ENVIRONMENT OF KERALA A STATUS PROFILE

Dr.Thrivikramji.K.P. (Retd)
thrivikramji@yahoo.com
Dept. Of Geology, University of Kerala,
Kariavattom 695 581

ABSTRACT

State of Kerala, based on its physiography, is divided into three regions viz., highland (elv.=
>75.0 m), midland (elv.=8.0 -75.0 m) and coastal land (elv.= <8.0 m) and these tracts are
roughly parallel to one another and to the Laccadive sea shoreline to the west.

With an annual rainfall of about 3000 mm, Kerala enjoys a tropical monsoon climate, with two
clear spells of dry and wet seasons. Rain water along with sediment, is transported by the 41
west-flowing rivers, down the westerly sloping terrain to the Laccadive sea. Residence time of
water is hardly couple of days. Population, today, stands at 3.18 crores (Census, 2000). Chief
non-living natural resources are china-clay, black-sand beach placers, building stones, Gold,
groundwater, surface water etc.

Like any other region, these natural resources of Kerala fall under two categories, viz., non-
living and living. Wellness of humans, chief member of non-living resource, is directly
dependent on the abundance and availability of non-living resources very much a cause-
and-effect type relationship. A moments reflection will suggest that such resources are very
much integral parts of the earth s spheres viz., atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Truly, parts of earth s spheres are the chief pillars of environment viz., a) lower atmosphere or
troposphere, b) uppermost part of lithosphere or pedosphere and c) portions of hydrosphere
like small and large ice sheets and snow fields, rivers, inland water bodies, water in the
coastal seas or oceans. These as well as biosphere are two-way-linked with each other and
among themselves. Of late, scientists do include human population (a member of biosphere)
as one of the important independent variables of environmental realm. Processes, resources
and interactions with in and among these spheres are crucial to the health and welfare of the
members of the biosphere including humans. Status of environment of Kerala is the prime
focus of this paper.
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INTRODUCTION
These days, Environment of Kerala is a matter of serious concern to the layperson and
learned alike. Public at large and leaders of the society, viz., scientists, teachers, societal
activists and political leaders, writers, poets etc., are keenly keeping track of the issues
relating to environment. Primarily, it is an outcome of an understanding that earth s resources
are finite and current generation is only a trustee and hence has to hand over the same to the
posterity with out damaging or harming it. Intrinsic qualities of air, water, soil and extent of
exploitation of natural resources (both living and non-living) have emerged as areas under the
public scanner. Any action aiming on one of these realms invariably is subjected to intense
public scrutiny.

Or for example, the debate on the Silent Valley Power Project of the late 70 s was a
watershed in the development of environmental concern in Keralite s psyche. On-going
debates and objections about groundwater extraction by a soft-drink plant at Plachmada,
Palakkad Dist., proposal for a super highway connecting Kasarakod and Kanyakumari, and
proposal for mining of black mineral sand from some beaches of Kollam and Alppuzha Dist.,
are signs of maturation of environmental activism in Kerala. In the following paragraphs, a
status report on the environment of Kerala is portrayed.

Websters s New world Dictionary (2003) defines environment as sum total of all the
conditions and influences surrounding and affecting the development of an organism or
groups of organisms Or it is the biosphere or organisms on the one hand (with human being
at its center) surrounded chiefly by the portions of earth s spheres like atmosphere,
hydrosphere or fluid earth and lithosphere or solid earth or the Physical system. In other
words, the respective earth-spheres and their makeup, processes, products and resources
exercise a great deal of influence on the human civilization, i.e., life style or quality of life
humans. Among the members of the biosphere, demands by human population for resources
are not only largest and rising but often devastating in nature, in so far as the balance
between resources and organisms are concerned. It is this latter trend, a rising demand
spiral that is the foundation for most of the environmental issues.

