Lec 1 - Organic Technology Steps of Studying Industry: 1- Chemistry .. (Equation, Reactants, Products, stiochometric ratios, optimum conditions..

) 2- Thermodynamics (Heat of reaction, cooling, heating ...) 3- Kinetics (rate of reaction .. important in reactor design) 4- Process Design and Mechanical Design 5- Economics .. (It is very important to understand the concept on optimization) Unit Operations and Processes: Unit Operations : without chemica reaction ,, like: grinding, screening, filteration Unit Processes : with chemical reaction ,, like hallogenation, sulphonation, nitration. Nitration: Definition : Introduction of nitrogroup or nitrle ion (NO2+) into organic compound if NO2 is attached to C atom ===> Nitro Compound if NO2 is attached to O atom ===> Ester Nitrate if NO2 is attached to N atom ===> Nitramine Nitration can happen with two mechanisms: 1- Hydrogen Substitution .. H atom from the hydrocarbon is replaced by NO2 2- Any other atom or group of atoms .. Hydrogen Substitution is most used and more important Uses of nitrocompounds: 1- Solvents ... commercial or annalar (very pure) 2- Pharmaceuticals 3- Dyestuffs 4- Explosives 5- intermediate for preparation of other compounds Nitrating Agents:

1- Nitric Acid (HNO3) with different concentarations depending on the Hydrocarbon, it may be a) Fuming b) Concentrated c) Aqueos (about 70% ) 2- Mixed Acid (HNO3 + ....) We use another subustance with nitric acid to facilitate the ionization of HNO3,, and work as dehydrating agent (remove water resuting from the reaction) ,, we may use: a) Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 b) Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 c) Acetic Acid d) Acetic Anhydride H2SO4is preferred because : 1- the ionization of HNO3reaches 100% in the presence of H2SO42- the best dehydrating agent ,, 3- the cheapest 3- N2O4 or N2O5 in very special cases Nitric Acid Problem ( )illustrating the effect of water on the concentration of Nitric Acid In Nitration, we use HNO3 in high concentrations, because water has 2 bad effects: a) decrease nitrating capacity b) increase the oxidizing effect of HNO3 that leads to loss of the hydrocarbon due to combustion and combustion may lead to inflammation that may lead to explosion we have two solutions to overcome the bad effects of water 1- use HNO3 in large excess 2- use Mixed Acid Evidences of Existance of Nitrile ion HNO3 in H2SO4

NO2+ Nitration 4 Ionization of HNO3 depends on Medium and Concentration 1- Concentartion high concentartions .. NO2+ low concentartions .. NO3- (increase oxidizing effect .. ) low concentartions .. NO2+ & NO32- Medium dil HNO3 .. NO3HNO3 in non-polar solvent ... unionized HNO3 in H2SO4... NO2+ Effect of water on ionization of HNO3 .. check graph General Equation fro Aromatic Nitration Orientation .. (Inductive Effect & Misomeric Effect) Activating group (e.g. CH3 ) ortho & para directing Deactivating group (e.g. NO2) meta directing special case : hallogens .. deactivating but ortho and para directing