A PROJECT SEMINAR ON DRAINAGE DESIGN AT CRUTECH STAFF QUARTERS BY IFERE, JESAM EDET 06/CEN/057 CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT

OF CIVIL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING CROSS RIVER UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY CALABAR. IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG.) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING OF THE CROSS RIVER UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY CALABAR AUGUEST, 2011

CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 DRAINAGE . There are several concerns about the sustainability of irrigation and drainage project, and there are water quality project related to the disposal of drainage water. There are also problems with land degradation due to irrigation induced salinity and water logging. There have been instances where saline or high nutrient drainage water has damaged aquatic ecosystems. Drainage had continued to be a vital and necessary component of agricultural land and other areas thereby excesses water is dispose from the surface. Drainage is the process by which water or liquid is drained from an area of land. It is also termed as the provision of adequate drainage facilities to convey excess surface and sub-surface water across, along or away from the ground, from the roofs of buildings, from pavements etc. Inadequate drainage facilities or slow drainage of water can lead to a lot of aesthetical, environmental and physical health hazards and the

deterioration of the ground surface.

Surface drainage involves the removal of water mostly from rain or melting snow that falls directly on the road and interception and removal of waters coming to the road on the adjacent terrain. Sub-surface drainage is concerned with the removal of water from the sub-grade and with interception of underground water coming to the sub-grade. Various types of facilities are used for drainage of surface and sub-surface water. The design of such facilities involves the following: i. Hydrological analysis estimating the peak rate of runoff to be handled; ii. Hydraulic design selecting the types and sizes of drainage facilities to most economically accommodate the estimate flow from the hydrological studies; and iii. Making sure that the design does not create erosion and our environmental problems. 1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Surface run-off constitutes a lot of problem to any environment if not properly checked. It damages among other things include destruction of the natural environment. Weakening of

structures foundation, destruction of access way and even

promoting

health

hazard

such

as

the

proliferation

of

mosquitoes which in turn causes malaria. Despite the fact that the Universitys town campus is situated on a nearly flat terrain, erosion has been one of the natural problems faced by the institution. This has led to the rapid expansion of ravines nearer the Administrative block of the school and recently the structural defeat in the boys hostel. From the prelim nary survey, (through physical inspection and one on one interview), it was discovered that this problem was either caused by the inadequate provision of drain and the wrong drain size. There was a deliberate attempt to discharge the run-off against the natural slope which consequently introduced waterlog problem in the affected catchment area, most sections of the existing drains were exaggerated because there was no appropriate design work carried out before the actual construction of the drain, which could have possibly led to the cost of construction being higher than normal. There is also the problem of inadequate provision of drainage facility around the catchment where the female hostel is situated. Aside from being aesthetically displeasing, the waterlog portions of the drains also breeds a lot of mosquitoes around the vicinity. This and

many more inspired the writer to research into the possible cause of these problems and consequently arrived at an optimized and most economical design of the drainage systems at CRUTECH town campus.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT DESIGN This design project among other things is aimed at: i. Determining the cause of waterlog in some parts of the campus
ii.

Determining where a new drainage structure or system can be cited

iii.

Designing the best economical section for the design in order to ease these problems and economize the materials.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT DESIGN

This design shall when implemented solve the drainage problem in the Campus, because of its most economic design.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT Stress and inadequate finances may be the major challenges faced by the designer during the design process which involved data collection, analysis and design. This however did not in any way affect the design procedures.

1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE PROJECT The designer decided to use the available 1: 250000

topographic map of Calabar south local government area to obtain from the physical planning unit of the institution to delimit the catchments area for the drainage design. With the aid of the pre-defined survey boundary dimensions and a 50m measuring tape, the catchments area was delimited having estimated catchments of approximately 0.11km2, 0.21km2 and 0.31km2 and the length of the longest watershed being 229.47m, 816m and 410m.

CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 BRIEF HISTORY Drainage is believed to have started in Rome during the 3rd century AD. This was when the Roman needed a way of discharging waste water from their bath away from home. This problem eventually led to the development of drainage systems in Rome. Wikipeida, (2009). According to Aguambah, (2001), drainage is the disposal of excess water on land before they enter the stream. He went further to classify drainage into Municipal, Land and Highway drainage. Professor Temiloye M. Aguala, Department of Civil engineering, Rivers State University of Science and Technology also noted that there are both surface and sub-surface drainage and the design of such facilities involves the following: i. Hydrological analysis, ii. Hydraulic analysis and design, and iii. Appendix. Economic of design. See figure 1 in the

2.2 HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS

A hydrological analysis of the area to be drained is an essential element in the design of drainage. Hydrological study supplies the information on runoff and stream flow characteristics which is used as a basis of hydraulic design. The design flow is established by selecting the proper combinations of rainfall and runoff characteristics that can be reasonably expected to occur. This is usually further restricted by establishing an interval of time or frequency period as a basis of the design Temiloye M. Oguara, (2006). The design criteria would then be the maximum flow carried by the drainage structure with no flooding or limited amount of flooding to be exceeded on the average of once during a design period. The hydrological data for estimating flood discharge for the drain design is yet to be shared

2.3 METEOROLOGICAL STATION CONSTANTS, a, b, A and B The values of the constants have been determined by the meteorological department of Nigeria for Lagos, Kano and Ikeja. These established constants are used as reference for other

regime of similar rainfall characteristics. The values are shown in the Table 5 of the Appendix. The Ikeja constant will be adopted for this analysis because of its characteristics extreme thunderstorm and the monsoonal influence. The annual rainfall for Ikeja regime (1308mm) is used as the reference since it is situated on the same regime as the project site, while that of project site is taken as 2482mm. see Table 2 in appendix.

2.4 RUNOFF ESTIMATES BY RATIONAL METHOD The runoff estimate or design discharge depends on many variables. Some of the more important variables are duration and intensity of rainfall; size, slope, shapes and imperviousness of the drainage area; and probable development of drainage are Burke etal (1994). In the rational method, the peak rate of surface flow from a given watershed is assumed to be proportional to the watershed area and the average rainfall intensity over a period

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of time just sufficient for all parts of the watershed to contribute to the outflow.

Various empirical formulas for obtaining runoff are available, but this should be used with discretion. One of the more reliable is the rational method relating runoff to the rainfall intensity, given by: Q = 0.287CIA- -1

Where Q = Quantity of runoff in m3 C = Runoff coefficient, expressed as percentage of

imperviousness of the watershed or arte of runoff to rate of rainfall. I = Intensity of rainfall expressed in metres per hour for a certain time of concentration A = area of watershed in hectares

The basic assumptions used in rational formula are as follows: (1) (2) The rainfall is uniform over the watershed. The storm duration associated with the peak discharge is

equal to the time of concentration for the drainage area.

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(3)

The runoff coefficient C depends on the rainfall return

period, and is independent of storm duration and reflects infiltration rate, soil type and antecedent moisture condition. The coefficient C, the rainfall intensity I and the area of the watershed, A, are estimated in order to use the rational method. The runoff coefficient reflects the watershed characteristics. Values of the runoff coefficient are found in drainage design n annuals. The assumptions inherent in rational formula are: i. The maximum rate of runoff for particular rainfall intensity occurs if the rainfall duration is equal or greater than the time of concentration. The time of concentration is defined as required for water to flow from the most distant point of a drainage basin to the point of flow measurement.

ii.

The maximum rate of runoff a specific rainfall intensity, whgse duration is equal to or greater than the time of concentration, is directly proportional to the rainfall intensity.

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iii.

The frequency of occurrence of the peak discharge is the same as that of the rainfall intensity from which it was calculated.

iv.

The peak discharge per unit area decreases as the drainage area increases, and the intensity of rainfall decreases as its duration increases.

v.

The coefficient of runoff remains constant for all storms on a given watershed.

Although the basic principles of rational formula are mostly applicable to urban areas with large drainage facilities of fixed dimension and hydraulic characteristics, it simplicity and ease of application have resulted in its being used in rural areas. Suggested runoff coefficients C, for the rational method, given in the Nigerian Highway Manual are as given in Table 3 of the appendix. Where group cover is dissimilar or if different surface types are used, it is often reliable to develop composite runoff coefficient.