PHYSICAL SYSTEM
Physiography
Located at the southwestern corner (between N.Lat.8o18 12o.48 and E.Long.74o
52 and 77o 22) in the map of peninsular India, Kerala s western boundary or Laccadive sea
shoreline, is seemingly made of a complex of arcs of varying radii, whereas its eastern border
(with the Tamil Nadu) is an irregularly serrated one, chiefly due to influence of divides of west
flowing streams. But for the flabby or wide mid-section in south Kerala say @80 km along
latitude of Ernakulam (Chathopadhyaya, 2004), southern and northern boundaries of the state
are typically short in length, giving an overall ribbon like, or narrow-rectangular outline, with a
shore line length of 570 km.

Before going any further, a check on the physiographic make up of Kerala is in order. Table.1
is a summary of the physiographic divisions of Kerala (which are only indirect manifestations
of lithosphere) equated to zones identified for management purposes. Coastal land, mid-land
and high land (with its intrinsic sub-units, viz., low-highland and high-highland) are the chief
physiographic divisions limited by elevations above m.s.l. Recently Chathopadhaya (2004)
reported that nearly 62% of the land area falls below an elevation of 100 m.

Table 1 Pysiographic units, limiting elevations, extent and divisions,

Kerala (modified by Thrivikramji, 1992)

UNIT ELEVATION, AREA, Division

m km2
Coastal land <8.0 3610.0 Coastal zone
Midland 75.0-8.0 13,476.0 Midland zone
Low-highland 600.0-75.0 14,357.0 Highland zone
High-highland >600.0 7,420.0
Total area, km2 38863.0
Population, crores 3.18
(Census, 2001)

Climate
Kerala, according to Koppen s scheme classification, has a typical tropical monsoon climate
with clear spells of excessively wet monsoon season (NE and SW monsoons) separated by
very humid and dry summer season. NE monsoon is weak in northern Kerala. It is now
believed that the SW and NE monsoons are part of one and the same system, whose winds
reverse in their direction to generate both monsoons. Average annual rain fall hovers around
3000 mm and as a consequence, Kerala earned disrepute as one of the water surplus
states of the union. On the contrary, water needs of the state are on an ascending spiral due
to a multiplicity of reasons (like poor water conservation, and wasteful practices, population
growth, shift in landuse, improved quality of life, rise in commercial and industrial consumption
etc.).
GEOLOGICAL SETTING

Natural resource potential of any terrain is a dictate of its geological makeup. Kerala is no
exception. The rock formations are known to host variety of ore and industrial minerals as well
as fossil fuel deposits like coal, oil and gas. With this back drop, let us checkout the geological
make up of the terrain of Kerala.

Lithological formations
Soman (2002) summarized the geological framework of Kerala. In short, chief lithologies or
rock formations of Kerala are essentially granulites and associated gneisses of Precambrian
age. Small and large granite intrusives and pegmatites of Precambrian to early Paleozoic era
have also been mapped. Intrusive dykes of Mesozoic to Cenozoic age are known to occur in
this poly-metamorphic terrain (Table 2). Lithologies of Precambrian that underlie the high-
highland, low-highland and part of midland are garnet-sillimanite gneisses, charnockites,
pyroxene granulites, hypersthene-diopside gneisses, granites, garnetiferous leptynite, and
garnet-biotite gneiss. Northern Kerala does show extensions of rocks of Dharwar group.

Based on a examination of LANDSAT imageries of Kerala, Varadarajan and Balakrishnan

(1980) reported several sets of major and minor lineaments traversing the terrain and
proposed that some of the lineaments could have been deep seated fractures. NE-SW and
ENE-WSW trending lineaments are considered as youngest (Nair, 1990). NW-SE, NNW-SSE,
and N-S lineaments perhaps played critical controls on the courses of the valleys, now the
loci of major river channels. Lineaments along with joints and foliation, fracture zones and
depth of weathering exercise huge control over nature, size and extent of ground water
reservoirs or aquifer qualities of this terrain.

Table 2.Stratigraphic succession, Kerala (modified after Najeeb, 1999)

Geological
Formation Lithology
Age
Sands , clays, molluscan shell beds,
Quaternary Vembanad Formation Riverine alluviam and flood-plain sediments
Warkalli formation Sandstone and clay with lignite seams
Tertiary Limestones, marls, clays/calcareous clays
Quilon formation With marine fossils
Sandstones with pebbles and gravel beds,
Vaikom formation Clay and lignite and carbonaceous clay
Intrusives: veins of quartz, pegmatites, granites, granophyres, dolerite
Mesozoic to and gabbro.
Archaean Garnet-sillimanite gneiss, hornblende-biotite gneiss, garnet-biotite
Gneiss, quartzo-feldspathic gneiss, charnockite gneiss etc.

Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are typically absent and are unreported from the
state. Sedimentary rocks reported from Kerala are of Neogene age and are confined to the
coastal land of Kerala. Framework of High coastal land is mostly the Laterite capping of the
Warkalli sedimentaries or occasionally Precambrian crystalline rocks. Coastal sedimentary
basin fill, the only record of sedimentation in the geologic history of the state, is composed of
clastic rocks like clays and sandstones and marine carbonates and impure clastics.
Geologists believe that the coastal sedimentary basin is only a landward extension of a larger
offshore basin with a potential for fossil fuels. The youngest of the geological formations,
i.e.,Vembanad formation, is composed of sands, clays, molluscan shell beds, riverine and
beach alluviam. Ground water aquifers, in free and sub-artesian conditions, have been
reported from the coastal sedimentary fill and water is actively pumped for consumption.
However, appreciable fluoride level has also been reported from one pumping well in
Alappuzha and some others in Palakad dist.

Laterite, a term introduced by the French traveler Francis Buchchanan, is a ubiquitous rock of
tropical countries of the world, like Australia, India, South Africa and Brazil. Laterite is a
common cap rock over the sedimentary fill as well as the granulite terrain. Unique tropical
monsoon climate, with alternating wet and dry seasons and widely fluctuating water table,
enables formation of thick Laterite cover. Abundant pore spaces and weak zones in the
parent rocks (e.g.,charnockite, khondalite, gneiss or sandstone), enable very efficient
drainage by groundwater and consequent removal of cations like sodium, potassium, calcium,
and magnesium in the constituent silicate minerals, transforming them to kaolin. But, common
quartz is inert to the chemical weathering process and goes unaffected. Unlike the ions in the
foregoing list, nearly immobile iron accumulates in the residue or Laterite cap as limonite
and/or goethite, as it defies transport by solution. By contrast, in the profiles, particles of clay
physically move downward under the influence of gravity and descending waters to
accumulate as a layer of kaolin rich lithomarge. Carbonate, sulphate, phosphate etc. are the
chief anions reported from surface water.
Soils
Soils are typical products of weathering of basement rocks of any terrain and their nature is
primarily controlled by factors such as climate, parent rock and altitude or elevation of the
region. Tropical monsoon climate and associated very high rain fall (~3000 mm /annum) are
largely responsible for the thick Laterite cap that covers most of the midland terrain of Kerala,
pockets in the coastal land and some areas of low-highland juxtaposed to midland. The chief
soil groups have originated directly or indirectly from Laterite, Generally lateritic soils are
acidic in nature.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Against the tall claims, no land area of the globe is endowed with every natural resource (for
e.g., raw materials like ores, minerals, oil, gas and drinking water, or climate conducive to
grow a large variety of food stuff). With developments in science and technology, shipping
and transport or transfer of raw materials or finished products (in solid, liquid or gaseous
state) from place of origin to one of need and consumption, has become essentially a non-
issue. But, other side of this coin is wrought with issues relating to handling, storage and safe
and scientific disposal of wastes, which are part and parcel of manufacturing and
consumption. Kerala is no exception. Huge quantities of raw materials, industrial products and
food stuff are brought in on a 24x 7 basis to supplement or meet local demand.

Now, a brief sketch of resources of Kerala will be in order. Generally speaking, in respect of
both agricultural commodities and finished products, Kerala is branded as one the consumer
states of union of India. A glance of Table 3, a resource fact-sheet (qualitative) for Kerala,
reveals that important other raw materials like coal, oil and gas or large deposits of ores of
important metals like iron, copper, zinc or lead are not native to this region.

Table 3 Resource-Fact-sheet, Kerala

NON-LIVING RESOURCES LIVING RESOURCES
MINERALS/ROCK PRODUCTS FARMS/PLANTATIONS
Black sand & glass sand Rubber
China clay Tea, Coffee, pepper & Cardamom
Gold Sea Fish
Building stones, Red-bricks Food stuff (rice, vegetables
& construction sand & banana)
Forests, 10815 km2

A question that might occur immediately in our minds is about the supply and demand picture
of these, or can we can sell off the resources as value added black sand and china clay and
plantation produces like rubber, tea, coffee, cardamom and pepper?. Huge quantities of fish
are also exported. But steel, cement, fine and finished stones, red-brick and of late even
construction sand are steadily brought in from out side of state along with timber etc.

Population
During the past half a century, every census of India reported a steady growth of population of
the state. Summary of population distribution is given in Table 4. For example, size of side of
support square (i.e., per capita entitlement of land area expressed as its square root and in m
or km) of a person in Kerala is only 34.90 m. and has been steadily shrinking. In respect of
some countries in Europe it is several km. long and a few tens of km in the USA.

Table 4 Demographic profile, Kerala

Population, 3.18 crores
Density, km2 819 persons
Urban 82.67 lakhs
Rural 235.71 lakhs
And shrinking or small size of support square indirectly points at the pressure on land and
other natural resource of a region. Further, in Kerala, quantum and reach of distribution of
income as well as per capita income and finally the size of disposable income of families are
in an upward spiral. Moreover, this state of economy has spiraled growth in the construction
sector fuelling consumption of large volumes of raw materials (like cement, steel, bricks,
timber, etc.) some of which are sourced from within and some from without and caused a
variety of human actions in the environment.

Further, the not so new paradigm of PPP (where the three P s are Population, Poverty and
Pollution), squarely points at the linkages among the P s themselves and how it finally links
itself to the environment. Only in countries with low levels of economic development,
population fuels poverty and pollution. So when we consider the environmental question, it is
no wonder that population factor looms large.

STATUS OF ENVIRONMENT

With a background of geological set up and resources vis-à-vis population factor, let us
examine the current status of the environment and its future possible course/s. Every program
designed for economic development and founded on scientific principles and procedures,
concerns about the environment is part of the public psyche; where as in countries like India
the concern should originate in the mind of the administration and the political system running
the administration. Table 5 is summary of the status of the environment, in terms of resource
capabilities and environmental issues. In what follows, environmental issues, intrinsically
connected to non-living resources and squarely facing us, will be brought to focus.

Table 5 Status of Environment: Regions, Resources and Issues

Region Resource Issue
Coastal Mineral sand, Kayals Coastal erosion; Mining; Pollution of coastal
zone And Ground water waters and inland water bodies; Drinking water
and Sanitation; Shifting landuse
Midland Water, Land, Soil, Shifting Landuse; Quarrying rock and soil;
Zone River Sand and Borrowing of River sand; Water and Sanitation;
Rock Pollution
Highland Prestine Natural Shifting Landuse; Pollution of soil and water;
Zone Landscape, Rock- Deforestation; Soil erosion; Dams
scapes, Prestine
forests, Rivers

Coastal Zone
The coastal zone (area =3610 km2 and ele.= <8.0 m), an important segment of Kerala has
three subdivisions, viz., coastal land zone, shore zone and shelf zone. The coastal land zone
practically covers all the coastal land. Perhaps the geologically youngest sediments are
noticed in the coastal zone. It is the most densely populated region of the state and a large
number of small and large towns including the capital city, the port city of Kochi etc are also
located here.

Black sand Mining

In addition to the fisheries potential spread along the coastal zone, a very large black sand
placer deposit annually accumulates, especially after the SW monsoon, in the beaches
between Chavara-Kayamkulam (spit) and in the northern spit of Kayamkulam kayal. The IRE
and the KMML are two monopolies engaged in the mining and processing of black-sand to
recover ilmenite, silimanite, garnet, rutile, zircon and monazite.

