Chapter 1 Causes of d|sease

11 athogens
ulsease causlng mlcroorganlsms are called paLhogens ulsease ls a malfuncLlon Lo Lhe body or mlnd whlch has
an adverse affecL on healh and lL has soclal physlcal and menLal aspecLs
lor a mlcroorganlsm Lo be consldered a paLhogen lL musL
O galn enLry Lo Lhe hosL
O colonlse Lhe Llssues of Lhe hosL
O reslsL Lhe defences of Lhe hosL
O cause damage Lo Lhe hosLs Llssues
When a paLhogen colonlses Lhe hosLs Llssues an lnfecLlon resulLs dlsease occurs when an lnfecLlon leads Lo
recognlsable sympLoms ln Lhe hosL When a paLhogen ls Lransferred from one lndlvldual Lo anoLher lL ls known
as Lransmlsslon
aLhogens normally geL lnLo Lhe body by peneLraLlng one of Lhe organlsms lnLerfaces wlLh Lhe envlronmenL
An lnLerface ls a surface or boundary llnklng Lwo sysLems ln Lhls case llnklng Lhe lnLernal envlronmenL of Lhe
body wlLh Lhe exLernal envlronmenL Cne of Lhese lnLerfaces ls Lhe skln Powever as Lhe skln form a Lhlck
conLlnuous layer lL ls an effecLlve barrler Lo lnfecLlon Pence lnvaslon normally occurs when Lhe skln ls broken
1hls may happen as a resulL of cuLs or abraslons or blLes Some lnLerfaces of Lhe body have evolved Lo allow
exchange of maLerlal beLween Lhe lnLernal and exLernal envlronmenLs As a resulL Lhe body llnlngs aL Lheses
polnLs are Lhln molsL have a large surface area and are well supplled wlLh blood vessels lnLerfaces wlLh Lhe
body lnclude
O 1he gas exchange sysLem many paLhogens enLer Lhe body Lhrough Lhe gas exchange surfaces
O 1he dlgesLlve sysLem food and waLer may carry paLhogens lnLo Lhe sLomach and lnLesLlnes vla Lhe
mouLh
1o help prevenL Lhe enLry of paLhogens Lhe body has a number of naLural defences
O a mucous layer Lhe covers exchange surfaces and forms a Lhlck sLlcky barrler LhaL ls dlfflculL Lo
peneLraLe
O Lhe producLlon of sLomach acld LhaL kllls mlcrogranlsms
O Lhe producLlon of enzymes LhaL break down paLhogens
aLhogens affecL Lhe body ln Lwo maln ways
O by damaglng hosL Llssues someLlmes Lhe sheer number of paLhogens causes damage eg prevenLlng
Lhe Llssues from funcLlonlng properly
O by produclng Loxlns many bacLerlal paLhogens produce Loxlns
Pow qulckly a paLhogen causes damage ls relaLed Lo how rapldly lL dlvldes
12 Data and D|sease
Lpldemlology ls Lhe sLudy of Lhe lncldence (number of cases) and Lhe paLLern of a dlsease wlLh a vlew Lo
flndlng Lhe means of prevenLlng and conLrolllng lL
LpldemlologlsLs collecL daLa on dlsease and look for a relaLlonshlp beLween Lhese dlseases and Lhe varlous
facLors ln people's llves LhaL have Lhem
O orrelaLlon doesnL always mean causaLlon
O LxLernal lnfluences could have lndlrecLly affecLed Lhe resulLs
Always conslder Lhe followlng facLors
O Pas Lhe rlghL facLor been measured and have Lhe correcL quesLlons been asked?
O Pow were Lhe daLa gaLhered were Lhe meLhods rellable?
O uo Lhe researchers have a vesLed lnLeresL ln Lhe resulLs?
O epeaLs?
O Are Lhere sLlll unanswered quesLlons?
13 L|festy|e and nea|th
lsk ls a measure of a probablllLy LhaL damage Lo healLh wlll occur as a resulL of a glven hazard lL has Lwo
concepLs
O 1he probablllLy LhaL a hazardous evenL wlll occur
O 1he consequences of LhaL hazardous evenL
lL can be measured by a value ranglng from 000 (harm wlll cerLalnly occur) lL ls measured by comparlng
Lhe llkellhood of harm occurrlng ln Lhose exposed Lo a hazard wlLh Lhose who are noL eg smokers may be x
more llkely Lo develop lung cancer Lhan nonsmokers We musL Lake lnLo accounL over whaL Llme perlod lL
occurs how does Lhe number of clgareLLes smoked affecL Lhe flgure do oLher facLors have an lnfluence and
does lL change accordlng Lo where Lhe smokers llve
Cur llfesLyle can expose us Lo envlronmenLal and carclnogenlc facLors LhaL puL us aL rlsk of conLracLlng cancer
1he speclflc llfesLyle facLors LhaL conLrlbuLe Lo cancer lnclude
O smoklng
O dleL
O obeslLy
O physlcal acLlvlLy
O sunllghL
oronary hearL dlsease ls Lhe largesL cause of deaLh ln Lhe uk 1here are facLors we can conLrol Lo reduce Lhe
rlsk
O smoklng smokers are Lwo Lo slx Llmes more llkely Lo suffer from Pu
O hlgh blood pressure sLress dleL lack of exerclse all lncrease blood pressure
O cholesLerol Lhese can be kepL lower by lncludlng fewer saLuraLed faLLy aclds ln Lhe dleL
O obeslLy a 8Ml of over 2 lncreases Lhe rlsk of Pu
O dleL hlgh levels of salL lncrease blood pressure hlgh levels of saLuraLed faLLy aclds lncrease
cholesLerol concenLraLlon
O hyslcal acLlvlLy aeroblc exerclse can lower blood pressure and blood cholesLerol
lacLors LhaL can reduce Lhe chances of geLLlng Pu and cancer
O glvlng up smoklng
O Laklng regular aeroblc exerclse
O avold becomlng overwelghL
O reduce salL and saLuraLed faLLy acld lnLake
O lncrease Lhe lnLake of dleLary flbre and anLloxldanLs ln Lhe dleL
O keep alcohol consumpLlons wlLhln safe llmlL
21 Lnzymes and d|gest|on
Puman dlgesLlve sysLem ls made up of a long muscular Lube and glands Clands produce enzymes LhaL
hydrolyse (break down) large molecules Lo smaller ones LhaL can be absorbed and asslmllaLed
O oesophagus carrles food from mouLh Lo sLomach AdapLed for LransporL and ls made of a Lhlck
muscular wall
O stomach muscular sac wlLh an lnner layer LhaL produces enzymes lL sLores and dlgesLs foods lL
produces enzymes LhaL dlgesL proLeln lL also produces mucus Lo prevenL Lhe sLomach belng dlgesLed
by lLs own enzymes
O sma|| |ntest|ne (||eum) long muscular Lube lood ls furLher dlgesLed here by enzymes 1he lnner
walls of Lhe small lnLesLlne are folded lnLo vllll and Lhe surface area of Lhese ls furLher lncreased by
mllllons of mlcrovllll on Lhe eplLhellal cell of each vlllus 1hls adapLs Lhe small lnLesLlne for lLs purpose
of absorpLlon
O |arge |ntest|ne (co|on) Lhls absorbs waLer MosL of Lhe waLer LhaL ls reabsorbed comes from
secreLlons of dlgesLlve glands lood ln Lhe large lnLesLlne becomes drler and Lhlcker Lo form faeces
O rectum faeces are sLored here before belng removed by egesLlon from Lhe anus
O sa||vary g|ands pass secreLlons vla a ducL lnLo Lhe mouLh conLalnlng amylase Lo break sLarch lnLo
malLose
O pancreas large gland below Lhe sLomach whlch produces pancreaLlc [ulce 1hls conLalns proLeases
llpase and amylase
ulgesLlon Lakes place ln Lwo sLages
) hyslcal breakdown large food ls broken down lnLo smaller pleces by surfaces llke Lhe LeeLh Lo make lL
posslble Lo lngesL Lhe food and also Lo provlde a large surface area for chemlcal dlgesLlon lurLhermore
sLomach muscles churn food Lo physlcally break lL up
2) hemlcal dlgesLlon enzymes hydrolyse lnsoluble molecules Lo smaller soluble ones Pydrolysls ls Lhe
spllLLlng up of molecules wlLh Lhe addlLlon of waLer Lo Lhe chemlcal bonds LhaL hold Lhem LogeLher 1hese
enzymes are called hydrolases Several enzymes may be needed Lo break down a large molecule Cne enzyme
spllLs lL lnLo secLlons and Lhe secLlons are hydrolysed lnLo smaller molecules by addlLlonal enzymes 1here are
Lhree maln Lypes of dlgesLlve enzymes
O Carbohydrases break down carbohydraLes Lo monosaccharldes
O L|pases break down llplds lnLo glycerol and faLLy aclds
O roteases break down proLelns Lo amlno aclds
Cnce large food molecules are hydrolysed lnLo Lhe producLs above Lhey are absorbed from Lhe small lnLesLlne
Lo Lhe blood 1hey are carrled Lo dlfferenL parLs of Lhe body and someLlmes bullL up agaln Lo larger molecules
1he molecules are lncorporaLed lnLo body Llssues and/or used ln processes wlLhln Lhe body by a process called
asslmllaLlon
22 Carbohydrates monosacchar|des
arbohydraLes are carbon molecules comblned wlLh waLer arbon aLoms readlly form bonds wlLh oLher
carbon aLoms allowlng a sequence of Lhem Lo be bullL up ln varlous lengLhs 1hls forms a backbone along
whlch oLher aLoms can aLLach Lo All llvlng organlsms are based on carbon and so carbon conLalnlng molecules
are known as organlc
A monosaccharlde ls a slngle monomer an lndlvldual molecule LhaL makes up a chaln of carbohydraLes
arbon aLoms of monomers [oln Lo form longer chalns called polymers A palr of monosaccharldes ls called a
dlsaccharlde and ln larger numbers Lhey can form polysaccharldes
Monosaccharldes are sweeL LasLlng soluble subsLances wlLh Lhe general formula (P2C)n wlLh n belng any
number from 3 Clucose ln a monosaccharlde ls a hexose (6carbon) sugar wlLh Lhe formula 6P2C6
All monosaccharldes and some dlsaccharldes (eg malLose) are reduclng sugars 1hese can donaLe elecLrons or
reduce anoLher chemlcal ln Lhls case 8enedlcLs reagenL whlch ls used Lo LesL for Lhem 8enedlcLs reagenL ls
an alkallne soluLlon of copper (ll) sulfaLe When lL ls heaLed wlLh a reduclng sugar a red preclplLaLe of copper(l)
oxlde ls formed
1he LesL ls carrled ouL as follows
2cm3 or food sample added Lo LesL Lube Crlnd lL up ln waLer lf lL ls noL already llquld
Add an equal volume of 8enedlcLs reagenL
PeaL Lhe mlxLure ln a genLly bolllng waLer baLh for mlns
lL ls a semlquanLlLaLlve LesL as Lhe dlfferences ln colour are used Lo esLlmaLe Lhe approxlmaLe amounL of
reduclng sugar ln a sample 8lueCreenCrangeed
23 Carbohydrates d|sacchar|des and po|ysacchar|des
ln palrs monosaccharldes form a dlsaccharlde eg
O Clucose llnked Lo glucose forms malLose
O Clucose llnked Lo frucLose forms sucrose
O Clucose llnked Lo galacLose forms lacLose
Monosaccharldes [oln ln a condensaLlon reacLlon where a molecule of waLer ls losL A glycosldlc bond ls
formed ln place of Lhe CPP
When waLer ls added Lo a dlsaccharlde under sulLable condlLlons lL breaks Lhe glycosldlc bond releaslng Lhe
consLlLuenL monosaccharldes ln a hydrolysls reacLlon WaLer ls added Lo Lhe oxygen ln Lhe glycosldlc bond
MalLose + P2C alphaglucose + alphaglucose
Some dlsaccharldes are reduclng sugars CLhers are nonreduclng because Lhey do noL change Lhe colour of
8enedlcLs reagenL when heaLed wlLh lL 1o deLecL a nonreduclng sugar lL flrsL musL be broken down lnLo lLs
monosaccharldes componenLs by hydrolysls llrsL we follow Lhe sLeps Lo LesL for a reduclng sugar and lf lL does
noL change colour
O Add anoLher 2cm3 of food sample Lo 2cm3 of dlluLe hydrochlorlc acld ln a LesL Lube and puL Lhls ln
a genLly bolllng waLer baLh for mlns 1he dlluLe P wlll hydrolyse and dlsaccharlde presenL lnLo lLs
consLlLuenL monosaccharldes
O Slowly add sodlum hydrogencarbonaLe soluLlon Lo Lhe LesL Lube Lo neuLrallse Lhe P as benedlcLs
does noL work ln acldlc condlLlons use pP paper Lo check Lhe soluLlon ls alkallne
O eLesL Lhe soluLlon by heaLlng lL wlLh 2cm3 of 8enedlcLs reagenL
O lf a nonreduclng sugar was presenL ln Lhe orlglnal sample Lhe 8enedlcLs wlll Lurn orangebrown as
Lhe reduclng sugars were produced from Lhe hydrolysls of Lhe nonreduclng sugar
o|ysacchar|des are polymers formed by Lhe comblnaLlon of many monosaccharlde molecules 1hese
monosaccharldes are [olned by glycosldlc bonds formed by condensaLlon reacLlons olysaccharldes are large
and lnsoluble maklng Lhem sulLable for sLorage When hydrolysed Lhey break down Lo monosaccharldes or
dlsaccharldes Some polysaccharldes eg cellulose glve supporL Lo planL cells raLher Lhan belng used for
sLorage
SLarch ls a polysaccharlde found ln planLs ln Lhe form of small granules or gralns lL ls formed by llnklng many
alphaglucose molecules by glycosldlc bonds 1o LesL for lL we
O place 2cm3 of Lhe sample belng LesLed lnLo a LesL Lube or spoLLlng Llle
O add Lwo drops of lodlne and shake/sLlr
O Lhe presence of sLarch ls lndlcaLed by a blueblack colour
24 Carbohydrate d|gest|on
Starch d|gest|on amylase ls produced ln Lhe mouLh and pancreas 1hls hydrolyses Lhe alLernaLe glycosldlc
bonds of Lhe sLarch molecule Lo produce Lhe dlsaccharlde malLose MalLase produced by Lhe llnlng of Lhe
lnLesLlne hydrolyses malLose lnLo alphaglucose
1he process ls as follows
O lood ls chewed by LeeLh Lo glve lL a large surface area
O Sallva enLers Lhe mouLh from sallvary glands and ls mlxed wlLh food Sallva conLalns sallvary amylase
whlch hydrolyses sLarch lnLo malLose lL also conLalns mlneral salLs LhaL keep Lhe pP around neuLral
whlch ls opLlmum for sallvary amylase
O lood ls swallowed and enLers Lhe sLomach whlch has acldlc condlLlons 1hls denaLures amylase whlch
sLops furLher hydrolysls of sLarch
O lood ls passed lnLo Lhe small lnLesLlne where lL mlxes wlLh pancreaLlc [ulce 1hls conLalns pancreaLlc
amylase whlch conLlnues Lo hydrolyse remalnlng sLarch Lo malLose Alkallne salLs are produced by
Lhe pancreas and lnLesLlnal wall Lo malnLaln a neuLral pP so amylase can funcLlon
O Muscles ln Lhe lnLesLlnal wall push food along Lhe small lnLesLlne lLs llnlng produces malLase whlch
hydrolyses malLose from sLarch breakdown lnLo alphaglucose
1here are Lwo oLher common dlsaccharldes ln Lhe dleL LhaL need Lo be broken down
Sucrose lL ls conLalned wlLhln food cells LhaL musL be physlcally broken down by LeeLh Lo be released lL
