1. INTRODUCTION 2. EVOLUTION OF DIDACTICS 3.

CLASSIFICATION METHODOLOGICAL TRENDS OF THE DIFFERENT

3.1 Classical Tradition: A. Grammar-Translation Method

B. The Direct Method C. The Reform Movement

3.2 Psychological Tradition:

A. Audio-Lingualism B. Cognitive-Code learning

3.3 The Humanistic Approach:

Learning

A.

Community

Language

B. The Silent Way C. Suggestopedia

3.4 Language Acquisition Tradition: A. Natural Approach 3.5

Approach B. Communicative Method

Communicative

Approaches:

A.

Functional-Notional

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4. CONCLUSION 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION
The learning of foreign languages is not a consequence of our modern society; it dates back to ancient times. Unfortunately, we do not know very much about the learning process itself. Besides, this is not just a linguistic matter; there are other disciplines involved such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and the like. Although we will discuss a lot of methods and approaches to Second Language Acquisition (2LA), it is difficult to find a method valid for all communities, ages, purposes and so forth. All in all, there are more than fifty theories on 2LA different in form, type, scope and source, and most of them are mutually exclusive. How we describe a language is essential for the ulterior teaching of it. For a long time grammar has been the main concern of language teaching courses, following the classical methodology for studying dead languages such as Greek and Latin. But things are nowadays different, as we will see below. Some methods try to reproduce the conditions that favour the acquisition of the first or native language. For instance: some methods stress the imitation, repetition and reproduction of native-like production. They are based on rote memory, analogy and so on. Some methods should not be properly called methods because they lack conceptual or theoretical framework. They are just collections of empirical lessons done by the teacher. There is a lack of analysis of language.

2. EVOLUTION OF DIDACTICS
There have always been reasons for learning a second language, for example cultural, economical, political, military and the like. We will have a brief look at how didactics have evolved all through history. The different ages of humanity have been characterised by having different conceptions of the same universe, so each epoch proposed a different method in consonance with the main linguistic and psychological theory. In foreign language teaching, grammatical theories and methods appear and disappear with a regularity that we could describe as monotonous. However, some researchers recently have observe and pointed out the idea of the non-existence of a perfect method. Researchers are concentrating on the study of learning processes,

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social influences, and individual factors (motivation, age, attitude, aptitude) I mean all those factors that determine academic success. In fact many theoretical principles of ancient methods are being reviewed and sometimes rescued for teaching practice again. 2.1 ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES We have reliable data showing that in Egypt, Babylon, Rome and Greece foreign languages were also learnt. For instance, the Romans had Greek tutors and slaves that taught them Greek. Then, when the Roman Empire spread all over Europe, the Middle East and North of Africa, Latin expanded as well and was considered the language of the Church, Politics, Education and so on. It remained so until many centuries later when national languages appeared, and even then, Latin was kept written in specific circles such as Law, Religion and Education. 2.2 THE RENAISSANCE At that time the print introduced massively a lot of classical authors and texts that acquired the category of perfect and pure regarding the use of the language. They were taken as modern and stopped the development and study of national languages. Latin grammar and methods were the main concern. What was just a step ended as a target in itself. From that moment until not long ago grammar was the dictatorship of most language teaching courses. 2.3. THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES Comenius, Locke and Montaigne favoured the consideration of oral language as well. But, in fact, the trend was the translation of languages according to the theories of Meidinger, and it was kept so until the last quarter of the 18th century. At that time few modern languages were taught, and if so, they followed the classical methodology.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF METHODOLOGICAL TRENDS

Before going on, it is convenient to clarify what is understood by different terms that on occasions are used indiscriminately: Approach or strategy: Approach:Theories about the nature of language learning that serve as

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the source of practices and principles in language teaching.refers to the linguistic, psycho- and sociolinguistic principles underlying methods and techniques. Technique: is a single procedure (...[it] comprises the classroom techniques and practices that are consequences of particular approaches and designs.) for use in the classroom. Method: is between approaches and techniques, as a mediator between theory (the approach) and classroom practice. Richards and Rogers consider it to be composed of approach or principles, design and procedure, as an interrelated system. Design refers here to objectives, linguistic content and its selection, the types of learning tasks, the roles of teachers and the role of instructional materials. Finally procedure includes techniques and classroom management ...[it] specifies the relationship of theories of language and learning to both the form and function of instructional materials and activities in instructional settings.. Before dealing with the exposition of the main methods and approaches, it is necessary to comment that following Nunam (1990) we have divided the main methods into five groups: 1. Classical Tradition. In this group, we include those first methods: Translation method, Direct method, and the Reform Movement. 2. Psychological Tradition. Here are included those methods that are based on psychological theories of learning that, in a first step, were not conceived to explain a foreign language learning/teaching. 3. Humanistic Tradition. They are those methods which put emphasis on affective and emotional factors. Followers of these methods believe that if students are encouraged to adopt the right attitudes, interest and motivation, learning will be, without any doubt, a success. Curran proposes: Community Language Learning,

