Ch1 Inst

Shinas college oI technology Dept.
oI Engineering
InstrumentationCH1 Page 1

MINIS1k CI MANCWLk

SnINAS CCLLLGL CI 1LCnNCLCG
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SECTION

HAND-OUT

ENGNEERNG NSTRUMENTATON
&
NDUSTRAL CONTROLS
(MME 2210N)

Prepared By
Mr. K.V.V. Atchaiah Sastry
Course Lecturer
Name

ID. No.

Level

Section

Shinas college oI technology Dept. oI Engineering

Course Cutcomes
1 ueflne Lhe funcLlonal elemenLs of Lyplcal measuremenL sysLem
2 ldenLlfy varlous Lypes of sensors and Lransducers
3 8e acqualnLed wlLh all common analogue and dlglLal devlces for daLa
presenLaLlon
4 ulsLlngulsh beLween open and closed loop conLrol sysLems
3 ueflne baslc elemenL of a conLrol sysLem
6 8e famlllar wlLh sysLem conLrol sLraLegles and Lechnlques used ln
englneerlng
7 ueal wlLh all Lypes of slgnal processlng and condlLlonlng
8 Lmploy dlfferenL conLrol meLhods whlch are sulLable for dlfferenL Lypes
of sysLems
9 ueal wlLh operaLlonal ampllfler conLrollers and programmable loglc
conLrollers
10 ueLermlne Lhe Lransfer funcLlon of open and closed loop conLrol sysLems
11 erform laboraLory experlmenLs on lnsLrumenLaLlon wlLh open and
closed loop conLrol sysLems
12 MalnLaln and LesL englneerlng measuremenLs sysLems
13 LvaluaLe Lhe performance of a glven conLrol sysLem

Marks Distribution

The minimum requirement for a passing grade is 'C' and Marks 67. The total mark will be
computed base on the following requirements:

Assessment Marks
1. Quizzes
Quiz 1 5 marks
Quiz 2 5 marks
10
2. Home-works/Assignments/Exercises 5
3. Practical Coursework 15
4. Continuous Practical Evaluation 15
4. Examinations
Midterm Examination 20 marks
Final Examination 35 marks
55
TOTAL 100


Chapter-1

Introduction to Instrumentation and Control Systems
Introduction:
Instrumentation & Control system is a technology deals with Sensors and measurement systems, Drive
and actuation systems, Analysis oI the behavior oI system, Control systems with open-loop or closed-
loop simple or complex like using regulator, valve or microprocessors.
Instrumentation is the branch oI science that deals with measurement and control in order to increase
eIIiciency and saIety in the workplace. An instrument can be deIined as a device used Ior particular
purpose.

Objectives of Instrumentation and Controls
1- Value or quality assessment: This is probably the oldest purpose oI measurement in the history oI
civilization. A good example oI value assessment instrument is the commercial balance. The balance helps
us by means oI comparison with standard weights to estimate the values oI the goods. Utility metering
systems (Ior water and electricity) are other examples. In industrial environment many measurements serve
the purpose oI quality assurance, i.e., the product meets speciIied requirements.

2- Safety and protection: The objective here is to monitor the environment Ior detection oI certain
hazardous situation in order to take adaptive, protective, or preventive actions. For example, the purpose oI
monitoring the weather condition is usually to take adaptive actions, or protective actions. In some cases the
measurement system is made to trigger audio/visual Alarms (e.g. Iire alarms), or take other actions such as
opening a pressure relieI valve to prevent excessive pressure Irom causing possible explosion.

3- Control & automation The term .439r4l means methods to Iorce parameters in the environment to have
speciIic values. This can be as simple as making the temperature in a room stay at 21HC or as complex as
control systems Ior Iully automated power generation plant. In general, all the elements necessary to
accomplish the automatic control objectives including consistency, protection, saIety, increased eIIiciency &
centralized control.