passes Lhrough Lhe sLomach Lo Lhe small lnLesLlne whose eplLhellal llnlng produces sucrase 1hls hydrolyses
Lhe slngle glycosldlc bond ln Lhe sucrose molecule Lo glve glucose and frucLose
Lactose Lhls ls Lhe sugar found ln mllk and mllk producLs lL ls dlgesLed ln Lhe small lnLesLlne whlch produces
lacLase 1hls hydrolyses Lhe glycosldlc bond Lo produce glucose and galacLose
Some people are lacLose lnLoleranL meanlng Lhey donL produce enough lacLase Lo dlgesL all Lhe lacLose Lhey
consume When Lhe undlgesLed lacLose reaches Lhe large lnLesL mlcroorganlsms break lL down produclng a
large volume of gas 1hls resulLs ln bloaLlng nausea dlarrhoea and cramps Some people wlLh Lhls condlLlon
cannoL consume mllk or mllk producLs aL all CLher calclum rlch foods can be eaLen Lo Lake ln a sufflclenL
amounL ln Lhe absence of mllk 8ables need Lo be glven vlLamln u supplemenLs LhaL naLural mllk provldes
2S rote|ns
Amlno aclds are Lhe monomer unlLs whlch comblne Lo make up a polymer called a polypepLlde 1hese comblne
Lo make proLelns Lvery amlno acld has a cenLral carbon aLom aLLached Lo four dlfferenL groups
O amlno group (-P2) baslc group from whlch amlno parL of Lhe name ls derlved
O carboxyl group (CCP) an acldlc group whlch glves Lhe acld parL of Lhe name
O hydrogen aLom (P)
O group a varleLy of dlfferenL chemlcal groups Lach amlno acld has a dlfferenL group
Amlno acld monomers comblne Lo form a dlpepLlde 1he process ls Lhe same Lhe removal of a waLer molecule
ln a condensaLlon reacLlon whlch ls made by comblnlng an CP from Lhe carboxyl group of one amlno acld
wlLh Lhe P from Lhe amlno group of anoLher 1he Lwo amlno aclds become llnked by a pepLlde bond beLween
Lhe carbon aLom of one amlno acld and Lhe nlLrogen of Lhe oLher
r|mary Structure
1hrough a serles of condensaLlon reacLlons many amlno acld monomers [oln LogeLher ln a process called
polymerlsaLlon Lo produce a chaln of amlno aclds called a polypepLlde 1he sequence of amlno aclds forms Lhe
prlmary sLrucLure of any proLeln olypepLldes have many of Lhe 20 naLurally occurrlng amlno aclds [olned ln
any sequence so lL follows LhaL Lhere are llmlLless number of posslble comblnaLlons and Lherefore Lypes of
prlmary proLeln sLrucLure 1he prlmary sLrucLure deLermlnes a proLelns shape and funcLlon A change ln a
slngle amlno acld ln Lhe prlmary sequence may change Lhls so a proLelns shape ls speclflc Lo lLs funcLlon
Secondary structure
1he llnked amlno aclds LhaL make up a polypepLlde possess boLh -P and C groups on elLher slde of every
pepLlde bond 1he hydrogen of Lhe -P group has a poslLlve charge whlle Lhe C of Lhe C group has a
negaLlve charge 1he Lwo groups readlly form weak hydrogen bonds causlng Lhe long polypepLlde chaln Lo
LwlsL lnLo a 3u shape such as Lhe coll known as an alphahellx
1ert|ary structure
Alphahellces can be LwlsLed and folded even more Lo glve Lhe complex and ofLen unlque 3u sLrucLure of each
proLeln 1hls sLrucLure ls Lhe LerLlary sLrucLure and ls malnLalned by a number of bonds
d|su|f|de bonds falrly sLrong and Lherefore noL easlly broken down
|on|c bonds formed beLween carboxyl and amlno groups noL lnvolved ln formlng pepLlde bonds 1hey are
weaker Lhan dlsulflde bonds are easlly broken by changes ln pP
hydrogen bonds numerous buL easlly broken
1he 3u shape makes proLelns dlsLlncLlve and allows lL Lo recognlse oLher molecules
uaternary structure
arge proLelns ofLen form complex molecules conLalnlng a number of lndlvldual polypepLlde chalns LhaL are
llnked ln varlous ways 1here may be nonproLeln groups assoclaLed wlLh Lhe molecules such as Lhe lron
conLalnlng haem group ln haemoglobln
1o LesL for proLelns we use Lhe 8lureL LesL whlch deLecLs pepLlde bonds A purple colour shows proLeln ls
presenL buL a blue colour lndlcaLes lL ls absenL
26 Lnzyme act|on
Lnzymes are globular proLelns LhaL acL as caLalysLs aLalysLs alLer Lhe raLe of a chemlcal reacLlon wlLhouL
undergolng permanenL changes Lhemselves 1hey can be reused repeaLedly and are Lherefore effecLlve ln
small amounLs
eL us conslder a Lyplcal chemlcal reacLlon
sucrose+waLer glucose+frucLose
lor reacLlons llke Lhls Lo Lake place naLurally a number of condlLlons have Lo be meL
O 1he sucrose and waLer molecules musL colllde wlLh sufflclenL energy ln order for Lo alLer Lhelr aLom
arrangemenL Lo form glucose and frucLose
O 1he energy of Lhe producLs musL be less Lhan LhaL of Lhe subsLraLes
O An lnlLlal boosL of energy ls needed (acLlvaLlon energy)
1he acLlvaLlon level musL be overcome ln order for Lhe reacLlon Lo Lake place Lnzymes work by lowerlng Lhe
acLlvaLlon level for reacLlons Lo Lake place 1hls enables some meLabollc processes Lo occur rapldly aL Lhe
human body LemperaLure of 3 degrees
AlLhough an enzyme molecule ls large overall only a small reglon of lL ls funcLlonal 1hls ls known as Lhe acLlve
slLe and Lhls ls made up of a relaLlvely small number of amlno aclds 1he acLlve slLe ls a small hollow parL wlLhln
Lhe much larger enzyme molecule 1he molecule on whlch Lhe enzyme acLs upon ls called Lhe subsLraLe 1hls
flLs neaLly lnLo Lhe depresslon Lo form a enzymesubsLraLe complex 1he subsLraLe molecule ls held ln Lhe
acLlve slLe by bonds LhaL Lemporarlly form beLween cerLaln amlno aclds of Lhe acLlve slLe and groups on Lhe
subsLraLe molecule
Cne model proposes LhaL enzymes work ln Lhe same way LhaL a key operaLes a lock 1hls has been generaLed
from Lhe facL LhaL each key has a speclflc shape whlch can only operaLe one lock ln a slmllar way Lhe
subsLraLe wlll only flL Lhe acLlve slLe of one parLlcular enzyme 1hls model ls supporLed by Lhe observaLlon LhaL
enzymes are speclflc ln Lhe reacLlons LhaL Lhey caLalyse 1hls ls known as Lhe lock and key model
Cne llmlLaLlon of Lhls model ls LhaL Lhe enzyme ls consldered Lo be a rlgld sLrucLure Powever lL has been
observed LhaL oLher molecules can blnd Lo Lhe enzyme ln places oLher Lhan Lhe acLlve slLe ln dolng so Lhey
alLered Lhe acLlvlLy of Lhe enzyme lLs sLrucLure ls noL rlgld buL flexlble 8ecause of Lhls an alLernaLlve model
has been proposed called Lhe lnduced flL model
aLher Lhan belng a rlgld lock Lhe lnduced flL model proposes LhaL Lhe enzyme changes lL shape sllghLly Lo flL
Lhe proflle of Lhe subsLraLe 1he enzyme ls flexlble and moulds lLself around Lhe subsLraLe ln Lhe same way a
glove moulds lLself Lo Lhe shape of a hand 1hey have a cerLaln general shape buL lL alLers sllghLly lL explalns
LhaL Lhe enzyme puLs a sLraln on Lhe subsLraLe LhaL dlsLorLs a parLlcular bond and consequenLly lowers Lhe
acLlvaLlon energy needed Lo break Lhe bond
1hls model explalns
O Pow oLher molecules can affecL enzyme acLlvlLy
O how Lhe acLlvaLlon energy ls lowered
Any change ln Lhe enzymes envlronmenL ls llkely Lo change lLs shape
27 Iactors affect|ng enzyme act|on
lor an enzyme Lo work lL musL
O ome lnLo conLacL wlLh Lhe subsLraLe molecule
O Pave an acLlve slLe whlch flLs Lhe subsLraLe
1o measure Lhe progress of an enzyme caLalysed reacLlon we usually measure lLs Llme course 1hls can be
done by
O measurlng Lhe raLe of Lhe formaLlon of Lhe producLs of Lhe reacLlon
O or measurlng Lhe raLe of Lhe dlsappearance of Lhe subsLraLe
O AL flrsL Lhere ls a loL of subsLraLe
O lL ls very easy for subsLraLe molecules Lo come lnLo conLacL wlLh Lhe empLy acLlve slLes of Lhe enzyme
molecules
O All enzyme acLlve slLes are fllled and Lhe subsLraLe ls rapldly broken down lnLo lLs producLs
O 1he amounL of subsLraLe decreases as lL ls broken down resulLlng ln an lncrease ln Lhe amounL of
producL
O As Lhe reacLlon proceeds Lhelr ls less and less subsLraLe and more and more producL
O lL becomes more dlfflculL for Lhe subsLraLe molecules Lo come lnLo conLacL wlLh Lhe enzyme
molecules as Lhere are fewer subsLraLe molecules and Lhe producL molecules may geL ln Lhe way of
Lhe subsLraLe molecules and prevenL Lhem reachlng an acLlve slLe
O Pence lL Lakes longer for Lhe subsLraLe molecules Lo be broken down by Lhe enzyme
O 1he raLe of reacLlon conLlnues Lo slow unLll Lhere ls so llLLle subsLraLe LhaL any furLher decrease ln
concenLraLlon canL be measured
O 1he graph flaLLens ouL as all Lhe subsLraLe has been used up and so no new producL can be formed
A rlse ln LemperaLure lncreases Lhe klneLlc energy of molecules Molecules move around more rapldly and
colllde more ofLen ln an enzyme caLalysed reacLlon Lhe enzyme and subsLraLe molecules come LogeLher more
ofLen ln a glven Llme whlch lncreases Lhe raLe of reacLlon lurLher rlse ln LemperaLure causes Lhe hydrogen and
oLher bonds ln Lhe enzyme Lo break causlng Lhe enzyme and lLs acLlve slLe Lo change shape AL flrsL Lhls causes
Lhe subsLraLe Lo flL less easlly lnLo Lhe acLlve slLe of Lhe enzyme slowlng Lhe raLe of reacLlon AL some polnL
(usually around 60) Lhe enzyme ls so dlsrupLed LhaL ls sLops worklng alLogeLher lL ls sald Lo be denaLured
uenaLuraLlon ls a permanenL change and once lL has occurred Lhe enzyme canL funcLlon agaln Many enzymes
ln Lhe human body have an opLlmum LemperaLure of 40 Powever our body LemperaLures have evolved Lo be
3 1he reasons for Lhls are
O 1he advanLages of lncreased meLabollc raLe are offseL by Lhe addlLlonal energy we need Lo malnLaln a
hlgher body LemperaLure
O CLher proLelns can become denaLured aL hlgher LemperaLures
O AL hlgher LemperaLures any furLher lncrease can cause Lhe enzymes Lo become denaLured
1he pP of a soluLlon ls Lhe measure of lLs hydrogen lon concenLraLlon Lach enzyme has an opLlmum pP A
change ln pP changes Lhe effecLlveness of Lhe enzyme 1he pP affecLs how an enzyme works ln Lhe followlng
ways
O A change ln pP alLers Lhe charges on Lhe amlno aclds LhaL make up Lhe acLlve slLe of Lhe enzyme As a
resulL Lhe subsLraLe can no longer become aLLached Lo Lhe enzyme and Lhe enzymesubsLraLe
complex can no longer be formed
O A change ln pP causes Lhe bonds LhaL malnLaln Lhe enzymes LerLlary sLrucLure Lo break 1he enzyme
Lherefore changes shape 1hese changes alLer Lhe shape of Lhe acLlve slLe and Lhe subsLraLe can no
longer flL ln 1he enzyme has been denaLured
Lven small changes ln Lhe pP change Lhe arrangemenL of Lhe acLlve slLe of an enzyme 1he arrangemenL of Lhe
acLlve slLe ls parLly deLermlned by Lhe hydrogen and lonlc bonds beLween -P2 and CCP groups of Lhe
polypepLldes LhaL make up Lhe enzyme 1he change ln P+ lons affecLs Lhls bondlng causlng Lhe acLlve slLe Lo
change shape As pP flucLuaLlons are relaLlvely small Lhey are far more llkely Lo reduce an enzymes acLlvlLy
raLher Lhan denaLure lL
lf Lhe amounL of enzyme ls flxed aL a cerLaln level and Lhe amounL of subsLraLe ls slowly added Lhe raLe of
reacLlon lncreases ln proporLlon Lo Lhe amounL of subsLraLe LhaL ls added AL a low subsLraLe concenLraLlon Lhe
enzyme molecules only have a llmlLed number of subsLraLe molecules Lo colllde wlLh and Lherefore Lhe acLlve
slLes of Lhe enzymes are noL worklng Lo full capaclLy As more subsLraLe concenLraLlon ls added Lhe acLlve slLes
gradually become fllled and are worklng up Lo full capaclLy AL Lhls polnL any furLher lncrease of subsLraLe
concenLraLlon wonL have any effecL on Lhe raLe of reacLlon as Lhe raLe of reacLlon has reached lLs maxlmum
When Lhere ls excess subsLraLe Lhe raLe of reacLlon levels off
28 Lnzyme |nh|b|t|on
Lnzyme lnhlblLors can elLher dlrecLly or lndlrecLly lnLerfere wlLh Lhe funcLlonlng of an acLlve slLe of an enzyme
and Lhereby reduclng lLs acLlvlLy 1here are Lwo Lypes of reverslble lnhlblLors
O Compet|t|ve |nh|b|tors Lhey blnd Lo Lhe acLlve slLe of Lhe enzyme
O -on compet|t|ve |nh|b|tors blnd Lo any parL of Lhe enzyme oLher Lhan Lhe acLlve slLe
ompeLlLlve lnhlblLors have an molecular shape slmllar Lo LhaL of Lhe subsLraLe 1hls allows Lhem Lo occupy Lhe
acLlve slLe of an enzyme Pence Lhey compeLe wlLh Lhe subsLraLe for Lhe avallable acLlve slLes lL ls Lhe
dlfference beLween Lhe concenLraLlon of Lhe subsLraLe and Lhe concenLraLlon on Lhe lnhlblLor as Lo Lhe affecL
Lhe lnhlblLor has on enzyme acLlvlLy lf Lhe subsLraLe concenLraLlon ls lncreased Lhe effecL on enzyme acLlvlLy
lsnL as greaL A compeLlLlve lnhlblLor ls noL permanenLly bound Lo Lhe acLlve slLe of Lhe enzyme so when lL
leaves anoLher molecule can Lake lLs place Sooner or laLer all Lhe subsLraLe molecules wlll occupy an acLlve
slLe buL Lhe greaLer Lhe concenLraLlon of Lhe lnhlblLor Lhe longer Lhls wlll Lake
-on compeLlLlve lnhlblLors aLLach Lhemselves Lo Lhe enzyme aL a slLe whlch lsnL Lhe acLlve slLe upon
aLLachlng Lo Lhe enzyme Lhe lnhlblLor alLers Lhe shape of Lhe enzymes acLlve slLe ln such a way LhaL subsLraLe
molecules can no longer occupy lL and so Lhe enzyme canL funcLlon As Lhe subsLraLe and lnhlblLor arenL
compeLlng for Lhe same slLe an lncrease ln subsLraLe concenLraLlon does noL decrease Lhe effecL of Lhe
lnhlblLor

