George C.

Giakos

ignificant growth in medicine, biology, aerospace, remote sensing, meteorology,oceanography, and environmental concerns, as well as military and industrial applications, has stimulated the rapid progress in imagmg technologies durmg the last decade. Overall, the new technologieswill merge, and are expected to play an even larger role in these fields In particular, the front-end electronics, for example, the detector or sensor, data acquisition electronics, and processmg or postprocessing hardware and software are the primary focus of any imaging system. But, the fmal image quality depends on a variety of parameters directly related to each stage of the imagmg system Radar target detection, classification, imaging, and identification, remote sensing and radar meteorology; and machine vision, for marine, ground, air, and space-born military and civilian applications can all be done through synthetic aperture radars (SARs) SAR systems generate sequential images of swath areas obtained through inverse scattering of microwaves or lasers transmitted through a single moving radar aperture In SAR radars, an improved azimuth resolution of the output images can be achieved through aperture synthesis in the
direction of flight. Conventional SARs measure the mag-

thetic aperture sonar (SAS) for ocean acoustic tomography (OAT), have been developed durmg the last decade Reliable detection, trackmg, and motion estimation of moving objects are key parameters for these applications Currently, a chal-

nitude of the backscattered signals from a given location for specific transmission of polarization configurations. On the other hand, a SAR operating on polarimetric principles measures both the magnitude and phase of any receive-transmit polarizations. In fact, radar polarimetry is an important tool in modern electromagnetic sensor technology that provides improved target detection and discrimination [l], 121. Similarly, potential imaging techniques for oceanographic

lenging problem to the scientific community is the development of potential battlefield imaging sensors, which will provide necessary surveillance data capable of ensuring continuous monitoring of the battlefield parameters. The whole concept can be realized through the synergistic relationship between SAR and Moving Target Indicator Radars (MTIs) 121. A diagram of this novel battlefield imaging technique is shown in Fig. 1. This synergistic technique relies on the use of the SAR, which combines high-resolution imagengineering applications, such as sector-scanning sonars, la- ing of stationary objects, with MTI radar, which has the abilser-illuminated underwater video imaging systems, and syn- ity to detect and locate moving targets. Such "wide-area16