Any mining activity normally, will leave behind small and large scars in the tract. In contrast,
black sand mining (a process of remote semblance to mining) is truly borrowing of the beach
sand like sand and gravel are borrowed from borrow pits and in the subsequent season the
pits are filled in by newly arrived sediment. More over, there is very little involvement of drilling
and blasting, breaking, loading and transport by heavy machinery and large trucks. Scarcely,
noise and water pollution arises out of this activity. Displacement of people is also practically
very low. Chemical and effluent pollutions are unheard of around the borrow pits. Recent
tsunami of Dec, 26, 2004 confirmed the geological reasoning that sea bed off the northern
and southern spits of Kayamkulam kayal, is a large underwater warehouse of a vast sand
sheet with a lower concentration of placer minerals. In fact, the Tsunami wave bulldozed the
seabed sand beach-ward and to be trapped in the back shore of this tract to thicknesses
varying between 3.0 to 4.0 m an act very much akin to that of SW monsoon wave regime.

Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion, a constant threat to peaceful life, properties and fishing gear and crafts of
settlers in the coastal land zone, is a seasonal phenomenon caused by process taking place
in the Central India Ocean during the SW monsoon season. The SW monsoon is a boon as
well as bane to the coastal people at the same time. Firstly, Chakara the bountiful fishing
ground is triggered by monsoon wave activity. Large volume black mineral sand is also
transported by the same waves and is deposited in the beaches of Kollam and Alappuzha
districts, which is subsequently gathered and processed by industry. The bane side of the
season is the erosion of beaches along with all the standing property and structures, leaving
the people at the mercy of the government for their daily bread and butter.

Surface water Pollution

Surface water accumulating in kayals and man made ponds, is intensely polluted by fertilizer
and other nutrient residues, gathered by water from intensely cultivated and tended farms in
the upland. Such nutrient rich waters support luxuriant growth of aquatic weeds, like salvenia,
water hayacinth and phytoplankton and when the latter perish large quantities of dissolved
oxygen are used up for the breakdown the tissues or a rise in BOD. Due to this process of
death and decay, oxygen levels steadily decline and such water bodies are said to have
reached a state of eutrophication. Surely, these waters easily tend to pollute the subsurface
waters too, which in turn affect many drinking water supply projects. Pollution of aquifers,
break down of distribution system due to lack of maintenance and wastage of water are some
of the many ills of the scheme.

Green House gases

Sea level rise due to green house effect is a phenomenon caused by increasing
accumulations (chiefly) of CO2, consequent trapping of solar radiation in earth s atmosphere
resulting tropospheric heating and release of huge vol.umes of water presently trapped in the
polar ice sheets. This water mass entering the world oceans will consequently raise the sea
level threatening the millions of people settled in the coastal cities and towns across the
world. Higher sea levels will also mean frequent and devastating storm surges and wave
erosion. Kerala coast already exposed to beach erosion will have to face the devastating
consequences of storm surges and increased wave erosion (Thrivikramji, 1992)

Possible Solutions
Only intelligent solution available now to save the population in the coastal tract is strict
implementation of Coastal Regulation Zone Act. This will save the people of all the hazards of
coastal erosion, black sand mining and sea-level rise due to green house effect. Further, if
mining displaces natives, legitimately they must demand compensation not only in the form of
jobs for a member or head of the family or a pension of some sort for head of the family if un-
employable by the mining industry and a decent house or apartment for the family, with in a
decade of displacement. The only solution for drinking water scarcity is to be found in
desalination of sea water by processes like reverse osmosis.

Midland zone
This tract of Kerala, in the elevation range of 8.0 and 75.0 m, covers a land area of 13476.0
km2 is relatively thickly populated as well as intensively cultivated. Most of the area, in the
lower elevations, has a relatively thick cover of Laterite, whereas the sectors in higher
altitudes expose sheet rock, isolated rocky hills or ridges. Intervening valleys have resulted
from active dissection of land by lower order tributaries which are generally of ephemeral
nature.