31 Invest|gat|ng the structure of ce||s
Mlcroscopes magnlfy Lhe lmage of an ob[ecL enses are used ln a llghL mlcroscope 1he relaLlvely long
wavelengLh of llghL rays means llghL mlcroscopes can only dlsLlngulsh beLween Lwo ob[ecLs lf Lhey are 2um
aparL or furLher 1he beam of elecLrons ln an elecLron mlcroscope can overcome Lhls llmlLaLlon as Lhe beam
has a shorL wavelengLh and can dlsLlngulsh Lwo ob[ecLs as close LogeLher as 0nm
1he maLerlal under a mlcroscope ls Lhe ob[ecL and Lhe appearance of Lhe maLerlal under a mlcroscope ls Lhe
lmage MagnlflcaLlon of an ob[ecL ls how many Llmes blgger Lhe lmage ls compared Lo Lhe ob[ecL
MAC-lllA1lC- SlZL Cl lMACL/SlZL Cl C8!L1
1here are 09nm ( bllllon) ln a meLre and 06um ( mllllon) ln a meLre
1he resoluLlon of a mlcroscope ls Lhe mlnlmum dlsLance aparL LhaL Lwo ob[ecLs can be Lo appear as separaLe
lLems 1he reosluLlon depends on Lhe wavelengLh or form of radlaLlon used ln Lhe mlcoscope ln a llghL
mlcroscope lL ls around 02um meanlng Lwo ob[ecLs LhaL are 02um aparL of furLher wlll be seen separaLely buL
closer wlll mean Lhey appear as a slngle lLem 1herefore greaLer resoluLlon means greaLer clarlLy Lvery
mlcroscope has a llmlL of resoluLlon 8eyond Lhls polnL lncreaslng Lhe magnlflcaLlon wlll make Lhe ob[ecL
appear larger buL more blurred
ell fracLlonaLlon ls Lhe process where cells are broken up and Lhe dlfferenL organelles Lhey conLaln are
separaLed 8efore Lhls can begln Lhe Llssue ls placed ln a cold (Lo reduce enzyme acLlvlLy LhaL mlghL break
down organelles) lsoLonlc (Lo prevenL organelles bursLlng or shrlnklng as a resulL of osmoLlc loss or galn of
waLer An lsoLonlc soluLlon has Lhe same waLer poLenLlal as Lhe orlglnal Llssue) buffered soluLlon (Lo malnLaln
a consLanL pP)
1here are Lwo sLages Lo cell fracLlonaLlon