13

2.5 CORRECTION FACTOR The rational method of the quantity of flood estimation, ass stated in equation 1 is true for catchment area exceeds. The factor was derived by the work done by the Balasha-Jalons consiltants (1977) on the Benin city Master Plan for drainage scheme and can be applied for catchment area in sub-Sahara region in Africa. Correction factor = 1/e (1-12/Am) Where, Am = require catchment area Therefore, e = 0.38

2.6 DESIGN STORM FREQUENCY The design storm frequency adopted for this analysis purpose is 25-years. A 25-year return period of flood is used to check the minimum required dimension to avoid any possibility of erosion menace.

2.7 GUIDES ON HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE In simple terms, the sum of the daily rainfall minus

consumptive use rate plus one minus the soil storage change is the drainage need. In humid regions, the amount of

14

precipitation will have a direct relationship to be quantity of water to be drained. In arid and semi-arid regions, the annual surface run-off from rain may range from about 0 to 200 mm while the seepage, percolation and leaching in irrigation schemes may range from 200 to 2000 mm. loses from irrigation systems may be of great significance. Precipitation is of little consequence and can most often be ignored in computing drainage discharges. Drainage practices then can be based on crop tolerance to high groundwater tables taking into account soil and topography and the natural drainage characteristics of the area. Several semi-empirical methods for estimating run-off for drainage design have been developed; they are given in most standard handbooks on hydrology. A simple method is

described below; the method is rather empirical and only provides first estimates on surface run-off for general planning purposes.

Apart from rainfall characteristics, important factors influencing rainfall run-off are the run-off potentiality of the area; the antecedent moisture condition; the degree of vegetal cover;

15

conservation practices followed. The peak flow rates are also strongly dependent on slope of the land and area of the watershed. The method includes the following steps:

Processing of rainfall data: by processing records of the daily values of total rainfall probability values at any frequency, for any given period, are obtained for the project concerned;

Run-off potentiality: the soils are to be grouped into one of the four hydrological classes on the basis of their run-off

potentiality which is closely schedule to their infiltration rates. 2.8 FACTORSA THAT AFFECT SURFACE RUNOFF i. WATERSHED

An area that drains into a stream at a given location via a network of streams is called a watershed. Rainfall that falls on a watershed fills the depression storage, which consists of storage provided by natural depressions in the landscape, it is temporarily stored on vegetation as interception and it infiltrates into the soil. After these demand are satisfied, water starts flowing over the land and this process is called overland flow. Water that is stored in the

16

upper soil ayer may emerge from the soil and join the overland flow. The overland flow lasts only for short distances after which it is collected in small channels called rills. Flows from these rills reach channels. Flow in channels reaches the mainstream. When rainfall is of low intensity, the overland-rill-channel flow sequence may not occur. In such cases, only the land near the streams contributes to the flow. These areas are called variable source or partial areas. Only a small area of watersheds contributes to stream flow in humid region. The transformation of rainfall to runoff is affected by the stream network, by precipitation, by soil, and land use. A watershed consists of a network of streams as shown in the figure above. Channels that start from upland areas are called the first order channels. Horton (1945) developed a stream order system, in which when two streams of order (i) join together, the resulting stream is of order (i + 1). There are several laws of stream orders developed by Horton (1945). If a watershed has Ni streams of order i and Ni+1 of order i + 1, the ratio Ni/Ni+1 is called the bifurcation ratio RB, the ratio of stream lengths Li+1 and Li belonging to orders i+1 and i the

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ratio of stream lengths RL, and the ratio of areas RA and RA+1 the area ratio. These ratios vary over a small for each watershed. The drainage density D of a watershed is the ratio of total stream length to the area of the watershed. Higher values of D represent a highly developed stream network and vice versa. ii. RAINFALL

The second factor that significantly affects runoff is rainfall. The spatial and temporal rainfall distribution and the history of rainfall preceding a storm affect runoff from watersheds. Rainfall is usually treated as a lumped variable because spatial rainfall data are not commonly available.

iii.

LAND USE

The third factor that affects runoff characteristics is the land use. As watersheds are changed from rural to urban or from forested to clear cut condition, runoff from these watersheds charges drastically. For example, when a rural watershed is urbanized, the peak discharges from the urban watershed may be more than 100% higher than runoff from the rural watershed for the same

18

rainfall. The time to reach the peak discharge would also be considerably shorter and the runoff volume much larger in urban watersheds compared to rural watersheds. A plot of variation of discharge with time is called a hydrograph. A hydrograph may have different time scales such ass hourly, daily, etc. hydrographs that result from storms are called storm hydrographs. A typical storm hydrograph may have a small flow before the discharge increases on the rising limb, reaches a peak and decreses along the recession limb.