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Cattegno: Silent Way and Lozanov: Suggestopedia. 4. Second Language Acquisition Tradition. Methods which draw directly on research and theory into first and second language acquisition an attempt to apply this theory and research to second language classroom. 5. Communicative Approach. It was developed starting from the work developed by the Council of Europe: functional/notional method, communicative method and task based approach.

3.1. CLASSICAL TRADITION

A. Grammar Translation Method.

It was first known in the United States as the Prussian Method. As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Karl Pltz, Ollendorf and Meidinger) Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship. We inherited this method from the teaching of Latin, a language that was not usefully taught for active use in any language community. The grammar translation method ignores authentic spoken communication and the social variation of language that goes with it, and concerns itself primarily with the written language of classical literature. It was attacked, because the grammar used was inappropriate to English, and it was felt that too much emphasis on grammar led to learning about the language rather than learning to use the language. The grammar translation method had the following characteristics: a. Translation was a way of studying a language through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by the application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts. Students had learned the language if they could translate well. It used literary and very difficult texts. b. Vocabulary was taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization. c. Reading and writing were the major focus; little or no systematic attention was paid to speaking or listening, in fact, there was oblivion of pronunciation.

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d. There was no connection with the real world.

B. The Direct Method (Also called Reform Method / Natural Method / Phonetical Method / Anti-grammatical Method)

Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language, and so mother tongue has no place in a foreign language lesson. (Baby never relies on another language to learn its first language). Gouin had been one of the first of nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build a methodology around observation of child language learning. Other reformers likewise turned their attention to naturalistic principles of language learning. These natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as the Direct Method. The Direct Method is perhaps the best known and also the most controversial one. Here we have some of its most outstanding features: a. This method emphasized aural/oral skills and rejected the use of the students mother tongue at all. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. b. Grammar was taught inductively. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, with objects and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. c. Students do extensive listening and imitation. d. Reading and writing were deferred for months in the fear that the sight of the written symbols would confuse the learners in their use of the sounds. It begins with ear training and pronunciation and also uses phonetic notation. e. Prominence is given to the sentence instead of to the word. f. Gradation and sequence of materials were not based on realistic spoken speech. All the statements used were related to the classroom. Teachers did not generally think of the students using language beyond the classroom. Any connection with real life was expected to come later and was not the business of the school.

C. The Reform Movement.

Towards the end of the 19th century, linguists began to write about the need for a new approach to language teaching. This became known as the Reform Method, The Phonetic Method or Oral Method in language teaching. From the 1880s linguistics like Wilhelm Vitor in Germany, Henry Sweet in England or Paul Rassy in France began to provide the intellectual leadership needed to give reformist ideas greater credibility and acceptance. The discipline of linguistics

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was revitalized. Phonetics, -the scientific analysis and description of the sound systems of languages - was established and linguists emphasised that the speech, rather than the written word was the primary form of language. Linguists shared many beliefs about the principles on which a new approach to teaching foreign languages should be based. In general the reformers believed that: 1. The spoken language is primary and it should be reflected in an oral based methodology. 2. The findings of phonetics should be applied to teaching. 3. Learners should hear the language first before seeing it in written form. 4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practised in meaningful contexts and not as isolated, disconnected elements. 5. The rules of grammar should be taught only after the students have practised the grammar points in context. Grammar was inductive. 6. Translation should be avoided, though the mother tongue could be used in order to explain new words or to check comprehension.