nomogenat|on ells are broken up ln a homogenlser 1hls releases Lhe organelles from Lhelr cells 1he
resulLanL fluld (known as homogenaLe) ls Lhen fllLered Lo remove any compleLe cells and large pleces of debrls
U|tracentr|fugat|on Lhe process by whlch separaLes Lhe fragmenLs ln Lhe fllLered homogenaLe ln a machlne
called an ulLracenLrlfuge 1hls splns Lubes of homogenaLe aL a very hlgh speed ln order Lo creaLe a cenLrlfugal
force ln anlmal cells Lhls Lakes place as follows
O 1he Lube of fllLraLe ls placed ln Lhe ulLracenLrlfuge and spun aL a slow speed
O 1he heavlesL organelles (Lhe nuclel) are forced Lo Lhe boLLom of Lhe Lube where Lhey form a Lhln
sedlmenL or pelleL
O 1he fluld aL Lhe Lop of Lhe Lube (supernaLanL) ls removed leavlng [usL Lhe sedlmenL of Lhe nuclel
O 1he supernaLanL ls Lransferred Lo anoLher Lube and spun ln Lhe ulLracenLrlfuge aL a fasLer speed Lhan
before
O 1he nexL heavlesL organelles (Lhe mlLochondrla) are forced Lo Lhe boLLom of Lhe Lube
O 1he process ls conLlnued ln Lhls way so LhaL wlLh each lncrease ln speed Lhe nexL heavlesL organelle ls
sedlmenLed and separaLed ouL
32 1he e|ectron m|croscope
lghL mlcroscopes have a poor resoluLlon as a resulL of Lhe relaLlvely long wavelengLh of llghL An elecLron
mlcroscope and lL has Lwo maln advanLages
O 1he elecLron beam has a very shorL wavelengLh and Lhe mlcroscope has a hlgh resolvlng power
O As elecLrons have a negaLlve charge Lhe beam can be focused uslng elecLron magneLs
8ecause elecLrons are absorbed ln alr a nearvacuum has Lo be creaLed wlLhln Lhe chamber of an elecLron
mlcroscope ln order for lL Lo work effecLlvely
1here are Lwo Lypes of elecLron mlcroscope
O 1he Lransmlsslon elecLron mlcroscope (1LM)
O 1he scannlng elecLron mlcroscope (SLM)
1he transm|ss|on e|ectron m|croscope conslsLs of an elecLron gun LhaL produces a beam of elecLrons LhaL ls
focused on Lhe speclmen by a condenser elecLromagneL ln Lhe 1LM Lhe beam passes Lhrough a Lhln secLlon of
Lhe speclmen arLs of Lhls speclmen absorb elecLrons and Lherefore appear dark CLher parLs of Lhe speclmen
allow elecLrons Lo pass Lhrough and so appear brlghL An lmage ls produced on a screen and Lhls can be
phoLographed Lo glve a phoLomlcrograph 1he resolvlng power of a 1LM ls 0nm alLhough problems durlng
preparaLlon mean LhaL Lhls canL always be achleved 1he maln llmlLaLlons of a 1LM are
O 1he whole speclmen musL be ln a vacuum and so llvlng speclmens canL be observed
O A complex sLalnlng process ls requlred and even Lhen Lhe lmage ls sLlll ln black and whlLe
O 1he speclmen musL be exLremely Lhln
O 1he lmage may conLaln arLefacLs
ln Lhe 1LM Lhe speclmens musL be exLremely Lhln Lo allow elecLrons Lo peneLraLe 1he resulL ls Lherefore a 2u
lmage A serles of secLlons can be Laken and a 3u lmage can be bullL from Lhls
1he scann|ng e|ectron m|croscope has all Lhe same maln llmlLaLlons as Lhe 1LM wlLh Lhe excepLlon LhaL Lhe
speclmens donL need Lo be exLremely Lhln as elecLrons donL peneLraLe 1he SLM dlrecLs a beam of elecLrons
on Lo Lhe surface of Lhe speclmen from above raLher Lhan below 1he beam ls Lhen passed back and forLh
across a porLlon of Lhe speclmen ln a regular paLLern 1he elecLrons are scaLLered by Lhe speclmen and Lhe
paLLern of Lhls scaLLerlng depends on Lhe conLours of Lhe speclmens surface We can bulld up a 3u lmage by
compuLer analysls of Lhe paLLern of scaLLered elecLrons and secondary elecLrons produced 1he SLM has a
resolvlng power of 20nm
33 Structure of an ep|the||a| ce||
LplLhellal cells are eukaryoLlc cells 1hls means Lhey have a dlsLlncL nucleus and possess membranebounded
organelles unllke prokaryoLlc cells such as bacLerla LplLhellal cells absorb and secreLe uslng an elecLron
mlcroscope we can see Lhe sLrucLure of organelles ln Lhe cells
O -uc|eus mosL promlnenL feaLure of a eukaryoLlc cell such as an eplLhellal cell 1he nucleus conLalns
Lhe organlsm's heredlLary maLerlal and conLrols Lhe cell's acLlvlLles lL ls beLween 0 and 20um ln
dlameLer and has a number of parLs
-uLA L-ILCL double membrane surroundlng Lhe nucleus lLs ouLer membrane ls conLlnuous
wlLh endoplasmlc reLlculum of Lhe cell and lL ofLen has rlbosomes on lLs surface lL conLrols Lhe enLry
and exlL of maLerlals ln and ouL of Lhe nucleus and conLalns Lhe reacLlons Laklng place wlLhln lL
-uLA CLS allow passage of large molecules such as messenger -A ouL of Lhe nucleus
1here are many of Lhese ln each nucleus
-uLCASM granular [ellyllke maLerlal maklng up Lhe bulk of Lhe nucleus
PCMA1l- u-A found wlLhln nucleoplasm lL ls Lhe dlffuse form LhaL chromosomes Lake up when
Lhe cell ls noL dlvldlng
-uLCuS small spherlcal body wlLhln Lhe nucleoplasm lL manufacLures rlbosomal -A and
assembles rlbosomes

1he funcLlon of Lhe nucleus ls Lo
acL as Lhe conLrol cenLre of Lhe cell Lhrough Lhe producLlon of m-A and so proLeln synLhesls
reLaln Lhe geneLlc maLerlal of Lhe cell ln Lhe form of u-A or chromosomes
manufacLure rlbosomal -A and rlbosomes

O ,|tochondr|on Lhese are rodshaped and 0um ln lengLh 1hey are made up of
uCu8L MLM8A-L surroundlng Lhe organelle CuLer one conLrols exlL and enLry of maLerlal lnner
membrane ls folded Lo form exLenslons called crlsLae
lS1AL shelfllke exLenslons of Lhe lnner membrane some of whlch exLend across Lhe whole wldLh
of Lhe mlLochondrlon 1hey provlde a large surface area for Lhe aLLachmenL of enzymes ln resplraLlon
MA1lx makes up Lhe remalnder lL ls a semlrlgld maLerlal conLalnlng proLeln llplds and some u-A
allowlng Lhe mlLochondrlon Lo conLrol Lhe producLlon of Lhelr own proLelns 1he enzymes lnvolved ln
resplraLlon are found ln Lhe maLrlx

MlLrochondrla are Lhe slLes of cerLaln sLages of resplraLlon and are responslble for Lhe producLlon of
Lhe energycarrled molecule A1C from carbohydraLes 8ecause of Lhls Lhe number and slze of
mlLochondrla and Lhelr number of crlsLae all lncrease ln cells wlLh a hlgh level of meLabollc acLlvlLy as
Lhey need more A1 1hese lnclude muscle and eplLhellal cells LplLhellal cells use a loL of energy ln
Lhe process of acLlve LransporL

O Lndop|asm|c ret|cu|um (Lk) 3u sysLem of sheeLllke membranes spreadlng Lhrough Lhe cyLoplasm
of cells lL ls conLlnuous wlLh Lhe ouLer nuclear membrane 1he membranes enclose flaLLened sacs
called clsLernae 1wo Lypes of L
*CuCP L-uCASMl L1luuM (L) has rlbosomes presenL on Lhe ouLer surfaces of
membranes lLs funcLlons are Lo provlde a large surface area of synLhesls or proLelns and
glycoproLelns and Lo provlde a paLhway for Lhe LransporL of maLerlals llke proLelns LhroughouL Lhe
cell
*SMCC1P L-uCASMl L1luuM (SL) Lhls lacks rlbosomes on lLs surface and ls more Lubular
ln appearances lLs funcLlon ls Lo synLhesls sLore and LransporL llplds and carbohydraLes
lL follows LhaL cells LhaL need Lo manufacLure and sLore large quanLlLles of carbohydraLes proLelns
and llplds have a very exLenslve L Such cells lnclude llver and secreLory cells eg eplLhellal cells LhaL
llne lnLesLlnes

O o|g| apparatus Lhls occurs ln all eukaryoLlc cells and has a slmllar sLrucLure Lo Lhe SL buL ls more
compacL lL conslsLs of a sLack of memberanes LhaL make up flaLLened sacks clsLernae wlLh small rounded
hollow sLrucLures called veslcles 1he proLelns and llplds produced by Lhe L are passed Lhrough Lhe golgl
apparaLus ln a sLrlcL sequence 1he golgl modlfles Lhese proLelns ofLen addlng non proLeln componenLs
such as carbohydraLe Lo Lhem lL also labels Lhem allowlng Lhem Lo be accuraLely sorLed and senL Lo Lhelr
correcL desLlnaLlon Cnce sorLed Lhe modlfled proLelns and llplds are LransporLed ln veslcles whlch are
regularly plnched off Lhe ends of Colgl clsLernae 1hese veslcles move Lo Lhe cell surface where Lhey fuse
wlLh Lhe membrane and release Lhelr conLenLs Lo Lhe ouLslde 1he funcLlon of Lhe golgl apparaLus ls Lo
add carbohydraLe Lo proLelns Lo form glycoproLelns
produce secreLory enzymes such as Lhose produced by Lhe pancreas
secreLe carbohydraLes such as Lhose used Lo maklng cell walls ln planLs
LransporL modlfy and sLore llplds
form lysosomes

O Lysosomes formed when veslcles produced by Lhe Colgl apparaLus conLaln enzymes such as
proLeases and llpases As many as 0 such enzymes can be conLalned ln a slngle lysosome up Lo
0um ln dlameLer lysosomes lsolaLe Lhese poLenLlally harmful enzymes from Lhe resL of Lhe cell
before releaslng Lhem elLher Lo Lhe ouLslde or lnLo a phagocyLlc veslcle wlLhln Lhe cell 1he funcLlon
of lysosomes ls Lo
break down maLerlal lngesLed by phagocyLlc cells such as whlLe blood cells
release enzymes Lo Lhe ouLslde of Lhe cell (exocyLosls) ln order Lo desLroy maLerlal around Lhe cell
dlgesL worn ouL organelles so LhaL Lhe useful chemlcals Lhey are made of can be reused
compleLely break down cells afLer Lhey have dled (auLolysls)

O #-484208small cyLoplasmlc granules found ln all cells 1hey may occur ln Lhe cyLoplasm or be
assoclaLed wlLh L 1here are Lwo Lypes dependlng on Lhe cells ln whlch Lhey are found
) 80S type found ln eukaryoLlc cells around 2nm ln dlameLer
2) 70s type found ln prokaryoLlc cells sllghLly smaller
lbosomes have Lwo subunlLs one large and one small each of Lhese conLalns rlbosomal -A and proLeln
uesplLe Lhelr small slze Lhey occur ln vasL numbers lbosomes are lmporLanL ln proLeln synLhesls
O ,|crov|||| flnger llke pro[ecLlons of Lhe eplLhellal cell LhaL lncrease surface area allowlng more
efflclenL absorpLlon
lL ls posslble Lo deduce Lhe funcLlon of a cell by looklng aL Lhe number and slze of Lhe organelles lL conLalns eg
mlLochondrla producL A1 as a Lemporary energy sLore so cells wlLh many mlLochondrla are llkely Lo requlre a
loL of A1 and Lherefore have a hlgher raLe of meLabollsm