2.9 FLOOD

ROUTING

THROUGH

CHANNELS

&

RESERVOIRS As runoff land, enters into channels, the volume of water temporarily stored in the channel increases. After the end of precipitation water moves down the channel and the discharge decreases at the end of a storm is analogous to the passage of a wave and hence these are called flood waves. Whether a flood wave moves down a channel or through a reservoir and is naturally drained out or released. Flood routing

19

is the name given to a set of techniques that are developed to analyze the passage of a flood wave through the system.

2.10 2.11 POTENTIAL URBANIZATION Urbanization drastically alters the hydrologic and HYDROLOGIC EFFECTS OF

meteorological characteristics of watersheds. Because of the changes in surface and heat retention characteristics brought about by buildings and roads, heat islands develop in urban areas. Increase in nucleation and photoelectric gases due to urbanization result in higher smog, precipitation and related activities, and lower radiation in urban areas compared to the surrounding rural areas. Some of these meteorological effects of urbanization are discussed by Lowry (1967) and

Landsberg (1981). When an area is urbanized, trees and vegetation are moved, the drainage pattern is altered, conveyance is accelerated and the imperviousness of the area is increased because of the construction of residential or commercial structures and roads. Increased imperviousness decreases infiltration with a

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consequent increase in the volume of runoff. Improvements in a drainage system cause runoff to leave the urbanized area faster than from a similar undeveloped area. Consequently, the time for runoff to reach its peak is shorter for an urban watershed than for an undeveloped watershed. The peak runoff from urbanized, on the other hand, is larger than from similar undeveloped watersheds. Urban stormwater drainage collection and conveyance systems are designed to remove runoff from urbanized areas so that flooding is avoided and transportation is not adversely affected. The cost of this and similar systems is directly dependent on the recurrence interval of rainfall used in the design. Rainfall with 5 to 10 years recurrence intervals is most often used in the sizing and design of the urban storm water drainage collection and conveyances systems. To accommodate areas that encounter frequent floods or high losses due to flooding and to reduce the potential for downstream flooding, stormwater storage facilities are

developed to temporarily store the stormwater and to release it after a storm has passed over the area.

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2.12 URBANIZING

INFLUENCE

ON

POTENTIAL

HYDROLOGIC RESPONSE Removal of trees and vegetation increase evapo-transpiration and interception; increase instream sedimentation. Initial construction of houses, streets, and culverts, local relief from flooding and concentration of floodwaters may aggravate flood problems downstream. and Complete industrial development areas of

residential,

commercial,

increase

imperviousness reduces time of runoff concentration thereby increasing peak discharges and compressing the time

distribution of flow; volume of runoff and flood damage potential greatly increased. Construction of storm drains and channel improvements decrease infiltration and lowered groundwater table; increased storm flows and decreased base flows during dry periods.

2.13 TIME OF CONCENTRATION AND TRAVEL TIME The time of concentration, t, is the time taken by runoff to travel from the hydraulically most distant point on the watershed to the point of interest. The time of travel T is the time taken by water to travel from one point to another in a

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watershed. The time of concentration may be visualized as the sum of the travel times in components of a drainage system. The different components include overland flow, shallow concentrated flow and channel flow. As an area is urbanized, the quality of flow surface and conveyance facilities is improved, and the times of travel and concentration generally decrease. On the other hand ponding and reduction of land slopes which may accompany urbanization increase times of travel and concentration. Overland flows are assumed to have maximum flow lengths of about 300 ft. from about 300 ft. to the point where the flow reaches well-defined channels, the flow is assumed to be of the shallow concentrated type. After the flow reaches open channels it is characterized by Mannings formula. the hydraulic considerations, the provision of space above a drain for other services, ground conditions, underground obstructions, the size and depth of existing drain, Sufficient cover for future road grading and pavement depth.

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The main aim is to keep the drain as high as possible to keep construction costs at a minimum.

2.15 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS 1. FLOW IN OPEN CHANNEL

Definition of an open channel: an open channel may be defined as passage in which liquid flows with its upper surface exposed to the atmosphere. In an open channels flow is due to gravity; thus the flow conditions are greatly influenced by the slope of the channel. S. Chand (2007)

2.

