of the second order, and therefore to our degree of approxiif
2 mation, hx and h

But

may
20V

be rejected.

Hence QV 2 =

and

P=
The following proof

QV 2 ==

of Meunier's theorem is due to Besant. Let OT be tne common tangent to the sections and consider the sphere which touches OT at O and passes through an adjacent and The planes of the ultimately coincident point on each section. sections cut the sphere in circles which are the circles of curvature at O of the sections. The circle in the plane containing the normal is a great circle, and the other is a small circle of the sphere. If C
is

the centre of the great circle and C of the small circle, the triangle is right angled at C, and the is the angle between angle the planes. Hence the theorem immediately follows.

COC

COC

223-225]

KADIUS OF CUKVATURE

331

Expression for radius of curvature of a given Let OT, the section through any point of a surface. tangent to a given section of a surface through a given point O on it, have direction-cosines 1 19 7n t n r Let the normal to OT which lies in the plane of the section have
225.
,

direction-cosines

2,

2,

7i

Then, since the direction-

cosines of the normal to the surface are

-P
0)

the angle between the plane of the section and the

is

normal section through OT,

given by

But
therefore,

p
by Frenet's formulae, since dp dp dx dp dy = rl l -j^^r'-r+^r' -r ds dx ds dy ds dq do dx dq '-= dy
t

'

+
,

sl i

cos 9

or

rl.
-

+ 2-sZ.m, + tm, z
l
'

*-

Cor.

When

= 0,

p becomes

/>

and Meunier's theorem

immediately follows.
Ex.
1.

Find the principal

radii at the origin of the paraboloid

Find also the radius of curvature of the section x=y.

Ex.
2.

Ans.

1,

^.

For the hyperbolic paraboloid

J,

prove that the principal radii at the origin are J and

principal sections are

and that the

x=3y,

3jc=-y.

are the radii of curvature ol any two perpendicular is constant. normal sections at a point of a surface, - +

Ex.

3.

If p,

/>'

332 Ex.
4.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.XVL

section of the surface ction

Prove that at the origin the radius of curvature of the a

by the plane
s

Ex.
surface

5.

The

locus of the centres of curvature of sections of the

~2
.,2

2*=*+y
Pl

+...

P2

which pass through the origin

is

the surface given by

Principal radii at a point of an ellipsoid. Let p be a point on an ellipsoid, centre O. Take OP as 2-axis
226.

and the diametral plane

as ##-plane. Then take the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the #?/-plane as x- arid i/-axes. Since the coordinate axes are conjugate
of

OP

diameters of the ellipsoid,

its

equation

is

where y = OP, and 2a and 2/3 are the principal axes of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane through the centre which is parallel to the tangent plane at P. The equations to the indicatrix are z = y k, where k is ~2 .,2 small, and

Therefore,

if

the axes of the indicatrix are a and

6,

be the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P, and let h be the distance between the planes of the indicatrix and the tangent plane. Then
let

Now

k^h V~P
Therefore,
if

the principal radii are p 1 and p 2

Pi ri

rX ^^r

2
-

2h

A and

p 2 = -Lt5i: = 2h

T.&

P*

226-229]

LINES OF CUEVATURE
radii at
i

333
(x, y, z)

Ex.

1,

Prove that the principal

ellipsoid x*la*+y*IW+e*/c

=l

a point

on the

are given

by

c2

Ex. 2. If PT is tangent to a normal section at P on an ellipsoid, the radius of curvature of the section is r2//), where r is the central radius parallel to PT. Ex.

P on

If X, \i are the 3. parameters of the confocals through a point the ellipsoid &2/a 2 +y2 ib 2 + z 2/c 2 = ], the principal radii at P are
'

abc

abc

Ex. 4. The normal at a point P of an ellipsoid meets the principal planes through the mean axis in Q and R. If the sum of the principal radii at P is equal to PQ-f PR, prove that P lies on a real central
circular section of the ellipsoid.

an umbilic of the ellipsoid X2 la 2 +y2 /b2 + z 2 /c2 = l, prove that the curvature at P of any normal section through P is (See 95, Ex. 2.) ac/b*.

Ex.

5.

If

is

LINES OF CURVATURE.
tangent at any point touches one of the principal sections of the surface at the point is called a line of curvature. There
227.
its

curve drawn on a surface so that

pass, in general,

of the surface,

two lines of curvature through every point and the two lines of curvature through any

point cut at right angles.

Lines of curvature of an ellipsoid. The tangents to the principal sections at a point P of an ellipsoid whose centre is O are parallel to the axes of the central section of
228.

the ellipsoid by the diametral plane of OP, ( 226). But the tangents to the curves of intersection of the ellipsoid

and the confocal hyperboloids through P are also parallel to the axes of the section, (121). Therefore the lines of curvature on the ellipsoid are its curves of intersection
with confocal hyperboloids.

on a developable surface. One principal section at any point of a developable is the normal section through the generator. Hence the form one system of lines of curvature. The generators
229.

Lines

of curvature

334

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xvi.

other system consists of curves drawn on the surface to cut all the generators at right angles. In the case of a cone, the curve of intersection of the cone and any sphere
centre at the vertex cuts all the generators at right angles, and therefore the second system of lines of curvature consists of the curves of intersection of the cone
its

which has

and concentric spheres whose centres are at the vertex.

230.

The normals to a surface at points of a

line of

curvature.

fundamental property of
:

lines of curvature

may

be stated as follows

are adjacent and ultimately coincident points of a line of curvature, the normals to the surface at O and P intersect ; conversely, if O and P are adjacent

If O and P

points of a curve
the surface at

drawn on a surface and the normals O and P intersect, the curve is a line
let

to

of

curvature of the surface. Let O be the origin and

the equation to the surface be

22= *V-+....
Pi
P-2

P will r cos
6,

lie

on the indicatrix and

0, h.

will

r sin

surface are

The equations to the normal rcos0 _ y-rsmO _ ~~

have coordinates at P to the

*

zh
1

r cos 6
Pi

r sin 9
Pz
is
1

Therefore,
at O,
i.e.

if

the normal at P
/

coplanar with the normal

1

with OZ,

sin0cos0(~--Uo
Vi
/V
If
;

(1)

O and P are adjacent points of a line of curvature, sin 9 = 0, or cos = 0, and the condition (1) is satisfied therefore the normals at adjacent points of a line of curvature
intersect.

If the

normals at

O and

P intersect, cos
is

or sin

= 0,

and therefore O and P are adjacent points of one of the

principal sections, or the curve

a line of curvature.

Ex. The normals to an ellipsoid at its points of intersection with a confocal generate a developable surface.

229-231]

LINES OF CUJRVATUKE

335

The normals

Lines of curvature on a surface of revolution. to a surface of revolution at all points of a meridian section lie in the plane of the section, and therefore, by 230, the meridian sections are lines of curvature. The
231.
all

points of a circular section pass through the same point on the axis, and therefore any circular section is a line of curvature.

normals at

be any point on the surface, and let PT and PK be the tangents to the meridian and circular sections

Let

P, (fig. 63),

through
in N,

P.

Let PN be the normal at

P,

meeting the axis

and

let

be the centre of the circular section.

Then

Fio. 63.

TPN and KPN

are the planes of the principal sections. The principal radius in the plane TPN is the radius of curvature at P of the generating curve. The circular section is an

oblique section through the tangent PK, and its radius of curvature is CP. Therefore, by Meunier's theorem, if p is

the principal radius in the plane KPN,

CP = p cos 0, where
or

=
is

L CPN,

p = PN.

Thus the other

principal radius
axis.

the intercept on the

normal between P and the

Ex. about
1.

its

In the surface formed by the revolution of a parabok directrix one principal radius at any point is twice tne other.

336
Ex. about
2.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
its directrix,

[CH. xvi.

For the surface formed by the revolution of a catenary (the catenoid), the principal radii at any point are

equal and of opposite sign.

surface whose principal radii at each point are equal opposite sign is called a minimal surface.)

(A

and

of

Ex. 3. In the conicoid formed by the revolution of a central conic about an axis one principal radius varies as the cube of the other.

Ex.

4.

given curve.

developable surface is generated by the tangents to a Prove that at the point Q on the tangent at P, where
is
.

PQ =

the principal radius of the developable

Let the plane through at right angles to generators in N and M, (fig. 64). Then N, Q,

PQ

cut the consecutive are consecutive points

Fio. 04.

of the principal section.

is 8^rf
if

But the angle between consecutive generators and the angle between the planes PQN, PQM is the angle between consecutive osculating planes, and therefore is ST. Therefore,
pl
is

the principal radius,

of the line of curvature Ex. 5. Find the radius of curvature at of the developable. Draw at right angles to the consecutive generator. Then N, Q, L are consecutive points on the line of curvature. Let QM, NQ, meet the sphere of unit radius whose centre is in a, ft, c respectively. Then, if 8\jr' is the angle between consecutive tangents to the line of

QL

QL

curvature,

8^ = bc, S^ = ca,
is

S T = ab.
a,

Therefore, since the triangle cab

right-angled at

If PQ is the radius of curvature of the line of curvature,

we have

QL
Hence

232]

EQUATIONS TO LINES OF CURVATURE

6.

337

Ex.

Shew

that the radius of torsion of the line of curvature of

is

the developable

^
,

1 where

== -

dp

' a- ==

do*

and

s is

the arc of the edge of regression.

Ex. 7. Shew that the lines of curvature of generated by tangents to a helix are plane curves.

the developable

232. The principal radii and lines of curvature through In 225 we have a point of the surface z=f(x, y). n are the direction-cosines of the found that if 1 19 lf tangent to a normal section of the surface through the

m
j

point

(x, y,

z\ the radius of curvature of the section

rl

is

given by

+ Zslm
r

tm,*

................... ( )

We

have also

whence
Therefore, if (1) and (2) into

+ g m n^ = 0, J + m + (pZ + gm ) = l ................... (2) we write k for Vl +p + # 2 we may combine

pl^
1

>

which correspond This equation gives two values of ^ x to the two sections through the point which have a given radius of curvature. If p is a principal radius, these
:

sections coincide,

(cf.

85).

Therefore the principal radii

are given

by

or
If

r-s
is

equation (4)

satisfied,

the
-i
,

coincident values of
/
9 2

L m, are
:

11

-i k

$P

i+</ --f k

*P

TP k
B.Q.

Pq ~li

8P

(5)

338

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
it'

[CH. xvi.

a straight line whcxse direction-cosines are n l9 and P'Q' is its projection on the #2/-plane, the ^, x projections of PQ and P'Q' on the x- and yaxes are identical, and therefore the gradient of P'Q' with reference to the

Now

PQ

is

axes

OX and OY

is

mjl^

Hence, from

(5),

the differential

equation to the projection on the ^y-plane of the line of curvature corresponding to the radius p is

dx

+
sp

or

which may be written

If we eliminate pfk between these equations, we obtain the differential equation to the projections of the two lines of curvature, viz.,

dx*{s(l+p*)-rpq}+dxdy{t(l+p*)-r(I+q*)}
Shew

Ex.
//

1.

2 x2 = 2-s are given by a hyu

that the principal radii at a point of the paraboloid

where
Ex.
a
2.

k2
a"
0*

Prove that at a point of the intersection of the paraboloid hV=22 and the confocal r+F r = 22- A, the principal radii r ^
!

a-A 6-A
A2
.
!i

'

7X are A: A, ^

a6P wnere r A
,
~
,

k*

T0

A(a-f fc-f 2^) ^ ab

Ex.

3.

Shew

that the projections on the #y-plane of the lines of

O/

curvature of the paraboloid

-Kr =2z are given by u

232]

EXAMPLES ON LINES OF CUEVATUEE

4.

339

Ex.

Prove that when a = 6

this equation reduces to

^LJi
dx
whence

or

dx

^=--,
y
are arbitrary constants. 231 for the paraboloid.
in Ex. 3 is

Shew
Ex.

yAx

or

x*+y*~B, where A and

that this verifies the results of

5.

Prove that the integral of the equation

where X

is

an arbitrary constant, and shew that

this

becomes

lf

'^aA-hi
its

Hence prove that the

lines of curvature of the paraboloid are curves of intersection with confocals.

Ex. 6. Prove that the intersection of the surface 3z = cuc3 + by3 and the plane ax by is a line of curvature of the surface.

Ex.

7.

Prove that the condition that the normal,

to the surface zf(x,y) at a point of a curve intersect the consecutive normal is

drawn on

it

should

dp dq __ dx+pdz~~ dy -\-qdz*
and deduce the equation to the lines Apply 48. Also dzpdx + qdy,
Ex.
8.

of curvature obtained in

232.

dp^

If ID

tt

line of curvature,

and

are the direction-cosines of the tangent to a w, n are the direction-cosines of the normal
dl

to the surface at the point,

dm dn
line of curvature of the ellipsoid

Ex.

9.

Prove that at a point of a

and shew that the coordinates

of the ellipsoid equation.

of

any point
'

of the curve of intersection

and the confocal

a 2 +A

+ 6J --j.__--i 2 c2
-f

+X

verify this

Ex.

10.

Prove that for the helicoid

_

= ctan~

^,

/i= -p2=

>

where w2 =^ 2

340

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
point, P, on the surface is given

[CH.XVL

Any

by

The tangent plane at P is x sin ~y cos 6-\--- u6= 0, c

and hence,
if

is

the perpendicular to the plane from the point Q,

But

if

is

normal section through

the distance PQ, the radius of curvature at is given by

of the

Therefore

+ c2)c*02 - 2c

Vi^-f C
:

-=
du
,

/>

+ <* 2 = 0.

This gives two values of

sections with radius p. coincident values of d6
:

rf#

If p is a principal radius, as in du.

which correspond to the two 232, we have

TT Hence

p=

The differential equation to the projections lines of curvature is ,/

on the #y-plane of the

where u and 6 are polar coordinates. Hence the lines of curvature are the intersections of the helicoid and cylinders
Zu = c(A**-A- e-'\
l

where A
Ex.

is

an arbitrary constant.

11.

For the

helicoid 2?=ctan~ 1 ^, prove that

=
and deduce the
Ex.
12.

= 2* 2 wf, q ?^ 2

cu

ex ~

r=-^= %cxy /, IF
from the equations of
232.

results of Ex. 10

Prove that at a point of the conoid

the principal radii are given

by

= 0,
where
,, r

^ ^ 7S
,

dz

etc<)

an ^ ^ 2 s

"*"

#= We have ^

-u

/, '

= -^

' ,

=
,

-z'

T
r

^2

/ cos 2 ^-2' sin

232]

EXAMPLES ON LINES OF CURVATURE

Prove that at a point
of the surface of revolution

341

Ex. 13.

the principal radii are

P\

-WIT7
y

2
>

_
P'2~~

-(I

+ z'rf
>'

>

where ^ = -y-,
Ex. 14.

etc.

Deduce the

result of

231.

For the surface

#=ttcos#,

y=U8inQj

z=clog(u+ Vtt

c2),

= - p2 prove that pj
Ex.
15.
.

Find the principal radii at a point of the cylindroid Prove that at any point of the generator #=;?/,
is

2=?n, one principal radius is infinite and the other the distance of tne point from the 2-axis.

where u

is

Ex.

16.

Find the curvature at the origin

of the lines of curvature

of the surface

Pi

Pt

<*

If
is

I,

m, n are the direction-cosines of the tangent to a curve and a

the arc,

!_Y^Y
ff

\daiJ

But
^{

for a line of curvature,

-*(l+p*)} + Jm(r(^^
line of curvature that touches

...(1)

and for the

at the origin

p=q=s=
ds^

OX, 1=1, m=n = 0.

(1),

Also

therefore differentiating

and substituting,

we

obtain

dm

<5*\ fa=~r^tv^ +m

doL

j^s

^
Pl

ty)~^rY^
P2
.

Again,

pl+qm~n, and therefore

da,

at the origin

And,

... since
7

7 dl ^-r--f
,

aa

dn ^ dm n^-=0, -r-+ aa. aa

r aa.

dl

A -=0.

Therefore,

if

/3

is

the radius of curvature of the line of curvature

1
2
*

which touches OX,

l^

Similarly, the square of the curvature of the line of curvature that

touches

OY is

342

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
17.

[CH. xvi.

Ex. form

Prove that the equation to an

4tZ

ellipsoid can

be put in the

^ - ---*T

Pi

P2

^>

where
Ex.

77, jt?

are the coordinates of the centre.

of the curvatures of the lines

18.

Hence shew that the squares

through a point P are
2

of curvature

2 (a ~A)(6 ~A)(<? --A)

3 A( A - /*)

A3/*

'

fi(/i

- A) 3

> ~A

'

where A and

p.

are the parameters of the confocaLs through P.

t ,

Ex. 19. PN, PN PN 2 are the normals at a point P to an ellipsoid and the confocal hyperboloids of one and two sheets through P. Prove that the curvature at P of the curve of section of the ellipsoid ~ and hyperboloid of two sheets is (/>i~ 2 + p 2 2 ) where p^ 1 is the curvature of the section of the ellipsoid by the plane PNN U and /Oo" 1 is the curvature of the section of the hyperboloid of two sheets by tne
>

plane PNjNg.

233.

Umbilics.

At an umbilic

the directions of the

;

principal sections are indeterminate tions (5) of 232, we have

therefore,

from equa-

~
r
t

~
s

~k'
any normal
section

where p is the radius through the umbilic.

Ex.
1.

of curvature of

Find the umbilics

of

By

differentiation,

we x

the ellipsoid x2 /a?+y*/tf+z*/c* = l.

2 = -r ,r 5--,
L

obtain
,

~o-fS=0, L L

pz

,.
'

or

Whence

r-

..=
or

At an
Hence

umbilic s(l +p*) = rpq

pq (1 -f

2
jt)

) 4-

rzpq
c
2

= 0.

^=00^=0;

(rz

+ l+p*^0

unless

+a 2 =0).

We have also at
01-

the umbilic

a 2p 2 (6 2 - c2 ) + 6 2g 2 (c2 - a 2 ) = c2 (a 2 - 6 2).
If Tf If

a>6>c, p =

gives imaginary values of

q.

-* c

233]

UMBILICS
_x2^
a*z

843

Therefore, since

At an

umbilic

if

Hence,

P=7>

sinw y=0,
ac

(Cf.

226, Ex. 5.)

2.

Ex.

Shew

that the points of intersection of the surface

radius of curvature at

and the line an umbilic is

xyz

x m +ym + zm ~am are umbilics, and that the given by _2

Ex.

3.

Prove that the surface

a 3.* 3 +

%+
3

<?

has an umbilic where

it

meets the line

cfix

= b^y

<?z.

Ex. 4. Prove that in general three lines of curvature pass through an umbilic. If the umbilic is taken as origin, the equation to the surface is
P

The condition that

normal at

is

the normal at (#, y, z) should intersect the /0 x 0/7 o?\ ^ bjr + x'yCZc - a) + xy*(a - 26) - c?/ 3 =0.
,

>

Therefore,

if

the tangent to a line of curvature makes an angle

?

with the #-axis,

x
and
ctan oL+(26-rf)tan o.-(2c-a)tanoL-6=0. This equation gives three values of tan a which correspond to the three lines of curvature through the umbilic.
3 2

Ex. 5. If the origin is an umbilic of the surface z=/(,r, ?/), the directions of the three lines of curvature through the origin are
given by

Ex.

6.

of an Investigate the lines of curvature through an umbilic

normal at the origin the z-axis, arid the principal plane which contains the umbilics the #-plane, the

ellipsoid. If the umbilic is the origin, the

344

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is

[CH.

XVL

equation to the ellipsoid

= 0.
Whence, at the
origin,
^\~

we have
oJ
'"S

*dt__g

ox

w*

3r_3? oJ
ox

-^

cV_3*
'=

"i~

*J*

oy

oy

origin are given

Therefore the directions of the lines of curvature through the by tan 3 a + tan a=0,
real line of curvature

and the only

Ex.

of the ellipsoid
7.

through the umbilics is the section by the principal plane that contains the umbilics.
that the points of intersection of the line

Shew
o

and surface

umbilics on the surface, and that the }-?/+ c b directions of the three lines of curvature through an umbilic (.r, y, z) are given by

33 = &* are
6
'

-=/=a b c

^^ ^^ ^^
c

'

a*

If

P and

are adjacent

drawn on the

surface, the normals at

and ultimately coincident points of a curve P and Q intersect if

Also,

we have

since the tangent to the curve lies in the tangent plane to the surface.
If

-=^=-,

these equations give three values of

dx dy
:

dz,

and the

first

equation then reduces to (cdy

- bdz)(adz - cdx)(bdx -

ady) =0.

234.

Triply-orthogonal

systems

of surfaces.