Landuse changes
General public is yet to understand the hidden consequences of shifts in land use. In the past,
marsh like valley floors of many lower order streams were fashioned into fields suitable for
wet-paddy cultivation by terracing and building small dikes of mud to retain water and from
escaping to adjoining patches below. Now, very same fields are remodeled for plantain
cultivation. This switch in land use from paddy to plantain, severely affected the ground water
regime in such tracts. Paddy, essentially one needing standing pool of water, indirectly
ensured a longer duration of water recharge to the aquifer/s. Unlike rice paddy, as plantain
crop needs only good soil moisture, planted fields are force-drained by sinking narrow and
deep (as much as one meter) ditches facilitating dewatering of the fields and consequent
reduction in the effective duration of recharge. As a result, lower order streams quickly dry up,
even indirectly affecting drinking water sources and hence supply.

Yet another feature to enter the environmental hot-list is ponds. All ponds, irrespective of
their site, size and extent are severely threatened by reclamation, eutrophication or
sedimentation, all leading to final elimination. Only ponds attached to places of worship stay
out of any risk. Commissioning of dams and distribution network of canals made the ponds
redundant any way.

Soil Erosion
Cultivation of seasonal and annual crops in the upland tract, tended to accelerate the soil loss
and hence loss of precious top soil and nutrients. But, with the rising popularity of cash crops
like rubber, the soil loss declined as rubber planted patches were not subjected tilling and
inter-cropping for at least 2-3 decades - saving the land from the soil loss phenomenon.

Extraction of rock and sand

New trend in landuse shift from agricultural to residential or commercial types quickly catching
up all over Kerala, puts a great pressure on land, firstly to source patches of buildable sites
followed by basic construction materials like rubble, gravel, sand and brick. Rivers of Kerala
are bearing the brunt of construction boom, in that a good deal of river channel sand has
already disappeared and the rivers are in the brink of ecological demise (Thrivikramji, 1986).
Even paleo-channels or paddy fields have been targeted for removal of sand by innovative
techniques like pumping of subsurface sand.

Changing Hydrogeological domains

Deepening of channels in the river basins due to unprecedented levels of sand borrowing,
directly affected the hydro-geological domain/s by deepening of the water table, which forced
many water wells to dry up un-seasonally resulting in drinking water scarcity. The base-flow
or the flow supported by aquifers, i.e., water soaked subsurface layers, in many river
channels gradually changed to a thing of the past. The aquatic species diversity also steadily
declined in such river systems as a result of loss of spawning ground either physically or
texturally.

Valley head pond, mid-valley pond or toe-valley pond based irrigation was a main stay of
farming people in the recent past. As result of alternatives for ponds, like dam and canal
irrigation, gradually shifted ponds to oblivion and neglect. For want of maintenance, a large
number of large and small ponds went through the process of eutrophication, siltation and
finally filling with dirt and reclamation clandestinely by individuals or publicly by local
governments. A large number of valley-head-ponds have been going through this transition.
Water supply to the house holds either from public water supply or private wells did negatively
impact the homestead ponds. Thus, yet another facility for recharge of aquifers too, vanished.

Chemical overloading of water

Yet another threat to surface water originates, from wetland farms like rice paddy, vegetable
and plantain gardens and dry-land farms and plantations, in the form of fertilizer and
/or pesticide residues. Eutrophication and gradual death of water bodies are the simplest
outcomes from chemical overloading. Many ponds, as a result slide into their death trap by
transforming themselves into a marsh.

Solutions
All modifications of landscape, either due to mining or extraction of rocks and minerals or due
to shift in landuse, are fuelled by human needs and compulsions. Therefore, legislations,
social or environmental policing does little to secure the situation. A government citizen
participatory approach might work in diluting the harms so far inflicted on different
components of environment. Educating the societal leaders and the public on the do s and
don t s and what s and how s must help lessen the damages further.
Fertilizer-residue-forced eutrophication can be stopped or rate slowed down by maintaining a
minimum drainage through the system and reduction of residue at the source itself. This calls
for proper and timely maintenance, instead of neglect, in the form of working inflow and out
flow chutes and rainwater diversions structures to the pond. By installing water conservation
measures in the farms, quantum of residue escaping to the surface water system can easily
be substantially reduced.

Alternative materials to river sand like crusher sand and even sea need to be promoted. That
in countries like ours, government, the role model and first citizen to the public, should commit
to use of manmade sands in government sponsored constructions.

Highland zone

Culturally, in India until dawn of rail and road transport, the Western Ghats was a formidable
natural physical barrier isolating and protecting the natives of Kerala from the rest of the
country, especially during times of peace. This physiographic unit, with elevations upward of
75.0 m, and reaching an average elevation of 2000 m, has Anamudi peaking at 2690 m.
Thrivikramji (1993) subdivided this unit into low highland and high highland based on the
upper limit of relatively large settlements.

The British cleared several thousand km2 of forest land to create plantations of cardamom,
tea, coffee and teak, which attracted and offered employment to hundreds of families fom
plains inaugurating the first wave of settlement. This process of creating plantations in the
forested area continues even to day, though at a slower pace. The need to generate
hydroelectric power led to the building of dams to create reservoirs and generating stations.
Obviously, construction of arterial roads that followed opened up a new business model of
trade based on produce from forest and plantations.

The second wave of conversion of forestland, soon after independence of India, was much
larger in scale, and tended to damage the forest ecosystem, reduce the land area under virgin
forest and perhaps triggered loss of a great deal of fertile top soil. Due to unscientific land
management and landuse practices, occasional catastrophic landslides heavily taxing the
settlers became common place, especially during the wet monsoons. As a consequence of
the encroachment and settling, the magic rule of one-third-forest cover became a distant
dream for Kerala and currently it stands at 10815 km2.

Possible Solutions
Problems of keeping the health of forest and a healthy size are very difficult issues facing the
administration. Legislations are already in place at the national and state levels. As this is an
issue at immediate interface between a section of the citizens and administration, rules and
policing alone will not guarantee the desired results. Only by taking people into confidence
and with their co-operation tangible results can materialize. In fact, a systematic education,
about the need for keeping healthy forests, must be offered through formal and non-formal
education and show-and-tell sessions to the public and especially younger citizens or
students. Ecotourism is a right step in this direction.

PALEO-ENVIRONMENT

Paleo-environment is a topic of interest to the archaeologists. The principal study materials for
reconstructing the Paleo-envronment are minerals in rock, sediment and fossils that they
host. Fossil is any preserved evidence in the rock on past life. Fossils are of different types
like body fossils, casts and moulds, impressions like foot prints or tracks. By convention,
climate of any location is a function of temperature and precipitation. Then, temperature of
the past is determined generally based on the presence of certain temperature sensitive
minerals and stable isotope data, Signatures of precipitation or indirectly moisture can be
sought again from certain minerals and rocks. Fossils when present do provide a second
check on the reconstructed temperature and moisture data. Other tools like Carbon 14 dating,
amino acid dating etc., come in handy for putting a date or assessing the antiquity of the
material recovered or site in question. Rock structure and sequence also help a good deal to
further refine available information on the paleo-environment. Palynology or study of pollen
gains present in the sediment occasionally comes to the rescue of the investigator. Only
reducing conditions in the sedimentary environment help preservation of pollen grains. Red
colour of sediment and soil like that of Laterite and red-loam is indicative of oxidizing
conditions where pollen grains get destroyed quickly.

SUMMARY

The points discussed in the foregoing sections are summarized below.

1. Kerala, occurring along the SW edge of peninsular India, covers an area of 38863
km2 and has a relatively long (length=,570 km.) shoreline. Based on variations in
land elevation, three roughly shore parallel subdivisions viz., highland (>75.0 m)
midland (8.0-75.0 m) and coastal land (<8.0 m.) have been identified. SW monsoon is
more active over state than the NE monsoon. Population has reached 3.18 crores,
with a value of 34.9 m for side of support square. Population has doubled more than
2 times after independence, so must be the needs of the society, like hosing, health
care and education. Obviously demand for the natural resources must have grown
proportionately.

2. Geological makeup of Kerala is relatively simple, in that sedimentary formations of

Tertiary and Quaternary are confined to the coastal tract. Midland and high land have
Pre-Cambrian crystalline metamorphic rock covers viz., gneisses, sllimanite gneisses,
quartzo-feldspathic gneisses, charnockite and basic intrusive of a later age. Laterite,
the tropical weathering product of crystalline rocks and sandstone like secondary
rocks, forms a ubiquitous cover in the midland, parts of the highland and pockets in
the coastal land. But for some intrusive dykes, Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations
are conspicuous by their absence.

3. Lithological units are the principal abodes of ore and mineral deposits, oil and gas as
well as ground water. Though Kerala s rocks do not host a variety of minerals, yet
Kerala is widely known for the black mineral sands, deposits of china clay and some
alluvial gold. Soil is chiefly derived from the weathering and alteration of silicate
minerals in rocks. Laterite formations do occur. In addition to coastal Tertiary
sequence, other sediments are Vembanad formation and beach and river alluvia.

4. Perhaps, Black sand of Kerala is the only resource we can boast about and which
will not deplete at least for the next 30 years, even if production of processed sand is
doubled or tripled from what it is now. Monsoon waves transport black sand to the
beaches between Chavara and Kayamkulam. If this sand is left untouched in the
beaches, monsoon waves of subsequent years will not tend to build further by
depositing more sand in the same beaches an issue related to beach equilibrium.
Luckily, black sand has been accumulating in the continental shelf since cretaceous
or for the 65 ma. The recent Tsunami proved the point that the sea bed to the west is
a large warehouse of black sand rich sediment. People displaced by mining activity
must be adequately compensated even by giving away a share of profit that might
accrue.

5. Kerala faces some serious threats to its physical system (physisphere). Pollution of
surface water by entry of fertilizer and pesticide residues (?) and consequent
eutrophication (large rise in BOD) is perhaps a gravest menace noticed all across the
state. As a consequence, ponds, kayals and segments of rivers show luxuriant
growth of aquatic plants like salvenia and water hayacynth. Preventing influx of
fertilizer residue, lowering its build up by dilution and pumping air into the water
column are possible remedial steps. As far as possible, the drinking water needs of
coastal towns and cities must be met from desalinated sea water. New technologies
of reverse osmosis have brought down the cost very much.

6. Shift in land use must be discouraged, as it adversely affects the hydrogeological

domain. In upper reaches, such a change affects the stability of slopes resulting in
landslides, which are occasionally disastrous causing death and loss of property.
 7. River channels of Kerala have been loosing one of its chief components, viz., channel
bed sand to the construction sector, forcing many rivers to an ecologically dead state.
Consequently, hydrogeological regimen of the river valley has undergone changes.
Alternative materials like crusher sand or seabed sand are possible subsittes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

While serving in the University of Kerala, the MOE&F, Govt. of India offered financial
assistance to carry out studies relating to the environment of Kerala in the various domains
like river basins, beaches and Teris. The thoughts appearing in the foregoing are an outcome
from intense and intimate experiences I earned by being in the river channels, beaches, teris
and foot hills of Ghats. Finally, I sincerely thank Dr. P. Rajendran, (University of Kerala) and
Dr. S. Sivadasan (Sri Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit) for this opportunity to read a
paper in the Seminar.

REFERENCES

Chathopadhyaya, S, 2004, Landforms of Kerala: an overview, in Earth system sciences and

Natural resource Management, (ed.) Ravindrakumar, G.R., and Subhash, N.,CESS, 2004, p
211-228

Najeeb, K.Md., 1999, Ground water exploration in Kerala as on 31-3-1999: CGWB, Kerala
Region, Trivandum, (unpublished report)

Soman, K, 2002, Geology of Kerala, Geological Society of India, Bangalore, 335p.

Varadarajan and Balakrishnan,1980,

Thrivikramji,K.P., 1986, River metamorphosis due to Human intervention: A Neyyar basin

experience: Final report submitted to MOE&F, GoI, 156p.

Thrivikramji, K.P. and Anirudhan, S., 1992, Sea level rise due to Green house Effect: Report
submitted to MOE&F, GoI, New Delhi, 56p

Varadarajan, K, and Balakishnan, M.K., 1980, Kerala coast A LANDSAT view: in Geology
and Geomorphology of Kerala, Geological Survey of India, Sp. Pub., no.5, 67-68.
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