34 L|p|ds
lplds are a varled group of subsLances LhaL share Lhe followlng characLerlsLlcs
O 1hey conLaln carbon hydrogen and oxygen
O 1he proporLlon of oxygen Lo carbon and hydrogen ls smaller Lhan ln carbohydraLes
O 1hey are lnsoluble ln waLer
O 1hey are soluble ln solvenLs such as alcohol or aceLone
1he maln groups of llplds are Lrlglycerldes (faLs and olls) phosphollplds and waxes
1he maln role of llplds ls ln plasma membranes hosphollplds conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe flexlblllLy of membranes and
Lhe Lransfer of llpldsoluble subsLances across Lhem CLher roles of llplds lnclude
O n energy source when oxldlsed llplds provlde more Lhan Lwlce Lhe energy as Lhe same mass of
carbohydraLe
O Jaterproof|ng lplds are lnsoluble ln waLer and Lherefore useful as a waLerprooflng lanLs and lnsecLs
have waxy cuLlcles Lo conserve waLer whlle mammals produce an olly secreLlon
O Insu|at|on when sLored beneaLh Lhe body Lhey help Lo reLaln body heaL
O rotect|on faL ls sLored around dellcaLe organs
laLs are solld aL room Lemp whlle olls are llqulds 1rlglycerldes have Lhree (Lrl) faLLy aclds comblned wlLh a
glycerol Lach faLLy acld forms a bond wlLh glycerol ln a condensaLlon reacLlon Pydrolysls of a Lrlglycerlde
Lherefore produces glycerol and Lhree faLLy aclds
As Lhe glycerol molecule ln all Lrlglycerldes ls Lhe same Lhe dlfferences ln properLles of faLs and olls come from
varlaLlons ln Lhe faLLy aclds 1here are over 0 and all have a carboxyl (CCP) group wlLh a hydrocarbon chaln
aLLached lf Lhe chaln has no carboncarbon double bonds Lhe faLLy acld ls saturated as all Lhe carbon aLoms
are saLuraLed wlLh hydrogen aLoms lf Lhere ls a slngle double bond lL ls monounsaturated and lf Lhere ls
more Lhan one double bond lL ls po|yunsaturated
hosphollplds are slmllar Lo llplds excepL one of Lhe faLLy acld molecules ls replaced by a phosphaLe molecule
laLLy aclds repel waLer (are hydrophoblc) where as phosphaLe molecules aLLracL waLer (are hydrophlllc) A
phosphollpld ls Lherefore made up of Lwo parLs
O a hydrophlllc head whlch lnLeracLs wlLh waLer
O a hydrophoblc Lall whlch orlenLs lLself away from waLer buL mlxes readlly wlLh faL
Molecules LhaL have Lwo ends LhaL behave dlfferenLly ln Lhls way are sald Lo be polar When Lhese polar
phosphollpld molecules are placed ln waLer Lhey poslLlon Lhemselves so LhaL Lhe hydrophlllc heads are as close
Lo Lhe waLer as posslble and Lhe hydrophoblc Lalls are as far away from Lhe waLer as posslble 1he
phosphollplds may form a monolayer or a bllayered sheeL
1he LesL for llplds ls known as Lhe emulslon LesL and ls carrled ouL as follows
add cm3 of eLhanol Lo 2cm3 of Lhe sample belng LesLed ln a dry and greasefree LesL Lube
shake Lhoroughly Lo dlssolve any llpld ln Lhe sample
add cm3 of waLer and shake genLly
a cloudywhlLe colour lndlcaLes Lhe presence of a llpld 1hls ls due Lo any llpld ln Lhe sample belng flnely
dlspersed ln Lhe waLer Lo form an emulslon lghL passlng Lhrough Lhls emulslon ls refracLed as lL passes from
oll Lo waLer dropleLs maklng lL appear cloudy
as a conLrol repeaL Lhe procedures uslng waLer lnsLead of Lhe sample Lhe flnal soluLlon should remaln clear

3S Ce||surface membrane
1hls ls Lhe plasma membrane surroundlng cells and forms Lhe boundary beLween Lhe cyLoplasm and
envlronmenL lL allows dlfferenL condlLlons Lo be esaLabllshed lnslde and ouLslde of a cell lL conLrols Lhe
movemenL of subsLances ln and ouL of Lhe cell
hospho||p|ds are an lmporLanL componenL of cellsurface membrane because
O one layer of phosphollplds has lLs hydrophlllc heads polnLs lnwards (lnLeracLlng wlLh waLer ln
cyLoplasm)
O Lhe oLher layer has lLs head polnLlng ouLwards (lnLeracLlng wlLh waLer surroundlng all cells)
O Lhe 2 hydrophlllc Lalls on Lhe phosphollplds on boLh layers polnL lnLo Lhe cenLre of Lhe membrane
proLecLed from Lhe waLer on boLh sldes
lpldsoluble maLerlal moves Lhrough Lhe membrane vla Lhe phosphollpld porLlon 1he funcLlons of
phosphollplds ln Lhe membrane are Lo
O allow llpldsoluble subsLances Lo enLer and leave Lhe cell
O prevenL waLersoluble subsLances enLerlng and leavlng
O make Lhe membrane flexlble
rote|ns of Lhe cellsurface membrane are arranged more randomly Lhan Lhe regular paLLern on
phosphollplds 1hey are embedded ln Lhe phosphollpld bllayer ln Lwo ways
LxLrlnslc proLelns occur elLher on Lhe surface of Lhe bllayer buL never exLend compleLely across 1hey acL
elLher Lo glve mechanlcal supporL Lo Lhe membrane or as cell recepLors for hormones
lnLrlnslc proLelns compleLely span Lhe bllayer from one slde Lo anoLher Some acL as carrlers Lo LransporL
waLersoluble maLerlal across Lhe membrane whlle oLhers are enzymes
1he funcLlon of proLelns ln Lhe membrane are Lo
O provlde sLrucLural supporL
O acL as carrlers LransporLlng waLersoluble subsLances across Lhe membrane
O allow acLlve LransporL across Lhe membrane by formlng lon channels for sodlum poLasslum eLc
O lorm recognlLlon slLes by ldenLlfylng cells
O Pelp cells adhere LogeLher
O AcL as recepLors eg hormones
1he varlous molecules comblne lnLo Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe cellsurface ln an arrangemenL known as Lhe f|u|d
mosa|c model lluld because Lhe lndlvldual phosphollpld molecules can move relaLlve Lo one anoLher glvlng
Lhe membrane a flexlble sLrucLure LhaL consLanLly changes shape Mosalc because Lhe proLelns LhaL are
embedded ln Lhe bllayer vary ln shape slze and paLLern

36 D|ffus|on
An example of passlve LransporL Lhe energy comes from Lhe lnbullL moLlon of parLlcles raLher Lhan an
exLernal source All parLlcles are consLanLly ln moLlon due Lo klneLlc energy Lhey possess 1he moLlon ls
random arLlcles consLanLly bounce of eachoLher as well as Lhe sldes of Lhe vessel whlch conLalns Lhem lL
only occurs beLween dlfferenL concenLraLlons of Lhe same subsLance
lL ls Lhe neL movemenL of molecules or lons across a concenLraLlon gradlenL from a reglon where Lhey are
more hlghly concenLraLed Lo one where Lhelr concenLraLlon ls lower
lf parLlcles are all one one slde of a vessel and are ln random moLlon Lhey begln Lo spread evenly unLll Lhe
sysLem ls ln equlllbrlum 1hls means Lhe probablllLy of a parLlcle movlng lefL Lo rlghL ls equal Lo one movlng ln
Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon 1here ls no concenLraLlon gradlenL 1hey are sLlll movlng and lndlvldual parLlcles are
conLlnuously changlng poslLlon Lhls slLuaLlon ls called dynam|c equ|||br|um
aLe of dlffuslon
O Concentrat|on grad|ent Lhe greaLer Lhe dlfference ln concenLraLlon Lhe fasLer Lhe raLe of dlffuslon
O rea over wh|ch |t takes p|ace Lhe large Lhe exchange surface area Lhe fasLer Lhe raLe
O 1h|ckness of exchange surface Lhe Lhlnner Lhe surface Lhe fasLer Lhe raLe
1he relaLlonshlp beLween Lhese facLors shows LhaL dlffuslon ls proporLlonal Lo (Surface area x dlfference ln
concenLraLlon)/lengLh of dlffuslon paLhway
1hls expresslon lsn'L wholly appllcable Lo cells because dlffuslon ls also affecLed by Lhe naLure of Lhe
plasma membrane (lLs composlLlons and number of pores) and Lhe slze and naLure of Lhe flffuslng
molecules (small molecules dlffuse fasLer polar molecules dlffuse fasLer faLsoluble molecules dlffuse
fasLer Lhan waLersoluble ones)
laclllLaLed dlffuslon ls a passlve process lL dlffers Lo dlffuslon ln LhaL lL occurs aL speclflc polnLs on Lhe
plasma membrane where Lhere are speclal proLeln molecules 1hese proLelns form waLerfllled channels
across Lhe membrane allowlng waLersoluble lons and molecules such as glucose and amlno aclds Lo pass
Lhrough Such molecules dlffuse only very slowly Lhrough Lhe phosphollpld bllayer of Lhe plasma
membrane 1he channels are selecLlve meanlng Lhey remaln closed lf Lhe parLlcular molecule ls noL
presenL Lhus Lhere ls some conLrol over Lhe enLry and exlL of subsLances
laclllLaLed dlffuslon can also occur uslng carrler proLelns whlch span Lhe plasma membrane When a
molecule speclflc Lo Lhe proLeln ls presenL lL blnds wlLh lL 1hls causes lL Lo change shape so Lhe molecule
ls released Lo Lhe lnslde of Lhe membrane -o exLernal energy ls used for Lhls only Lhe klneLlc energy of
Lhe molecules Lhemselves

37 Csmos|s
Csmosls ls Lhe movemenL of waLer from a reglon where lL has a hlgher waLer poLenLlal Lo a reglon where
lL has a lower waLer poLenLlal Lhrough a parLlally permeable membrane
ellsurface membranes and oLher plasma membranes are parLlally permeable meanlng Lhey are
permeable Lo waLer and oLher small molecules buL noL Lo larger molecules
under sLandard condlLlons of 2' and 00ka pressure waLer ls sald Lo have a poLenLlal of zero lL follows
LhaL
Lhe addlLlon of a soluLe Lo pure waLer wlll lower lLs poLenLlal
Lhe waLer poLenLlal of a soluLlon (waLer+soluLe) musL always be less Lhan zero le negaLlve
Lhe more soluLlon added (soluLlon ls more concenLraLed) Lhe lower (more negaLlve) lLs waLer poLenLlal
waLer wlll move by osmosls from a reglon of less negaLlve eg 20ka waLer poLenLlal Lo one of lower
(more negaLlve) waLer poLenLlal eg 30ka
1o flnd Lhe waLer poLenLlal of cells or Llssues we can place Lhem ln a serles of soluLlons When Lhere ls no
neL galn or loss of waLer Lhe waLer poLenLlal lnslde Lhe cells or Llssues musL be Lhe same as Lhe soluLlon
WaLer molecules dlffuse from an area of hlgh waLer poLenLlal Lo lower waLer poLenLlal along a waLer
poLenLlal gradlenL unLll dynamlc equlllbrlum ls esLabllshed and Lhere ls no neL movemenL of waLer 1he
hlghesL value of waLer poLenLlal of pure waLer ls zero and oLher values are negaLlve
ed blood cells for example conLaln a varleLy of soluLes dlssolved ln Lhelr waLery cyLoplasm lf Lhe cell ls
placed ln pure waLer lL wlll absorb Lhe waLer by osmosls as lL has a lower waLer poLenLlal ell surface
membranes are very Lhln and cannoL sLreLch much causlng Lhem Lo break and Lhe cell bursLs and releases
lLs conLenL (haemolysls) 1o prevenL Lhls happenlng anlmal cells are normally ln a llquld (blood plasma for
mammals) whlch has Lhe same waLer poLenLlal as Lhe cells lf Lhe cell ls placed ln soluLlon wlLh a waLer
poLenLlal lower Lhan lLs own waLer leaves Lhe cell and lL becomes shrlvelled
lanL cells are unable Lo conLrol Lhe composlLlon of fluld around Lhelr cells WaLer enLerlng a planL cell
whlch ls absorbed from Lhe rooLs causes Lhe proLoplasL Lo swell and press on Lhe cell wall and Lhe cell
becomes Lurgld Cn Lhe oLher hand lf Lhe cell ls placed ln an area wlLh a lower waLer poLenLlal Lhan lLs
own waLer leaves and Lhe cell shrlnks and becomes plasmolysed