When

three systems of surfaces are such that through each point in space there passes one member of each system, and the three members through any given point cut at right angles,

they are together said to form a triply-orthogonal system of The confocals of a given conicoid form such a surfaces.
system.

We
are
its

have seen that the

lines of curvature of

an

ellipsoid

curves of intersection with the confocal hyperboloids. This is a particular case of a general theorem on the lines

of curvature of a triply-orthogonal system, Dupin's theorem, which we proceed to enunciate and prove. // three systems of surfaces cut everywhere at right angles, the lines of curvature of any

member of one system

234]

DUPIN'S

THEOREM

345

are

its

curves of intersection with the members of the other

two systems. Let O be any point on a given surface, S p of the first system, and let S 2 and S3 be the surfaces of the second and We have to prove that third systems that pass through O. the curves of intersection of S x with S 2 and S 3 are the lines of
curvature on S 1
surfaces
planes.

The tangent planes at O to the three cut at right angles. Take them for coordinate The equations to the three surfaces are then,
.

to Sj
to
to

S2
S3

= 0, = 0, 2y + a 2 z + 2h#x + b^x -f 2 2 2z+a3x +2h3xy + b3y +... = 0.

2x + a^ 2 + 2h l yz + b^ 2 +
2 2
. . .
. . . ,

Near the origin, on the curve of intersection of the surfaces S z and S 2 x and y are of the second order of small quantities, and hence the coordinates of a point of the curve adjacent to O are 0, 0, y. The tangent planes to
Sj

and S 2 at

(0, 0,

y) are,

if

2 y be

rejected, given

by

and they are at right angles

therefore
Similarly,

we have
/^

and therefore

= h 2 = h 3 = 0.

Hence the coordinate planes are the planes of the principal sections at O of the three surfaces and the curve of intersection of S l and S 2 touches a principal section of S l But O is any point of S 19 and therefore the curve at O. touches a principal section at any point of its length, and
therefore
is

intersection of

a line of curvature. Similarly, the curve of S l and S3 is a line of curvature of S r

Ex. 1. By means of Ex. 8, 232, prove that if two surfaces cut at a constant angle and their curve of intersection is a line of curvature of one, then it is a line of curvature of the other also, that if the curve of intersection of two surfaces is a line of curvature on each, the two surfaces cut at a constant angle.
;

Ex.

2.

surface

and sphere cut at a constant angle

If a line of curvature of a surface lies on a sphere, the at all points of the line.

346

COORDINATE GEOMETEY
3.

[CH.

XVL

Ex.

If the

normals to a surface at

make a constant angle with

line of curvature.

all points of a plane section the plane of the section, the section is a

Curvature at points of a generator of a skew We have shewn that a ruled conicoid can be surface. found to touch a given skew surface at all points of a given generator, ( 218). If P is any point of the generator, the generators of the conicoid through P are the inflexional tangents of the skew surface, and therefore the conicoid and surface have the same indicatrix at P. Hence the sections of the conicoid and of the surface through P have
235.

the same curvature.

Ex. Investigate the principal radii of a skew surface at points of a given generator. Take the generator as r-axis, the central point as origin, and the tangent plane at the origin as ,r?/-plane. The equation to the conicoid which has the same principal radii is then of the form
2 wz -f 2fyz + Zhxy + 6y 2 + cz 2 = 0.

Whence
p = 0, ^
'

at (#,

q= l

0,

0)
,

we have
-

-hx

r=0,

s=

h* =
,

--

buP-Zftixw + cffix* * =

The

principal radii are therefore given

by

where 8
236.

is

the parameter of distribution for the generator.

The measure of curvature

suggested the following method

ture

of a surface at a given portion, S, of the surface whose area

at a point. Gauss of estimating the curvaConsider a closed point.

is

A.

Draw from

the

centre of a sphere of unit radius parallels to the normals to the surface at all points of the boundary of S. These
intercept on the surface of the sphere a portion of area a, whose boundary is called the horograph of the portion S, and a is taken to measure the whole curvature of the

portion

S.

The average curvature over S

S,

is

-p

If

is

a point within
is

then Lt -r as S

is

indefinitely diminished

the measure of curvature or

specific

curvature at

P.

235-237]

THE MEASURE OF CURVATURE

347

237.
/>!

Expressions for the measure of curvature. // and p% are the principal radii at a point P the measure

of curvature at P is

Let PQ, PR, (fig. 65), be infinitesimal arcs of the lines of curvature through P, and let QS and RS be arcs of the lines Then the normals to the of curvature through Q and R.
surface at P

and Q

intersect at

C lf

so that

and the normals

at P

and R intersect at C 2 so that

,

PC 2 = RC 2 = p 2

FIG. 65.

If the angles PC^Q,

PC 2 R

are S6 l and S62

we have

and the area PQRS

If

is

pqrs

is

the horograph corresponding to PQRS,

Therefore the measure of curvature at P

PQRS
Gar.

prfzSO^Oz

fll

p2

The measure

of curvature at a point of the surface

is

z =f(x, y)

348
Ex.
an
1.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH. xvi.

If a cone of revolution, semivertical angle o^ circumscribes

ellipsoid, the plane of contact divides the surface into two portions whose total curvatures are 27r(l-hsino.), 27r(l -sinrx). The horograph is the circle of intersection of the unit sphere and

the right cone whose vertex

is

the centre and semi vertical angle

Tr
2t

o..

Ex. whose Ex.

jp2
7/2

2.

Any

diametral plane divides an ellipsoid into two portions

of curvature at a point
is

total curvatures are equal.

3. Z2 c2

The measure

of the ellipsoid

-:>-f a2 o2

T71-I-

=1

)*

is

2 a .;... ,., 6V

where p r

the perpendicular from the centre r r

to the tangent plane at P.

Prove that at any point P of the paraboloid y 2 -f z 2 = 4ax, the measure of curvature is -=;2 where S is the point (a, 0, 0), and
Ex.
4.
>

that the whole curvature of the portion of tho surface cut off by the

plane

x=x$
5,

is 2rr

- A/ >a

+ .r

\ /
x

Ex.

At

a point of a given generator of a skew surface distant

from the central point the measure of curvature is ^p ^, where 8 (o +# ) is the parameter of distribution. Ex. 6. If the tangent planes at any two points P and P' of a given generator of a skew surface are at right angles, and the measures of curvature at P and P' are R and /f 15 prove that *jR-\-*J R is constant.
Ex. 7. Find the measure of curvature at the point surface (# 2 + * 2 )(2>r
(#, y, z)

on the

Ex. 8. The binomials to a given curve generate a skew surface. Prove that its measure of curvature at a point of the curve is - 1/cr2
.

Ex. 9. The normals to a skew surface at points of a generator on a hyperbolic paraboloid. Prove that at any point of the generator the surface and paraboloid have the same measure of curvature.
lie

CURVILINEAR COORDINATES.
238.

We

have

seen,

18o), that the equations

are parameters, determine a surface. If we assign a particular value to one of the parameters, say varies is a U, then the locus of the point (x, y, z) as curve on the surface, since x, ?/, z are now functions of one

where

and

parameter.

If

the

two curves corresponding

P,

to

Vv,

pass through a point

the position of P

U=u, may be

238,239]

DIRECTION-COSINES OF THE

NORMAL

349

considered as determined by the values u and v of the parameters, and these values are then called the curvilinear

Thus a point on an ellipsoid is coordinates of the point P. determined in position if the parameters of the confocal
hyperboloids which pass through it are known, and these parameters may be taken as the curvilinear coordinates of
the point. If one of the parameters remains constant while the other varies, the locus of the point is the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the hyperboloid which

corresponds to the constant parameter.

Ex.

What
Ex.

The helicoid is given by x = ncos0, ?/ = W8in0, 1. curves correspond to ^ = constant, # = constant?

2.

= cO.

The hyperboloid

of one sheet is given

y_i-A//, ~~

z_

"*
A.-//,

by

What curves correspond to A = constant, //. constant? If A and /ut are the curvilinear coordinates of a point on the surface, what is the locus of the point when (i) A = /x, (ii) A/A = ?
239.

O,

(fig.

Direction-cosines of the normal to the surface. If curvi66), is the point of a given surface whose

Ki<;.

66.

linear coordinates are

u,

v,

the direction-cosines of the

tangents at

to the curves

?7=u, F=t;, are proportional to

*>

#V
Therefore
if
I,

>

2/1M

2V

#U> 2/U,2u-

m, n are the direction-cosines of the

lx a

normal at

to the surface,

+ my u + nz u = 0,

350

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

XVL

and

_L
185.)
If

m
:

i1

where

F=xux +y u y +zuz
l>

(Cf.

Cor.

6 denotes the angle NOM,

equation between the curvilinear coordinates of a point on a surface represents a curve drawn on the surface. We proceed to find the
240.

The

linear

element.

An

relation

between the

differentials of the arc of the curve

and Let O and P, (fig. 66), be adjacent points of the curve and have cartesian coordinates
the coordinates.
(a?,

y,

z\

(x

+ 8x, y + 8y,

and curvilinear coordinates

(u, v),

(u + 8u, v + Sv).

Then

and hence
if

cubes and higher powers are rejected. Therefore if ds is the differential of the arc of the curve,
l,
2

since Lt(OP/<S*) =

cfo

= Edn* + 2Fdudv + Gdv*.

is

of ds given by this equation linear element of the surface.

Ex.

The value

called the

For the surface of revolution,

Find/if df**

and lines of curvature. We can find the principal radii at a point of the surface when
241.

The principal

radii

239-241]

EQUATION TO LINES OF CURVATURE

351

the coordinates are expressed as functions of two parameters as follows

:

The normal

any normal I, m, n, we have

curvature
is
/>,

to the surface is the principal normal of section, and therefore if it has direction-cosines

for the normal section

whose radius of

d?x

m
,j 2 ds g

n
,~.

A17 ,

Whence
But
and

(!) ^ '

dx = x udu + x v dv,

d2x = x uudu 2 + 2xuv du dv + x vv d

y

and we have similar expressions for dy dz d 2 y and d2z.

y

Again,
~
f
J-jy

IIV

X U ZV

J--T

where

H* = EG-F 2
(1),

Substituting these in

we

obtain
(2)

H
P

where

E' =

yu
%it>
oc v>

Equation (2)

may

be written

and gives two values of du:dv which correspond to the two normal sections with a given radius of curvature. If
p
is

a principal radius the values coincide.

Therefore the

principal radii are given

by
*=Q.
...(4)

352
If

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
p
is

[CH. XVI.

a principal radius, by (3) and

(4),
__

Edu + Fdv _ Fda + Odv

and therefore for a
line of curvature,

E'du+F'dv~F'du + G'dv~H*

Cor.

1.

The measure

E'G'-F'*
775

of curvature is

Cor.

2.

For an umbilic
(2)

E =z F ==
'

G* 7'
:

Equation
If 0,

may

also be obtained as follows

the point considered, and P, (x+x, y + ty, z + Sz) is an adjacent point on a normal section through 0, p, the radius of curvature of the section, is given by
(.r, ?/,

z) is

where p

is

the perpendicular from

is

P to

the tangent plane at 0.

1>

The

equation to the tangent plane

2(^-.r)(y u

^) = 0, and

efcc -

Hence

2 (.ruu Su? + 2 JF
2/7

Therefore, since

^ ~~
p

Edtf+ZFdudv + O
radii

Ex. 1. Find the principal surface z=f(x> y). Take u==x, v =y, then

and

lines

of curvature of the

Hence

E
JE"

and on substituting
of
*

in equations (4)

and

(5),

we obtain the equations

232.

The student

and applied in a recent

(Oinn

&

Co.).

DiffArentieli

W. de

will find the methods of curvilinear coordinates discussed treatise on Differential Geometry by L. P. Eisenhart, He is also referred to Applications Gdome'triqma du Calcul

Tannenberg

TMorie des Surfaces, Darboux

Geometria

Differemiale, Bianchi.

241]

EXAMPLES ON LINES OF CURVATURE

2.

353

Ex.
curve.

ruled surface

is

Find the principal

radii at a point distant r

generated by the binormals of a given from the curve.

The coordinates
and are functions
Frenet's formulae,

of the point are given

by

of s and r. we obtain
,

Taking u==s and v==r, and applying

F=0,
-5
>

0=1,

H=\^l + ~i

r* ro-' & = J ---1

op

<7

per*

Therefore the principal radii are given by

Ex.

3.

The curve
curvature
is

Find the measure of curvature at the line of striction. is the line of striction, and when r=0, the measure of
2

I/or

Ex. 4. Apply the method of curvilinear coordinates to prove that the principal radius of a developable at a distance I along a generator

from the edge

Ex.
5.

of regression is

Apply the method of curvilinear coordinates = u~ for the helicoid # = wcos 0, y = ^sin 0, z cd, Pi = /> 2 the lines of curvature are given by d0 -

to prove that
c2

and that

Ex. 6. Find the locus of points on the helicoid at which the measure of curvature has a given value. Ex.
7.

For the surface

x _u + v

uv

prove that the principal radii are given by

where

a*by + kabp(a? - 62 -f uv) - 4 =0, 4F = 4a 2 6 2 -f a 2 (u - v) 2 + I 2 (u + v)\

lines of curvature are given

and that the

by

du
Ex.

8.

For the surface

#==3w(l

2
i;

)--u

3
,

the principal radii at any point are

and the lines of curvature are given are arbitrary constants. B.Q. E

by

u=a

Vf

v = a2 ,

where a and
v

364
Ex.
point
9.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The squares
the conicoid

[CH. xvi.

of the semi-axes of the confocals through a

P on

a
are

aa-A,

61

= 6-A, ^
as the curvilinear coordinates of the point, prove

Taking A and

p.

V^VT'
Deduce that

'

T
p

>V

and

and that the lines of curvature are A = constant, /z= constant. If lj m, n are the direction -cosines of the normal to the surface,
Llf

L
JT7"

"

since

We have

also

l=^= \l"^ a etc. -, a

*
A/JI

Ex. 10. Prove that are lines of curvature.

if

F and

F' are zero, the parametric curves

Examples XIII.
1. Prove that along a given line of curvature of a conicoid, one principal radius varies as the cube of the other.

2.

are given

Prove that the principal by

radii at a point of the surface

xyz^a?

where p

is

the point.

the perpendicular from the origin to the tangent plane at Shew that this equation can be written in the form
,

&B

38

+pp

ty

+PP

+ pp
_o ""

'

and that

if

(,

r/,

f)

is

a centre of principal curvature at

(#, y, z),

Find the principal points where x=y~z.

3.
4.

radii of the surface

aV=^

2
(a?

+y

at the

Prove that the cone

passes through a line of curvature of the paraboloid

CH.XVI.]
5.

EXAMPLES
x == u cos 6,

XIII.

355

For the surface

y=u sin 0, z =/(0), that the angles that the lines of curvature prove generators are given by
tan
<

make with the

- 1 =0.

6. For a rectangular hyperboloid, (in which the asymptotic cone has three mutually generators), the normal chord at perpendicular any point is the harmonic mean between the principal radii. 7. PT is tangent at P to a curve on an ellipsoid along which the measure of curvature is constant. Prove that the normal section of the ellipsoid through PT is an ellipse which has one of its vertices at P. 8. Prove that at a point of the intersection of the cylindroid 2 2 3 2 2 z(x*+y ) = mxy and the cylinder (# +y ) ^a (^ -?/ 2 ) 2 the measure of
<2

curvature of the former varies as

9. The principal radii at a point P of a surface are p l and p2 and the radius of curvature of a normal section through P is K. Shew that the normal to the surface at a neighbouring point Q on the section distant s from P, makes with the principal normal to the section at

anangle
10. Prove that the on the surfaces

-'lines of curvature of the paraboloid

sinh"" 1
00

xy

az

lie

sinhr 1 ^ = A

1J

where A
11.

is

an arbitrary constant.
that the
is

Shew

on a

line of curvature of the paraboloid

through the vertex

12.

or difference of the distances of any point xy = az from the generators constant.

sum

A curve is drawn on

the surface

x at the origin and with its osculating plane inclined to the z-axis at an angle <f>. Prove that at the origin
touching the axis of
13.

xy^az bounded by
point
(x, y, z) is

Prove that the whole curvature of the portion of the paraboloid the generators through the origin and through the
2

-tan-*
14.

Prove that the

differential equation of the projections of the lines of curvature of the ellipsoid

on the

a
is
2 BWxydx* - (/?Wr +

aay + a?b*y)dxdy + Kotxydy* = 0,

/3

where

o.==&

-c

2
,

= c2 -a2

= a2 -ft2

356

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

[en. xvi.

Deduce that

where r p==^ and hence shew that the integral of the equation dx

is

*_-_**!_, k ~aa%-/#>
*
where k
is
2'

an arbitrary constant.
if

Prove that

=^

~"
tt ; 2

oca (a

-A)
2

x v

this reduces to

a2 (

-A)

and deduce that the lines of curvature are the curves of intersection of the ellipsoid and its confocals.
of a

Prove that the measure of curvature at points of a generator skew surface varies as cos 4 #, where d is tne angle between the tangent planes at the point and at the central point.
15.

16.

Prove that the surface

4a 2* 2 = (x2 - 2a 2 ) (# 2 - 2a2) of umbilics lying on the sphere # 2 +;?/ 2 -f 2 2 = 4a 2

has a line

ruled surface is generated by the principal normals to a 17. given curve prove that at the point of a principal normal distant r from the curve the principal radii are given by
;

(cr

p<r\cr

p/

p
?

What

are the principal radii at points of the curve

18. If ?, m, n are the direction-cosines of the normal at a point to the surface z=f(x, y) the equation for the principal radii can be written
1

/3T 3w\
;r

p
19.

o 2

3r~ *T" 7^r~

"

p\d^
2
i

3y/
of the line of curvature of the

Prove that the osculating plane

2

surface

Pi

Pt

6
<

which touches OX, makes an angle

with the plane

ZOX,

such that

20. Prove that for the surface tractrix about its axis

formed by the revolution

of the

and that the surface has at any point a constant measure

of curvature

CH.XVI.J
21.

EXAMPLES

XIII.

357

If the surface of revolution

a minimal surface, f'(l+f*) + u>f' = Q. Hence, shew that the only real minimal surface of revolution formed by the revolution of a catenary about its directrix.
is

is

22.

At a

and the hyperboloid x*+y*-z2 +c*

2&

point of the curve of intersection of the paraboloid xy cz the principal radii of the para(1 ^
\/2). '

boloid are
23.

The

principal radius of a cone at

any point

of its curve of

intersection with a concentric sphere varies as (sinAsin/x)% A, and are the angles that the generator through the point fjL

where makes

with the focal

24.

lines.

A straight line drawn

through the variable point P, (a cos <, a sin <, 0),

parallel to the &r-plane of 0, with the 2-axis.

is some function makes an angle 0, where Prove that the measure of curvature at P of the surface generated by the line is

variable ellipsoid whose axes are the coordinate axes touches 25. the given plane px -\-qy-\- rz= 1. Prove that the locus of the centres of principal curvature at the point of contact is

[CH. XVII.

CHAPTER XVIL
ASYMPTOTIC LINES.
242.

curve drawn on a surface so as to touch at each

is

point one of the inflexional tangents through the point called an asymptotic line on the surface.
243.
1

The
TI

are the direction-cosines of the tangent to an L 19 asymptotic line on the surface z~f(x, y), we have, from
181,

mv

differential equation of asymptotic lines.

If

ri* + 2sl l

m + <m
l

2
1

= 0;

whence, as in 232, the differential equation of the projections on the ojy-plane of the asymptotic lines is r dx2 + Zsdxdy + tdy 2 = 0.

from the definition that the asymptotic lines of a hyperboloid of one sheet are the generators. This may be easily verified from the differential equation. If the equation to the hyperboloid is x2 /
It is evident

Whence

the differential equation becomes

or

y = y lx^/a y^+b^
2

where y l =

This equation
ellipse

= 0, x

clearly satisfied by the tangents to the 2 2 or the projections of the l, /b /a

is
2

+y

242-245]

TORSION OF ASYMPTOTIC LINE

359

asymptotic lines are the tangents. We also have proved, ( 104), that the projections of the generators are the
tangents.
244.

The osculating plane of an asymptotic

are the direction-cosines of
line,

line.

If

19

n1

the tangent to an

asymptotic

pli

+qm
r

7i]

= 0.

Therefore,

by

Frenet's formulae,

Whence
or

T-

-2

_
1

_
line.

P = -<7- = a

Therefore the binormal of the asymptotic line is the normal to the surface, or the tangent plane to the surface
is

the osculating plane of the asymptotic

Cor.
1.

The two asymptotic The normals

to

lines

through any point

have the same osculating plane.