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emphases on mammography and chest radiography [4]. Dual-energy imaging mvolves the use of two X-ray Images, one produced from a high-energy polychromatic spectra and another from a low-energy polychromatic spectra. A weighted subtraction of these two images produces a digital irnage, which eliminates interferingbackground structures. By simpllfyLng the background structure in this way, an increase in the adetectability or conspicuity of the t r get structure is obtained. The proposed detector technology may have significant applications in medical, industrial, and aerospace imaging. The multimedia detectors combine the high-energy absorption Fig. 7. Shown here is battlefield imaging via a synergistic relationship between SAR and MTI. efficiency of the solid ionization detectors, with the high spatial resolution surveillance sensors would cover regions larger than 400 resulting from the fine microstrip collector size and high gain km, with a revisit time of less that an hour. As a result, the [ 5 ] .Therefore, a good spatial and contrast resolution, low radiaU.S. has begun developing two unmanned aerial vehicles tion dose, results. In addition, there is a greater degree of free(UAVs) which will operate at high altitude as dom in designing and optimizing a dual-energy system. wide-area-surveillance platforms. Obviously, the use of Specifically, the proposed detector consists of three elements, more than one UAV reduces the surveillance revisit time rel- namely, a front detector element, an inactive midfilter segment, ative to the transporter-erector-launchers (TELS). and a rear detector element. It can be operated under a Interestinglyenough, the likelihood of a TEL detection, claspixelated, slotted-scanned geometry or a strip-beam scanning sification, and attack increases significantly with the mix of geometry. The front detector element, a gas microsirip detector SAR and MTI. Consequently, new radar and sensor technolo[5], produces the digital low-energy photon image ,and the rear gies based on lightwave, electro-optical, and acoustical princidetector element, a semiconductor detector, i.e., a Cd,.,ZqTe ples will be developed, and are expected to play a key role in detector [6], produces the digital high-energy photon image. future confrontations. Furthermore, the implementation of the Gas-microstrip detectors [5] are very promising, ulSAR with automated target recognition algorithms and tra-high-resolution, high-internal-gain, and low-noise devices, false-alarm mitigation techniques, as well as the development of two-dimensional inverse SAR (EAR) algorithms, will im- originally proposed a few years ago. Later, they were developed for imaging applications with emphasis on aerospace research prove the performance of the SAR and MTI, respectively. In the healthcare industry, efforts are underway to develop and high-energy physics. The fabrication of microstrip detectors X-ray digital imaging technology, which uses high-efficiency applies photolithographic techniques commonly u!jed to make electronic sensors in combination with advanced computing, maskplatesfor the semiconductor industry. As a result, this techknown as digital radiography. Digital radiography has many nology replaces anode-cathode wires with ultra-fine layers of advantages over conventional radiography such as high dy- conductivestrips, arranged in an anode-cathodepatitern on insunamic range, fast image acquisition and display, digital archiv- lating or partially insulating glass substrate. The high degree of ing and retrieval systems, teleradiology, display of stored accuracy that can be achieved with the photolithographictechimages without degradation, extended capabilities of data niques ensures the microstrip detectors high gain uniformity analysis and image processing, and reduced patient dose. Sev- over large areas. Advantages of gas-microstrip detectorsinclude eral detectors have been proposed for digital radiography, al- high spatial and contrastresolution, as well as excellentmechanthough there is no single technology that addresses all the ical stability. The high resolution results from the fine collector issues for optimal imaging. size, high gain, and moderate operating gas pressures. On the other hand, high absorptionefficiency may be achieved by utilizing a high-density, high atomic number Cti,.,ZqTe [6] The Multimedia Imaging Detector Recently, the principles of a novel multimedia imaging detector substrate as the rear detector element. Currently, high quality using the for medical imaging, with specific emphasis on dual-energy ra- Cd,.,Zn,Te semiconductor crystals have been ~ O V M diography have been introduced [3]. This particular device oper- High-pressureBridgeman (HPB)technique.Specificailly,by alloyates on gaseous solid-state ionization principles. Dual-energy ing CdTe with Zn the bulk resistivityof this new semiconductoris imaging has attracted a number of investigators with their main approximately 1011 cm. This high resistivity is due to the wide
December 1998

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-rc

Scan Direction

Electric Field Lines

, -

Semiconductor Detector Volume

Bias Electrode

/'

Microstrip Cathode (Collection Electrode)

'

Anode

Fig,2. The experimental slot-scanned multimedia detector for dual-energy imaging, of the University of Akron Imaging Devices, Detectors and Sensors Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering.

band gap of tlus ternary semiconductor.As a result, low leakage currents, and consequently,low noise characteristics are seen. Cd,.,ZnxTe detectors have a high stopping power due to their high mass density (5.8g/cm3 ) and effective atomic num30, ber of 49.6 (Cd0.9:48,ZnO.l: Te: 52). This would allow for a decreased detector thickness, and consequently,improved spatial resolution. Currently, Cd,.,Zn,Te detectors appear to be excellent candidates for digital radiography. Overall, the primary advantages of these solid-state ionization detectors are: efficient radiation absorption, good linearity, high stability, high sensitivity, and wide dynamic range. There are several advantages to using the multimedia detector. For instance, a large signal amplihcationin the front detector element is obtained, due to the gas amplificationproperties of the microstrip. Therefore, images can be obtained at a low radiation dose, while at relatively low operating gas pressures. Tlus detector technology also promises a good spatial resolution, due to the ultra-he structure of the microstrip substrate, the high scatter rejection of the slot scanningbeam detector geometry, as well as reduced space-chargeeffects due to the rapid ion collection time. In addition, high versatihty arises from the optimization of the front detector element upon suitably chosen operating gas pressure and gas mixture. In addition, the use of a Cd,.,ZnxTe semiconductor as a rear detector element, would allow the fabricationof high-energy,absorption efficient,tlvndetector substrates.Finally, enhanced image quality will result if the system is implemented with kmestatic and time delay integration (TDI)principles. A hagram of the experimental, single-element,slotted-scanned multimediadetector, is shown in Fig. 2. A large field-of-viewprototype of h s technology should include a pixelated or multdine-stripped real collector element for slot or multiline scanned-beam imaging, respectively.Incident X-rays, spend part of their energy in the xenon gas detector volume, for an active depth of interaction of 1 cm. The other part, through the interaction, is spent in the solid-state detector volume, producing, in both cases, ion-electron pairs, and holes-electrons pairs, respectively (Fig. 2). An applied electric field imparts a constant d & velocity to these r
18