38 ct|ve transport
AcLlve LransporL ls Lhe movemenL of molecules or lons from a reglon of lower concenLraLlon Lo an area of
hlgher concenLraLlon uslng energy and carrler molecules
lL dlffers from passlve LransporL as lL requlres meLabollc energy ln Lhe form of A1 and maLerlals move
agalnsL a concenLraLlon gradlenL lurLhermore carrler proLelns are lnvolved 1he process ls very selecLlve
AcLlve LransporL uses A1 ln one of Lwo ways
by uslng A1 dlrecLly Lo move molecules
by uslng a concenLraLlon gradlenL LhaL has already been seL up by dlrecL acLlve LransporL 1hls ls co
transport
ulrecL acLlve LransporL happens as follows
O 1he carrler proLelns span Lhe cellsurface membrane and accepL Lhe molecules/lons on one slde
O 1he molecules or lons blnd Lo recepLors on Lhe channels of Lhls proLeln
O Cn Lhe lnslde A1 blnds Lo Lhe proLeln causlng lL Lo spllL lnLo Au and a phosphaLe molecule
1hls causes Lhe proLeln molecule Lo change shape and opens Lhe opposlLe slde of Lhe membrane
O 1he molecules/lons are released Lo Lhe oLher slde of Lhe membrane
O 1he phosphaLe molecule ls released from Lhe proLeln and recomblnes wlLh Lhe Au Lo form A1
O 1he proLeln reverLs Lo lLs orlglnal shape so Lhe process can be repeaLed
Whlle faclllLaLed dlffuslon occurs down a concenLraLlon gradlenL acLlve LransporL occurs agalnsL lL
SomeLlmes Lhe molecule or lon ls moved lnLo a cell aL Lhe same Llme as a dlfferenL one ls belng removed Cne
example of Lhls ls Lhe sodlumpoLasslum pump whlch ls essenLlal for lmporLanL processes llke Lhe creaLlon of a
nerve lmpulse

39 bsorpt|on |n the sma|| |ntest|ne
Soluble producLs of carbohydraLes glucose frucLose and galacLose are absorbed ln Lhe body ln slmllar ways
Clucose ls absorbed Lhrough Lhe walls of Lhe small lnLesLlne 1hese are folded lnLo flngerllke pro[ecLlons called
vllll 1hey have Lhln walls llned wlLh eplLhellal cells on Lhe oLher slde of whlch ls a neLwork of blood caplllarles
Illll are slLuaLed beLween Lhe lumen of lnLesLlnes and blood and oLher Llssues ln Lhe body 1hey lncrease Lhe
efflclency of absorpLlon ln followlng ways
O 1hey lncrease Lhe surface area for dlffuslon
O 1hey are very Lhln walled Lhus reduclng Lhe dlsLance over whlch dlffuslon Lakes place
O 1hey are able Lo move and help Lo malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL
O 1hey are well supplled wlLh blood vessels so LhaL blood can carry away absorbed molecules and hence
malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL
1he eplLhellal cells possess mlcrovllll Illll are mm pro[ecLlons of Lhe wall of Lhe small lnLesLlne whlle mlcrovllll
re 0um pro[ecLlons of Lhe cellsurface membrane of Lhe eplLhellal cells LhaL llne Lhe wall Mlcrovllll are more
Lhan 000x Llmes smaller Lhan vllll
As carbohydraLes are belng dlgesLed conLlnuously Lhere ls normally a greaLer concenLraLlon of glucose ln Lhe
small lnLesLlne Lhan ln Lhe blood so Lhere ls a concenLraLlon gradlenL down whlch glucose dlffuses from lnslde
Lhe small lnLesLlne lnLo Lhe blood As blood ls consLanLly belng clrculaLed by Lhe hearL Lhe glucose absorbed
lnLo lL ls conLlnuously belng Laken up by Lhe cells as Lhey use lL for resplraLlon 1hls malnLalns Lhe
concenLraLlon gradlenL beLween Lhe lnslde of Lhe small lnLesLlne and Lhe blood
1he vllll conLaln muscles LhaL regularly conLracL and relax mlxlng Lhe conLenLs of Lhe small lnLesLlne 1hls
ensures LhaL glucose absorbed from Lhe food ad[acenL Lo Lhe vllll ls replaced by new glucoserlch food 1hls
also helps Lo malnLaln Lhe concenLraLlon gradlenL allowlng dlffuslon Lo conLlnue
ulffuslon only resulLs ln Lhe concenLraLlons elLher slde of Lhe lnLesLlnal eplLhellum becomlng equal meanlng
noL all Lhe glucose can be absorbed ln Lhls way Powever glucose ls also belng absorbed by acLlve LransporL so
all Lhe glucose ls absorbed lnLo Lhe blood
1he meLhod by whlch glucose ls absorbed from Lhe small lnLesLlne ls an example of coLransporL as Lwo
molecules are lnvolved Clucose ls drawn lnLo Lhe cells along wlLh sodlum lons LhaL have been acLlvely
LransporLed ouL by Lhe sodlumpoLasslum pump

O Sodlum lons are acLlvely LransporLed ouL of eplLhellal cells by Lhe sodlumpoLasslum pump lnLo Lhe
blood 1hls Lakes place ln one Lype of proLelncarrler molecule
O 1here ls a much hlgher concenLraLlon of sodlum lons ln Lhe lumen of Lhe lnLesLlne Lhan lnslde Lhe
eplLhellal cells as a resulL
O 1he sodlum lons dlffuse lnLo Lhe eplLhellal cells down Lhe concenLraLlon gradlenL Lhrough a dlfferenL
Lype of proLeln carrler (coLransporL proLeln) ln Lhe cellsurface membrane As Lhe sodlum lons flood
back ln Lhrough Lhls second carrler proLeln Lhey couple wlLh Lhe glucose molecules LhaL are carrled
lnLo Lhe cell wlLh Lhem
O 1he glucose passes lnLo Lhe blood plasma by faclllLaLed dlffuslon uslng anoLher Lype of carrler
8oLh sodlum lons and glucose molecules move lnLo Lhe cell buL whlle Lhe sodlum lons move down Lhelr
concenLraLlon gradlenL Lhe glucose molecules move up Lhelrs lL ls Lhe sodlum lons LhaL power Lhe movemenL
of glucose raLher Lhan A1 dlrecLly 1hls makes lL an lndlrecL form of acLlve LransporL

310 Cho|era
holera ls caused by a rodshaped bacLerlum called vlbtlo cboletoe whlch has a flagellum aL one end 8acLerla
are prokaryoLlc cells 1hese have no nucleus only a dlffuse area of nuclear maLerlal 1hey also have no
nucleolus 1hey have clrcular sLrands of u-A buL no chromosomes lurLhermore Lhese have no membrane
bounded organelles 1helr rlbosomes are smaller (0S) compared Lo Lhe larger (80S) found ln eukaryoLes
1here are phoLosynLheLlc reglons ln some bacLerla buL no chloroplasLs 1hey have no endoplasmlc reLlculum or
Colgl apparaLus and lysosomes LhaL are assoclaLed wlLh lL Also Lhe cell wall ls made of pepLldoglycan and noL
cellulose
oles of sLrucLures found ln bacLerlal cells
Ce|| wa|| physlcal barrler proLecLlng agalnsL mechanlcal damage and excludes cerLaln subsLances
Capsu|e proLecLs bacLerlum from oLher cells Pelps groups of bacLerla sLlck LogeLher for furLher proLecLlon
Ce||surface membrane acLs as a dlfferenLlally permeable layer conLrolllng Lhe enLry and exlL of chemlcals
I|age||um alds movemenL of bacLerlum because lLs shape and roLaLlng base help Lhe cell spln Lhrough flulds
C|rcu|ar D- possesses Lhe geneLlc lnformaLlon for Lhe repllcaLlon of bacLerlal cells
|asm|d possesses genes LhaL ald Lhe survlval of bacLerla ln adverse condlLlons eg produces enzymes whlch
break down anLlbodles
8acLerla are 0 Lo 0um ln lengLh 1helr pepLldoglycan cell wall ls made up of polysaccharldes and pepLldes
lnslde Lhe cell wall ls Lhe cell surface membrane lnslde Lhls ls Lhe cyLoplasm conLalnlng Lhe 0S rlbosomes
used Lo synLheslse proLelns 8acLerla sLore food reserves as glycogen granules and oll dropleLs SeparaLe from
Lhe clrcular sLrand of u-A are Lhe plasmlds 1hese reproduce Lhemselves lndependenly glvlng Lhe bacLerlum
reslsLance Lo harmful chemlcals lasmlds are used ln geneLlc englneerlng
holera causes dlarrhoea and consequenLly dlarrhoea vlbtlo cblotetoe ls LransmlLLed by Lhe lngesLlon of waLer
LhaL ls conLamlnaLed wlLh faecal maLerlal conLalnlng Lhe paLhogen
AlmosL all Lhe bacLerla lngesLed by humans are kllled by acldlc condlLlons ln Lhe sLomach buL some may
survlve lf Lhe pP ls above 4
When Lhe survlvlng bacLerla read Lhe small lnLesLlne Lhey use Lhe flagella Lo propel Lhemselves Lhrough Lhe
mucus llnlng of Lhe lnLesLlnal wall
1hey begln Lo produce a Loxln proLeln 1hls proLeln has Lwo parLs Cne blnds Lo Lhe speclflc carbohydraLe
recepLors on Lhe cellsurface membrane Cnly Lhe eplLhellal cells of Lhe small lnLesLlne have Lhe speclflc
recepLors whlch ls why Lhe cholera Loxln only affecLs Lhls reglon of Lhe body 1he Loxln parL enLers Lhe
eplLhellal cells 1hls causes Lhe lon channels of Lhe cellsurface membrane Lo open so LhaL Lhe chlorlde lons
LhaL are normally ln Lhe eplLhellal cells flood lnLo Lhe lumen of Lhe lnLesLlne
1he loss of chlorlde lons from Lhe eplLhellal cells ralses Lhelr waLer poLenLlal whlle Lhe lncrease of chlorlde
lons ln he lumen lowers lLs waLer poLenLlal WaLer flows from Lhe cells lnLo Lhe lumen as a resulL
1he loss of lons creaLes a concenLraLlon gradlenL lons move by dlffuslon lnLo Lhe eplLhellal cells from Lhe
surroundlng Llssues llke Lhe blood 1hls creaLes a waLer poLenLlal gradlenL causlng waLer Lo move by osmosls
from Lhe blood lnLo Lhe lnLesLlne
1hls loss of waLer from Lhe blood and oLher Llssues lnLo Lhe lnLesLlne LhaL causes Lhe sympLoms of cholera

311 Cra| rehydrat|on therapy
ularrhoea ls caused by
O damage Lo eplLhellal cells llnlng Lhe lnLesLlne
O loss of mlcrovllll due Lo Loxlns
O excesslve secreLlon of waLer due Lo Loxlns eg cholera Loxln
As a resulL excesslve fluld ls losL and dehydraLlon resulLs whlch may be faLal

!usL drlnklng waLer Lo LreaL dlarrhoeal dlseases ls lneffecLlve as waLer ls noL absorbed from Lhe lnLesLlne
(lL ls belng losL ln Lhe case of cholera) Also Lhe drlnklng of waLer doesn'L replace Lhe lons LhaL are belng
losL from Lhe eplLhellal cells of Lhe lnLesLlne
Cral rehydraLlon Lherapy ls a mlxLure of subsLances LhaL can be Laken by Lhe mouLh and ls absorbed by
Lhe lnLesLlne AlLhough Lhe lnLesLlne ls noL absorblng waLer Lhere are oLher carrler proLelns ln Lhe cell
surface membranes of Lhe eplLhellal cell s LhaL absorb sodlum lons 1he rehydraLlon soluLlon uses Lhese
alLernaLlve paLhways As sodlum lons are absorbed Lhe waLer poLenLlal of Lhe cells falls and waLer enLers
Lhe cells b osmosls
Cral rehydraLlon soluLlon needs Lo conLaln
O water Lo rehydraLe Llssues
O sod|um Lo replace Lhe sodlum lons losL from Lhe eplLhellum of Lhe lnLesLlne and Lo make
opLlmum use of Lhe alLernaLlve sodlumglucose carrler proLelns
O g|ucose Lo sLlmulaLe Lhe upLake of sodlum lons from Lhe lnLesLlne and Lo produce energy
O potass|um Lo replace losL poLasslum lons and Lo sLlmulaLe appeLlLe
O other e|ectro|ytes such as chlorlde or clLraLe lons Lo help prevenL lon lmbalance
1hese lngredlenLs are mlxed and packaged as a powder whlch can be made up lnLo a soluLlon wlLh bolllng
waLer 1he soluLlon musL be glven regularly and ln large amounLs LhroughouL Lhe lllness lL can be
admlnlsLered by people wlLh mlnlmal Lralnlng unllke Lhe use of a drlp whlch requlres Lralned personnel