3.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION

It refers to methods that take, as their point of departure psychological theories of learning developed specifically to inform language learning and teaching. The methods we will look at are: audio-lingualism, and cognitive code learning

A. Audio-lingualism
In the US in the 1950s there developed a movement based on the precepts of structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology and known variously as the audio-lingual method (ALM), audio-lingual teaching, audiolingualism, the structuralist approach, and structuralism. The British structural approach of Harold E. Palmer and Michael WEST in the 1920s30s, which augmented the direct method with graded grammatical structures, word lists, and readers. (2) The French mthode structuroglobale (in English usually called the audio-visual method), which developed in the 1960s and used a combination of textbooks, tape recordings, filmstrips, slides, and classroom presentation. They consisted of highly coherent and well-developed classroom pedagogy, with clear links between theory and practice.

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It was developed as a reaction against more traditional methods. Audiolingualism, was based on the principles provided by behaviourist psychology (Skinner) and structural linguistics (Bloomfield). Skinner created a new concept with behaviourism called operant conditioning, which placed more emphasis on the consequences of stimuli than on the stimuli themselves. He accounted for learning in terms of reinforcement of these stimulated consequences or responses. To the behaviourist, the human being is an organism capable of a wide repertoire of behaviours. The occurrence of these behaviours is dependent on three crucial elements in learning: a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour; a response triggered by a stimulus; and reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition of the response in the future. Parallel to the development of behaviourism in psychology, there was a growing influence of structural linguistics. On this side, Bloomfield and his associates had a great deal to say about the psychological aspects of language learning. They noted that while Indians could use their language, they could not describe it. From this they concluded that the memorising of rules and grammatical paradigms were not useful for learning second or foreign languages, and in consequence, teachers ought to teach the language rather than teaching about it. Classrooms environments were arranged in which there was a maximum amount of repetition on the part of the learners. The presentation and practice stages are the heart of audio-lingualism. As the presentations were to be done exclusively in the target language, it was important that they were as clear and unambiguous as possible. Out of these various influences emerged a number of learning principles, which became the psychological foundations of Audiolingualism: 1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct responses rather than by making mistakes. The chance of producing mistakes is minimized by memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills. Language is verbal behavior that is, the automatic production and comprehension of utterances. 2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form.

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3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the processes of generalization and discrimination. Explanation of rules is not given until students have practice a pattern in a variety of contexts and are thought to have acquired a perception of the analogies involved. Drills can enable students to form correct analogies. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive. 4. The meanings that the words of a language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system of the people who speak the language. There are many similarities between Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism: the order in which the language skills are introduced and the focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structure. However, Situational L. Teaching was a development of the earlier direct Method and does not have the strong ties to the linguistics and behavioral psychology that characterize Audiolingualism.

B. Cognitive-Code Theory.

Learning.

Learning

Chomskys Transformational Grammar and Ausubels Cognitive Psychology gave rise to their own method: Cognitive-Code Learning. It was developed by Carroll and it is also known as the Cognitive Code Learning. It was the first reaction against Behaviorism. It considers learning as a mental process and not as a habit formation. It was a strong principle of audio-lingualism that grammar should be learned unconsciously, andas we have seenthis view was defended by reference to Skinners theory of learning. In 1959 Chomsky savagely attacked that view of the nature of language learning, and in the years that followed he set out to produce a linguistic theory, which would supersede the structuralist model of Bloomfield and his followers. The resulting development of transformational-generative grammar (did not have a direct impact on language teaching on any large scale, but an alternative learning theory, cognitive-code, was developed that placed emphasis more on the conscious understanding of the rules which lead to the production of linguistic patterns than on unconscious learning of the patterns themselves. Once again, as earlier with grammar-

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translation, rules would be learned and then applied to the elements of the language, and the use of the intellect again became respectable.

3.3. THE HUMANISTIC TRADITION

Proponents of these methods believe that if learners can be encouraged to adopt the right attitudes, and interests and motivation in the target language and culture, as well as in the learning environment in which they find themselves, then successful learning will occur. The best-known proponent of humanism in language learning is E. Stevic who has been an interpreter of humanistic methods. 0thers include Carrol, who developed the Learning Theory, Curran, who developed Community Language Learning, Gattegno who created the Silent Way and Lozanov who produced the approach known as Suggestopedia. Stevick became interested in applying principles of humanistic psychology to language learning and teaching after he became dissatisfied with both audio-lingual habit theory and cognitive code learning. He came to the conclusion that success or failure in language teaching depend the learners affective domain, that is to say, emotional attitude towards the teacher, towards fellow learners, and towards the target language and culture, which is the single most important variable in language learning. It is crucial, not only to take into account this factor, but to give it a central place in the selection of content, materials and learning activities. In this view of language development, the emphasis should be on learners not the teacher.