charges, dnving them toward their respective signal collectors. The iet primary electrons produced by d r c X-ray ionization of the gas dit toward the microstrip plate. Wlen they reach the microstrip rf substrate,the electrons move toward the positive strip. There, the>7 experience an avalanche amplification, due to the high field strength caused by the quasi-dipole, anode-cathodeconfiguration. The ions are collected rapidly on the adjacent cathode, p i n g rise to the detected image signal. The signal-to-noiseratio (S/N), is plotted as a function of the square root current (mA) setting, for the front (gas microstrip) and rear detector element (Cd,-,Zn,Te) , at 100 kVp, and time exposure of 1s, at 1atmosphere of xenon (Fig.3).In this experiment, the applied microstrip anode bias voltage and the applied bias voltage on the semiconductor were set at 400 and 100 V, respectively. The S/N of the rear detector element as a function of the square root current (mA) setting, either in an empty-gas vessel (air) or after X-rays have already spent part of their energy in a xenon-filled detector volume is plotted in Fig. 4. As seen in both Figs. 3 and 4, a high S/N is obtained. In addition, the S/N data can be fit to a straight line when plotted against the square root of the tube current. Interestingly enough, the S/N ratios reported here, as well as in previous works, rely on row data. As a result, the real potential of the detector is underestimated. In general, a multifold S/N ratio ircrease may result by using normalized values, with respect to reference data. Work is currently underway to explore the imaging potential and applications of this technology.The results are part of a preliminary evaluation of the test detector for future dual-energy studies, as part of the development of a slot-scanned, dual-energy digital radiographic system.

Molecular Bioelectromagnetics
Lenses aimed at focusing the radiation from primary sources into desired directions (Le.; the parabolic reflector), have been used for almost one-half century for remote and deep-space communications, with particular emphasis on radioastronomy and radar technology. One example is the extension of the solid lens concept to microwaves through the use of "artificial dielectrics." Notably, these artificial-dielectriclenses comprise differently shaped particles such as metal spheres, disks,

300,
250

200

I50
100

50
I

10 12 14 Square Root of Tube Current [mA'"]

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Fig. 3. Signal-to-noise versus square root current (mA) setting, for the front
(gas microstrip) and rear detector element (Cdl-xZnxTe), at 100 kVp. and time exposure of 1 s, at 1 atmosphere of xenon

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3 1 0 0

Square Root of Tube Current [mA2]

Fig, 4. Signal-to-noise ratio of the rear detector element (Cdt-xZnxTe) versus

square root current (mA) setting, either in an empty-gas vessel (air), or after Xrays have already spent part of their energy in a xenon-filled detector volume. It takes place at 1 and 2 atmospheres of xenon, for an active depth of interaction of 1 cm, at 100 kVp, and time exposure of 1 s.