41 Structure of the human gasexchange system
Mammals need Lo absorb large volumes of oxygen and removed large volumes of carbon dloxlde as Lhey are
large organlsms wlLh a large volume of llvlng cells and because Lhey malnLaln a hlgh body LemperaLure and
Lherefore have hlgh meLabollc and resplraLory raLes ungs ensure efflclenL gas exchange beLween Lhe alr and
Lhelr blood
ungs are locaLed ln Lhe body as alr ls noL dense enough Lo supporL and proLecL Lhem Also Lhey would lose a
greaL deal of waLer and dry ouL 1he bony rlb cage supporLs and proLecLs Lhe lungs 1he rlbs are moved by Lhe
muscles beLween Lhem 1hls allows Lhe lungs Lo be venLllaLed by a Lldal sLream of alr 1he maln parLs of Lhe
human gasexchange sysLem
O |ungs palr of lobed sLrucLures made up of a serles of branched Lubes called bronchloles whlch end ln
Llny alr sacs called alveoll
O trachea flexlble alrway supporLed by rlngs of carLllage 1he carLllage prevenLs Lhe Lrachea collapslng
as Lhe alr pressure lnslde falls when breaLhlng ln 1he Lracheal walls are made up of muscle llned wlLh
clllaLed eplLhellum and gobleL cells 1he gobleL cells produce mucus whlch Lraps dlrL parLlcles and
bacLerla from lnhaled alr 1he cllla moved Lhe mucus up Lo Lhe LhroaL where lL passes down Lhe
oesophagus lnLo Lhe sLomach
O ronch| Lwo dlvlslons of Lhe Lrachea each leadlng Lo one lung 1hey have a slmllar sLrucLure Lo Lhe
Lrachea 1?hey also produce mucus Lo Lrap dlrL parLlcles and have cllla Lo move Lhls Lo Lhe LhroaL 1he
large bronchl are supporLed by carLllage buL Lhls ls reduced as Lhe bronchl geL smaller
O 1he bronch|o|es are a serles of branches from Lhe bronchl 1helr walls are made of muscle llned
wlLh eplLhellal cells 1hls muscle allows Lhem Lo consLrlcL so Lhey can conLrol Lhe flow of alr ln and ouL
of Lhe alveoll
O 1he a|veo|| mlnuLe alr sacs aL Lhe end of bronchloles 1hey conLaln collagen and elasLlc flbres and
are llned wlLh eplLhellum 1he elasLlc flbres allow Lhe alveoll Lo sLreLch as Lhey flll wlLh alr when
breaLhlng ln 1hey Lhen sprlng back durlng breaLhlng Lo expel Lhe C2 rlch alr 1he alveolar membrane
ls Lhe gasexchange surface

42 1he mechan|sm of breath|ng
1o malnLaln dlffuslon of gases across Lhe alveolar eplLhellum alr musL be consLanLly moved ln and ouL of Lhe
lungs We call Lhls process breaLhlng or venLllaLlon When Lhe alr pressure of Lhe aLmosphere ls greaLer Lhan
LhaL of Lhe alr pressure ln Lhe lungs alr ls forced lnLo Lhe alveoll 1hls ls called lnsplraLlon When Lhe alr
pressure ln Lhe lungs ls greaLer Lhan LhaL of Lhe aLmosphere alr ls forced ouL of Lhe lungs 1hls ls called
explraLlon 1he pressure changes ln Lhe lungs are broughL abouL by Lhe movemenL of Lwo seLs of muscles
) Lhe dlaphragm whlch ls a sheeL muscle LhaL separaLes Lhe Lhorax from Lhe abdomen
2) Lhe lnLercosLal muscles whlch lle beLween Lhe rlbs 1here are Lwo Lypes of lnLercosLal muscles
Lhe lnLernal lnLercosLal muscles whose conLracLlon leads Lo explraLlon and Lhe exLernal lnLercosLal
muscles whose conLracLlon leads Lo lnsplraLlon

Insp|rat|on 8reaLhlng ln ls an acLlve process (lL uses energy) and lL occurs as follows
O 1he exLernal lnLercosLal muscles conLracL whlle Lhe lnLernal lnLercosLal muscles relax
O 1he rlbs are pulled upwards and ouLwards lncreaslng Lhe volume of Lhe Lhorax
O 1he dlaphragm muscles conLracL causlng lL Lo flaLLen whlch also lncreases Lhe volume of Lhe Lhorax
O 1he lncreased volume of Lhe Lhorax resulLs ln reducLlon of pressure ln Lhe lungs
O ALmospherlc pressure ls now greaLer Lhan pulmonary pressure and so alr ls forced lnLo Lhe lungs

Lxp|rat|on 8reaLhlng ouL ls a largely passlve process and lL occurs as follows
O 1he lnLernal lnLercosLal muscles conLracL whlle Lhe exLernal lnLercosLal muscles relax
O 1he rlbs move downwards and lnwards decreaslng Lhe volume of Lhe Lhorax
O 1he dlaphragm muscles relax maklng lL reLurn Lo lLs upwardly domed poslLlon agaln decreaslng Lhe
volume of Lhe Lhorax
O 1he decreased volume of Lhe Lhorax lncreases Lhe pressure ln Lhe lungs
O 1he pulmonary pressure ls now greaLer Lhan LhaL of Lhe aLmosphere and so alr ls forced ouL of Lhe lungs


u|monary Vent||at|on ls Lhe LoLal volume of alr LhaL ls moved lnLo Lhe lungs durlng one mlnuLe 1o calculaLe lL
we mulLlply Lwo facLors
O 1|da| vo|ume whlch ls Lhe volume of alr normally Laken ln aL each breaLh when Lhe body ls aL resL
O Vent||at|on breaLhlng raLe le number of breaLhs Laken ln a mlnuLe
ulmonary venLllaLlon ls expressed as dm3mln
u|monary vent||at|on (dm3m|n1) t|da| vo|ume (dm3) x vent||at|on (m|n1)


43 Lxchange of gases |n the |ungs

Lxchange surfaces are adapLed Lo enable efflclenL Lransfer of maLerlals across Lhem by dlffuslon or acLlve
LransporL
O Large surface area]vo|ume rat|o Lo speed up Lhe raLe of exchange
O very th|n Lo keep Lhe dlffuslon paLhway shorL Lo allow maLerlals Lo cross rapldly
O part|a||y permab|e Lo allow selecLed maLerlals Lo dlffuse easlly
O Lhere ls movement of the env|ronmenta| med|um eg alr Lo malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL
O Lhere ls movement of the |nterna| med|um eg blood Lo malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL

llck's aw dlffuslon ls proporLlonal Lo (SA*dlfference ln concenLraLlon)/lengLh of dlffuslon paLh

As gas exchange surfaces are Lhln Lhey are easlly damaged so are ofLen locaLed lnslde an organlsm for
proLecLlon

Mllllons of alveoll ln each lung 1hey make up a huge surface area Lach alveolus ls llned wlLh eplLhellal cells
Around each alveolus ls a neLwork of pulmonary caplllarles LhaL are so narrow ( cell Lhlck) LhaL red blood cells
are flaLLened agalnsL Lhe Lhln walls ln order Lo squeeze Lhrough
ulffuslon of gases beLween Lhe alveoll and blood ls rapld because
O red blood cells are slowed as Lhey pass Lhrough caplllarles allowlng more Llme for dlffuslon
O dlsLance beLween Lhe alveolar alr and red blood cells ls reduced as Lhe cells are flaLLened agalnsL
caplllary walls
O Lhe walls of boLh alveoll and caplllarles are very Lhln shorL dlffuslon paLhway
O alveoll and pulmonary caplllarles have a very large LoLal surface area
O breaLhlng consLanLly venLllaLes Lhe lungs and blood ls consLanLly clrculaLed around Lhe alveoll by Lhe
pumplng of Lhe hearL 1hls ensures LhaL a sLeep concenLraLlon gradlenL of Lhe gases belng exchanged
ls malnLalned
O blood flow Lhrough Lhe pulmonary caplllarles malnLalns a concenLraLlon gradlenL


44 Lung d|sease pu|monary tubercu|os|s

18 ls caused by one of Lwo specles of rodshaped bacLerla ,coboctetlom tobetcolosls or ,coboctetlom
bovls Around 30 of Lhe world's populaLlon have one form of Lhe bacLerlum ln Lhelr body SympLoms lnclude
perslsLenL coughlng Llredness loss of appeLlLe leadlng Lo welghL loss Also fever and coughlng up of blood

18 ls spread Lhrough Lhe alr by dropleLs released when lnfecLed people cough sneeze laugh or Lalk lL spreads
more ln crowded and poorly venLllaLed condlLlons , 1obetcolosls ls a reslsLanL bacLerlum LhaL can survlve
several weeks once Lhe dropleLs have drled
, bovls lnfecLs caLLle Mllk mlghL conLaln Lhe bacLerlum and can spread from cows Lo humans
eople are aL a greaLer rlsk of conLracLlng 18 lf
O Lhey are ln close conLacL wlLh lnfecLed lndlvlduals over long perlods of Llme eg sleeplng and llvlng ln
overcrowded condlLlons
O work or reslde ls longLerm care faclllLles loLs of people llvlng ln close space eg old peoples homes
O are from counLrles where 18 ls common
O have reduced lmmunlLy eg lf Lhey have AluS are very young/old have oLher medlcal condlLlons are
malnourlshed alcohollcs and drug abusers homeless uslng lmmunosuppressanL drugs for LransplanL
surgery
Cnce ,coboctetlom tobetcolosls ls lnhaled by somebody noL lmmune Lo lL Lhe lnfecLlon follows a course
O bacLerla grow and dlvlde ln upper reglons of lungs plenLlful supply of oxygen
O body's lmmune sysLem responds whlLe blood cells accumulaLe aL slLe of lnfecLlon Lo lngesL bacLerla
O lnflammaLlon and enlargemenL of lymph nodes LhaL draln LhaL area of Lhe lungs occurs 1hls ls called
Lhe pr|mary |nfect|on and usually occurs ln chlldren
O healLhy people have few sympLoms lf any and Lhe lnfecLlon ls conLrolled wlLhln a few weeks Some
bacLerla usually remaln
O ?ears laLer Lhese bacLerla may reemerge Lo cause a second lnfecLlon of 18 ostpr|mary
tubercu|os|s 1yplcally occurs ln adulLs
O 1hls lnfecLlon also occurs ln Lhe lung's upper reglons buL ls noL easlly conLrolled 1he bacLerla desLroy
lung Llssue resulLlng ln cavlLles and scar Llssue ls formed where Lhe lung repalrs lLself
O 1he suffer coughs up damaged lung Llssue conLalnlng bacLerla and blood lf noL LreaLed 18 spreads Lo
Lhe resL of Lhe body and can be faLal