TYPES OF FLOW IN CHANNELS

The flow in channels is classified into the following types, depending upon the change in the depth of flow with respect to space and time. Steady flow and unsteady flow: when the flow

characteristics (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at any cross-section) do not change with respect to time, the flow in the channel is said to be steady.

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Uniform flow and non-uniform flow (varied) flow: flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, crosssection and velocity remain constant over a given length of channel. Laminar flow and turbulent flow: the flow in the open channel may be characterized as laminar or turbulent depending upon the value of Reynolds number, defined as: Re = pVR/u Where, V = average velocity of flow in the channel, and R = hydraulic radius (defined as the ratio of area of flow to the wetted Perimeter) When Re < 500 .flow is laminar Re > 2000 ..flow is turbulent 500 < Re < 2000 ..flow is transitional Sub-critical flow, critical flow and supercritical flow: since gravitational force is a predominant force in the case of channel flow, therefore Froude number is an important parameter for analyzing open channel flows. Depending upon Froude number the channel flow may characterized

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as: uniform flow, gradual varied flow, rapid varied flow uniform flow and non-uniform flow.

2.16 MOST ECONOMIC SECTION OF A CHANNEL The most economic section (also called the best section or most efficient section) is one in which gives the maximum discharge for a given amount of excavation. from continuity equation it is evident that discharge is maximum when velocity is maximum, the area of cross-section of the channel remains constant. from Chezys formula and Mannings formula it can be seen that for a given value of slope and surface roughness the velocity of flow will be maximum if hydraulic radius R = (A/P) is maximum. Further the area being constant hydraulic is maximum if the wetted perimeter is minimum; this condition is used to determine the dimensions of economical sections of different forms of channels.

2.17 ECONOMICS OF DRAINAGE DESIGN Economic analysis of drainage design implies findings a solution for a particular drainage problem that is cheapest on

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the long run. For any economic analysis of drainage systems, the factors to be considered should include. i. The cost of construction ii. The cost of possible flood damage, based on flood frequency in the area. iii. Repair, charges. iv.Economic studies based on estimates of costs and possible future damage should be made, where there are alternative solutions to drainage problem, before the best or optimum alternative is selected. CHAPTER THREE 3.0 3.1 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY MATERIALS USED FOR PROJECT DESIGN clean-up and other pertinent maintenance

Though the project was nearly analytical in nature, material used were Mere Rule: This was used in delimiting the catchment, Topographic Map of the Town campus: This was used to locate the contours and the direction of run-off and Rainfall Data: was also used in calculating the rainfall intensity.

3.2

METHODS TOBE EMPLOYED IN THE CALCULATIONS

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For the purpose of analysis, I shall adopt the Rational Method to compute the quantity of run-off. I shall also make use of the best hydraulic section formula which is a combination of the Continuity Equation and the Mannings equation. This would be done as follows. 3.2.1 RATIONAL FORMULAR We shall make use of rational formula as illustrated below to calculate our runoff: Q = 0.287CIA from eqn. 1

Where Q = Quantityt of runoff in m3 C = Runoff coefficient, expresses as percentage of imperviousness of the watershed or rate of runoff to rate of rainfall. See Table 3 of the Appendix. I = Intensity of rainfall expressed in metres per hour for a certain time of concentration A = area of watershed in hectares

3.2.3 MOST ECONOMIC RECTANGULAR CAHNNEL SECTION Though we have various drainage best economic sections like, the circular, triangular, and rectangular sections etc. we shall resolve to use the best rectangular section for this design for case of construction arising from the complexits of the shapes, and the less spaces for construction required. The figure below shows the cross section of a rectangular channel. Let b and y be the base width and depth of flow respectively See figure 1.

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Area of flow, A = b x y, - -

--

-3.6 -3.7

Wetted perimeter, P = b = 2y - -

Substituting the value of b = a/y from eqn. (i) in eqn. (ii), we get P = a/y = 2y- -3.8

For the section to be most economical/ efficient, the wetted perimeter P must be minimum. i.e. dp/dy = 0 or d/dy(b/y + 2y) = 0 Or, -3.9

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I = Intensity of rainfall expressed in metres per hour for a certain time of concentration A = area of watershed in hectares

Where Kn = A + Biog10n

.3.2