- Data collection: Data collection is a very important aspect Ior analysis purpose. In many situations data
is collected and archived Ior no immediate clear reason. HopeIully, at one stage or another that would
develop techniques to extract useIul inIormation and develop a better model Ior the process under
observation. Even in the industrial environment, where every piece oI instrument must be economically
justiIied. We see in almost all the recent installations, the process is provided with abundant data acquisition
systems in anticipation Ior the Iuture needs by the new analysis and knowledge based systems Ior better
control oI the industrial processes.
InstrumentationCH1 Page

Types of instruments
There are diIIerent types oI instruments used in the engineering applications
1. Measuring instruments, devices used to measure or compare physical properties.
For the measurement oI Length or displacement Scale, Measuring tape, Speedometer, Dial Test
Indicator, LVR & LVDT etc., and encoders Ior measuring angular displacement.
Level Sight glass, Dipstick, Conductance probe, Ultrasonic level indicator etc.,
Pressure Barometer, Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge etc.,
Flow DeIlecting vane, Screw meter, Lob meter, Turbo meter, Rotameter etc.,
Temperature Thermometer, Thermostat, Thermocouple etc.,
Direction Magnetic Compass is used Ior Iinding North Direction
Pressure Gauge Magnetic Compass Thermometer Physical Balance

2. Laboratory equipment, tools used in a scientiIic laboratory like - Burette, Pipette, Watch glass,
Conical measure, Physical Balance etc.
3. Control instruments, a device used to control an industrial system like Ball Iloat control valve,
Regulator, Governor, Circuit Breaker, Relay, Micro controller etc.
4. Mechanical Instruments (also popularly known as Tools) Screwdriver to tighten or loosen the
screws, Spanners to tighten or loosen nut and bolts, Pipe wrench used in plumbing, Pulley block to liIt
heavy weights etc.,

5. Electrical Instruments Electrical Tester to check availability oI power supply, Voltmeter to measure
Voltage, Ammeter to measure Current in Amperes, Wattmeter Ior measurement oI Power in Watts,
general purpose Multimeter, Circuit Breaker to protect Irom over load, Electrical Relay to save the
power.

Circuit Braker

Electrical Relay
Multimeter


6. Vehicle instruments, a device measuring parameters oI a vehicle, such as Speedometer to measure
speed oI the vehicle in Miles per hour or Kilometers per hour, Distance counter is useIul Ior getting
inIormation about how much distance the vehicle traveled, Engine Speed indictor, Radiator water
temperature indicator to inIorm engine condition, Fuel meter Ior knowing the status oI Iuel in the Iuel
storage tank.

7. Optical Instruments: Any Instrument works on sensing the light example optical encoder Ior
measuring angular displacement, Ultra-violet Light Recorder used in electromyography, Coordinate
measuring machine with optical probe and Biometric security system oI processing Iingerprints can be
considered as examples Ior Optical Instruments.

8. Sonic Instruments: Sonic instruments works on sensing the sound reIlections example Ultra-sonic
crack Iinder used in non-destructive testing equipment. Ultra-sonic level indicator is Ior measurement oI
liquid levels.

Classification of Measuring Instruments:

O Active / Passive Instruments
In Active instruments the range oI output value can be modiIied by changing the source value,
Multipliers, LVR & LVDT are examples Ior Active instruments.
In Passive instruments once the instrument is developed Ior a particular range it cannot be altered,
Liquid in glass Thermometer & Bourdon Tube pressure gauge are examples Ior Passive instruments

O Null / DeIlection type Instruments
In Null type instruments the reIerence point will be constant like Null or zero, Physical Balance &
Wheatstone Bridge with cross voltage is observed Ior zero are examples Ior Null type instruments. In
deIlection type instruments one can observe the output value Irom the deIlection oI a needle, examples
- Single pan type balance, Dial type spring balance, Speedometer & Fuel Gauge etc.

