Chapter 6 - 1

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 5:
Mechanical Properties of
Materials
Chapter 6 -
Mechanical Properties of Metals

How do metals respond to external loads?

Stress and Strain
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Elastic deformation

Plastic Deformation
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Chapter 6 Outline
Chapter 6 - 3
Learning Objectives

Introduce the basic concepts associated with mechanical
properties of materials
Review some of the basic testing procedures that engineers
use to evaluate many of these properties.


Chapter 6 - 4
Often materials are subject to forces (loads) when
they are used. It is important to know how
materials deform (elongate, compress, twist) or
break as a function of applied load, time,
temperature, and other conditions.
Chapter 6 -
5
(1) Important to understand capabilities and
limitations of materials:
Failure is caused by a lack of fundamental
understanding of materials, their properties, and
failure modes.
Technological Importance:
Why Study Properties and Failure of Materials ?
Chapter 6 -
6
(2) An understanding of materials properties help us to
design better components, parts, devices, etc.
Why and how do materials fail?
Can we prevent failure?
How do we make metals stronger?
Why do materials behave differently under dynamic loads
compared to static loads?
How do we select the right material for the job?


(3) Its interesting and helps to make you a more informed person
Why study Properties and Failure of Materials ?
Chapter 6 -
plastic (permanent) deformation of a
bridge
deformation led to eventual collapse
Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge,
near Puget Sound, failed on at 11 am
Nov. 7, 1940, after only having been
open for traffic a few months
Failure by Plastic Deformation
De Havilland Comet, first commercial jet
aircraft, had five major crashes in 1952 -
54 period
caused by fatigue cracks initiated at
square windows, driven by cabin
pressurization and depressurization
Chapter 6 -
8
Catastrophic Failure - examples
Chapter 6 -
9
Catastrophic Failure - examples
Chapter 6 -
10
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion
Chapter 6 - 11
Elastic means reversible!
Elastic Deformation
2. Small load
F
o
bonds
stretch
1. Initial 3. Unload
return to
initial
F
o
Linear-
elastic
Non-Linear-
elastic
Chapter 6 - 12
Plastic means permanent!
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
F
o
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
o
plastic
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
F
o
elastic + plastic
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
o
plastic
Chapter 6 - 13
Stress has units:
N/m
2
or lb
f

/in
2
Engineering Stress
Shear stress, t:
Area, A
o

F
t
F
t
F
s
F
F
F
s
t =
F
s
A
o
Tensile stress, o:
original area
before loading
o =
F
t
A
o
2
f
2
m
N
or
in
lb
=
Area, A
o
F
t
F
t
Chapter 6 - 14
Simple tension: cable
Note: t = M/A
c
R here.
Common States of Stress
o
o =
F
A
o
t =
F
s
A
o o
M
M
A
o
2R
F
s
A
c
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
Ski lift (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
A
o
= cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F F
Chapter 6 - 15
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
o
o =
F
A
Simple compression:
Note: compressive
structure member
(o < 0 here).
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
A
o
Balanced Rock, Arches
National Park
Chapter 6 - 16
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
Strain is always
dimensionless.
Engineering Strain
Shear strain:
u
90
90 - u
y
Ax
u = Ax/y = tan
c =
o
L
o
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
o /2
L
o
w
o
o
c
L
=
L
w
o
o
L
/2
Chapter 6 - 17
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
Hooke's Law:
o = E c
o
Linear-
elastic
E
c
F
F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 -
18
Nonlinear elastic behavior
In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic deformation is not
linear, but it is still reversible.
Definitions of E
Ao/Ac = tangent modulus at o
2

Ao/Ac = secant modulus between origin
and o
1

Chapter 6 - 19
Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress to strain when
deformation is totally elastic
It is a measure of the stiffness of a material: the higher the modulus of
elasticity of a material, the stiffer the material
A plot of stress against strain for elastic deformation is linear and the
slope of this linear plot gives the modulus of elasticity
For some materials such as gray cast iron, concrete and many
polymers, the initial elastic deformation is not linear.
Where the initial elastic modulus deformation is not linear, tangent or
secant modulus can be used to determine the modulus of elasticity
Chapter 6 - 20
Anelasticity
The following assumptions are generally made with regard to elasticity of
materials:
a. The deformation is time independent, i.e. an applied stress produces
an instantaneous elastic strain that remains constant as long as the
stress is maintained
b. The strain is completely recovered after removal of the stress
However, elastic deformation will continue for a finite time and on
removing the applied stress, a finite time is required for a complete
recovery of the strain
This time-dependent elastic behavior is referred to as an anelasticity
For metals, the anelastic components are negligible but for polymer its
magnitude is significant
Chapter 6 -
Example:
A piece of metal originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension
with a stress of 276 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic
what will be its elongation? E = 110 GPa
Solutions
L
o
= 305mm = 0.305 m,
o = 270 x 10
6
Pa
AL = ?
E = 110 x 10
9
Pa
3
9
6
10 x 2.509
10 x 110
10 x 276
E

= = =
0.305m x 10 x 2.509 L L
L
L

3
o
o

= = A
A
=
= 0.765 mm
Chapter 6 -
Tensile load
o
L
f
L
O
o
c
x
c
y
The ratio of lateral strain (in
direction perpendicular to the
applied stress) to axial strain (in
direction parallel to the applied
stress) is called Poissons ratio.


For many metals and alloys,
Poissons ratio lies between
0.25 and 0.35
For isotropic materials,

E = 2G(1 + v )
y
x
- ratio, s Poisson'
c
c
=
Poisson's ratio, v
Chapter 6 - 23
Poisson's ratio, v
Poisson's ratio, v:
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
v: dimensionless
v > 0.50 density increases
v < 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
c
L

c
-v
c
v =
L
c
metals: v ~ 0.33
ceramics: v ~ 0.25
polymers: v ~ 0.40
Chapter 6 -
Example
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required
to produce a 2.5 x 10
-3
mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely
elastic. E
brass
= 97 GPa and v
brass
= 0.34
y
x
P
P
D
o
= 10 mm, AD = 2.5 x 10
-3
mm
E = 97 x 10
9
Pa u = 0.34
Solution
4
4
y
4
y
x
10 x .353 7
34 . 0
10 x 2.5

10 x 2.5
0.34

strain axial
strain lateral

= =

= = =
y
c
4
3
o
10 x 2.5
10
10 x 2.5

D
D

=
A
= =
x lateral
c c
Pa 10 x 71.323 10 x x7.353 10 x 97
6 4 9
= =

c o E
N A Load
o
5602
4
) 01 . 0 (
x 10 x 71.323
2
6
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
t
o
Chapter 6 - 25
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Adapted from Fig. 6.7,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 26
Metals
Alloys
Graphite
Ceramics
Semicond
Polymers
Composites
/fibers
E(GPa)
Based on data in Table B.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.
Youngs Moduli: Comparison
10
9
Pa
0.2
8
0.6
1
Magnesium,
Aluminum
Platinum
Silver, Gold
Tantalum
Zinc, Ti
Steel, Ni
Molybdenum
G raphite
Si crystal
Glass - soda
Concrete
Si nitride
Al oxide
PC
Wood( grain)
AFRE( fibers) *
CFRE *
GFRE*
Glass fibers only
Carbon fibers only
A ramid fibers only
Epoxy only
0.4
0.8
2
4
6
10
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
10 0
2 00
6 00
8 00
10 00
1200
4 00
Tin
Cu alloys
Tungsten
<100>
<111>
Si carbide
Diamond
PTF E
HDP E
LDPE
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
C FRE( fibers) *
G FRE( fibers)*
G FRE(|| fibers)*
A FRE(|| fibers)*
C FRE(|| fibers)*
Chapter 6 -
27
Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic Plastic
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
Elastic deformation
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress removed material returns to
original size

Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Stress removed material does not
return to original dimensions.
Chapter 6 - 28
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when c
p
= 0.002
Yield Strength, o
y
o
y
= yield strength

Note: for 2 inch sample
c = 0.002 = Az/z
Az = 0.004 in
Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
tensile stress, o
engineering strain, c
o
y

c
p
= 0.002
Chapter 6 -
March 07, 2008
29
1:
Example 1: Convert the change in length data in Table 1 to engineering stress
and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.
Chapter 6 -
30
Example 1: SOLUTION
below
Chapter 6 -
31
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning

is a trademark used herein under license.

The stress-strain curve for an aluminum alloy from
Table 1
Chapter 6 -
32
Chapter 6 - 33
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
specimen extensometer
Typical tensile
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Chapter 6 -
34
A unidirectional force is
applied to a specimen in
the tensile test by means
of the moveable
crosshead. The cross-
head movement can be
performed using screws
or a hydraulic
mechanism
Chapter 6 - 35
Chapter 6 -
36
Experimental Tests:
Test Specimen Geometry, Facilities
& Set-Up
Tension Torsion Load Frame
Optical Strain Measurement System
Specimen with Random Patterns
D = 25.38
= 6.35
RAD
+
2
1
1
3
D = 25.38
2
1
1
3
90.00
o

0.50
= 3.00
0.03
Mild Notch
Sharp Notch
Chapter 6 -
37
The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain
Diagram
Load - The force applied to a material during testing.
Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for measuring
change in length and hence strain.
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force, divided by
the original cross-sectional area of the material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material deforms per
unit length in a tensile test.
Chapter 6 - 38
Tensile Strength, TS
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
o
y

strain
Typical response of a metal
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

e
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g


TS

s
t
r
e
s
s

engineering strain
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Chapter 6 -
The maximum stress on the stress-strain curve of a material
represents its tensile strength
Deformation up to the maximum stress value is uniform
throughout the gauge length of the tensile specimen
At the maximum stress, necking occurs at some point and
all subsequent deformation is confined to that point until
fracture occurs
The fracture strength corresponds to the stress level, at
which failure occurs
Yield strength is normally used for design purpose instead of
tensile strength because a material will undergo a large
amount of undesirable plastic deformation at maximum
stress
Chapter 6 -
40
Stress-Strain Curve
Chapter 6 -
41
Important Design Considerations
Chapter 6 - 42
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Ductility
Another ductility measure:
100 x
A
A A
RA %
o
f o
-
=
x 100
L
L L
EL %
o
o f

=
L
f

A
o

A
f

L
o

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Engineering tensile strain, c
E ngineering
tensile
stress, o
smaller %EL
larger %EL
Chapter 6 -
100 x EL %

o
o f
L
L L
=
Ductility is a measure of plastic deformation that a material
can sustain before fracture
It is expressed either as percent elongation to fracture or as
percent reduction in area
When the fracture strain is low and less than 5 %, the
material is said to be brittle
Ductility
Chapter 6 -
Toughness is a measure of materials ability to absorb
energy up to fracture
It is a measure of a materials resistance to fracture when a
crack is present
For low strain rate condition, toughness is given by the area
under the stress-strain curve measured up to fracture point
For high strain condition and when a notch is present, notch
toughness is assessed using impact test
A tough material must have high strength and ductility
Toughness
Chapter 6 - 45
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Toughness
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)
Engineering tensile strain, c
E ngineering
tensile
stress, o
small toughness (ceramics)
large toughness (metals)
Chapter 6 -
Resilience of a material is a measure of its capacity to absorb energy
when it elastically deformed and have this energy recovered on
removing the applied load.
Modulus of resilience, U
r
is the strain energy per unit volume required to
stress a material from an unloaded state up to the yield point
Modulus of resilience, U
r
, is the area under the stress-strain curve taken
to the yield point
}
=
y
0
r
d U
c
c o
Assuming a linear elastic region
y
c o
y 2
1
r
U =
o
y
and c
y
are yield stress and yield strain respectively
Substituting for strain
2E

U
2
y y
2
1
y 2
1
r
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
y y
o c o
Thus resilient materials are those having high yield
strength and low moduli of elasticity
Resilience, U
r

Chapter 6 - 47
Resilience, U
r

Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
y y r
2
1
U
c o ~
}
c
c o =
y
d U
r
0
Chapter 6 - 48
Elastic Strain Recovery
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
3. Reapply
load
2. Unload
D
Elastic strain
recovery
1. Load
o
y
o
o
y
i
Chapter 6 - 49
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
apply known force
measure size
of indent after
removing load
d
D
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
easy to machine
steels file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels diamond
Chapter 6 - 50
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 51
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 52
Hardening
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

o
T
= K c
T
( )
n
true stress (F/A)
true strain: ln(L/L
o
)
hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
An increase in o
y
due to plastic deformation.
o
c
large hardening
small hardening
o
y

0
o
y

1
Chapter 6 - 53
Variability in Material Properties
Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics

Mean



Standard Deviation


s =
E
n
x
i
x
( )
2
n1





(

(
(
(

1
2
n
x
x
n
n
E
=
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 - 54
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
N
y
working
o
= o
Often N is
between
1.2 and 4
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
Design or Safety Factors


220,000N
t d
2
/ 4
( )
5
N
y
working
o
= o
1045 plain
carbon steel:
o
y
= 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
F = 220,000N
d
L
o
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 - 55
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Summary
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches o
y
.
Chapter 6 -
56
Summary
Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poissons ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength
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