Also challenging is the use of gas-microstrip detectors for medical imaging applications. Originally, gas microstrip detectors were developed for use in high-energy physics, X-ray astronomy, and synchrotronradiation facilities.The application of gas microstrips into medical detector technology, is expected to break down the technologicalbarriers in several areas of continuous and discrete imaging applications. Furthermore, the introduction of multimedia detectors for medical imaging, is appealing in a wide array of industrial and aerospace applications. For instance, multimedia detectors may be applied in dual-energy X-ray imaging for use in aviation security.In this way, they could be used to discriminate ben tween organic and inorganic material as well as i industrial computed tomography (CT).Specifically,the front detector element, a gas microstrip detector, would produce the digital, low-energy photon image and the rear detector element, a semiconductor detector ( a Cdl-xZnxTe detector) would produce the digital, high-energy photon image.

strips, or rods embedded in a dielectric material. If the particles deviate from the spherical symmetry, they act as a small electricdipole. Here, they contribute to the total displacement, and thus, to an effective dielectric constant. It is worth noting that the presence of electric dipoles increases the local electrical field, giving rise to enhanced focusing properties. Expanding that concept to the study of tissue pathology and the diagnosisand treatment of diseases,it seems that the exploitation of a non-toxicpolar molecule, combined with non-ionizing electromagnetic imaging techniques, might prove a challenging task to the engineeringcommunity.

Conclusion
The identification and transfer of imaging solutions into different technological areas will create potential advanced solutions in different domains of science and technology. New imaging technologies will merge, and are expected to play an ever-expanding role in the civilian and military applications of the next century.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported partially by a Faculty Research Enhancement Grant awarded by the Institute of Biomedical Engineering Research (IBER).The author wishes to thank Samir Chowdhury for his fine measurements.

Future Trends and Applications

Another area of interest is the application of microwaves for medical imaging. Additionally, there is the exploitation of techniques aimed at the maximizing of the extracted imaging information. It is well-knownthat microwave imaging is molecularly, rather than atomically based interactions of radiation, when compared to X-ray imaging. As a result, active microwave image formation is characterizedby the use of microwave sources to interrogate tissue electrical properties, and thereby retrieve the physiological status of the biological system. Limitations of microwave imaging arise due to the limited spatial resolution, which is lower when compared to X-rays. On the other hand, the electrical properties of biological tissue offer higher contrast resolution when compared with X-rays or ultrasound waves. Therefore, in imaging, modalities consisting of concomitant use of microwaves and X-rays or gamma rays, are proposed. In the future, this hybrid modality may be proved very appealing in the medical imaging arena. The use of inverse-scattering techniques with radar polarity analysis would further strengthen the imaging capabilities of the proposed technology, although much work remains to be done. Finally, the embodiment of the tissue of polar dopants, may also enhance key microwave imaging parameters such as contrast and spatial resolution.

References
[l]D. Giuli, Polarization Diversity in Radar, Proc. IEEE, vol. 74, no.

2, pp. 245-269,1986.
[2]W.M. Boerner, Polarization Dependence in Electromagnetic Inverse Problems, I E E E Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 262-271, 1981.
[3]G.C. Giakos, A Slot-Scanned Detector Operating on Gas-Solid

State Imaging Principles, IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, St. Paul, MN, May 18-21,1998, PYOC. 1, vol. pp. 352-357,1998. [4] R.J. Endorf, S. Kulatunga, D.C. Spelic, S.R. Thomas, F.A. DiBianca, H.D. Zeman, and G.C. Giakos, Preliminary Performance Characteristics of a Dual-Energy KCD, Int. Soc.

Opt. En8 ISPIE), vol. 2432, pp. 607-615,1995. [5] A. Oed, Position-sensitive Detector with Microstrip Anode for Electron Multiplication with Gases, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, vol. A263, pp. 351-359,1988. [6] G. C. Giakos, B. Pillai, S. Vedantham, S. Chowdhury, A. Dasgupta, D.B. Richardson, P. Ghotra, R.J. Endorf, A. Passalaqua, and W.J. Davros, Optimization of Cdl-xZnxTe Detectors for Digital Radiography, Jotivnal of X-ray Science and Technology, pp. 37-49,1997.

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