Cor.
2.

asymptotic line

a surface at points of an generate a skew surface whose line of

striction is the asymptotic line.

245.

The torsion of an asymptotic

x2
Pi

line.

Consider the

asymptotic lines through the origin on the surface

v2
P2
oc

The tangents make angles

tan

with the o>axis, where

line,

a = A/ v

Hence, for one asymptotic

cos
oc, oc,

Pi

^ ==
and
Also,
1 2

=
244,

sin

m m

= sin oc, = cos oc, 2

x

= 7i = 0. 2
ti
1

from

360

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
if

[CH.XVII.

Therefore

d(3 is the differential of the arc of the line,

a:

But at the

origin, r

= l/p l9

mu c Therefore
or
Cor.

= 0, p = 0, since cos a -- =

= 0.

cot

a =V3.
lines

The two asymptotic

through a point have

the same torsion.

The asymptotic lines of a developable surface are the generators, and the osculating plane of an asymptotic line is the same at all points of the line. Hence l/cr = 0. But one of the principal curvaalso zero, and thus the equation developable surfaces.

tures

is

=V
**

is

verified for

PiP*

For a hyperboloid of one sheet, the asymptotic lines are also the generators, but the osculating plane of an asymptotic line is not the same at all points of the line. The osculating plane at each point of
the line
is

determinate, however, and

- has a

definite value

A/-H!

at each point. The value is the rate at which the tangent plane is have thus an instance of a straight twisting round the generator. line with a definite osculating plane at each point.

We

Ex.

1.

Prove that the projections of the asymptotic ~,

<V*2

lines of the

2/2

paraboloid
is

2z-^

p on the #y-plane are given

by -iT = A,

y,

where A

an arbitrary constant.

Ex. 2. Find the differential equation to the projections of the asymptotic lines of the conoid
,

z=f(0).
232,

Using the values

of p, y,
(i)

r, 5,

given in Ex. 12,

(ii)

we

obtain

cW=0,
is

or

dQ.

z
line

From From
Ex.
3.

(i)

0=a, where a
is
2

arbitrary,
is

and hence one asymptotic

through each point

(ii) tt

the generator.
arbitrary.
lines of the helicoid

=A/, where A

Prove that the asymptotic

consist of the generators right cylinders.

and the curves

of intersection with coaxal

245]

EXAMPLES ON ASYMPTOTIC LINES

4.

361

Ex.

Prove that the projection on the #y-plane of an asymptotic

a:

line of the cylindroid

= MCOs#, y = usmdj z=msiu20

of the

is

leraniscate.
5.

Ex.

Prove that the projections on the ,ry-plane

asymp-

totic lines of the conoid

are equiangular spirals.

Ex. 6. Prove that the differential equation to the projections on the ,ry-plane of the asymptotic lines of the surface of revolution

x
is
z"rftt
2

u cos

0,

y = u sin

0,

z =/(w)
f

+ ^'e/02 = 0, where / = -*, du

z'

^~. du
1

Ex. Ex.

7.

Find the asymptotic

lines of the cone z

o

u cot a.
o

8.

For the hyperboloid of revolution --;(JL~

= 1,

prove that

the projections of the asymptotic lines on the .ry-plane are given by

w = asec(#-o.),
where
Ex.
a. is

an arbitrary constant.
lie

The asymptotic lines of the catenoid w = ccoshc %u = c(ae e + a~ l e~0), where a is arbitrary. cylinders
9.

on the

Ex. 10. Find the curvatures of the asymptotic lines through the origin on the surface
Pi

Pz

Differentiating

rl { 2

+ Zsl^ 4- /wtj 2 = 0, we

obtain

For one

= 0, 2
r

^ = COSOL, where tan 2o.== ^.

line,

m = sinoL, ^=0;
1

And
*dt
'

at the
,

=-sina, m 2 = 5 = 0, t= origin, r=
?2
,

>

Pi

Pi
. TT1

P2

=a,

^-=^~ =o, ^- = ^-={j, ^-=a.

f

3r

*ds

*ds

"dt

Whence

.. (1) v y

becomes

To obtain
of v/:r^.

the curvature of the other line

we must change

the sign

Ex. 11. The normals to a surface at points of an asymptotic line generate a skew surface, and the two surfaces have the same measure of curvature at any point of the line.

362

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

xvn.

Ex. 12. In curvilinear coordinates the differential equation to the asymptotic lines is

Apply the method

Ex.
13.

of curvilinear coordinates to Exs. 3, 4, 6.

lines of the surface
v ~u
>

Prove that the asymptotic

#=0-2tt-elie

tt
,

y=e

z=eu -v

on the cylinders

where a and
Ex.
14.

b are arbitrary constants.

For the surface

the asymptotic lines are given by w arbitrary constants.

= A,

#=/x, where

A,

and p are

Ex.

15.

For the surface

4-

tf}-u\ the asymptotic lines are u

Ex.
lon
16.

x = 3^(1

2/=3y(l+^
y

)-i>

3
,

*=3tt 2 -3i;2,

= constant.

Prove that the asymptotic lines on the surface of revolux = u cos 9, y=u sin 0, z =f(u\

where
are given

z=a{ log
by

tan

-^

+ cos <]

and w = asin<^)
'

de==

GEODESICS.
246.

plane at the point

at

osculating contains the normal to the surface at any point is a geodesic. It follows that the principal normal
is

curve drawn on a surface so that

its

any point

the normal to the surface.

section of the surface

of a geodesic coincides with the the osculating plane at P that is, by with a normal section through P. Therefore, by Meunier's
infinitesimal arc

An

PQ

theorem, the geodesic arc PQ is the arc of least curvature through P and Q, or the shortest distance on the surface

between two adjacent points P and through the points.

is

along the geodesic

246-248]

EQUATIONS TO GEODESICS

363

The principal normal to a right helix is the normal to the and hence the geodesies on a cylinder are the helices that can be drawn on it.
Ex.
1.

cylinder,

Ex.
it is

2.

both.

If a geodesic is either a plane curve or a line of curvature, (Apply 230.)

247.
is

Geodesies on developable surfaces.

If the surface

a developable, the infinitesimal arc PQ is unaltered in length when the surface is developed into a plane. Therefore if a geodesic passes through two points A and B of a developable, and the surface is developed into a plane, the
geodesic develops into the straight line joining the points A and B in the plane.

The geodesies on any cylinder are helices. the cylinder is developed into a plane, any helix develops into a straight line.
Ex.
1.

When
Ex.

2.

points
If

An infinite number A and B of a cylinder.

of sheets
...
,

of geodesies can be

drawn through two

is unwrapped from the cylinder and are the positions of A, B on the plane so A', A", A"', formed, the line joining any one of the points A', A", A'", ... to any one of the points B', B", B'", ... becomes a geodesic when the sheets are wound again on the cylinder.

any number

B', B", B'",

...

%2 +y2 = a 2 and A and B are (a cos a, a sin a, 6), (a, 0, 0), the geodesies through A and B are given by
Ex.
3.

If the cylinder is

248.

The

differential

equations

to

geodesies.

From

the definition of a geodesic, we have dfa d?y d?z

ds*

ds*

ds*

for geodesies

on the surface F(x,

d?x
ds*

y, z)

= 0, and

d*y

d?z
ds*

d&

for geodesies
If

on the surface z=f(x y). an integral of one of the equations (1) can be found, it will contain two arbitrary constants, and with the equation
y

to the surface, F(x, y, z) =

0,

will represent the geodesies.

364

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

[CH.

xvn.

Similarly, an integral of one of the equations (2)

and the

equation z~f(x, y) together represent the geodesies of the surface z =/(#, y).
Ex.
1.

Find the equations

,
.

to the geodesies
9

on the helicoid
cQ.

For a geodesic, qx -py =Q,

therefore
x" cos

and

p=

--

sin

^~

dz

9=

cos

dz
;

~1T30

+/' sin Q
2
;

or

But
therefore

Hence, from (1), which gives, on integrating,

u"-u&*=Q ............................ (1) 2 = a l +.y' + / 2 = l ............................. (2) u' + (u* + c*)ff* - 2 u(l w' ) =

Z.2

/9

'*'

where k
a

an arbitrary constant. Eliminating ds between this equation and equation

is
Cl>

(2),

we

obtain

first integral
\j

==

Mu
.....

----- .

whence the complete integral can be found

functions.

in

terms of

elliptic

Ex. 2. Find the differential equation to the projections on the = #y-plane of the geodesies on the surface 2 /*(,r, y). If ID win ^! are the direction-cosines of the tangent to a geodesic,

and -

is its

curvature,
'

But by Ex.
the o^-plane
is

10,

(\ v

204,
2

<l+^ + j the radius of

V*

'

curvature of the projection on

^ *--.

n3

And

n= m - ln=-~~~~is

Therefore the radius of curvature of the projection

Hence, at any poir

f
/

of the projection

we have

248, 249]

GEODESICS ON SUEFACE OF EEVOLUTION

365

249.

Geodesies on a surface of revolution.

The equa-

tion to

any

surface of revolution is of the

form

z=f(Jtf~+^}
Hence
r>

or

z=f(u).
1J

p=
i

f and
j

2-f.

But

for a geodesic,

p -^ = q
-

^
df dx
dy\ = r <X ) as/

Therefore

d 2x y -r^ ^ds 2
TT

#-7-4 2

d?y = cs

or

-rlv-? dsV ds

Hence
c is

where

an arbitrary constant. where Change x = u cos 0, y=

to polar coordinates,
x'

= u' cos
4.

U0' sin

0,

i/

= u' sin + uff cos 0,

J and we get B

2 u2< = c. -yc?.9

Ex. 1. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridian at any point at an angle <, tesin </> is constant, where u is the distance of the point from the axis.

We
that of

have
2.

sin</>

= w~7-,
ds

whence the

result

is

simply another form of

249.

Ex.

Ex.

3.

Deduce that on a right cylinder the geodesies are helices. The perpendicular's from the vertex of a right cone to the

tangents to a given geodesic are of constant length. If O is the vertex, the perpendicular on to the tangent at a point
>

= w cosec OL sin <.

Ex. 4. Investigate the geodesies through two given points on a right cone. Let the points be A and B, (fig. 67), and take the &r-plane through A. Let the semivertical angle of tne cone be OL and the plane BO7 make an angle /3 with the 2#-plane. Suppose that A and B are distant a and b from the vertex. and developed into a plane, the distance If the cone is slit along of the vertex from any tangent to the geodesic remains unaltered, and therefore the geodesic develops into a straight line, (cf. 247). Figures 67 and 68 represent the cone and its development into a plane. The circular sections of the cone through A and B become arcs of concentric circles of radii a and 6, and

OA

arc A, D,

arc

AD

==/3sina.

= y,

say.

366

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
:

[CH. XVII.

The geodesic develops into AjBj, and if P any point on AjBj, has polar coordinates r, ty referred to OjAj as initial line,
since

AO^Pj-h AO P B = AOABj, ar sin ^ + br sin (y - ^) = ab sin y.

1

Now

and the polar coordinates

the relations between the cylindrical coordinates u> Q in space in the plane are r,

and therefore the coordinates

equation

of

any point

of the geodesic satisfy the

(1)

Pio. 67.

This equation represents a cylinder which intersects the cone in the

geodesic. If the arcs D t D 2 D 2 D,, ... are each equal to the circumference of the circle in the plane ADC, the positions of OB, when in addition to of the surface of the cone, one, two, ... comthe curved sector ... into a plane, are plete sheets are successively developed If At and B 2 are joined and the plane sector A 1 1 B 2 is wrapped
,

OAB

O^, O^

again on the cone, A,B 2 becomes a second geodesic passing through A and B and completely surrounding the cone. Similarly AjB 3 becomes a third geoaesic. A 1 B 4 however, does not lie on the sheets that have been unrolled from the cone, and hence the only geodesies, (in our figure), through A and B are those which develop into A 1 B 1 ,
,

from the figure, that if (/i+l) geodesies pass through two points A and B, and the angle between the planes through the axis of the cone and A and B is /?,
It is clear

AjB 2 A B 3
,

sn a
The equations

<

TT.

and to surfaces through all the geodesies through B can be obtained from equation (1) by writing (/J4"2??7r)sina for y. If A and B are points on the same generator of the cone, /3=27r So that, if we are to have any geodesic through A and B,
sino,./3<7r or

250]

GEODESICS ON A CONICOID

367

geodesic on a cone will therefore not cross a generator at two

is less

points unless the semivertical angle of the cone

than ~. 6

Ex.

5.

Find the length

of the geodesic

AB.
from any tangent to the

Am.
Find the distance AB. geodesic
Ex.
6.

of the vertex

Ans

a&sin (ff sinoL )

and B are points on the same generator OAB of a Ex. 7. cone semivertical angle oc, and a geodesic through A and B cuts OA at right angles at A, then sin <x< }. Also OB=a sec (2?r sin ex.) and the length of the geodesic arc AB is a tan (2ir sin a).
Ex.
8.

AB If A

Shew

that a

first
is

of the cone

^=ztana

$inadd=

integral of the equations of the geodesies nflU

,...

Wtt 2 -^
.

,
4

and deduce the equa-

tion to the projections of the geodesies in the

form

^=
where
Ik

sec (0 sin

+ <),
<

and

<

are arbitrary constants.

if the Ex. 9. Determine the values of k and geodesic passes through A and B, and deduce the equation (1) of Ex. 4.

Geodesies on conicoids. The following theorem is due to Joachimsthal If P is any point on a geodesic on a central conicoid, r is the central radius parallel to the
250.
:

tangent to the geodesic at

P,

and p

is the

perpendicular
surface at P,

from pr is

the centre to the tangent

plane

to the

constant.

Let the equation to the conicoid be ax* + by* + cz 2 =l. Then at any point of a geodesic,

'-_

p
'

ax

by

cz

VaV + fcy+eV

J ' .....

p
geodesic.

where p is the radius of curvature of the We have also p - 2 = a + &V + c2z2

Whence

= a?xx' + b*yy' + c zz', - r V = ax'x" + by'y" + cz'z",

p~
3
l

p'

z'),

by

(1).

Therefore

=X

............................ (2)

368

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is

[CH.

xvn.

Again, since the tangent to the geodesic ' the conicoid, axx + by y' + czz = 0,

a tangent to

and therefore
ox' 2 + by' 2 + cz'* =

- (axx" + lyy" + czz")

;s

or

r- 2

= -X(a2#2 +&y+c2 2 by (1), = -X/>- 2 ........................... (3)

),
.

Hence, combining (2) and

(3),

and therefore pr
Cor.
1.

is

constant.
ff\

A*2

Since

X=

-, from (3)

P
If the constant value of

we deduce p=
(Cf.

226, Ex. 2.)

Cor.

2.

pr
3
.

is k,

f>

Tc>

hence along a given geodesic the radius of curvature varies as the cube of the central radius which is parallel to the
tangent
Ex. 1. The radius of curvature at any point P of a geodesic drawn or a conicoid of revolution is in a constant ratio to the radius of curvature at P of the meridian section through P. If <x and /3 are the axes of the meridian section and p l is its radius
of curvature,
og2

Pl- -3
2

>

and we have from

Ex.
2.

yfc

250,

p=

-^.

For

all

p* geodesies through an umbilic, pr=ac.

Ex. 3. Shew that the theorem of curvature of the conicoid.

250

is

also true for the lines of

Ex. 4. The constant pr has the same value for touch the same line of curvature.
Ex.
5.

all

geodesies that

Two

geodesies that

touch

the

same

line

of

intersect at a point P. Prove that they the lines of curvature through P.

make equal

curvature angles with

the tangent to a geodesic through any point P on the c2=1 > and A, fi are the parameters of the ellipsoid PT makes an angle Q with the tangent to oonfocals through P.

Ex.

6.

PT

is

#2 /a 2 -f#2/& 2 +

250,251]

CUEVATUEE AND TORSION OF GEODESICS

369

the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid and the confocal whose parameter is A. Prove that

A cos 2 04-/xsm 2 =

r^

>

(where pr = k).

The central section parallel to the tangent plane at P, referred to its principal axes, has equation
x*
/A

y* -h4-

= l, whence
,

/x

cos 2 6

sin 2
H
t

-r

We have also p =
2

6 2c 2/A/x,

and the

result immediately follows.

Ex. 7. The tangents to a given geodesic on an ellipsoid all touch the same confocal. One confocal touches the tangent. Suppose that its parameter If the normals to tho ellipsoid and confocals through P is v. are taken as coordinate axes, the equation to the cone, vertex P, which envelopes the confocal is
-~r
I/

Lt

~r

vr

The tangent at P to the geodesic is a generator of this cone, since its equations are x __ y __z 0* cos 6 sin
v

and

= \ cos2 + /A si n 2 6 = constan t.
of the geodesic touch the confocal.

Ex.

8.

The osculating planes

251.

The curvature and torsion of a

geodesic.

Consider

a geodesic through the origin on the surface

*.*+*+....
Pi

Pz

If the tangent makes an angle the origin,

with OX, then, at

Tij

^ = cos 6,
2==
6

o,

m= m=
l

sin 6,
0,

hence,

= sin 9,

m =
3

cos

0,

= 7? = 1; 2 9i = 0. 3
;

We
j

have, generally,

__

Whence, differentiating Z2 with respect to a, the arc of the geodesic, and applying Frenet's formulae,
,_
1 B.Q.

d
(1

,v-t

2A

370

COOKDINATE GEOMETRY
gives, at the origin,

[en.

XVIL

which

cos

sin

_cosj9 ""
Pi
,

P
sinfl

Similarly, differentiating ra 2

wo

obtain,

cos0__sin#
<r

P
T?r
'

A'
a-,

Eliminating S in o5 220, 221. Eliminating

we

u have, - =

COS

p
p,

-- -^
2
,

Pz

Shl 2

a result obtained

1,

j.

pl

we have
1 a - = sin 9 cos af
(

1 ---\
l
/> 2

o-

>/

).

Cor.

1.

If

the surface

is

developable, so

that
Pi

= 0,

where

is

crosses the generator.

the angle at which the geodesic For a geodesic on a cylinder, 6 is

202.

constant, and
Cor.
2.

we have

the result of

torsion
Cor.

is
3.

If a geodesic touches a line of curvature, its zero at the point of contact, If

a geodesic passes through an umbilic,

is zero.

its

torsion at the umbilic

Ex.1.

Shewthat

^=^2

j^

Ex. 2. A geodesic is drawn on the ellipsoid #2/a 2 -f#2/62 +22/c2 ==l Find its from an umbilic to the extremity B of the mean axis.
torsion at B.

At

B, PI = -J-) p2

a2

=c

~p
1

an(* therefore
/i
.

/i/ 6

*\

^=cos0sm0(^-^2 J.
Also jtw=ac, and at B,
jo

= 6, and sin 2 _ + a""

1

whence

-=

Geodesic curvature. Let P, O, C, (fig. 69), be consecutive points of a curve traced on a surface. Along the geodesic through P and O measure off an arc OG equal
252.

251,252]

GEODESIC CUEVATUEE

371

to PO,

and along PO produced a length

OT

also equal to PO.

PO

is

ultimately the tangent at

to the curve or geodesic,

and the geodesic touches the curve at O. Denote the angle GOT by S\fs the angle TOO by tfi/r, the angle GOC by <Je.
,

Then,

if

Lt -^ = curvature of curve = Ss

' ;

Lt

-Hp

= curvature

of geodesic =

and Ltjcurve.

is

defined to be the geodesic curvature of the

.

Let us denote

it

by
Pg

O
Fig. 69,

points CGT lie on a sphere whose centre is O, and therefore the arcs CT, TG, GC can be taken to measure the

The

angles COT, TOG, GOC. And since the plane OCG is ultimately that of the indicatrix, and OGT a normal section, the angle CGT is a right angle. Hence,

or

Therefore
/>

2
ft,

+
P<?

whence the geodesic curvature is expressed curvatures of the curve and the geodesic.

in terms of the

Again, if the angle CTG is denoted by co, to is ultimately the angle between the planes OCT and OGT, which become and the respectively the osculating planes of the curve

curve geodesic, or the osculating plane of the section of the surface through the tangent to the curve.

and the normal

From

the right-angled triangle CGT,

S\fs

= S\fs cos
cosft>,

o>,

Se

whence

(i)

/>

/o

(ii) /)r7

= S\}s sin co =

372

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
have thus
(i)

[CH.

xvn.

another proof of Meunier's theorem and (ii) the relation between the geodesic and ordinary curvatures of the curve.
Cor.
l If a curve of curvature p~

We

is

through the tangent which makes

projected on a plane an angle oc with the

osculating plane, the radius of curvature of the projection Hence the geodesic curvature is p sec a, (204, Ex. 10). of a curve on a surface is the curvature of its projection on the tangent plane to the surface.
Ex. 1. Shew that the geodesic curvatures of the lines of curvature through the origin on the surface

are

Use Ex.
Ex.
.