O Monitoring / Transmitting Instruments
Monitoring instruments will just display the value like Manometer, Thermometer, Multimeter &
Wattmeter etc. Transmitting Instruments will transIer the output signal as Ieed back in a control
systems, Capacitive pressure sensor, Strain gauge, Thermostat & Thermocouple are examples oI this
type.

O Analog / Digital Instruments
In analog instruments the output signal can be linear or nonlinear continuous deIlecting type, examples
are Analog Ammeter, Analog Voltmeter & Rotameter Ior measurement oI Ilow.
In digital instruments the output signal is a stepped value usually a number, Digital Ammeter, Digital
Voltmeter, Electronic balance & Room temperature indicator are examples oI digital instruments.

System:
System can be thought oI as a box which has an input and an output.

Example:
For example iI once we switch on the power, electrical energy will run the motor so that the shaIt oI the
motor will be rotated, and the available mechanical energy can be used to do work.

Measurement System:
It has as its input the quantity being measured and its output the value oI that quantity. For example to
measure the temperature we will be using Thermometer.

Control System:
It can be thought oI as a process which is used to control its output to some particular value or particular
sequence oI values. Basically control means to operate or regulate a machine or system to increase or to
decrease the variables as per requirement. For example an air conditioning unit will work Ior
controlling temperature oI a room to the set values, as heating or cooling the room.

Characteristics of System:
1. Function or Purpose: Every system must have a Iunction or purpose.
For example, the purpose oI the solar system in our home is to utilize solar radiation energy Ior heating
water Ior day to day use, another solar system is to generate electricity Ior glowing electrical bulbs in the
night time.
Another example the car engine system is to convert chemical energy in to mechanical energy and to
move the automobile Ior moving people Irom place to place.
In communication system local area network is to connect server with client computers and printers etc.
A manuIacturing system is to produce a manuIactured product.

2. System inputs and outputs: For any system there should be some inputs and outputs to interact
with its environment otherwise it will be useless and worth nothing.
Inputs to a system may comprise raw materials, energy, and control values set by operator.
Output Irom a system may comprise Iinished products, processed materials, converted energy, results
and readings, etc.

However, some oI the inputs and some oI the outputs may not be desirable.
An example oI an undesirable input to a telecommunication system would be noise picked up by the
cables and wires along which the signals travel. Impurities and humidity present in the coal used Ior
generating Iire in a boiler.
An example oI an undesirable output Irom a system would be the exhaust gases produced by an internal
combustion engine. Heat generated by the electronic circuits while working is an undesirable output.

Input Output
Motor
Electrical Energy
Rotation

3. Systems have a boundary: Because all systems have a boundary, it is possible to say what is
inside the system and what is outside. This sometimes becomes important when there are a
number oI systems (and/or sub-systems) and they interact with one another. For particular
systems the boundary oI a system can not be deIined clearly like wireless networking. In general
it is possible to construct a diagram Ior a system showing all oI the components and elements
within the system. Some times it is not possible to show all the details then this can be shown as
a box that contains the system as a whole such representation reIerred as a "black box system.

4. Proper and Improper Systems The elements, parts, components or subsystems that make up a
system are connected together (i.e. linked) in particular way.
What is important is the way in which the parts are connected together so that they can interact with one
another. The Iigure bellow illustrates this point

Classification of components in a System:
Most systems comprise with several components.
1. Major components Some components provide the main Iunction oI a system, e.g. a boiler in
central heating system, compressor in an air-conditioning system.
2. Sub-components Some components provide sub-Iunctions means supporting or associate works,
e.g. ducts to carry the hot air, pipes to carry reIrigerant.
3. Monitoring components Some components monitor the output oI the system or display
inIormation related to the system, e.g. thermostat in a central heating system, thermocouple in air
conditioning unit and
4. Additional components Some components are used to improve the perIormance oI the system,
e.g. economizer & super heater in a boiler and the exhaust Ian to speed up the circulation oI air.