4S Lung d|sease f|bros|s asthma and emphysema
u|monary f|bros|s arlses when scars form on Lhe eplLhellum of lungs maklng Lhem lrreverslbly Lhlckened Lhus
lncreaslng Lhe dlffuslon paLhway of resplraLory gases Also Lhe volume of alr Lhe lungs can conLaln ls reduced
as Lhe lungs are belng occupled by flbrous Llssue lL follows LhaL ln paLlenLs wlLh flbrosls oxygen cannoL dlffuse
lnLo Lhe blood as efflclenLly llbrosls also reduces Lhe elasLlclLy of Lhe lungs maklng lL dlfflculL Lo breaLhe ouL
and venLllaLe Lhe lungs 1hese facLors cause shorLness of breaLh especlally when exerclslng as lL ls hard Lo
malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL across Lhe exchange surface
CLher effecLs of flbrosls on lung funcLlon
O Chron|c dry cough flbrous Llssue creaLes obsLrucLlon ln Lhe lungs alrways 8ody reacLs by Lrylng Lo
remove Lhe obsLrucLlon by coughlng 1lssue ls lmmovable and noLhlng ls expelled so Lhe cough ls 'dry'
O a|n and d|scomfort |n the chest due Lo pressure and hence damage from Lhe mass of flbrous Llssue
ln Lhe lungs and furLher damage and scarrlng due Lo coughlng
O Jeakness and fat|gue from Lhe reduced lnLake of oxygen ln Lhe blood 1hls means LhaL Lhe release
of energy by resplraLlon ls reduced leadlng Lo Llredness
sthma ls a locallsed allerglc reacLlon CeneLlcs plays a role 1he lncreaslng number of asLhmaLlcs could be due
Lo lncreased alrpolluLlon and sLress as well as an lncreased number of chemlcals used ln llfe Also 'cleaner'
llfesLyles may make us more easlly senslLlsed Lo allergens laLer ln llfe AffecLs up Lo 0 of world populaLlon
Allergens LhaL sLlmulaLe asLhma lnclude pollen anlmal fur and faeces of house dusL mlLes lL can be Lrlggered
or worsened by alr polluLanLs exerclse cold alr lnfecLlon and sLress for example 1hese allergens cause whlLe
blood cells on Lhe llnlngs of bronchl and bronchloles Lo release hlsLamlne 1hls has Lhe followlng effecLs
O lnlng of alrways becomes lnflamed
O ells of eplLhellal llnlng secreLe larger quanLlLles of mucus Lhan normal
O lluld leaves caplllarles and enLers alrways
O Muscles surroundlng bronchloles conLracL and so consLrlcL Lhe alrways
1here ls a greaLer reslsLance Lo Lhe flow of alr lnLo and ouL of Lhe alveoll maklng lL dlfflculL Lo venLllaLe Lhe
lungs and so malnLaln a dlffuslon gradlenL across Lhe exchange surface SympLoms of asLhma
O D|ff|cu|ty |n breath|ng caused by consLrlcLlon of bronchl and bronchloles Lhelr lnflamed llnlngs and
addlLlonal mucus and fluld wlLhln Lhem
O Jheez|ng sound when breath|ng caused by alr passlng Lhrough Lhe very consLrlcLed bronchl and
bronchloles
O 1|ght fee||ng |n chest caused by noL belng able Lo venLllaLe Lhe lungs adequaLely
O Cough|ng reflex response Lo Lhe obsLrucLed bronchl and bronchloles Lo Lry and clear Lhem
Lmphysema develops ln smokers over a perlod of 20 years or so and cannoL be dlagnosed unLll lungs are
lrreverslbly damaged ln emphysemaLous lungs Lhe proLeln elasLln becomes permanenLly sLreLched and Lhe
lungs are no longer able Lo force ouL all Lhe alr from Lhe alveoll 1hls reduces Lhe surface area of Lhe alveoll and
Lhey someLlmes bursL As a resulL llLLle gas exchange can Lake place across Lhe sLreLched and damaged alr
sacs SympLoms
O Shortness of breath dlfflculLly exhallng alr due Lo loss of elasLlclLy ln Lhe lungs 1hls makes lL dlfflculL
Lo lnhale fresh alr and Lhe paLlenL feels breaLhless Smaller alveolar surface area leads Lo reduced
oxygen levels ln Lhe blood and so Lhe paLlenL Lrles Lo lncrease oxygen supply wlLh rapld breaLhlng
O Chron|c cough lung damage and body's efforL Lo remove damaged Llssue and mucus LhaL cannoL be
removed naLurally as cllla on bronchl and bronchloles have been desLroyed
O |u|sh sk|n co|ourat|on due Lo low levels of oxygen ln Lhe blood as a resulL of poor gas dlffuslon
1o mlnlmlse chances of geLLlng emphysema you should noL smoke or glve up

S1 1he structure of the heart
PearL ls Lwo pumps efL slde deals wlLh oxygenaLed blood from lungs and Lhe rlghL deals wlLh deoxygenaLed
blood from Lhe body Lach pump has Lwo chambers
atr|um Lhlnwalled and elasLlc and sLreLches as lL collecLs blood Cnly has Lo pumpo blood Lhe shorL dlsLance
Lo Lhe venLrlcle
ventr|c|e has a much Lhlcker muscular wall as lL has Lo pump blood Lo Lhe lungs or resL of Lhe body
1he purpose of Lhe double clrculaLory sysLem ln mammals ls Lo make Lhe process fasLer and more efflclenL lL
allows blood reLurned Lo Lhe hearL Lo lncrease lLs pressure before lL ls dlsLrlbuLed Lo Lhe resL of Lhe body and
Lo keep Lhe oxygenaLed and deoxygenaLed blood separaLely CLherwlse blood would have Lo pass Lhrough
caplllarles and Lhere would be a large drop ln pressure

lghL venLrlcle has Lhlnner wall Lhan Lhe lefL as lL only pumps blood Lo Lhe lungs whlle Lhe lefL has a Lhlck one
Lo enable lL Lo creaLe enough pressure Lo pump blood around Lhe whole body 8oLh aLrla conLracL LogeLher
and venLrlcles do Lhe same

1wo valves beLween venLrlcle and aLrla Lo prevenL Lhe backflow of Lhe blood lnLo Lhe aLrla when Lhe venLrlcles
conLracL
*|eft atr|oventr|cu|ar (b|cusp|d) va|ves formed of Lwo cupshaped flaps on Lhe lefL slde of Lhe hearL
*r|ght atr|oventr|cu|ar (tr|cusp|d) va|ves formed of Lhree cupshaped flaps on Lhe rlghL slde of Lhe hearL
arge blood vessels serve each chamber of Lhe hearL LhaL carry blood Lowards or away from lL IenLrlcles
pump blood away from Lhe hearL and lnLo Lhe arLerles ALrla recelve blood from velns Iessels connecLlng Lhe
hearL Lo Lhe lungs are called pulmonary vessels
Ck1 connecLed Lo I and carrles oxygenaLed blood Lo all parLs of Lhe body excepL Lhe lungs
VL- CV connecLed Lo A and brlngs deoxygenaLed blood back from Lhe Llssues of Lhe body
UL,C-k k1Lk connecLed Lo I and carrles deoxygenaLed blood Lo Lhe lungs where oxygen ls
replenlshed and C2 ls removed lL ls unusual for an arLery as lL carrles deoxygenaLed blood
UL,C-k VLI- connecLed Lo A and brlngs oxygenaLed blood (unusual for veln) back from Lhe lungs
1he hearL does noL use Lhe oxygen from Lhe lefL slde of Lhe hearL Lo meeL lLs own resplraLory needs lnsLead
Lhe hearL muscle has lLs own blood vessels called coronary arLerles whlch branch off Lhe aorLa afLer lL leaves
Lhe hearL

S2 Card|ac cyc|e
ardlac cycle ls a sequence of evenLs repeaLed around 0 Llmes each mlnuLe wlLh Lhe human hearL aL resL
1here are Lwo phases Lo Lhe beaLlng of Lhe hearL conLracLlon (systo|e) and relaxaLlon (d|asto|e) onLracLlon
occurs separaLely ln venLrlcles and aLrla whlle relaxaLlon Lakes place slmulLaneously ln all chambers

*ke|axat|on of the heart (d|asto|e) 8lood reLurns Lo aLrla of hearL Lhrough Lhe pulmonary veln and vena
cave As aLrla flll pressure ln Lhem rlses pushlng open aLrlovenLrlcular valves and allow blood Lo pass lnLo
venLrlcles 1he muscular walls of boLh Lhe aLrla and venLrlcles are relaxed aL Lhls sLage elaxaLlon of Lhe
venLrlcle wall reduces pressure ln Lhe venLrlcle ressure here ls lower Lhan LhaL ln Lhe aorLa and pulmonary
arLery so Lhe semllunar valves ln Lhese vessels close and a 'dub' sound ls made
*Contract|on of the atr|a (atr|a| systo|e) muscle of aLrlal walls conLracLs forclng Lhe remalnlng blood LhaL
Lhey conLaln lnLo Lhe venLrlcles 8lood only has Lo be pushed a very shorL dlsLance so muscular walls of Lhe
aLrla are very Lhln uurlng Lhls sLage muscle of Lhe venLrlcle walls remaln relaxed
*Ventr|cu|ar systo|e (ventr|cu|ar systo|e) afLer a delay Lo allow Lhe venLrlcles Lo flll wlLh blood Lhelr walls
conLracL slmulLaneously 1hls lncreases blood pressure wlLhln Lhem forclng shuL aLrlovenLrlcular valves and
prevenLlng backflow of blood lnLo Lhe aLrla A 'lub' sound of Lhe valves closlng ls made 1he closlng of Lhese
valves causes a furLher rlse ln pressure forclng open semllunar valves and pushlng blood lnLo pulmonary
arLery and aorLa efL venLrlcle wall ls LhlckesL as lL has Lo pump blood Lo Lhe exLremlLles of Lhe body
Ialves prevenL Lhe unwanLed backflow of blood due Lo pressure dlfferences Ialves ln Lhe cardlovascular
sysLem are deslgned so Lhey open whenever Lhe dlfferences ln blood pressure elLher slde of Lhem favours Lhe
movemenL of blood ln Lhe requlred dlrecLlon and close when pressure dlfferences are reversed (when blood
would Lend Lo flow ln Lhe opposlLe dlrecLlon Lo whaL ls deslrable)
O tr|oventr|cu|ar va|ves beLween aLrlums and venLrlcles prevenL Lhe backflow of blood when
conLracLlon of Lhe venLrlcles means venLrlcular pressure exceeds aLrlal pressure losure of Lhese
valves ensures blood wlLhln venLrlcles moves Lhrough Lhe arLerles raLher Lhan back Lo Lhe aLrla
O Sem||unar va|ves ln Lhe aorLa and pulmonary arLery prevenL backflow of blood lnLo Lhe venLrlcles
when Lhe recoll acLlon of Lhe elasLlc walls of Lhese vessels creaLes a greaLer pressure ln Lhe vessels
Lhan ln Lhe venLrlcles
O ocket va|ves ln velns ensure LhaL when velns are squeezed blood flows back Lo Lhe hearL and noL
away
All valves are made up of a number of flaps of Lough buL flexlble flbrous Llssue whlch are cuspshaped When
pressure ls greaLer on Lhe convex slde Lhey move aparL Lo leL blood pass beLween Lhe cusps When blood ls
greaLer on Lhe concave slde blood collecLs wlLh Lhe bowl of Lhe cusps 1hls pushes Lhem LogeLher Lo form a
LlghL flL LhaL prevenLs Lhe passage of bloods 1o prevenL Lhem becomlng lnverLed by Lhe greaLer pressure ln
Lhe venLrlcles aLrlovenLrlcular valves have sLrlngllke Lendons aLLached Lo plllars of muscle ln Lhe venLrlcle
wall
ardlac ouLpuL ls Lhe volume of blood pumped by one venLrlcle of Lhe hearL ln one mlnuLe
Card|ac output (dm3m|n1) heart rate x stroke vo|ume
sLroke volume ls Lhe volume of blood pumped ouL aL each beaL