A. Community Language Learning. (Curran)

CLL is an approach in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. The teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner acts as a collaborator, although sometimes this role can be changed. The primary aim of CLL is to create a genuinely warm and supportive community among the learners and gradually to move them from complete

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dependence on the teacher to complete autonomy. The foreign language learner's tasks, according to CLL are (1) to apprehend the sound system of the language (2) assign fundamental meanings to individual lexical units and (3) construct a basic grammar. 1) It takes its principles from the Counseling Learning Approach developed by Charles A. Curran. 2) It was created especially for Adult Learners who might fear to appear foolish ; so the teacher becomes a Language Counselor , he understands them and leads them to overcome their fears . 3) It follows Krashens Monitor Theory ( Affective Filter Hypothesis ) and the Cognitive Theory where the human mind is active . CLL advocates a holistic approach to language learning, since true human learning is both cognitive and affective. This is termed whole-person learning. Such learning takes place in a communicative situation where the teachers and learners are involved in an interactionin which both experience a sense of their own wholeness. Within this, the development of the learners relationship with the teacher is central. It begins with the analysis of the learners feelings and psychological reactions in learning a foreign language. The student co-operates with the other components of the group exchanging information. The teacher is just a counsellor and must be nondirective and must be prepared to accept and even encourage the adolescent aggression of the learner as he/she strives for independence.

B. The Silent Way.

It was developed by Gattegno and it uses mimicry, visual aids and rods of different colours and size to represent objects and concepts. The idea is to guide and stimulate the learners autonomy. Gattegno emphasises the need to develop in learners autonomy from the teaching situation. He also claims that the method is learner-centred in that teaching is subordinated to learning. The learners are placed in a situation in which their attention is focused on a limited amount of language. The teacher provides the minimum number of target language models, and the learners from the very beginning are required to work things out for themselves. The classroom techniques are in many ways not so different from more traditional methods, such as Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, focusing on the accurate repetition of sentences modelled initially by the teacher and moving through a guided elicitation exercises to freer communication. The innovation in Gattegnos method derives primarily in the way in which classroom activities are

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organised, the indirect role of the teacher is require to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners to figure out and test their hypotheses about how the language works, and the materials used to elicit and practice language.

C. Suggestopedia.
Suggestopedia is a method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist Lozanov. Suggestopedia is a specific set of learning recommendations derived from Suggestology, which Lozanov describes as a scienceconcerned with the systematic study of the non-rational and/or non-conscious influences that human beings are constantly responding to. Suggestopedia tries to use these influences and redirect them so as to optimise learning. The most outstanding characteristics of Suggestopedia are the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behaviour of the teacher. To sum up, Lozanov created a new approach where the teacher is the conductor and the student must adopt a relaxed attitude, that is why on many occasions music is used. The teacher will create an atmosphere of mutual confidence with the learner. There is a wide use of psychiatric techniques in order to avoid inhibition on the part of the learner.

3.4 LANGUAGE ADQUISITION TRADITION

The most pervasive advocate of the acquisitionists tradition is Krashen. Along with Terrell, he has developed a method based on these principles called the Natural Approach. Of the various principles set out by Krashen, the best known and most controversial is the suggestion that there are two distinct mental processes operating in L2 development. The first is the acquisition process, while the second is the learning process. Acquisition is the natural way, paralleling first language development in children. Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for learning to occur, and correction of errors helps with the developments of learned rules. Learning, according to the theory, cannot lead to acquisition. Therefore, activities which promote subconscious acquisition rather than conscious learning are central.

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Krashen thought that if second language acquisition operated in exactly the same way as first language acquisition, then, all second language learners should develop bilingual competence in the language. This does not occur due to what he calls the affective filter, which affects positively or negatively the learning. Therefore, the affective filter must be lowered. In the Natural Approach there is an emphasis on input or exposure, rather than practice; a prolonged period of attention to what the language learners hear before they try to produce language; and a willingness to use written or other materials as a source of comprehensible input. The main goal of the Natural approach is communication skills, but comprehension always precedes production. Production must emerge spontaneously, that is, learners must not be force to respond.

SHAPE

\*

MERGEFORMAT

V. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES
Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise,

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which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.
A.

Functional-Notional Approach.