System Inputs Outputs
Fig. A Black Box System
This is not a System
This represents a System

Elements of Measurement System:
The Iollowing 3 elements comprises measurement system
1. Sensor,
2. Signal Conditioner and
3. Display-Recorder-Transmitting

lock Diagram of Measurement System
1. Sensor: A sensor which senses and responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its
output a signal which is related to the quantity.
Example Thermocouple - Which will sense the temperature and gives output as e.m.I. which is related
to the temperature value.

2. Signal Conditioner: It takes the signal Irom the sensor and manipulates it into a condition which
is suitable Ior either display, or in the case oI a control system, Ior use to exercise control.
Example AmpliIier

3. Display or Data presentation: This present the measured value in a Iorm which enable an
observer to recognize it. This may be via a display system where the output Irom the signal conditioner
is displayed suitable to read or record the value or other wise transmit to activate some thing to control.
Example Pointer moving across a scale or a digital readout.

Sensor
Input

True value oI the
variable
Output
Measured
Value oI
Variable
Signal
Conditioner
Display
Record
Transmit

Thermometer as Measurement System:

asic Measurements and Their Units as per International System of Units (SI)
I. Primary
1. Length The dimension oI length in SI units is meter (m)
1000 mm (millimeter) 1 m (meter) 0.001 km (kilometer)
2. Mass The dimension oI mass in SI units is kilogram (kg)
1000 grams 1 kilogram 0.001 Ton
3. Time The measurement Ior time in SI units is second (s)
1 second 1/60 minute 1/3600 hour
. Temperature The measurement Ior temperature in SI units is Kelvin (K)
The conversion between Celsius Fahrenheit and Celsius Kelvin are given below
(
o
F) 9/5(
o
C) 32.0
(
o
C) (K) 273.15
II. Derived
5. Angular Displacement The measurement oI angular displacement can be in radian(rad)
a 180
o
22/7 3.12857 radians
6. Force The measurement oI Iorce in SI units is newton (N)
1 N 1/9.806 kgI (where 9.806 is the g
c
gravitational constant)
7. Pressure The measurement oI pressure in SI units is pascal (Pa) 1 Pa 1 N/m
2

8. Energy The unit Ior energy in SI system is joule (J) 1 J 1 N-m
9. Power The unit Ior power in SI system is watt (W) 1 W 1 J/s
10. Frequency The measurement oI Irequency is hertz (Hz) 1 Hz 1 cycle/s 2 a rad/s
11. Current The measurement oI current is ampere (A)
12. Voltage The measurement oI voltage is volt (V)
13. Resistance The measurement oI resistance is ohm (O)
1. Capacitance The measurement oI capacitance is Iarad (F)
15. Inductance The measurement oI inductance is henry (H)
Let us understand all these three elements oI a
measurement system in a thermometer. In a
thermometer there will be a glass bulb Iilled
with Mercury acting like sensor to sense the
surrounding temperature. The physical
phenomenon oI expansion oI Mercury due to
change in temperature will make the Mercury
to Ilow into the capillary tube. This capillary
tube is acting like signal conditioner and
ampliIy the expansion value like an increasing
or decreasing line Ior convenient readable
level. The designated markings on outer glass
tube act like display element and allow us to
read the value.


Some Terminology

1. Transducer: The function of a transducer is that it converts one type of energy or
physical attribute to another form for various purposes including measurement or transfer
of signal. t is a device, usually electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, or photovoltaic type. For example audio loudspeaker, this converts voice in to
electro-magnetic signals representing that music or speech.

2. Interfacing: Linking two electronic devices by designing or adapting their inputs and
outputs so they work together compatibly.

3. Parameter: A parameter is a variable quantity with defined limits. Here the variables are
of two types - dependent variables and independent variables. For example in an
Electrical resistance thermometer Heat sensed by the system is an independent variable
and the resistance change can be called as dependent variable since it depends on the
change of the heat.

4. Range or Span: t can be defined as the limits of values of a quantity that an instrument
is designed to measure.

5. Specification: The specification of a device is a technical description of its
characteristics, constriction, performance and any other information relevant to it.

6. Process: A series of step by step operations, actions, changes or functions takes place
which can bring out results or which can make a product or which can treat a component.

7. Operating Iife: The useful operating life of a system is an indication of how long it can be
expected to function within its specification. t is expressed in terms of time, or number of
operations or cycles.

8. RepeatabiIity: is the variation in measurements taken by a single person or instrument
on the same item and under the same conditions. A measurement may be said to be
repeatable when this variation is smaller than some agreed limit.

9. System Response: For any instrument or control system to the changed input signal
how the system responses has to be analyzed. n system response there are three
dynamic characteristics to be studied Rise time, Response time & Settling time. These
three characters can be discussed with the help of the diagram shown below.

(9A). Rise Time: This is the time taken by the instrument or system to change its output
to 90% of new value in response of the changed input signal.

(9B). Response Time: t is the time or taken by a system or delay of functional unit to
react to give new output value for the change in input value.

(9C). SettIing Time: This is the time taken by a system to settle its output within some
percentage (say 2%) of the steady state value.

10. StabiIity: t is a measurement of how much the output from a device varies if under fixed
condition, a constant input is applied over a period of time.

11. ThreshoId: t is the minimum input value at which the output begins to change. f the
change input is less than this threshold value there will be no change in output. This term
is mainly related with digital instruments.


12. Sensitivity: t is the minimum magnitude of input signal required to produce a
recognizable output.

13. ResoIution: The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated.
For a digital display, it corresponds to the lowest or last stable digit. n analog resolution is
dependent on the subdivisions of the output scale. Some times the resolution can be
obtained from the following expression.

14. Accuracy: The conformity of a measured value to an accepted standard or true value.
The accuracy defines the limits that the errors will not exceed when operated in the stated
conditions. Other way Accuracy can be stated as maximum possible error. Accuracy
also can be defined as half of the resolution.

15. CaIibration: Some times system has to adjust to get more accurate value. The process
of the degree to which an instrument conforms to an accepted standard is known as
Calibration. The accuracy depends on the construction of the instrument, but also on
how well it is calibrated, and how well it holds its calibration.

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) . . (
Re
;alue i35u9 Mi3 ;alue i35u9 Max
;alue 4u95u9 Mi3 ;alue 4u95u9 Max
s4lu9i43


16. Error: t is the difference between a measured value and actual value. Errors can be
classified into two. Random Errors and Systematic Errors.
i) Random Error: Random errors are small differences in the output reading of an
instrument when the same quantity is measured a number of times. For a large number of
samples there will be positive and negative errors. These errors may be due to human
observation, electrical noise, environmental changes like dust, friction, vibration etc.
Random error can be eliminated by taking number of readings of the measured quantity and
obtaining the average.
ii) Systematic Error: Systematic errors are errors in the output readings of a
measurement instrument that are unlikely to be revealed by repeated readings. Therefore,
they cause greater problems. These errors may be due to use of defective system, un-
calibrated or improperly calibrated instruments. There are four types of systematic errors
Offset error, Scale error, Non-linear error and Hysteresis.

a) Offset error: When the difference between actual value and the reading is more or less
same at any level of measurement then it is called Offset error.
b) Scale error: When the difference between actual value and the reading is increasing based
on the level of measurement then it is called Scale error.
c) Non-linear error: When the reading variation is not constant and may be following a
curvature if we draw a graph then it is known as Non-linear error.
d) Hysteresis: This is the difference in the output reading of a sensor when the direction of
the input has been reversed. That means the output of a measuring system will give one set
of values while increase in the input signal and another set of values while decrease in the
input signal.

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