16,

232.

. 2.

section of the surface

Prove that at the origin the geodesic curvature of the ax2 +by 2 = 2z by the plane lx+my+nz = Q is n (bP + am 2 )

curve is drawn on a right cone, semivertical angle OL> Ex. 3. so as to cut all the generators at the same angle /?. Prove that at from the vertex, the curvature of the geodesic which a distance

touches the curve

in
is

/Ztano.

,^

-,

and that the geodesic curvature

of the

curve

is

Ex. 4. By means of the results of Ex. 3 and the result of Ex. 7, ~2 2 2= for the curve on the cone. 204, verify the equation /o~ /o/~ 4-/>
Ex.
surface
5.

If u and v are the curvilinear coordinates of a point on a and the parametric curves cut at right angles, shew that the

geodesic curvatures of the parametric curves are

i

SN/tf

Consider the curve U=u. Let o> be the angle between the osculating plane and the normal section through the tangent. Then the

Let 2 wi2 n 2 be the P direction-cosines of the principal normal to the curve, then since o> is the complement of the angle between the principal normal to the curve U=u and the tangent to the curve F=y,
geodesic curvature
is

given by

= smfa)

Pg

___

252,253]

GEODESIC TOESION
la _i _^_ dl,

373

*!, Now
Therefore

da

= ?)L ^-i.
Cv

do
ds'
;

^
p
Pe

and

But, since the parametric curves are at right angles, Xru#v=0, and therefore
1

/v,

nx

Therefore

Similarly for the curve

J7

=v,

(This solution

is

taken from Bianchi's (jeometria Differenziale.)

Ex. 6. If the parametric curves are at right angles and O is a a function of u alone, the parametric curves function of v alone and are geodesies.

Ex. 7. By means of the expressions given in 241, Ex. 9, shew that the squares of the geodesic curvatures of the curves of interx* z* y* section of the ellipsoid + = 1 and its confocals whose para-

h^

meters are A and

/A,

are

-/*)"'

Shew how
253.

this result

may be deduced from

that of Ex. 18,

232.

Geodesic torsion. If OT, (fig. 70), is the tangent at O to a curve drawn on a surface, and the osculating plane of the curve makes an angle CD with the normal section through OT, then a) is the angle between the principal normal to the curve and the normal to the surface, and
therefore

_ qm = _p/ v +n2
2

(1)

w with the normal to Let us take as the positive direction of the a> with the normal binormal that which makes an angle 90
The binormal makes an angle 90
the surface.
to the surface,

and then choose the positive direction of the

374

COORDINATE GEOMETEY

[CH. XVIL

normal tangent to the curve, so that the tangent, principal with OX, and binormal can be brought into coincidence
OY,

OZ

respectively.

Then

Fro. 70.

Differentiate with respect to

s,

the arc of the curve, and

we have, by

(1),
o)

cos

(2)

Now

take

as the origin,
^2 Pi

and
..2

let

the equation to the

surface be

P2

Then at the

origin (2) becomes

da)
)-r-

= cos w L
or

as

.(3)

Let

OT make an

Then ^ = cos 0,

angle
x

with OX.
;

= sin 6, % = and ^ = m 7i = sin 6 cos 3 2 = m=

1

since

7i == 2

co,

253]

EXAMPLES

XIV.

375

Therefore (3) becomes

a-

l-^Binflcosef ds
251, the value of

-V
pj* -~ is
the torsion of

\p l

and hence, by

the geodesic that touches the curve at O. It is called the geodesic torsion of the curve, and is evidently the same for
all

curves which touch

Cor.
1.

OT

at O.

If a curve touches a line of curvature at

its

geodesic torsion at
Cor.
2.

is zero.

The

torsion of a curve
sin

drawn on a developable

is

cos

idw> ds'

the angle at which the curve crosses the generator, p is the principal radius, and w is the angle that the osculating plane makes with the normal section

where

is

of the surface through the tangent.

The geodesic torsion of a curve drawn on a surface at a equal to the torsion of any curve which touches it at O and whose osculating plane at O makes a constant angle with the tangent plane at O to the surface.
Ex.
1.

point

O is

Ex. 2. The geodesic torsion of a curve drawn on a cone, semivertical angle a, so as to cut all the generators at an angle /?, is
sii /5COS/5

/Ztanoc

'

w iere
}

ft

is

the distance of the point from the vertex. r

Ex^ 3. A catenary, constant c, is wrapped round a circular cylinder, radius #, so that its axis is along a generator. Shew that its torsion at any point is equal to its geodesic torsion, and deduce that
cr

where

z is

the distance of the point from the directrix of the catenary.

Examples XIV.
1.

A geodesic is drawn

on the surface
its

touching the #-axis.

2.

Prove that at the origin

torsion

is h.

For the conoid z~f(?i\ prove that the asymptotic

lines consist

and the curves whose projections on the #y-plane are given by xP~cf\y>\ where c is an arbitrary constant.
of the generators

376

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

(CH.xvu.

3. Prove that any curve is a geodesic on its rectifying developable or on the locus of its binomials, and an asymptotic line on the locus of its principal normals.
4.

geodesic

is

drawn on a right

cone, semivertical
its

Prove that at a distance

from the vertex

angle a. curvature and torsion

where p is the perpendicular from the vertex to the tangent. 5. Prove that the p-r equation of the projection on the ^y-plane of
a geodesic on the surface x2 +y 2
2az
is

where
6.

Jc

is-an arbitrary constant.

Prove that the projections on the ory-plane of the geodesies on the catenoid tt=ccosh- are given by

where k
7.

an arbitrary constant. Geodesies are drawn on a catenoid so as to cross the meridians

is is -,

at an angle whose sine

where u

is

the distance of the point of

crossing from the axis. jections on the ^y-plane

Prove that the polar equation to their prois

where
8.

an arbitrary constant. geodesic on the ellipsoid of revolution

is

at a distance u from the axis. crosses a meridian at an angle that at the point of crossing it makes an angle , cu cos 6 cos" 1
.

Prove

*Ja*-u*(a*-<?)

with the

axis.

9. Prove that the equation to the projections on the #y-plane of the geodesies on the surface of revolution

is

0-a = a
/,

wliere a

and

are arbitrary constants.

10. If a geodesic on a surface of revolution cuts the meridians at 8 constant angle, the surface must be a right cylinder

CH. XVIL]
11.

EXAMPLES

XIV.

377

curve

If the principal normals of a curve intersect a fixed line, the a geodesic on a surface of revolution, and the fixed line is the axis of the surface.
is

12.

curve for which

for

is

constant
constant

is

a geodesic on a cylinder,
a geodesic on a cone.

and a curve

which

as \<r/

is

is

13. The curvature of each of the branches of the curve of intersection of a surface and its tangent plane is two-thirds the curvature of the asymptotic line which touches the branch.
14. Sj, S 2 , S 3 are the surfaces of a triply orthogonal system that of pass through a point O. Prove that the geodesic curvatures at the curve of intersection of the surfaces S 2 and S 3> regarded first as a curve on the surface S 2 and then as a curve on the surface S 3 are respectively the principal curvature of S 3 in its section by the tangent plane to S 2 and the principal curvature of S 2 in its section by the

tangent plane to S 3 Verify this proposition for confocal conicoids.

.

Prove that the angles that the osculating planes of the lines of nM ^2 curvature through a point of the ellipsoid -jj+rg + i 555 ! ma^e with
15.
nj2t

d"

the corresponding principal sections are

tan- 1

abc \

A /M

W ~_W-L\
2

tan- 1

Jabc

(\_jx )3

where A and M are the parameters of the confocals through the point

APPENDIX
Note to
Distance from a point to a plane. : the axes are rectangular, the distance from the point P, (x' 9 y' 9 z') to the plane ax + by + cz + d=Q can be found as follows. Let N, (a, /J, y) be the foot of the perpendicular from P to the plane. Then aoc-hfr/J-f-cy + d=0, and the direction of NP is given by

37

When

or, since

NP

is

parallel to the normal,

by a

c.

ax'

+ by' + cz'

.'.

ar'-a=att, j/'-/?=&tt, 2'~y=cw,

....................................... (1)

and

Hence

NP=(1),

From

is

given by a.~x'

-au fiy'-bu, y=z'-cu.

9

Note to

43

Constants in the equations of a

in a

line.

The constants may be put

If
9 9

more symmetrical form

9

as follows

nb-mc=X Ic-nan ma--lb=v so x-a = y-b = z-c are * equations ^ y equivalent ^

i

that tt-f w/a-f ny=0f the

*

to

from which

Arc-f p,y

+ *>2=0,

(2)

The equations (1) represent the planes through the line parallel to the coordinate axes ; the equation (2) represents the plane through the line and the origin. Since ZA-f wjt-i-nv=0, the ratios of any five of the quantities 19 9 n. to the remaining one are equivalent to four independent conA, /LC, i>,

B.O.

11

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
when they
are given, the line is determined. If, for A, /z, v to I are given, the equations

stants, and,

example, the ratios of m, n,

lz-nx=fjL,

mx-ly=v
19

determine fixed planes

equations

if

the ratios of

m,

n,

/*,

v to

A are given, the

ny-mz=X,
determine fixed planes.
:

Xx+p,y + vz=Q,
coordinates of the (See /u,, v)."

line,

The ratios I m n A p v have been called the and the line is referred to as " the line (Z, m, Miscellaneous Examples I, Ex. 116.)
:
:
:

w, A,

Note to

54

Section of a surface by a given plane.

The scheme on p. 73 can be written down mechanically. as stated, we have and

y

Choosing

-m

(1)

(2)

(3)

m
are to be
filled.

where the spaces

(1), (2), (3)

Now

in the

determinant

m
of

3,

53, provided that the orientations of the new and the original axes are the same, each element is equal to its cofactor. Hence in the spaces (1), (2), (3) we may place
I

m,
respectively, or

Note to

Cone with a given curve as base. (a, j3, y) be the given vertex, and/(#, y)=0, z=0 represent the given base. Let P, (#', t/', z') be any point on the cone and let VP cut the base in Q. Then VQ/QP = - y/z', and hence Q is the point
63
:

Let V,

(<*'- yx'

oz'

fa'

yy'

\r

APPENDIX
Therefore, since

iii

Q lies on the surface /(x, y) =0,

f
*
'

z'-y

z'-y

or the coordinates of P satisfy the equation

which represents the cone. This equation can be written

2-y
which, in the case where f(x, y) in the form
is

of the second degree, can be expanded

or

which can then be transformed as in 63. A more general case is that of the cone with vertex V, base the curve in which the plane

(a,

/?,

y)

and

M= to 4- my -f nz +p =
cuts the surface f(x, y, z) =0. f If P, (x , y', z') is any point on the cone, and if VQ/QP=A/1, is the point
if

VP

meets the plane in Q,

'

A+

l/*

Since

Q lies on the plane and on the surface,

0,
............ (1)

Whence,
give

if

u'=te'-f my'

+ nz'+p and

v=Za4-mj3-f-ny-f jp, (1) and

(2)

---A -A,
which
is

ana and

*'-"*

the condition that the coordinates of P should satisfy the

equation

f(xu-vx
\

pu-vy
'

u-v

u-v

y^-^\ u-v /

and

this equation represents the cone.

iv

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
xa
96
:

Note to

The generators of the hyperboloid

also

+~ -

yf

zs

= 1.

The equation of the hyperboloid can

62
c*

be written

a2

whence we deduce that the

lines

whose equations are

tions (3),

are generators of the hyperboloid. we obtain

Adding and subtracting the equa-

If

now we put p
we

for -

-k ~r" A/

the equations (5) become identical with

Similarly from
(1)
(4),

the
-

equations (2) of
r;,
A/

96.

by putting A

for

1 ~h

obtain the equations

of

96.

Thus

different

methods of

factorising the equation of the hyperboloid lead to the

same two systems

of generating

lines.

Note to

104:

(a cos a,

x2 y2 z 2 The generators of -7-f-r$~-i=l through the point c b a b sin a, 0).

The equation of the hyperboloid can be written

y - cos a-f T sin a I / a b (x

4-

fx I

sin

\a

y Y & a-T cos a s - c* =1. b

)

Hence the tangent plane at

-cosa-f \ sina = l, or b a
surface where
lines
it

(a cos a, b sin a, 0),

whose equation

is

cos a

\a

--cos a) +sin a ( |~sina )=0, / /

\6

cuts the

cuts the planes - sin a

- ~ cos
b

1/

a=

Z ,

that

is,

in the

x/a

or

- cos a z/c _ y/b - sin a ~~ _ ~" - cos a sin a sin2 a -f cos2 a x - a cos a v - 6 sin a z a
sin a

'

- b cos a

The reduction of the general equation of the second degree (axes

rectangular).

The nature of the

surfaces represented

by the equations
(1) (2)

APPENDIX
is

shown

in the following tables

is

If we change the origin and rotate the axes, the transformed equation obtained by substituting for expressions of the form 77,
,

Ix

+ my + nz+p,

and therefore
ax*

it is
2

of the form

+ by* + cz + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2ivz + d=()....... (3) We shall now indicate how the values of A lf A 2 A 3 /u in equations (1) and (2) may be found when equation (3) is given. First we shall prove that if, by a rotation of rectangular axes, ax2 4- 6y8 + cz* 4- 2fyz + 2gzx 4- 2hxy
, ,

transforms into

then A t , A a , A 8 are the roots of the equation

a -A,
h,
0,

A,

=0,

6 -A,
/,

/ c-A
a

or

A*~A*(a4-64-c)4-A(6c4-ca4-a6~/ -gf*-A

t
)

- (dbc 4- 2fgh - a/ - bf - eft 1 ) =0.

VI

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
it

This equation is called the Discriminating Cubic, and written in the form

can also be

where

Ds

a,
h,
0,

A,
6,

and

A, B,

are the cofactors of a, 6, c

/
c

respectively, in D.

/>

Suppose that the scheme for change of axes

is

then

= Zj

and
-f

=ax 2 + by 2 4- cz2 4- 2fyz 4- 2gzx + 2hxy.

Whence
a = Ax^ 2
c
4-

A 2 Z 22

4-

A 3 Z 32 ,
,

6 = A^! 2 4- A 2m 2 2 4- A 3w32

/ = \i'm l n l 4- A 2m2w 2 4- A 3m3na g = A x Vi + X 2 n 2 l 2 4- A 3n 3 Z 3

,

= Aj^!
6c

4-

A 2 n 22

4-

A 3?i 32 ,

h
,

X 1 ll

1 4-

A2Z2
1

2 4-

A 3 J3

3.

/.

a4-&4-c=A 1 4-A 2 4-A 3

since 27Z 1

= 1,

etc.

Again,

2 2 a ~/ = A 2A 3 (m2n 3 - m 3n 2 ) 4- AgAx (m^ - ra^)

4-A 1 A 2 (/7i 1 7i a

mn
2

2
l)
9

=A 2A 8Z 12 4- AaAA2 4- AjAJa 2
similarly

by

53 (E)

ca

ab

y* = AaAaWi^ 4- AaAjWi^ 4- AxA^^, A2 = A^^! 2 4- AsAjWa2 + A!A 2w 32 ,

/.

6c

4-

ca

+ a& -/ 2 -g*-h*= AjjAa 4- AsAj 4- A^.

A3

Also
i,

n l9

%n 29

A 3%a

a,

53.

h,
&>

b,

f
c

f>

Therefore the roots of the discriminating cubic are X 19 A 2> A 8 .

193.)

(C

APPENDIX
The

vii

From

direction-cosines of the new axes can be found as follows the above equations we obtain

+ gn l = A^ (Ij 2 + mf + nf) + A 2 Z 2 (hi* 4- m m a 4- n^n 2 f A 3 / D (V ! + m^n^ -f n an

i

1 )9

and

similarly,

W
w
lf

x -f

(6

- Ax

+./% -0,
A 1 )w 1 =0........................... (4)

Whence

Zx ,

nj and, similarly, the other direction-cosines, satisfy

the equations
al -f

hm + gn^hl + bm +fn = gl +fm -f en __ =

I

=Af
(If

'

where A

is

eliminate

the corresponding root of the discriminating cubic. n l from the equations (4), we obtain l^ l
:

we

a -Ax,
A,
g,

h,

g
,

6-A x
/,
is

c-A

and so another proof that A x

Ex.
1.
a;

a root of the discriminating cubic.)

gives, for cubic,

4- 3i/
8

-f

5z 2

- 81/2: - 8xy

A - 9Aa - 9A + 81 =0, whence corresponding to A x = -3,

A=
l

- 3,

3,

we have

Il

=m

=2n l9

or

^=

-~ =
2t

-^ L

7 ta

_o W 2> ^2^2

__
~IT2~~~r~ 2
Z

'

Thus
Of,
Oij,

&T6 taken as 2 2 2 Of, respectively, x + 3y + 5z* 8^z 8xy transforms into

if

the lines

= =
l

tJ

I/

Z
=:

3*

1J

i' "r2

2'

^2

Ex.
(i

2.

Verify the following transformations

B.O.

3R

viii

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
32x + y*+2* + 62/2- 162*-

(iii)

^- z n *-' ^'
.

~3-3'
-f

or *

x- y

(iv) 5x*

- 16t/2 4- 5z2 + Syz T

14z

8xy

1J

Ex.
(i)

3.
7a;

Reduce to the given forms

+ 33i/ + 72a + 12yz-10za;-12x2/=

Gzx

36, to

=1 =l =1
y

(ii)

s-31y + z*-2Qyz~
2a;
1

+ 20xy=

36, to

-o

(iii)

+ 33y2 + 2z2 + 12^2-2(>za;-12a^=

+ 2%* + 62*12i/2

72, to

+^

(iv) 13

+ 1423;-

(v)

S*8 - 12y2 - 322 + 20yz - 2zx+ 2Sxy = 336, to

4.

= 1.

Ex.

Show

that
(i)

and

2 2 I2yz 6zx 4xy = 1 y - 4z represent an ellipsoid and hyperboloid of revolution, respectively, 2 2 2 = l and (ii) into 5f 2 4-5^ 2 -9{ 2 = l. (i) transforms into 4-77 4-15

(ii)

4#2

-f-

In
Z1

(i)

is

given by A 3 = 15, whence

;

-~~

-^;

A 1 =A 2 = 1 give

i.e. Of and Orj can be any two perpendicular lines 4-2w 1 -f3w 1 =0 x + 2y + 3z = Q as is evident from the nature of the surface. Derive the same results for the axes in the case of (ii).

in the plane

Ex. 5. Show that 13# 2 4- 45y2 4- 40z2 + I2yz + 36zx - 24xy = 49 represents a right circular cylinder whose axis is x/6 y/2 =z/(-3) and radius 1. Consider now the case of

ax2 4- by2 + cz* 4- 2fgz 4- 2gzx + 2hxy 4- 2ux 4- 2vy 4- 2wz -f d - 0.

By

the above methods

direction-cosines l r , into
Ajf
2

mr

we can determine new axes Of, O^, O, with n r r = l, 2, 3, so that this equation transforms
,

4-

A 2 ^ 2 -f A 3 ^ 2 4- 2f (uli
2

4 vm l 4- wn^ -f 2rj (ul 2 + vm 2 4- wn 2 )

4-

2( wZ3 4- vm3 4- wn$) 4- d = 0,

or

Axf

-f

A 27^ 2

4-

A3

4-

2U f -f 2 VTJ 4- 2 Wf 4- d = 0.

If A a , A 2 , A 3 are all different from zero, this can be written

and

if

the origin

is

changed to

U
'A/

_V
A,'

W\
~A3V'

APPENDIX
this

IX

becomes

A,

where
V*

_U
AI

W*
AS

Aa

If the new origin is (f ', 77', { ') referred to Of, Or}, referred to OX, OY, OZ, we have the scheme

and

(a,

j3,

y)

u
,by(6),

Similarly

(a
(a/3

and
/.

4 Aw 3 4 gnj = - Z3
'

adding,

we have

aa4^j34gy=
Aa4&/J4/y= -v,

.(6)

and, in the same way,

(?)
.(8)

Again,

-d

Thus the values of a, j8, y, The determinant directly.

a, h,
g,

/it

can be found from the given equation

h,
6, g,

u
v

/,
c,

/,
v,

w
d

u,

w,

forms a useful mnemonic for writing down the equations (6), (7), (8) for a, j3, y and the value of /n. The given equation in this case represents a central conicoid (or
cone, if /Lt^O),

and (a, j3, y) is the centre (or The above transformation can still be

vertex). carried out if one of the

quantities A lt A 2 , A 3 is zero, provided that the corresponding U or or is also zero. Thus if A 3 =0, the transformed equation is

=W

which, by a change of origin, can be reduced to

which represents an
of planes.

elliptic

or hyperbolic cylinder, or,

if

/i=0, a pair

x
In
this case
'

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
is
B,

indeterminate.
,

If

(7), (8)

by

(5).

by Hence
1 39

wo multiply

the equations

n3

(6),

(a,

j8,

respectively, and add, the sum is identically zero, y) can be any point on the line of intersection of
(6)

the planes corresponding to

and

(7),

ax + hy + gz + u=0,
This is what is to be expected, since any point on the axis of an elliptic or hyperbolic cylinder can be considered a centre. Similarly if A 2 =A 3 =:0 and V=W=0, the transformed equation is A^-f 2Uf + d=Q, which represents a pair of parallel planes; and if A a =A 3 =0, V^O, 0, the transformed equation is

which can be reduced to These cases are cylinder.

easily discussed

A^ 2 -f 2V?7-0, and

represents a parabolic

easily recognisable, as the terms of second

degree in the given equation must form a perfect square, and they are by a direct method which is indicated in Ex. 6 below. Lastly, we have the case in which one of the quantities X l9 A 2 , A 3 is zero and the corresponding quantity U or V or is not zero. Suppose A 3 =0, W^O. The transformed equation is

which,

by a change of origin, can be reduced

to

and represents an

elliptic or hyperbolic paraboloid. If the final origin is (f ', 7?', {') referred to Of, Orj, referred to OX, OY, OZ, then

O and
,

(a, 0, y)

+ vm l +wn l

^
,

...

by J

(5), ' v

g'= - x (u t + vm l ' = - Z2 ( (al 2 + hm^ + gn 2 )

77

and
.%

(o? t

+&in 1 +

/
fl

TOa)(;

=0, by

(5), since

A 3 =0.

adding,

we have
act,

-Z3 W~w,
and and
similarly

.................................... (60
>

Aa-ffy3+/y

=m W-t;
a

.................................... (7

These equations correspond to

(6), (7), (8),

but are not independent,

APPENDIX
since, if
is

xi

we multiply them by Z3 m39 n 3 But we have also identically zero.

,

respectively

and add, the

result

or
.'.

W' = -U<y.-vp-Wy-d,
-ua-vfi-wy-d ................. (9)

or

W(Z3 <x-f ra 3/? + n 3y)

Any two of the equations (6'), (7'), (8'), with equation (9), determine the values of a, /?, y, which are the coordinates of the vertex of the If we multiply the equations (6'), (7'), (8') by a, /3, paraboloid. y, respectively, and add to (9), we obtain
da?

+ fy32 + Cy2 -f 2/|8y + 20ya

thus verifying that the point (a, j8, y) lies on the surface. Note that in this case the three equations (6), (7), (8), i.e. aa-ffy8 + gy + u-ty Aa-f fy3+/y + v 0, <7a4-/6 + Cy-f-w = 0, give, when multiplied by 1 39 3 n 3 respectively, and added, uls + vm 3 + ion 3 0, since, by (5), a? 3 + Am 3 + ^s=A 3 Z 3 0, etc. But, by hypothesis, W^O, so that the equations (6), (7), (8) give a point at infinity. (Cf. 45.) We may sum up the methods of reduction in the various cases as
,

=W

follows

(1) If the terms of second degree

form a perfect square proceed as

in

Ex. 6 below. In any other case,

(2) If

first

the roots A x , A 2 , A 3 are

solve the discriminating cubic. all different from zero, find

i.e.
p,

(a,

/?,

y)

from

the equations (6), (7), (8), Then 0. g<x -f //? + cy + w 2 2 2 equation is Ajf + A 2 ^ 4- A 3
(3) If
,

- ( UOL +
;

aa + fy3 + 0ry-fM=0,
vf}

hoc

+ bfi+fy + v=Q,
the

+ ivy + d) and

reduced

/x.

one root, A 3 say, is zero attempt to solve the equations (6), If they reduce to two independent equations, assign an arbitrary value to one of the quantities a, )8, y, and solve for the other two; e.g. put y = 0. Then n= -(u<x + vJ3 + u>y + d) and the reduced
(7),
(8).

equation is A^ + A 2 ^ - /*. If the equations lead to a paradoxical result (as in /3 3 n 3 from any two of the equations
2
2
,

45, p. 47), find

alB

-f

hm3 + gn 3 = 0, W3 + bma 4-/n 3 = 0,

gl 3

+fm 3 + cn z = 0.
is

Then \N = ul3 + vmB + ivna, and the reduced equation

Ex.

6.

Reduce the equations

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

(3z (3x
(3x

Equation

(i)

can be written

xii

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

or

and therefore represents a pair of parallel planes. In (ii) we note that 3#-42/ + z=0, x + y + represent perpendicular planes. Taking the first as {Of and the second as ^O{, we have

zQ

jz

8O that

(ii)

reduces to -rf = v 3, and represents

a parabolic cylinder. Write (hi) in the form

and choose A so that the planes

3s-4y + z+A=0,
are at right angles.

*(6A-16)-t/(8A-27) + 2Az + A -18= This gives A =3, and the equation becomes
a

which, as in
Ex.
7.

(ii),

reduces to
:

Verify the following reductions

a

(i)
(ii)

(2x -2y- 3z) + Ite 34y 44z + 50 -0 a 5x* + 7ya + 6z -4yz -4zx - 6x - 10t/ -4z + 7 =0
;

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

+ 2 a + 3 a = l, centre (1, 1, 1). 7xa + y* -f za + 16t/z 4- Szx - 8xy + 2x + 4y - 40z - 14 =0 a + rf - 2 = 1, centre (1,2, 0). 2x* -y*- 10za + 20yz -Szx- 2Sxy + IQx + 26y + 16z - 34 = 2? -V - 2 = 1, centre V, f |). Ilxa 4-6ya -f22a f20yz + 4za;~16xy 1 t -i =0, vertex (1, 1, 1).
a
7?
;

x-1

y-1

z-l

(vii)

a^-j^-f 4t/z-f 4zx-6a:~2i/-8z-f 5=0;

^-^ = 1,
;

(viii)

32a? + y2
a

+ za + 6yz a

Ig^-^OC,
(ix) 5o;

16zx - IQxy -6x- 12y - 12z + 18 =0 vertex (i f, f).

16j/ -f

5z2

-f

8yz

14za; -f

Sxy + 4x -f 20y -I- 4z - 24 =0

(1, 1, 1).

2^-3^ + 2^=0,
Ex.
8.

vertex
:

Reduce the equation

The discriminating cubic is A 8 -6Aa -3A-f-2=0, of which the roots cannot be found by inspection. There are two changes in the sequence of signs in the equation, and hence, by Descartes' Rule, two of the roots are positive and one is negative. (The values to three places are

y=3,

-0-806, 0-387, 6419.) We find in the usual way that a = l, j3=2, = l. The reduced equation is -0-806^ + 0-387^ + 6-419^ = 1, ji and represents a hyperboloid of one sheet.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

I.

1. If p is the distance of the origin from a line whose directioncosines are Z, m, n, and p l9 p 29 p 3 are the distances of the origin from

the projections of the line on the planes YOZ, 2OX, XOY, respectively, show that
Pi*
2.

+?2 +2V

P 2 = l*Pi 2 +

W
-3

+ n 2p 3 *.
between the
lines

The equations of the

_

lines bisecting the angles

.

2
3.

-1
Show

0'

-10

12'

6'

-6

3*

that the point

(2, 3,
9

1) lies

on both the planes

2x-y-z=2
and that the

x + 2y-3z = ll,

line of intersection of the planes is given

by
(5, 9, 3)

x-2=y-3=z + l.
4.

theline

The equations of the perpendicular from the point x _i - y _2 - z-3 x-5 - ^ ~ y-9 - z-3 Q

_ __ _
~
~
7rt are

"

_ _ 2"" -2

to

and the
5.

foot of the perpendicular

is (3, 5, 7).

If

OZ

is

(1, 1, 1)

on the plane 2x -f 3y -f 4z = 9 x- 1_y-

vertical, the line of greatest slope

is

through the point

given by

_z 1 ~8~~~12""^l3*
1
-

6.

The orthogonal

projection of the line

is

= ?L_-=-

on the

plane
7.

3x+4y + 5z=Q
Show

V x -= =

z
.

that the lines

(i)

x + y+z-3=Q=2x + 3y + 4:Z-5, - 7 =0=2a: - 5y - z - 3 ;

I-~2~-~3~'
are coplanar,
(i)

"^"^~
9

4
respectively.

and

lie

in the planes
(ii)

x + 2y + 3z=2,

x-2y + z + 7==0

8. If a-f&-hc=0, show that the line a; + a=y + 6=z + c intersects the four lines a;=0, y-fz=3a; y=0. 2-fx=36; 2=0.

xiv

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
j/c

z+y+z=3k,
three are

= 0* a* right angles, and that the a ic o fc c shortest distances between the first of these four lines and the other
<s/3(a-6),
9,

--*"j~"i+j:

N/3(a-c),

^(a-i).
lines

Find the equations of the common perpendicular to the

x=Q, y + z-b-c;
in the

y=Q,

z+xc-a;

form

3x + b~c = 3y + c-a-3z + a-b.

Show that it is also at right angles to the line z=0, x + y=a-b, and that the lengths of the shortest distances between the three lines are in the ratios 6-f c-2a c + a-26 a + 6-2c.
:
:

10. If pl + qm

+ rn=Q, show that each of the sets of equations + mzQ; q-lz + nx=Q; r-mx + ly=Q; ......... (i) p-ny l-ry+qz=0; m-pz + rx O; n-qx+py=0; ......... (ii)
;

satisfied at all points of one of two perpendicular lines length and equations of their shortest distance are
is

that the

and that the shortest distance

is

divided by the origin in the ratio

11.

Show

that

ay

- bx=a - 6,

the three planes bz-cy=b-c, cx-az=c-a, pass through one line, L, and that the three planes

(c-a)z-(a-b)y-b + c,
(b

- c)y - (c - a)x
7

(a-b)x-(b-c)z=c+a, a + 6,

pass through a line L' ; that L and L are at right angles and that the shortest distance between them is of length

and has the equations ax + by 4- cz =a + b + c,

z=2/=z = l,

- c)x + (c - a)y 4- b)z ~0 ; (a and that the shortest distance meets L and L in the points given by
(6
x

x __ 1 y ~~ _ z _ ~~ ~~ a 2 - be b 2 - ca c 2 - ab a 2 + b 2 + c 2 - be - ca - ab
12.

__
9

'

Show

that the equations of any line which meets the three lines

can be written

x=a, y=0; y=a, z=0; z=a x=0; x~a=ty, z(t + l) + t(y-a)~0, ..................... (i)
lines is

and that the locus of such

the surface

2 yz + zx + xy-ax-ay-az + a

Q...................... (ii)

Show

that the equations of any line which meets the three lines

z=a, y=Q;
can be written

x=a, 2=0; y=a, x=0; x-a^sz, y(s + l)+ s(z-a)=0, .................. (Hi)
on the surface
(ii).

and that

this line also lies

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Show
that the lines
(i)

I.

xv

and

(iii)

meet at a point P given a

and that, if they meet at right angles, either Deduce that, in these cases, P lies on the sphere

st

=l

or

x(x - a) + y(y -a) +z(z -a) ~0

and on one of the planes

13.

x + y + z=a,

x+y + z=2a.
z

Show

that the length of the S.D. between the lines

y-6_z-3
is

x_y-6_

which cut the given

3 and that the line of the S.D. cuts OZ. Show also that lines and OZ lie on the surface

all lines

14.
to

Show

that the condition that the line drawn through the origin
lines
-

meet both of the

x-a^

y-b _z-c l
l

x-a _y-b 2 _z-c 2

2

n2

x-<
IS

3,

s>

b 39

W
a 19

3,

n2
15.

Show

that the lines

,y

+ c 3z + d3 =0,
UK
#2>

tt 4 ==a<

4 2; -f rf4

=0

are coplanar

if

b l9
b 29

c l9 c2,

di

da =0,

and that the equation of the plane containing them can be written c l9 u l9 u2 b2 C2 =0, or b c
, ,

B9

3,

i,

c4 ,

64 ,

c4 ,

w4

1 6. If the equal and parallel edges of a triangular prism pass through the points (a 19 b 19 c t ), (a 29 b 29 c 2 ) 9 (0 8 , 6 3 , c 3 ) and the lengths of their projections on OX, OY, OZ are a, , y, respectively, show that the volume of the prism is

y,

b 19

c l9

b 29

c 29
03,

1 1

b&

xvi
17.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The plane

x+y+z=l
P

rectangular, in A, B, C. perpendiculars from P to

F, F', respectively.

cuts the axes OX, OY, OZ, which are the point (a, /?, y) and the feet of the 7 OA, BC ; OB, CA ; OC, AB, are D, D' ; E, E ; are Show that the equations of DD'
is

x-a_ ~~
2<x

Show also that if x=y=z, or on one of the hyperbolas y=z, 2zx-z-z +

x=y,

z y _ -0-J-y-l~~ 7 DD', EE', FF are concurrent, P

lies

on the

line

18. The lines AB, CD, EF are given by the equations y=6, z = -c ; 2=c, x= -a; =a, t/ = -6. If P is a point such that the planes PAB, PCD intercept a constant length 2k on EF, show that P fies on one of the hyperboloids - 6). + abc = k(x -f + bzx -f

ayz

cxy

a) (y

19. A variable sphere passes through the points (0, 0, c) and cuts 7 If PP in the points P and P'. the lines xsin<x = y cos a, has a constant length 2k, show that the centre of the sphere lies on the

z=c

circle z

= 0,

x*

+ y 2 = (fc a - c 2 )

cosec 2 2a.
c
;

20.

A variable line which meets y=mx, z

intersects the ellipse
(y
a

and

and which
surface

a a?=0, y /a2

+ z V> a = l>

y= -mx, z=

-c;

generates the

- m ga a ) a

(yz

~ cms) 2

_ (cy -

21. Find the equations of the line through (a, /?, y) which meets both of the lines y=mx, ; y= -mx, z~ -c; in the forms

zc
m<x

y-mx_ z-c
m<V ~^
(ii)
ft

y + mx_z+c
ft

4-

Wa

y -f C

22. The locus of a variable line which

intersects the given lines

is

always parallel to

OX and

x-a^y-b __z-c "~

x-af __y-V _z_ __

V

~~

m'

n'

is

given by the equation

- a,
/,

y-6

a;

- a 7, 2 - c 7

- a,
7

-c

Z ,

/,

Show that the tetrahedron whose vertices are (1, 2, 3), (6, 4, 2), -7/2,8), (-5/8,15/4,35/8) is self-polar with respect to the 2 a 2 sphere o? -f y +2 =20, and verify that each edge is at right angles to the opposite edge and that the planes through the edges at right angles to the opposite edges all pass through the centre of the sphere.
23.
(3,

24. Show that A, (1, 2, 3), B, (0, 11, 7), C, ( -3, 2, 11), D, ( -8, 5, 3) are the vertices of a tetrahedron in which each edge is at right angles to the opposite edge. Show that the perpendiculars from the vertices

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

I.

xvii

) and that 14 28 J P divides the shortest distances between the pairs of edges AB, CD ; AC, BD ; AD, BC ; in the ratios 31 33, 319 465, 1431 1705, respectively. Verify that the mid-points of the edges lie on the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 5x - Wy - 12z + 55 - 0, whose centre is the centroid of the tetrahedron.

(o 14
:

---

a|
, ,

| fi c \

25. If

O
x*

is

(46, 4c, 4a), (4c, 4a, 46),

the origin and A, B, C are the points (4a, 46, show that the sphere

4c),

+ y* + z 2 - 2(x + y + z)(a + b -f-c) +8(6c + ca + ab) =0

passes through the nine-point circles of the faces of the tetrahedron

OABC.
26. For the tetrahedron whose vertices are
A, (1,

-2,

11),

B,

-4,

2, 4),

C, (3, -6, 6),

D,

(2, 2, 1),

obtain the following results : The faces are 16x + 13y-4z

+ 54=0, 8#-j-ll*/ + 16z-54=0, 20z + 5i/ + 4z-54=0, 4# + 19y + 83-54=0;

:

the area of each face being 63/2 The lines joining the mid -points of pairs of opposite edges are mutually perpendicular and the lengths of the S.D. between the opposite edges are 3, 6, 9 : The volume of the tetrahedron is 54 The equation of the circumscribing sphere is
:

and the three

faces which meet at any vertex make the same angles with the tangent plane to the sphere at that vertex - 1, V) and its radius is 9/7 ; The centre of the inscribed is
:

(J, sphere the centres of the escribed spheres are (0, 0, 0), (5, -4, - 1, - 4, 10), and their radii are all equal to 18/7. (

7),

-2,

4, 5),

27.

Show

that
0,
is

the

planes

x-y-z-$

0,

x + 5y-z- 15 hedron which

#-y-h5z-21=:0, are the

faces of

a regular

tetra-

inscribed in the sphere

x 2 + y 2 -f z 2 - Qx 4- y - z - 40 =

and circumscribed to the sphere x 2 + y* + z 2 - Qx -f y - z -f 14 =0.

Show

that the escribed spheres are

;-14y + 2z 4-69=0;

Show

also that the spheres

which touch

all

the edges are

xviii

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
x*

28. The six spheres

+ y 2 + z 2 - 2x -f 222; - 4=0,

x 2 + y 2 H- z 2 - 12x - 18z -f 36 =0, 4# 2 + 4y 2 + 4z 2 -f 42x - 12z + 9 =0, 4x 2 + 4y 2 + 4z 2 - ISx - 12z 9 =0

-I-

all

touch the four sides of the skew quadrilateral given by = 3; z=Q, x2y=^6. =0, */ + 2z
29. If the spheres
St = x* + y
2

+ z 2 + 2^0; -f 26 x y -h 2cjZ
2
-

-f-

dl = 0,

meet

in

a great

circle

a: 4- y -f z on the sphere 2V -f 2V -f 2c x 2 - dj = 2a 1 a 2

S2 =

30.

The

centres of spheres which cut both the spheres

in great circles lie

on the plane x-j-^-f w a

0.

31. Given the coaxal spheres

=0,

show that S 3 cuts in a great circle any sphere orthogonal to Sx which has its centre on S 2 and that S 3 cuts orthogonally any sphere which hae its centre on S 2 and is cut by S t in a great circle.
,

32.

Show

that the circles

lie

x 2 + y 2 -f z 2 - 2x - 3y + 6z + 3 ^0, 2x + 3y - 6z - 2S=Q, on the same sphere and find its equation.

33. Lines are drawn through O to meet the circle in which the plane x + y + z = \ cuts the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 -4#-6f/-8z-f 4=0. Show that they lie on the cone x 2 -y 2 - 3z 2 - 6yz - 4zx and meet the at points on the plane, (ii) y-f 2z=2. Show that sphere again
(i)

2xyQ

represents a cone if2=-l orif = 19/25, and deduce that the circles in which the planes (i) and (ii) cut the given sphere lie on a second cone whose vertex is ( - 36/7, - 4/7, 4).

34. Show that two cones can be drawn through the circles in which the planes x-fy-fz = l,t/H-2z = 3 cut the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, and that
their vertices are (1, 2, 3)

and

- 2,

0, 2).

drawn through points on the circle in which the 2 plane fo + my+nz=k cuts the sphere x* + y* + z =a? parallel to the line x/p=y/qz/r9 show that they meet the sphere again in points on the plane
35. If lines are

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

I.

xix

36. Of a set of rectangular axes through O, one lies in tne plane ax + by + cz=Q, and one in the plane px + qy + rz=Q. Show that the third lies on the cone

..---"-------ap\b

cj\q

rj

bq\c

a/\r

p)

cr\a

bj\p

37. If OX, OY, OZ, O, Or), O are two sets of rectangular axes through the same origin O, show that the equation of the cone which passes through them can be written in the forms

x
where
l

_j

--- _ n u
2, 3,

-- ----1

r,

mr

referred to

n r r = l, OX, OY, OZ.

,

are the direction-cosines of

O,

077,

O,

Deduce that

38. A, B, C, D, E are the points (1, 2, 3), (3, 2, 7), Show that the equation (4, 19, 21), respectively.
(llx + y

(4, 1, 9), (8, 11, 21),

- 5z)(Qx + 3y -

5z)

+ t(4x + y - 2z)(I3x + 2y - 62) =0

represents a cone passing through the lines OA, OB, OC, OD, where O Find the value of t if the cone passes through E and is the origin. deduce that the cone through the five lines is given by

39.

Show

about the

by rotating the line x\l^y\mz\n x/ay/b z/c as axis is given by 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = (al + bm + en) (x 4- y + z ). (I + m + n*) (ax + by + cz)
line

that the cone generated

40. If a is the semi-vertical angle of the right circular cone which passes through the lines OX, OY, x=y~z 9 show that

41. The plane x + y + z=0 cuts the cone 5x*-32y 2 + 27s 2 =0 in perpendicular lines. Show that the cone through these lines and OX, OY, OZ is given by 5yz - 32zx + 27xy=0. Show also that the planes through the origin at right angles to these lines are given by
-y), or

-27x + 32y-5z=

*JS89(x -z).
lines in

42. If I, m, n, and I', m', n' are the direction-cosines of the which the plane px + qy + rz=Q cuts the cone

(c-o)g +y
;

show that

mm' nn' b-c c-a a-b

tt'

then show, by taking the given plane as a new coordinate plane, and changing the axes, that these lines bisect the angles between the lines in which the given plane cuts the cone a# 2 + 6y 2 -f cz 2 =0.

xx

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

43. An ellipse of semi-axes a and 6 has its centre at the origin and the direction-cosines of its axes are respectively l lt v n t ; and lv tt nt .

Show

that the ellipse itself

is

the orthogonal projection on

its

plane of

and that

its

orthogonal projection on the plane

XOY

is

given

by

+ y -2z =0 by the plane a parabola whose equations can be written Z=0,> x+y-2z~l 6X a + 4N/3Y = l, and that the section of the hyperboloid x2 + y*-z 2 = l by the plane x + y-2z~Q is an ellipse whose equations can be written
44.

Show

that the section of the cone x 2

is

45.
(2, 1,

What
-2),
(2,

does

the
1)

equation

x*

+ y* + 7z 2 + 8yz -8zx + 16xy = 81

2,
2),

become when the

-2,

lines joining the origin to the points (1,

are taken as coordinate axes?

is (1,

46. The cone whose vertex the circle

is

2, 3)

and which passes through

given by
47.

Show

that the two cones

intersect in the coordinate axes

ayz+bzx + cxy=Q, and in the line

48. The points common to the two cones t/ 2 - z 2 + 3yz - 2zx + xy=Q, x* -z 2 ~2yz + 3zx + xy= 0, lie in the pairs of planes

(x+y-z)(x+y + 2z)=0. 49. The cone through OX, OY, OZ and the lines in which a(b~c)x + b(c~a)y + c(a- b)z = cuts the cone
(x
is

-y) (x +2/ + 5z)=0,

the plane

mon

given by (6 c) yz + (c a) zx + (a 6) xy = 0, and the other two comof the two cones lie in the plane generators
50.

The common generators of the two cones

(b

+ c)(b-c)*x* + (c + a)(c
lie

ayz + bzx+cxy=0, (b-c)*x + (c-a)* 51. Show that

in the planes

are

two

sets of

mutually perpendicular tangent planes to the cone

mutually inclined

and

that, in each case, the generators of contact are

at angles of 60.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
52.

I.

xxi

Show

that the cone

b-c

c-a a-b

has sets of three mutually perpendicular tangent planes. If one plane of a set IB x + y + z=zQ, show that the other two are given by

and that the

line of intersection of these planes is =z. Show also that the lines along which these planes touch the cone lie in the plane

xy

x y V __ c-a __ a-b -c
z
i_
|
i

f-

\jf

53.

Show

that, for all values of

t9

the plane

cuts

at*(x-y-z)-2t(bx+ay)-b(x-y + z)=Q the cone ax* + by* = (a + b)z* in perpendicular lines, and deduce
all

that

such planes touch the cone

?!

z*

a
54.

a+b
section has sets of three mutually

Show that any cone whose vertex is on the paraboloid x a + y* = 2cz

and which passes through a meridian

perpendicular generators.

55.
its

cone has vertex

is

equation cone is ay* + cx(z-c)=Q.

- c)1=0 and that cy* + 4ax(z

(0, 0, c)

and base z=0, y*=4ax.

Show that the equation of the reciprocal

is (0, 0, 2a) and base z=0, y*=4ax is its The plane cuts it in a circle. By changing the to the vertex, and turning the x- and z-axes through 45, show origin that the cone is right circular and has a semi- vertical angle of 45. Draw a diagram showing the cone and the section by the plane z=x. 57. The cone whose vertex is (0, 0, c) and base 2=0, x 2 -ft/ 2 - 2oa;=0 has a reciprocal cone given by a 2y 2 =c(z - c)(cz - c a - 2ax). Hence show that if the section of a cone by a plane at right angles to a generator is a circle, the section of the reciprocal cone by the same plane is a para-

56. The cone whose vertex

reciprocal.

own

zx

bola.

that the cone whose vertex is (3, 4, 5) and which passes the curve of intersection of the plane ar-fy + z=0 and the through surface yz + zx+ #y-f-l=0 is given by

58.

Show

and that

it

meets the surface again at points in the plane

59. Lines drawn through points on the circle

x +y 4-2 = 1,
parallel to the line x/2

3 a +y 2 +z a =4,
is

=y/ - 1 =z/2 generate a cylinder whose equation

The

cylinder meets the sphere in a second circle in the plane

xxii

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
circles lie

and the two

25x
2

+y
is

on the cone + 25z - 16yz + 8zx- 16xy + 8x + 32y + 8z - 96 =0

2

whose vertex

at the point (4/3, 16/3, 4/3).

60. Show that the equations of the two planes which pass through the line 2x = ~y=2z and cut the cone I5x 2 - 14i/ 2 4- 5z 2 =0 in perpendicular generators are 3# -f 2y + z=0, 2x-y-4z=Q.

61. If two planes, each of which cuts the cone ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 =Q in perpendicular lines, are at right angles, their line of intersection lies on the cone (2a + b + c)x 2 + (26 + c + a)y 2 -f (2c + a + b)z 2 =0.

62. Find the tangent planes to the hyperboloid 3x 2 - 1y 2 + 42z 2 = 126 which pass through the lines
~(i)

= ?!_:=;_
5
1

and

(ii)

3#-f 7t/-f 4z=0=#-f 4y4-3z + 3 t

giving the~points of contact in each case.

63.

Show that the pair of tangent planes

to ax 2 -f by 2

-f

cz 2

=1

whose

that, if (p, q, r) is a fixed point and the planes are at right angles, the line of intersection lies on the cone

and deduce

=abc[(ry
64.

- qz) 2 + (pz - rx) 2 -f (qx -

that the two tangent planes to ax 2 pass through the line given by

Show

+ by 2 + cz 2 = l which

ny-mz=p, lz-nx=q, mx-ly=:r,

are represented

by the equation

65. The tangent plane at a point P, not in a principal plane, and the normal at P to the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 z 2 /c 2 = 1 meet the plane XOY in a line QR and a point G. Show that QR is the polar of G with respect
-f-

to the ellipse

^T2+ 6^72=1
meet a principal plane 7
in

x2

2
'

=0

'

66. If the normals at points P and P' on the ellipsoid

G and

G',

show that the plane which

bisects

PP

at right angles also bisects GG'.

67. If the normals at P, (xl9 yl9 zj and Q, (x29 ya , z 2 ) on the ellipsoid

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
=l
by the equations
meet at the point
(a,
j3,

I.

xxiii

y),

show that

PQ is given

68. If the feet of three of the normals from (a, 0, y) to the ellipsoid 2 2 2 2 y /b + z lc = l are (x r , y r , z r ), r = l f 2, 3, the equation of the them can be written plane through

4-1=0.
69. Normals are drawn to the ellipsoid x 2 /a* + y*/b z + z z /c* = l at = points on its section by the given plane z y. Show that the normals meet the plane XOY at points on the conic

a*# 2 2 2 (a -c )

6y =
-c 2 ) 2

y*
c2
'

'

(6

and meet the planes YOZ, ZOX at points on the lines x = 0, z = y(l-a 2 /c 2 ); y=0, z = y(l -6 2/c*).
70. If the polar plane of

P with

respect to the conicoid

touches each of the conicoids

bx 2 -f cy 2 + az 2 = 1,
ex 2
-f

ay

-f

6^ 2

= 1,

show that P and the

lies

on the curve of intersection of the cone - 6 3y 2 -f (a - c 3z 2 = 4- (c (6 a) c) 6)

aV
2

surface
(6 -f c) a*x -f (c
-f

a) b*y

-f

(a

-f

s 2 6) c z

= 2a6c.

71. The normal at a point P on the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = l meets the planes YOZ, ZOX in G and G', and OQ is drawn from the X
origin

equal to and parallel to

ellipsoid

a 2* 2 + b*y 2 + c 2z 2 = (a 2 - 6 2 ) 2

GG
.

Show

that the locus of Q,

is

the

to the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = l at a point P is produced on its curve of intersection with the plane lx + my + outwards to a point such that PQ p - & 2 , where p is the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P, and k is a constant. Show lies on the conic that

72.

The normal

nz0

o 2to
1+

b*my

^TP cMT

c*nz
a

_ ~

a*x*
'

(a

!!

2
)

+
(6

6 2y 2
2

c*z 2
"

)fc

+ )b

2 a
)

'

-*

'

_. ""~

'

73. P is a point on the hyperboloid a; 2 /a 2 -hy 2 /6 2 -2 2 /c 2 = l such that the planes through the centre and the generators through P are at right Show that the normal at P intersects the conic angles.

x2
B.O.

c2

c2

xxiv

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

74. If P(f,g,h) 9 is a point on the cone ax2 + by* + cz a =0, three normals, other than the normal at P, pass through P. Show that the equation of the plane through the feet of these normals is
2 - 6)(a - c)fx + (b - c)(b a)gy + (c a)(c b)hz = bcf -f cag* + abh*. 75. P is a point on the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = 1 and ON is the perpendicular from the centre O to the tangent plane at P. If PN is of constant length K, show that ON lies on the cone 2 2 2 - 2 2 c ) + zV (c 2 - a 2 ) 2 + x*y 2 (a 2 - b 2 ) 2 y 2 (6 = K 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) (a 2* 2 + 6y + c 2* 2 ).

(a

normals to # 2 + 2y 2 + 32 2 =984 which lie in the are the points (12, - 18, 8), ( -6, 18, - 10), and the plane normals intersect at the point ( - 12, 54, - 40).
76.

The

feet of the

x+y +z-2

77. The plane x ~ z = 4 cuts the ellipsoid x 2 -f 2y 2 -f 3z 2 = 50 in a circle and the radii of the circle through the points (6, 1, 2) are the normals
to the ellipsoid at these points.

78. If P, (x l9 y l9 2i), is a point on the curve of intersection of the conicoid ax 2 -f by 2 + cz 2 = I and its director sphere, show that the normal at P meets the conicoid again at the point given by

0^1

cz i

and that the locus of Q

the cone

is

the curve of intersection of the conicoid and

22

22
~"
*

79.

The normals

at (x lf

y19

z t ) 9 (x 2 ,

y2

z 2 ),

on the

ellipsoid

will intersect if
|

and

if (a,

)3,

y)

is

the point of intersection,

^(i-i^a-^-vC-r)X**'!

*v2

jl

f/2

^^1

''ft

normals from (4/3, 2/3, 0) to the ellipsoid x2 + 2y* + 3z* = 24 consist of the normals at (2, 2, 2), (2, 2, -2), the normal at 2 2 = 24, (4, -2, 0) counted twice, and the normals to the ellipse x + 2y at the points where the line x- 2y + 4=0, 2=0 cuts it. 2=0,
80.

The

six

81. If the line

with respect to the surface ax* + by* + C2 = l, and meets the surface in P and Q, show that the normals at P and Q lie in the plane bc(qn rm)(x -p) + ca(rl -pn)(y q) +ab(pm ql)(z r) = 0, and that PQ is a principal axis of the section of the surface by the plane
2

~ = ~ m~ =

is

perpendicular to

its

polar

19

m,
9

n
ab(pm-ql)

=0.

bc(qn-rm)

ca(rl-pn) 9

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

I.

xxv

82. Show that the points (1, -2, 2), ( -5, 4, 8) are the extremities of a normal chord of the hyperboloid 2x 2 + y 2 -z 2 =2 and that the chord is a principal axis of the section of the surface by the plane

83. P, (xl9 yl9 zj, Q, (z a y29 z 2 ), R, (z8 , y^ z8 ) are the extremities of three conjugate diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = 1. Show that (x - #i)(# 2 - #s) + (y- 2/i)(2/2 - 2/3) + (z - Zi)(z2 - 3) =0 represents the plane drawn through the normal at P at right angles to the plane PQR and deduce that the projections on the plane PQR of the normals at P, Q, R are concurrent at the orthocentre of the triangle PQR.
,

84. OP, OQ, OR are three conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 lb 2 + z 2 lc 2 = I. OP, OQ are produced to P 7 and Q' so that OP'/OP =OQ'/OQ = k, where k is a constant. Show that the enveloping 7 cones whose vertices are P and Q intersect in two planes, of which one is the plane through OR and the mid-point of PQ, and the other touches t the ellipsoid #2 z* 2
7

85. OP, OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b* + z 2 lc* = I. OP 7 OQ 7 OR 7 are drawn at right angles to the 7 7 7 planes QOR, ROP, POQ, and of lengths such that &OP &OQ A)R are equal to the areas of the triangles QOR, ROP, POQ, respectively, k being 7 a certain fixed length. Show that OP 7, OQ OR are conjugate semi,
,

diameters of the ellipsoid

^L+^L+JL=Jb c c a 4& a b
2

'

86. OP, OQ, OR are conjugate semi-diameters of the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + 2 2 /c 2 = 1. Show that the sides of the triangle PQR touch the ellipsoid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b 2 + z 2 /c 2 = % at their mid-points. Show also that the necessary and sufficient condition that the line

n
is

should cut the ellipsoid in the ends of two conjugate diameters

2a (my

nj3)

+ 26 (na - ly ) 2 4- 2c 2 (I ft - ma) 2 - b 2c 2l 2 4- cWm* + a*b*n*.

2

87. The

equations

of

the

axes

of the

conic

3x 2 + y 2 -z 2 = 3,

2x + y + 2z-Q are #/l-2//2=z/-2, a?/2=y/-2=s/-l, and the lengths of the axes are 6 and 6/^/5. The axes are the lines in which the given plane cuts the cone I/a? - 1/y + 1/z =0. The axes of all sections parallel
to the given plane
lie

in the planes

6x-2y+z=0,
88. The lengths of the axes of the conic
are 4, 2 ; the equations of the axes are x/2 = y\ - 3 = z/6, x\ - 6 = y/2 = z/3 ; the equations of the equi-conjugate diameters of the conic are

xxvi

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
+ y 2 /4 + z 2 /l=21, 2x + 3y-6z=0,
are

89. The foci of the conic # 2 /9 (9, -4,1), (-9,4, -1).

90.
is (10,

- 14, 35) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are 18, 36 ; the extremities of the axes are (22, -2, 41), ( -2, -26, 29) ; (22, -38, 59),
91. The

The centre of the conic Ux* + 5y* - 4z 2 = 72, 2x - y - 2z -f 36 = 0,

(-2,10,11).
centre

of

the

conic

2x 2 + y* = l2z,
: :

6x-3y-6z = l

is

10/3) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are (39/2)4, (39/4)i, and the (3, -2:2. directions of the axes are given by 2 2 1, 1
:

- 3,

92. The centre of the conic 5z 2 +

17&f

-7z 2 =0, z-2i/-f 2z = 81,

:

is
;

70, 170) ; the lengths of the semi-axes are 3(595)^, 9(595)^ ( - 2, 2 2 1. their directions are given by 2 : - 1
: :

- 119,

93. The axes of the conic

nx + am
(

xy=az + al __ ny
(n*

lx

+ my + nz-0, n zz-2alm

are given

by

+ w 2 )i

+ P)i

- 1 (m2

94. If the plane lx + my + nz=Q cuts the paraboloid xy=az in a hyperbola of eccentricity 2, the line x\l=y\m z\n lies on the cone

95.
t/1

Show
z2
c^

that the director circles of sections

of the
the

ellipsoid

+TZ + -Z = 1, 3
o

whose

planes

are

parallel

to

fixed

plane

+ my + nz=0, lie on the conicoid 2 2 a 2 Za; -f (c 2 -f a 2 (te + my + nz) [(6 -f c

)

ft

2
)

my -f (a 2 -f 6 2 - c
2

2
)

nz]

2
)

a 2Z 2 (6 2 -f c 2 )

-f

62

(c

+ a 2 ) -f cW(a 2 + 6 2 )\

96. Show that if a 2 -f 6 2 = 2c 2 , the generators through any one of the ends of an equi-conjugate diameter of the principal elliptic section of the hyperboloid x 2 /a 2 + y 2 /b* - z 2 /c 2 = 1 are at right angles. 97.

Show

that x = 1-fA?/
2

- 2yz ~ 1, hyperboloid x

--1 represents a generator of the A and that any point on the surface is given by
A
-,

2z

2
IJL

/it

-,

a\ = -^
p.

Show
on
98.

also that if the generators through P are at right angles, the circle in which the plane y + z =0 cuts the surface.

lies

whose centre

that the section of the hyperboloid 4z 2 -f t/ 2 -2z 2 = 12 - 3, 0, 6) is circular and that its area is twice that of ( the parallel central section. Show that the sphere which has the given circular section as a great circle is

Show

is

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

I.

xxvii

99. The radius of a real circular cylinder which circumscribes the 2 2 2 2 = 2 2 l is b and the area of its curve of contact ellipsoid x /a + y lb + z lc

with the ellipsoid

is 7r(6

2 2

-c 2a 2 -f a 2b 2 $, (a>b>c).

100. If each of two tangent cones to a conicoid has sets of three mutually perpendicular generators, their common points lie in two
perpendicular planes.

101.

Two

circular sections of the ellipsoid

r.

# 2 /a 2 -h j/ 2 /6 2 -f z 2 /c 2 = 1 of
tha* the square of the

opposite systems have the same radius radius of the sphere through them is
2
CL

Show

-r 2

)9

or

b2

+ 55lzf? (b 2 - r 2 ),

(a>b>c).

102. P, Q, R, S are vertices of a skew quadrilateral whose sides lie 2 2 2 2 - 2 z /c 2 = 1. Show that along generators of the hyperboloid x /a + y /b - C2 ) = + ZS) (ZPZR - C 2 ). (ZQ

and

2 2 2 2 2 P, (#', y', z'), is a point on the ellipsoid X la + y lb +z /c = l ON is the perpendicular from the centre to the tangent plane at P. If OP =r and ON =p, show that the bisector of the angle PON is given by b 2y c 2z ax _ ~~

103.

___

x' (pr

+ a 2 )~~y' (pr + b 2 )

z' ( pr 4-

<*

2
)

'

and

that, if a point

Q is taken on the bisector such that OQ =ON

2
I

OP,

Q lies on the surface

x2
ft

i 3J*

2 ft*

2 2+S
/)

3**

y ri
I

<yZ

1 y&

+ -;

z2
I

(*&

/>

_i_ 2J i

1 = 5*
*J

104. If the plane Ix +

in a parabola,
is

nzp
_j_

cuts the hyperboloid

the point

show that a 2 Z 2 =rc 2?i 2 and that the vertex of the parabola _ /p2 ^2^2 ^2 C 2^2\
'
'

2pl

2pn

105. If # + 64-c=0, the section of the cone a# 2 4-fo/ 2 -l-cz 2 =:0 by the plane ax + by + cz = 18o6c is a parabola whose latus rectum is of
length vertex

4V3(a2 4-6 2 4-c

is

2
) ;

the axis
c2
4-

is

parallel to the line

;

x=y=z
is

the

(a

4-

56c,

b2

+ 5ca,

Sab)

and the focus

2 2 2 [3(a 4-6c), 3(6 4-ca), 3 (c 4-06)].

106. If the plane Ix 4- my 4- nz +p=Q cuts the cone

in

a parabola, the directrix - a)lx -f -f c

(6
is

lies in

the plane

(c -f a b)my + (a -f b - c)nz=0,

and the focus

given by

-a)l

b(c+a-b)m

c(a + b-c)n

2(

107. The hyperbolic paraboloid which has the lines

= l, z=cr

= l,

2, 3,

xxviii
as generators
is

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
given by

a 19

2-C 2 ~ ^3^ + b sy z-c 3

for principal axes

=0.
1
9

^3

108. The equation of the hyperboloid which has the coordinate axee and the line x-a y-&=2-casa generator is
<r?

4I

v* y

z2
4.
|

_i_
I

i
-*

r W

(c-a)(a-6)

and the equations of the other generator through the point

(a, 6, c)

are

x-a
bc-ca + ab
- a,

z~c bc+ca-ab
(a, -6, -c), generators of

109. The vertices of a tetrahedron are (a, 6, c), - a, - 6, c). Show that the altitudes are 6,
c),
(

the hyperboloid
a*x*(b*

- c 2 ) + b y(c 2 - a 2 ) + C 2z 2 (a 2 - 6 2 )

-f

(6

- c 2 ) (c 2 - a 2 ) (a 2 -6 2 )-0.

1 10.

Show that

Sx z -f 8y 2 - 4z 2 - Syz - Szx

the equations of the generators of the hyperboloid -f- 4^y = 3

circular sections are

which are at right angles to the planes of the

= -2z5.
111. The condition that ax 2 + by 2 + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx -f 2toy = 1 should have generators at right angles to the planes of its circular sections is a - b - c, 2h, 2g
2h,
2g,

b-c-a,
2f,

2f

=0.

c-a-b

variable circle with its centre on OZ and its plane at right 112. Show that it generates to the line x=a,y z, intersects that line. angles Show that the same surface the hyperboloid 2x* + 3y 2 -z 2 -2yz = 2a 2 is generated by a variable circle with its centre on the line x=Q, 2y=z, which has its plane at right angles to the line x=a, 3y 4-2=0, and
.

intersects that line.

113. PP' is a diameter of the principal elliptic section of the hypervariable generator intersects a geneboloid # 2 /a 2 -f y 2 /b 2 2 a /c a = l. rator through P and the generator of the same system through P' in the and Q'. Show that ZQZQ> = - c 2 points

114. Show that the two generators through the point (a, j8, y) on the hyperboloid x 2 /a 2 -f j/ 2 /6 2 - 2 2 /c 2 = 1 are the lines in which the tangent plane at the point meets the planes

a 26 2

c2

Show that the same result holds for the paraboloid # f/a 2 - y*lb*2z/c.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
are

I.

xxix

115. Show that the equations of the generators of yz -f zx -f- xy -f a 2 =

y-a = X(x + a), X(z-a)+y + z=Q; z-a = /*(a;-f a), n(yand that any point on the surface x y
is

given
z

by
a

Show

that

y=a,z=-a;

za,x-a\

x=a,y=-a; x-a= -2y

are generators of the same system and that, if they meet any generator of the opposite system in P, Q, R, S, respectively, (PR, QS) is a harmonic range.

line (see

116. Establish the following results involving the coordinates of a Appendix, Note to 43).
the line
. ,

(1) If

(I,

n, A, p, v) lies in the plane

,

al
(2) If

+ bm + cn
(/,

and
m, n
9

bv
I

CIL

= cX-av = au,-bX =d.

,

m
n' 9

ax + by + cz + d=09

the lines

A,

//,,

v), (V,
-f l'\

m'

A', /z', v')

intersect,

IX'

+ Kip' -f nv
lines

-f m'fji + riv =0,

and the plane through the

or

is

given by
9

by
(3)

l'(ny-mz~- X)+m'(lz-nx~ n)+n'(mx-ly-v)=zQ - A') + m(l'z - n'x - ^') + n(m'x - Z'y - v') 0. l(n'y m'z

The

line

(I,

m,

n, A,

jit,

y)

touches the surface

-I-

ax 2 -f &2/2
if

C2 2

=1
.

be A 2
(4)

-f

2 2 2 2 2 ca^ + a&v - aZ 4- 6m + en

section has coordinates

-I-

The tangent planes to x 2 /a 2 -f i/ 2 /6 2 + 2 2 /c 2 = 1 whose line of inter/, m, n, A, /x, v, are given by 2 2 2 6 (fe - tt# + c 2 (ma: - ly - v) 2 = ( Xx + py 4- vz)*, a?(ny -mz- A)
/it)

and,

if

the axes are rectangular and the planes are perpendicular,

I 2

(6

+ c2

) -I-

(c

+ a2

-f

n 2 (a 2 -f

ft

2
)

= A 2 4- ^ + v*.
line of intersection

(5)

The tangent planes

l>

has coordinates

m, n,
2

A,

to x*/a + y 2 /b = 2z are given by /A, v,

whose

a(ny

- wz -

A)

+ b(lz - nx - p) 2 =2(mx -ly -v)(\x + py + vz).

(6) The normals at the points where the line (1 9 m, n 9 A, ^, v) meets 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 the ellipsoid /a -hi/ /6 + 2 /c = l intersect if a JA + 6 ra/x + c ni/=0, and the equation of the plane containing them is

a 2 (6 2 - c*)mnx -f 6 2 (c 2 - a*)nly + c 2 (a 2 - b 2 )lmz = 6 2 c 2 ZA + c 2a 2 ra/* -f a 2 6 2 nv.

(7)

The
-f

line
cz 2
-

ax2 + 6y a

= 1 by

(1 9

m, n,

A,

/*, i>)

is

a diameter of the section of the surface

the plane

(ny

-mz-X) +(fe - nx - p.) -f ^(ma; -ly-v) =0.

6
c

xxx
(8)

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
The polar + cz 2 = 1
line
is

of

(Z,

w,

n, A,

a&* + by 2
is

(bcX, cap, abv,

with respect to the surface /x, v) -al, -6ra, -en), and if the line
,

a generator of the surface,

ol

bm
p,

cn
v
/z,

Imn

A
(9) If

the line

(i!,

m,

n, A,

^) is

a generator of the surface

if it is

a generator of ayz

-f

bzx -f ca:y + a6c = 0,

a
(10)

___
zr:
-

z^.

rz: -{- i/nl7l

The

meters and the line

conicoid which has the coordinate axes as conjugate diaa generator is given by (/, m, n, A, ^, v) as

Xmnx* + pnly 2 -f vlmz 2 -f A /iv = 0.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
1.

II.

Prove that the

lines

are coplanar, and find the coordinates of their point of intersection.

Ans.
2.

(1, 2,3).

Show

that the planes

#-#+2-4=0, 2x-y- 2 + 4=0, #+#-62 + 14=0 form a triangular prism, and calculate the breadth of each face of the
prism.

Ana. N/fi; >/f

3.

V^.
lines

Find the angle between the

show that the

lines intersect,

and

find

the equation of the plane

containing them. Ans. 7T/3, #+y-2=0.

4.

Find the equations of the

line

parallel to the plane

2x+y -2=5,

drawn through the point (3, so as to intersect the line

- 4,

1)

Find also the coordinates of the point of intersection, and the equation of the plane through the given line and the required line.
Ans.

z.*+i,Lz!>

(i, 2 , 3),

y-3,+7=0.

5.

the line

Prove that the equations of the perpendicular from the origin to ax+by + cz+d=zQ = a'x+b'y + c'z+d' are
x(bc'

- 6'c) +y (ca - c'a) + z(ab' - a'b) =0,

f

6.

Prove that the planes

6x+y + 52 + 5=0,
intersect the
line joining

the points

(1, 2, 3), (3,

-6,1)

in

points

which form a harmonic range with the given points.

xxxii
7.

COORD T NATE GEOMETRY

Obtain, in the symmetrical form, the equations of the projection

of the line

on the plane
An*.
8.
A

te-7y bx-y-4z=3. -2 z
-T3
2

2'

Prove that 4# + 8y 2 + z2 - Qyz + 5zx - 1 %xy = represents a pair of Find also the angle between planes, and find the angle between them. the lines in which the plane 11#- 13y + 22=0 cuts them.

Am
9.

13
-

co *

Find the length of the shortest distance between the

lines

Ans. 97/1 3\/6.

10,

Find the equations of the straight

line perpendicular to

both of

the lines

~
1

~
2

'

~
2

-1

and passing through their

.

intersection.

11.

For the

lines

find the length and equations of the shortest distance ordinates of the points where it meets the given lines.
3,

and the

co-

^='^=4

< 2> J >

)>

Oi 3 ~ 2 )>

square ABCD, of diagonal 2a, is folded along the diagonal so that the planes DAC, are at right angles. Show that the shortest distance between and AB is then 2a/N/3".
12.

AC,

BAG DC

13.

Find the equation

-5 = 0=#+y+2-3, and

of the plane
is

which passes through the

parallel to the line

line

Ans.
14.

#+2+32= 1.
Find the equation
2

#=2y=
cylinder Ans.

and radius

4,

by the plane

XOY

of the right circular cylinder whose axis is and prove that the area of the section of the
is 24?r

15. Find the equation of the right circular cone whij& passes through the line 2#=3y= -62, and has the line x=y=z asaxia

Ans.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES

II.

xxxiii

16. Obtain the formulae for the transformation from a set of rectangular axes OX, OY, OZ, to a second rectangular set, O, O*7, Of, where O lies in the plane XOY and makes an angle with OX and Of makes an angle </> with OZ, viz. #= cos O TI sin 0cos<-f-f sin 5 sin <, cos # sin <, y = sin -f 97 cos # cos
<

Apply these to show that the

section of the surface

by the plane 2#-2y+2=0 is a circle of radius 2. w r nr (/=!, 2, 3) are the direction -cosines 17. If r
,

of

three

mutually perpendicular

lines,

vitfi^m* -

prove that
)

and that

- W3%(w 22 - V) =

^3
m

18. If Or;, Of are a second set of rectangular axes whose direction-cosines referred to OX, OY, are lr r , n r (r=l, 2, 3) and the projections of O^ and Or/ on the plane make angles <f> { and </> 2 with OX, prove that

O,

OZ

XOY

19. Find the surface generated by a variable line which intersects the parabolas x 2&w, 3/=0, 2 aw 2 ; ^r=0, ?/ = 2an, 2= an2 and is parallel to the plane
,

with its extremities on the lines mX) %= c y = w,^, 2 = so as to subtend a right angle at the origin. Prove that the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to PQ lies on the curve of inter20.

A line PQ moves
y

<?,

section of the surfaces

m =
2

22

-c2

?M 2

and

Lines are drawn parallel to the plane # = 2 and the line y=0, z = c. parabola ?/ = 4a#, 2 2 generate the surface c y
21.

z0

to intersect the

Prove that they

which intersects

22.

Find the surface generated by a straight

line

the lines

2 and the hyperbola xy + c = 0. z = c2 Ans. z xy 23. Prove that lines drawn from the origin
.

^ = o, z^c z = 0,

# = 0, z= -c

so as to touch the sphere

lie

on the cone

24.

Find the equations of the spheres which pass through the

circle

and touch the plane s=0.

Ans.
Stf2 4-

a?+y*+z*-2x-ty 2 5y + 5*2- 2#- 4y- 5* -f 1 = 0.

B.C.

xxxiv

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

two
is

25. Prove that the locus of the centres of spheres lines =:fcw#

zc

which touch the

the surface xym+cz(\ +tfi 2 )=0.

26.

P and

Q are points on the lines y=mx, zc\ y=zmx,

is

z=c
ZOX

such that
circle

on

PQ PQ

always parallel to the plane ZOX. Prove that the as diameter whose plane is parallel to the plane

generates the surface

27.

mV

Prove that the plane

cuts the sphere

in a circle

#2 4-#2 4is (01, /?, y),

whose centre

and that the equation

of the sphere

which has

this circle for a central section is

are

If three mutually perpendicular lines whose direction-cosines nr (r=l, 2, 3) are drawn from the origin to meet the r a 2 2 2 in P, Q, R, prove that the equation of the sphere ,r 4-# 4-2
28.
/r ,

=a

plane

PQR

is

and that the radius

of the circle

PQR

is

J(2/3)a.

29. If A, B, C are the points (a, 0, 0), (0, 6, 0) and (0, 0, c\ and the axes are rectangular, prove that the diameter of the circle ABC is
'

6 2 c 2 4-c 2 a 2 4-a 2 6 2
30.

Find the radius of the

circle
2,*:

2#-y- 2*4-13=0, #2 4y 2 +*2 =

and the equation
a normal section.

of the right circular cylinder

4-4^4-4*4-1, which has the circle for

Ans.
31.

Show

that the plane

7x+4y 4-2=0

cuts the cones

in the

of perpendicular lines, and that the equation of the the other two common generators of the cones is plane through

same pair

5# -2y- 3^=0.
ellipse whose axes are of lengths 2a and 26 (a>b) moves major axis parallel to OX and its minor axis parallel to OY, so that three mutually perpendicular lines can be drawn from O to intersect it. Prove that its centre lies on the ellipsoid i \ ^2 ^2 /i n4" To == * 5 4" To 4" 2 2 2 2 a b VI \a

32.

An

with

its

33. Two right circular cones have a common vertex and axis, and their semivertical angles are ?r/4 and ?r/3 respectively. Show that any tangent plane to the first cuts the second in perpendicular generators.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
,

II.

XXXV
2, 3),

34. OP, OQ, OR, whose direction-cosines are Zr rj nr (r=l, are three mutually perpendicular generators of the cone

Prove that the three planes through OP, OQ, OR, at right angles respectively to the tangent planes which touch along OP, OQ, OR, pass through the line
(b

c)x _ (c

- a)y

_(a

b)z
*

35.

If

is

any point on the curve

of intersection of the ellipsoid

P lane

in an ellipse of at P to the ellipsoid cuts the cylinder a -j,^-=l * constant area.

36. If the axes are rectangular, find the length of the chord of the conicoid #2 + 4y 2 - 4z 2 =28, which is parallel to the plane 3# 2y + 22=0, and is bisected at the point (2, 1, -2).

Ans. N/154.
37.

Find the equation

of the tangent plane to the surface

which passes through the point

Ans.
38.

(3, 4,

- 3), and
z.

is

parallel to the line

x=y~
Prove that for
all

values of

the plane

is

a tangent plane to the conicoid

x*la*+y*/b*-z*/c*=

and that

its

point of contact lies on the line

"

3a
39.

~5c

Prove that the straight

lines joining the origin to the points of

contact of a

common tangent

plane to the conicoids

aa? + by*+c#=l,
are at right angles.
40.

2 2 2 (a- A> + (&- A)y + (c-A> =l,

Find the equations

the line

#=4, 3y-f 42=0

of the two planes that can be to touch the conicoid

drawn through

Ans.
41. Find the points of contact of the tangent planes to the conicoid 2 2 2j^-25y +22 =l, which intersect in the line joining the points

(-12, 1,1 2),

Ans.
(3,

(13,

-1

-13).

-1,2), (-2, -1, -3).

xxxvi
42.

COOBDINATE GEOMETRY
-J-23

y?

Find the equations of the two plane sections 2 =l, which have their centres on the line

of the surface

and pass through the point

Ans.
43.

-1, -5,

1).

#-2#+6z-15 = 0,
M, the mid-point

2#-f
of the

+2z+ 5 = 0.
normal chord at P, a point on the
2

ellipsoid

?/

$
1
'

3+&+?lies

on the plane ZOX.

Prove that P must

lie

on one of the planes

and

on one of the

lines

=
P 999 = any and
44.
is
ffa
jyjfi

=:

-^-

point on the curve of intersection of the ellipsoid

-ft

nnft

-5+ 2
a
the

o2

io

+ -3 <r

nj

f>

li

the plane --Ky-f--=l, and the normal at l

P meets

plane

XOY
GP.

in G.

From

O
lies
,

parallel to

Prove that Q

(the origin) on the conic

2

OQ
2 2

is

drawn equal and

.

ax + by + cz = c 2

aV + 6 y + c z
2

= c4

cone is described whose vertex is A, and whose base is the 45. It meets section of the conicoid ax2 + bi/ 2 + cz" = l by the plane 2 = 0. the given couicoid at points in the plane XOY, and at points in a plane Q. Prove that if A lies in a fixed plane P, the pole of Q, with respect to the given conicoid, lies on a conicoid which touches the given conicoid at all points of its intersection with the plane P.

with respect to a central coni46. If the polar planes of P and coid meet in a line AB, and the plane through parallel to the polar of P meets the plane through P parallel to the polar plane of plane in a line CD, show that the plane through AB and passes through the centre of the conicoid.

CD

47. Prove that the equation of the cone whose vertex is (OL, /?, y) and base the conic ax1 + by* -f CZ L = 1, P=Z# + my + nz~pQ is obtained by eliminating A from the equations
i

equation of the cone in the form

and AP-hP'=0, where P'^laL+m/3 + ny-p, and then obtain the

P 2 (aa

-f fyt? -f

cy

- 1) - 2PP'(aauc +

b/3y + cyz

Deduce (i) the equation of the cone whose vertex is (a, /?, y) and base a.^2 4-fcy2 =l, s = 0, and (ii) the equation of the other plane section of the conicoid and the cone.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
48.

II.

xxxvii

Prove that the locus of centres of sections of ax*+by2 +cz*=l _ 7 i s a conic whose centre =2 which pass through the line
-=

is

given by
49.

^^^L^^^L^
+

If the axes are rectangular and P, (#j, y,, 2,), Q, (#2 , y<& z%\ y3 , zs) are the extremities of three conjugate diameters of the y& ly2 Z2 ellipsoid -2+ Y2 -2=l) prove that the planes through the centre and

R, (#3,

the normals at P, Q,

pass through the line

50.

If

OP, OQ,

OR

are conjugate semidiameters of the ellipsoid

to rectangular axes

whose equation referred

areas of the triangles

x2
is

-2 + j$ +

y2

2
s

-%

=l and the
9

QOR, ROP, POQ

are equal, the planes

QOR>

ROP,

POQ

touch the cone

51.

If

P(^n yu

2i)>

Q(#_>

.^21

^zX "(^3) ys> ^3) are the extremities of

/Y*f

0*2

three conjugate semidiameters of the ellipsoid -2 -fib + ~2 S=:

that the cone through the coordinate axes

2*

1>

prove
given

and OP, OQ,

OR

is

by '

Xl

a^+~^^ a^ 6y
2

-1

^- =0, and the cone which touches the coordinate c^2

planes and the planes QOR, ROP,

-f
r-,r

POQ
^^

by

.Vyyiygys -f,

/v<2

52.

If

one axis of a central section of the ellipsoid -

in the plane

ux+vy -fwz=0, the other a 2 6 2 -c b 2 (c 2 -a2 )v

x y

lies
2

on the cone

C (a 2

-b 2 )w

=()

53.
2

/a

-l'y /b

If the radius of the director circle of the conic 2 2 2 l is of constant length r, prove that the plane of +z*/c

Ix+my+nzQ,

the conic touches the cone

54. Prove that the equal conjugate diameters of the conic in which the plane x+y -f 0=0 cuts the conicoid 2,r2 + 3# 2 + 4e; 2 = 1 are the lines in which the plane cuts the cone 8x?-y 2 - 1002 =0.
55.

If a plane section of oa^

+ 6y 2 +c^ 2 =l

has one of

its

axes along

the line
(

T ==3A /x v

15

II

its

equation must be n

A2 + /x2 + v2) (a A# + 6/xy + m) = (^

xxxviii
56.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

surface

Prove that the lengths of the semi-axes of the section of the 2 2yz+2zx+2xy+ a =0 by the plane lx+ my+nz=Q are

and

a(l

+m

+nrf(2mn + 2nl+2lm-l

-m

--n 2 )-b.

By considering the cases (i) l+m+n=Q, (ii) l=m=n, surface is a hyperboloid of revolution whose axis is 2 2 22 2 = a 2 equation referred to its principal axes is # -t-?/
57.

show that the

.

x=yz and whose

Prove that the axes of the conic

in

which the plane

cuts the paraboloid the cone

lx+ my+nz0 ax2 +by2 =2z are the lines in which the plane cuts a -b)n2 m (

anx+l
58.

bny+m

abn 2z - bl2 - am2

=()

The

fixed plane
2
2

Ix+my + nz=p where

9

+ -rH

n2

=0, cuts the

all

cone axP+by +cz =Q in a parabola. Prove that the axes of the plane parallel parabolic sections lie

a?(b-c)x
I

and the

vertices

on the

line

Ix

___
ri

b 2 (c-a)y

c2 + (a-b)z_ n

'

my

__

nz

59. If the axes are rectangular and a line moves so as to intersect #= a, y=mz and the circle #2 -f#2 =a 2 z=0, the lines #=a, ; prove that its locus is a hyperboloid of one sheet whose circular sections are perpendicular to the given lines.

yQ

60.

origin

Prove that the centre of any sphere which passes through the and through a circular section of the ellipsoid

lies

on the hyperbola
2
2

=&
,

61*

Prove that the cylinders 41#2 - 24ry + 34y2 = 25,

25^ + 4(Xr* + 34^2 = 9

its

have a common circular section, finding

Ans.

equation and radius.

4#,

62. Prove that any enveloping cone of the conicoid #2 + 4yz 2^ 2 = a 2 whose vertex lies on the ^-axis, touches the conicoid at all points of a
circle.

63. O is an umbilic of an ellipsoid and OP is the normal chord through O. The tangent planes at O and P intersect in a line AB. Prove that any cone whose vertex is O and whose base is the section of the ellipsoid by a plane through AB is right circular.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
64.

II.

xxxix

If the generators

through a point P on the hyperboloid

meet the principal elliptic section in A and B, and if the eccentric angle of A is three times the eccentric an^le of B, prove that P lies on the curve of intersection of the hyperboloid and the cylinder
65. If P is an extremity of an equiconjugate diameter of the ellipse #2/a 2 -t-y2/& 2 ==l, z=0 and 2c 2 = a 2 -f 6 2 the two generators through P of L the hyperboloid o;2/a 2 -f y*\H z*l<?\ are at right angles.
,

66.

P and D

are the extremities of conjugate diameters of the

/y>2

o<2

*2

principal elliptic section

of the

hyperboloid

-jj"*"A2"""2 CL O C

=: ^

anc*

^e
If

generators through P and D form a skew quadrilateral the angles QPR, QDR are 20 and 2</>, prove that

PQDR.

of #2 -f-y2 -22 2 = a 2 through the point (a COBOL, intersects a generator through the point (a cos /3, a sin /J, 0) 0) at an angle 0. Prove that 3 cos 2 0/2 2 cos 2 (a. -/J)/2, and show that if A 2 , A 3 , A 4 , A 6 , A 6 are the vertices of a regular hexagon inscribed Aj, in the principal circular section, the generators of the one system through Aj, 3 , A 6 and the generators of the other system through
67.

generator

a sin OL,

A 2 A 4 A6
,
,

are the edges of a cube whose volume

is

2\/2a 3

a?>bc show that the points of intersection of perpendicular % 2?/ generators of the hyperboloid ~-~^-=:i lie on the real central
68.
If

circular sections.
69.

The generators through

2 ^r

any point on the hyperboloid 2 # _? * + ~~"

S,
,

'

meet the plane lx+my + nz l in the points P and Q. The other generators through P and Q intersect in R. Find the equation of the = plane PQR, and prove that if R always lies on the plane z 0, S lies on the plane 2 2 + c2 /! 2 - 1 ) + 2wc'2 (te + my - 1 ) = 0. z(aH* + ft
70.

formed by the revolution

diagonal of the cube.

If a hyperboloid passes of a

through six edges of a cube it must be hyperbola of eccentricity \/3/2 about a

71. Prove that any hyperboloid which passes through the 2-axis and the circle .r2 -f y2 =a#, 2 = is given by x(x+gz-a) + t/(i/+fz) 0. If the two planes that pass through the origin and cut the hyperboloid in circles are inclined at a constant angle OL, show that the generator which passes through (a, 0, 0) and does not intersect OZ lies on the

cone (x
72.

a)

-f-y

=z

tan 2 a.

The

centres of conicoids that pass through the circle

9

a*+z*-a* y=:0, and the parabola #2 = 4oy-f a 2 0=0 lie on the parabola
,

#=<),
B.Q.

s2

2D

xl

COORDINATE GEOMETRY
zc\
=

73. Prove that the equation of the conicoid which passes through the # 0, 2= -c, and has a centre at (OL, /3, y) is, if y =0, lines y=0,

State
74.

what

this equation represents,

and discuss the case

in

which y = 0.
;

= = Hyperboloids are drawn through the lines # 0, 2= -e y 0, with their centres at the origin. Prove that the lines of interwith respect to them of two fixed points section of the polar planes (a, /3, y), (a', p', y') lie on the paraboloid
= c,
75.

variable line

is

planes

x=a, y = 6, z drawn to OX, OY,

c in P,

OZ

drawn through the origin to meet the fixed Q, R, and through P, Q, R parallels are
respectively.

hyperboloid which passes through these parallels

-

Prove that the centre of the lies on the surface

i

abc

x a

y b

z
u.

76. If a cone intersects a conicoid in plane curves, their planes and the plane of contact of the enveloping cone which has the same vertex pass through one line.
77. A variable cone is drawn through the conic 2 0, and one of its principal axes passes through the fixed point Prove that the vertex must lie on the circle

(p,

<j,

0).

78. Prove that the coordinate axes and the three lines of intersection of the three pairs of planes that pass through the four common generators of the cones ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 = lie on the cone

Q,yz+zx + hxQ

79. If lrj m r * Kr (r = l, 2, 3) are the direction-cosines of the principal axes of the conicoid a#2 -f by* + cz2 + %fyz+2gzx + 2A#y = l, prove that

(ii)

Flil z l3 -f G??i 1

m m3 -f Hn^n^i^ = 0.
2

Hence or otherwise show that the cone through the coordinate axes and the principal axes is given by
and the cone which touches the coordinate planes and the principal planes by

80.

Show
1

that

if

into

A ^2 -f-A2 ^2 4-X3 ^ 2 = l, the equations

c^ + ^ 2 +c 8 + 2^+2<77+2Aa?y = l
of

transforms

are

with similar equations for Or) and

O&

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

II

xli

81. Show that the necessary and sufficient condition that a conicoid should be of revolution is that its two systems of real circular sections should coincide, and hence prove that (abcfghxyzf=-\ represents a

conicoid of revolution
(a
is

if

- A).*2 + (6 - A)/ + (c - A)*2 + Zfyz + Igzx + Ihxy

a perfect square.
82.

that, for all values of 6, the equation 2 sin 6) a2 (x sin0-y cos 0) + 2z (x cos a hyperboloid of revolution, and that the axis lies in represents

Prove

+y

one of

the coordinate planes, or on the cone

#2 +y2 = s 2

83. Prove that the general equation of conicoids of revolution that 2 pass through the fixed point (0, 0, c\ and the parabola y --=4a#, 2=0, is

and show that

84.

their axes envelope the parabola

y=0,
Prove

(#-2a)

= c(2z-c).

that, for all values of A, the equation

represents a hyperboloid of revolution which passes through the given arid show that the axes of all such lines y=0, z~c] x = 2 2 hyperboloids lie on the paraboloid y -x' = 4.cz.

Q^z-c\

85.

origin,

The only conicoid of revolution which has its centre and passes through the parabola z = b # 2 = 4cu; + 4a 2 y

at the 6 2 is a

right cone whose sernivertical angle

86.

is

tan" 1 2a/b.

For the curve

prove that
87.

p=<r = 3a(l-f

2 2 ) .

Show

of the cylinders
line

that the tangent at any point to the curve of intersection 2 y = 4o#, y=2ae*/ a makes a constant angle with the
(2.r

=#, y = 0, and prove that p=o-=

For the curve

+ a) 2

88.

x^Zabt,

y=a2 log, *=
is

prove that

Prove also that the centre

of circular curvature at (#,#, z)

given by

- 2abt

r)-y

89. Prove that the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the origin to the tangents to the helix ,r = aco8#, ^/ = asin 0, z aQ is the curve 2# = a (2 cos 6+6 sin 6), 2y = a(2sin 6- #cos0), 2z~ad. Show that this curve lies on the hyperboloid ^2 -f^ 2 -2:2 =a 2 , and that it crosses the generator x a cos a._y-asincL_z

sin OL
It

cos

OL

T
also that

right angles at the point

__

where

6= a.

Prove

an(j

___
2

20(1 + 0")*

BO.

8P2

xlu
90.

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

A semicircle A'BA is

drawn with A'OA

as diameter

and

as

as diameter, is described on centre, and a second semicircle so as to lie within the first. The semicircle A'BA is then cut out of the and OA' and folded so as to form a right cone with

OCA

OA

coinciding along a generator. Show that the curve on the cone which the semicircle assumes can be represented by the equations

paper

OA

OCA

2,r=a(cos30-hco3 0), 2# = a(sin30 + sin 0), z V3acos 0, and obtain for it the results (i) the length of the arc measured from the point (a, 0. \/3a) is 2a0, (ii) 4a 2 =p 2 (4 + 3cos 2 0), and (iii)
:

2a(4 + 3cos

0)

curve is drawn on a sphere of centre O, so that the tangent at 91. a variable a fixed line. A is a point P makes a constant angle with on tne curve where the osculating plane passes through O. point Show that the length of the arc AP of the curve is proportional to the perpendicular from O to the osculating plane at P.
92. P is a variable point on a curve C t and the arc AP, measured from a fixed point A, is of length s. A distance PT equal to s is measured backwards along the tangent at P, and the locus of T is a curve C 2 If the radii of curvature and torsion of Cj at P are p and <r, and the radius of curvature of C 2 at T is p prove that
,
.

2 ,
ft)

<r~

93. Prove that the tangent to the locus of the centres of circular curvature of a curve makes an angle with the corresponding principal normal to the curve such that sin 0=
94. If 80 is the angle between the radii of spherical curvature at the ends of an infinitesimal arc Ss, prove that

95. P is a variable point on a given curve and PQ a line through P which makes fixed angles, whose cosines are a, 6, o, with the tangent, and binomial at P respectively. Show that if the principal normal, locus of PQ, as P moves along the curve, is a developable surface, 2 2 1 1 (6 +c )/> + accr=0, where p" and cr" are the curvature and torsion

at P.
96. Show that the edge of regression of the developable surface which passes through the two curves,

lies

on the conicoids y 2 +6a#=0, 64#y=9j2; 2

are the principal semiaxes of an ellipsoid, and are 97. OA, OB, of lengths a, 6, c respectively. Prove that the curvature at A of the is section of the ellipsoid by the plane

OC

ABC

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
98.

II

xliii

For the surface

z2 (#2 -f-y 2

4 )=c show

that the principal radii are

99.

-fy = a 2=0 in is equal to the angle OQP. #=14 cos 0, y=wsin #, z=(a ture of the surface at P is -

A surface is generated
,r 2

the circle

P,

by a variable straight line which meets and OZ in Q, so that the angle POX Prove that at any point of the surface, u)cot 0, and that the measure of curva.

a~ 2

~L

The curve in the plane XOY, for which x=ae a is rotated about OY. Show that the measure of curvature of the surface of a~ 2 and that the whole curvature of the revolution so formed is of the surface intercepted between the plane ZOX and the part parallel plane through (or, y z) is 27r(#/a- 1).
100.
, ,

INDEX
The numbers
refer to pages.

Anchor ring, 266. Angle between two

15.

Circular sections, 138.

lines, defined,

with given direction -cosines, 22,

27.

with given direction -ratios, 30. in which plane cuts cone, 90. Angle between two planes, 17, 34.
ratio of four planes, 38. Anticlastic surface, 271. Area of plane section, 135. Asymptotic lines, 358. Axes of plane sections, 131. of central conicoid, 131, 134 of paraboloid, 137.

hyperboloid, 139. general central conicoid, 140 paraboloid, 142. Circumscribing cone, 109, 202.
conicoids, 249. cylinder, 110, 203. Condition for developable surface, 318. tangency of plane and conicoid,
92, 103, 120, 124, 199.

of of of of

ellipsoid, 138.

Anharmonio

Conditions for umbilic, 342, 352.

singular point, 263. zero-roots of discriminating cubic, 206. equal roots of discriminating
cubic, 210.

Axes, principal, 101. of enveloping cone, 183. Axis of paraboloid, 124.

of surface of revolution, 229.

Conditions satisfied by plane, 34.

conicoid, 196. surface of degree n, 259. Cone, defined, 88.

of Surfaces, 266. Bertrand curves, 297. Besant, Meunier's theorem, 330.

Basset,

Geometry

Bianchi,

Geometria

Differenziale,

352, 373. Bifocal chords, 186. Binode, 264. Binormal, 282, 289. Bisectors of angles
lines, 29.

equation homogeneous, 88. equation when base given, 93. with three mutually perpendicular generators, 92.

reciprocal, 92. through six normals to ellipsoid,

between two
37.

114.

between two planes,

Blythe, Cubic Surfaces, 266.

condition for, 219. enveloping conicoid, 109, 202. conjugate diameters of, 120. lines of curvature on, 334.
geodesies on, 365.

Catenoid, 336. Central planes, 216. Central point, 168. Centre of conicoid, 215.

Cones through intersection of two

conicoids, 245.

Centre of curvature, 292, 298. Centre of spherical curvature, 293,

299.

Confocal conicoids, 176. Conic node or conical point, 264. Conicoid through three given lines,
163.

Characteristic, 307. Characteristic points, 311. Circle of curvature, 292.

touching skew surface, 320. Conicoids of revolution, 228. with double contact, 246*
xlv

xlvi

INDEX
The numbers refer
to pages.

Coniooids
251.

through

eight

points,

through seven points, 252. Conjugate lines, see polar lines.

diameters, 101, 114, 120. diametral planes, 101, 114, 123. Conoid, definition and equation of,
257.

Differential equations, of asymptotic lines, 358. of geodesies, 363. of lines of curvature, 338, 352. of spherical curves, 293.

Constants in equations to the plane,

34.

the straight line, 42. the conicoid, 196. the surface of degree n, 259.

Contact of conicoids, 246. of curve and surface, 278.

Coordinates, cartesian,
1.

Direction-cosines, 19, 25. of three perpendicular lines, 69. of normal to ellipsoid, 111. of tangent to curve, 277. of principal normal and binormal, 283, 289. of normal to surface, 272, 349. Direction-ratios, 28, 40. relation between direction-cosines

and, 30. Discriminating cubic, 205.

reality of roots, 208. conditions for zero -roots, 206. conditions for equal roots, 210.

cylindrical, 4. polar, 4. elliptic, 178. curvilinear, 348. of a point of a curve in

Distance between two points,

6, 20,

terms of

8,

26.

301. Cross-ratio of four planes, 38. Curvature, of curve, 284. of surfaces, 326. of normal sections, 326. of oblique sections, 330.
specific, 346.

of a point from a plane, 35. of a point from a line, 24. Double contact, of conicoids, 246. Double tangent planes, 266. Dupin's theorem, 344.

Edge

of

spherical, 293, 299. geodesic, 371. of line of curvature, 336, 341. of geodesic, 369. sign of, 288. lines of, 333, 352. on conicoid, 333. on developable, 333. on surface of revolution, 335. Curve, equations to, 12, 275. Curves, cubic, 113, 239, 245. quartic, 238. Curvilinear coordinates, 348. Cuspidal edge, 309. Cylinder, enveloping, 110, 203, 229. Cylindroid, 258.

Element,

309. regression, linear, 350.

Ellipsoid, equation to, 99. principal radii of, 332. lines of curvature on, 333.
Elliptic 326.

point

on

surface,

270,

Envelope of plane
316.

one parameter,

Envelopes

one parameter, 307.

311.

two parameters,

Enveloping cone, 109, 183, 184, 202.

cylinder, 110, 203.

Equation, to surface,
to to to to to

8.

cylinder, 9. surface of revolution, 13.

plane, 32, 33.

cone with given base, 93.

Degree of a surface, 259. De Longchamps, 95.

Developable, polar, of curve, 300. Developable surfaces, 313, 316.
condition for, 318. lines of curvature on, 333. torsion of curve on, 370.

conicoid when origin is at a centre, 217. to conoid, 257. Equations, to curve, 12. parametric, 271.

Factors of
2 (abcfgh) (xyz)* \(x* + y* + z ), 209. 177, 190. ellipse, hyperbola, parabolas, 192. lines, of cone, 193. Foci of conicoids, 187. Frenet's formulae, 286.

Diameters, of paraboloid, 124. Diametral planes, of central eonicoids, 101, 114. of cone, 120. of paraboloid, 123, 125. of general conicoid, 204.

Focal

INDEX
Gauss, measure of curvature, 346. Generating lines of hyperboloid, 148. of paraboloid, 149. systems of, 154, 161. Generator, properties of a, 167, 320. Generators of cone, 88. condition that cone has three

xlvii

The numbers refer to pages. Locus of mid -points

of

parallel

chords, 108, 125, 204. of tangents from a point, 108. of parallel tangents, 108, 203. of intersection of mutually per-

pendicular

tangent

planes^

mutually perpendicular,

92.

103, 125, 199. of poles of plane

with respect to

of conicoid, equations to, 153. 197. conicoids with common, 239, 241. of developable, 316. Geodesies, definition, 362. differential equations, 363. on developable, 363. on surface of revolution, 365. on cone, 365. on coniooid, 367. Geodesic curvature, 371. Geodesic torsion, 373.

confocals, 181. of centres of osculating spheres, 300.

MacCullagh, generation of coniooids,

187.

Measure

of curvature, 346.

Meunier's theorem, 330, 331, 371. Mid-point of given line, 7. Mid-points of system of parallel
chords, 108, 125, 204.

Minimal surfaces,
Helicoid, 258, 339. Helix, 258, 290. Horograph, 346.

336.

Hudson,

Rummer's Quartio Sur-

face, 266.

Hyperbolic point on surface, 270,

327.

Nodal line, 265. Node, conic, 264. Normal plane, 277. Normal, principal, to curve, 282. Normal sections, curvature of, 326.
Normals, to ellipsoid, equations, 111. six from a given point, 113.
to paraboloid, 126. to confocals, 182. to surface along a line of curvature, 334.

Hyperboloid of one sheet, equation

to, 100, 166.

generators

of, 148, 153.

asymptotic lines of, 358. Hyperboloid of two sheets, equation

to, 101.

Origin, change of,

fndioatrix, 270, 326. spherical, of curve, 285. Inflexional tangents, 261. Integral curvature, 346. Intersection of three planes, 47. of conicoids, 238. Invariants, 231.

6.

Orthogonal systems of surfaces, 344.

Osculating circle, 292. Osculating plane of curve, 279. of asymptotic line, 359. Osculating sphere, 292.
Parabolic point on surface, 270, 329. Paraboloid, equation to, 122.

Joachimsthal, geodesic on conicoid,

367.

Lagrange's identity, 22. Linear element, 350. Line, equations to straight, 38, 40.
parallel to plane, 43. normal to plane, 43. of striction, 321. Lines, coplanar, 56.

Parameter of distribution, 169, 321. Parameters of confocals through a point on a conicoid, 181. Parametric equations, 271.
Perpendicular, condition that lines should be, 22, 30.
Plane, equation to, 32, 33. through three points, 34.

Point dividing line in given

7.

ratio,

intersecting intersecting
54.

two given
three

lines, 53.

Points of intersection of line and

conicoid, 102, 197.

given

lines,

intersecting four given lines, 165. asymptotic, 358. of curvature. 333.

Polar developable, 300. Polar lines, 105, 202. Power of point with
%

respect to

84.

xlviii
The,

INDEX
numbers refer
to pages.

Principal axes, 101. planes, 101, 124, 204.

directions, 212. normal, 282.
radii, 327, 332, 337, 350. lines, 61. Projection of segment, 15.

Singular points, 263. tangent planes, 265.

Skew surfaces, 314. Specific curvature, 346.

Sphere, equation to, 81. Spherical curvature, 293.
Striotion, line of, 321. Surfaces, in general, 259. of revolution, 13, 228.

Problems on two straight

of figure, 17. of curve, 19. Properties of a generator, 167, 320.

developable and skew, 314.

Synclastic surface, 270.

Quartic

curve of

intersection

of

conic-olds, 238.

Tangency

of given plane

and

coni-

Radical plane of two spheres, 83. Radii, principal, 327, 337, 350. Radius of curvature, 284, 288. of torsion, 284, 289. of spherical curvature, 293, 299. Reciprocal cone, 92. Rectifying plane, 282. Reduction of general equation of second degree, 219, 227. Regression, edge of, 309. Revolution, surface of, equation, 13. conditions that conicoid is, 228. lines of curvature on, 335.
geodesies on, 365.

Ruled surfaces,

148, 313.

Salmon, generation of conicoid, 187. Section of surface by given plane,

72. of coniooid, with given centre, 107, 204. of coniooid, axes of, 131, 134, 137.

coid, 92, 103, 120, 124, 199. Tangent plane to sphere, 82. to conicoid, 102, 124, 198. to surface, 261, 262, 272. to ruled surface, 315. singular, 265. Tangent, to curve, 275. Tangents, inflexional, 261. Tetrahedron, volume of, 64. Torsion, radius of, 284. sign of, 288. of asymptotic lines, 359. of geodesies, 369. of curve on developable, 375. geodesic, 373. Transformation of coordinates, 68, 75. of (abcfgh)(xyz)\ 214. Triply-orthogonal systems, 344.

Trope, 266.
Umbilics, of ellipsoid, 143. conditions for, 342, 352.

Sections, circular, 138.

Unode, 264.
Vertex of paraboloid, 124, 221.

Segments,

1.

Shortest distance of two lines, 57. Signs of coordinates, 2. of directions of rotation, 3. of curvature and torsion, 288. of volume of tetrahedron, 65.

Volume

of tetrahedron, 64.

Wave
Whole

surface, 267. curvature, 346.

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