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. In a notionalfunctional syllabus, instruction is organized not in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of notions and functions. In this model, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate, and a function is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the notion or context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notionalfunctional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts. It is this sensitivity to individual needs, which is the major characteristic of the functional-notional approach to language teaching. The ability to use real, appropriate language to communicate and interact with others is the primary goal of the F.N. approach. It arose primarily out of work commissioned by the Council of Europe, which became particularly interested, in the 1960s, in language teaching. It was suggested, particularly, that language was much more appropriately classified in terms of what people wanted to do with the language (functions) or in terms of what meanings people wanted to convey (notions) than in terms of the grammatical items as in traditional language teaching models. During the 1970s, communicative views of language teaching began to be incorporated into syllabus design. The central question for proponents of this new view was, -What does the learner want/need to do with the target language? rather than, What are the linguistic elements which the learner needs to master? Syllabuses began to appear in which content was specified, not only in terms of the grammatical elements which the learners were expected to master, but also in terms of the functional skills they would need to master in order to communicate successfully. This movement led in part to the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Traditionally, linguistically-oriented approaches, along with many so-called communicative approaches, shared one thing in common: they tended to focus on

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the things that learners should know or be able to do as a result of instruction. But in communicative approaches content is stated in terms of the outcomes of instruction as product-oriented. As we have already seen, a distinction is traditionally drawn between syllabus design, which is concerned with outcomes, and methodology, which is concerned with the process through which these outcomes are to be brought about. Recently, however, some syllabus designers have suggested that syllabus content might be specified in terms of learning tasks and activities. They justify this suggestion on the grounds that communication is a process rather than a set of products.

B. Communicative Method.
The communicative strategy promotes a definite learning strategy which could be defined as attempted communication in the target language. The learner, following this way of language acquisition tries from the very beginning not only to understand messages produced by other speakers but also to produce his own utterances in the L2 expressing his own meanings and ideas He also has to be meaningfully exposed to the target language because without a certain amount of meaningful input there cannot be any acquisition at all, but this exposure need to be as prolonged as within the framework of the receptive strategy. Two characteristics of the Communicative Strategy: 1. The learner following this strategy produces utterances which are most often, at least in the beginning period, highly inaccurate or grammatically ill formed from the point of view of a L2 native speakers grammar. 2. The other is related to the fact that the learner pursuing the strategy in question is almost constantly forced, especially in the beginning period to use communications strategies: problem solving operations that the learner has to resort to whenever he is faced with a communicative task exceeding his actual competence.

C. Task - Based Approach.

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They try to organise and present what is to be achieved through teaching and learning in terms of how a learner may encourage his/her own communicative competence in undertaking successfully a range of tasks, how learners may develop this competence through learning, how to learn and how to communicate. Task - based syllabuses then, present procedures for communicating, learning. They must be designed taking into account: The learners capacity to develop their own initial communicative competence. They are processfocussed Focus on the integration of communicative knowledge and use of abilities. Have the coherence provided by the communicative needs of learners and by the learning / teaching process. By task is meant the thousand and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between. This is a non-linguistic definition. Breen gives the following definition: A task is any structural learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate context, and specified working procedure and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. Task is therefore assumed to refer to a range of workplans, which have the overall purpose of facilitating language -from simple exercises to complex activities. This definition may be labelled as linguistic definition; it involves communicative language use in which the users attention is focused on meaning and also on linguistic structures. It is difficult to determine where a task ends and another begins. However, tasks can be analysed and categorised according, to a great variety of criteria.

CONCLUSION
In this topic we have dealt with the most important language learning methods

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and especially the ultimate trends in 2LA. This overview is essential for any foreign language teacher in order to have a sound foundation when approaching language teaching and language learning. So far there seems to be no perfect neither best approach to teaching languages. There are so many variables included (age, culture, motivation, etc) that it appears almost impossible to have in the future the ideal method. However, as long as humans need to speak other languages, apart from the mother tongue, there will be foreign language learning methods. BIBLIOGRAPHY Brumfit & Johnson (1979) The communicative Approach to Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP Brumfit and Mary Finocchiaro (1983) The Functional-Notional Approach. OUP Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of L2. Oxford: OUP Howatt, A. (1994) A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP Krashen, s. (1981) 2nd L Acquisition and 2nd L Learning. London: Pergamon Littlewood, W. (1981) Communicative Language Teaching. An Introduction. CUP Stern, H.H. (1991) Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP Stern, H.H. (1992) Issues and Options of Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP