Current signals for easy representation these signals can be categorized mainly into two.

Direct Current (DC) Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same direction, but it may increase and decrease. A DC voltage is always positive (or always negative), but it may increase and decrease. Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC supply which is constant at one value or a smooth DC supply which has a small variation called ripple. Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic circuits.

Steady DC from a battery or regulated power supply, this is ideal for electronic circuits. Alternating Current (AC)

Varying DC Smooth DC from a power supply without from a smoothed power supply, smoothing, this is suitable for some this is not suitable for electronics. electronics.

Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing direction. An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-). The rate of changing direction is related to the frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per second.

AC from a power supply This shape is called a sine wave.

This triangular signal is AC because it changes between positive (+) and negative (-).

Lecture note 1

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Properties of electrical signals An electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information. The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit. The voltage-time graph shows various properties of an electrical signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph. This diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V. Peak voltage is another name for amplitude. Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage. Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. Frequency is the number of cycles per second. frequency = 1 time period and time period = 1 frequency

Mains electricity in the Sri Lanka has a frequency - 50Hz, Therefore it has a time period of 1/50 = 0.02s = 20ms. Mathematical representation of a sinusoidal signal v t=V peak sint Vpeak is the peak voltage (unit: volt), is the angular frequency (unit: radians per second) The angular frequency is related to the physical frequency, f (unit = hertz), which represents the number of cycles per second, by the equation =2f . t is the time (unit: second). is the phase angle simply the phase What is phase? Consider following sinusoidal waves v t=sin t v t=sin t/6 v t=sin t/6

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Power delivered to a Resistor Power delivered to a resistor by a DC source. P= V2 R v m sint this is the instantaneous power R

Power delivered by a AC source p=v m sint

The average power delivered over a period is

2 2 1 T v m sin t P= 0 dt T R

if we consider both power and find the AC voltage that deliver the power same as the DC voltage does
2 2 V 2 1 T v m sin t P= = 0 dt R T R

V=

1 T 2 2 v sin t dt T 0 m

This voltage is defined as Root Mean Square value

therefore for any signal 1 T V rms = 0 v t2 dt T

where T is the period of the signal

Like wise we can define average of a signal V avg = 1 T v t dt T 0

The crest factor is defined as crest factor= V peak V rms

It is very useful to understand the practical meaning of these parameters in the context of analogue and digital meters.

Lecture note 1

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