Jun G.

Bugtong BT201A / BSIT

THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work. It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables, such as temperature, volume and pressure, which describe physical, thermodynamic systems. Thermodynamics means the field of Science which deals with energies possessed by the gases and the vapors, their conversion in terms of heat and their relationship with properties of System. The energy transfers are made during process, which use certain Fluid contained in or flowing through System. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines, particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot (1824) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars. Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854. Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies, and the relation of heat to electrical agency. The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical systems.

Thermodynamics Branches of Description The study of thermo dynamical systems has developed into several related branches, each using a different fundamental model as a theoretical or experimental basis, or applying the principles to varying types of systems. Classical thermodynamics Classical thermodynamics is the description of the states of thermo dynamical systems at near-equilibrium, using macroscopic, empirical properties directly measurable in the laboratory. It is used to model exchanges of energy, work and heat based on the laws of thermodynamics.

Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics, also called statistical thermodynamics, emerged with the development of atomic and molecular theories in the

late 19th century and early 20th century, supplementing thermodynamics with an interpretation of the microscopic interactions between individual particles or quantum-mechanical states.

Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of energy with chemical reactions or with a physical change of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics

Treatment of equilibrium
Equilibrium thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations of matter and energy in systems as they approach equilibrium. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium because they are not in stationary states, and are continuously and discontinuously subject to flux of matter and energy to and from other systems.

Internal Energy
In thermodynamics, the internal energy is the total energy contained by a thermodynamic system. It is the energy necessary to create the system, but excludes the energy to displace the system's surroundings, any energy associated with a move as a whole, or due to external force fields. Internal energy has two major components, kinetic energy and potential energy. The kinetic energy is due to the motion of the system's particles (translations, rotations, vibrations), and the potential energy is associated with the static constituents of matter, static electric energy of atoms within molecules or crystals, and the static energy of chemical bonds. The internal energy of a system can be changed by heating the system or by doing work on it.

Thermal Energy
The thermal energy is the kinetic energy of a system's constituent particles, which may be atoms, molecules, electrons, or particles in plasmas. It originates from the individually random, or disordered, motion of particles in a large ensemble. The thermal energy is equally partitioned between all available quadratic degrees of freedom of the particles. These degrees of freedom may include pure translational motion in fluids, normal modes of vibrations, such as intermolecular vibrations or crystal lattice vibrations, or rotational states. In

general, the availability of any such degrees of freedom is a function of the energy in the system, and therefore depends on the temperature.

Heat
Heat is energy transferred from one place in a body or thermodynamic system to another place or beyond the boundary of one system to another one due to thermal contact even when the systems are at different temperatures. It is also often described as the process of transfer of energy between physical entities. In this description, it is an energy transfer to the body in any other way than due to work performed on the body. In engineering, the discipline of heat transfer classifies energy transfer in or between systems resulting in the change of thermal energy of a system as either thermal conduction, first described scientifically by Joseph Fourier, by fluid convection, which is the mixing of hot and cold fluid regions due to pressure differentials, by mass transfer, and by thermal radiation, the transmission of electromagnetic radiation described by black body theory.

System
A thermodynamic system is a precisely defined macroscopic region of the universe, often called a physical system that is studied using the principles of thermodynamics. All space in the universe outside the thermodynamic system is known as the surroundings, the environment, or a reservoir. A system is separated from its surroundings by a boundary which may be notional or real, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings may take place across this boundary. Thermodynamic systems are often classified by specifying the nature of the exchanges that are allowed to occur across its boundary. A thermodynamic system is characterized and defined by a set of thermodynamic parameters associated with the system. The parameters are experimentally measurable macroscopic properties, such as volume, pressure, temperature, electric field, and others.

Surrounding
The system is the part of the universe being studied, while the surrounding is the remainder of the universe that lies outside the boundaries of the system. It is also known as the environment, and the reservoir. Depending on the type of system, it may interact with the system by exchanging mass, energy (including heat and work), momentum, electric charge, or other conserved properties. The

environment is ignored in analysis of the system, except in regards to these interactions.

Thermodynamic System
A thermodynamic system is a precisely defined macroscopic region of the universe, often called a physical system that is studied using the principles of thermodynamics. All space in the universe outside the thermodynamic system is known as the surroundings, the environment, or a reservoir. A system is separated from its surroundings by a boundary which may be notional or real, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. Exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the surroundings may take place across this boundary. Thermodynamic systems are often classified by specifying the nature of the exchanges that are allowed to occur across its boundary. A thermodynamic system is characterized and defined by a set of thermodynamic parameters associated with the system. The parameters are experimentally measurable macroscopic properties, such as volume, pressure, temperature, electric field, and others.

Methods of heat transfer:

Conduction (or heat conduction) is the transfer of thermal energy between regions of matter due to a temperature gradient. Heat spontaneously flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature, and reduces temperature differences over time, approaching thermal equilibrium. Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids (i.e. liquids, gases) and rheids. It cannot take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids. Convection is one of the major modes of heat transfer and mass transfer. Convective heat and mass transfer take place through both diffusion the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid and by advection, in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of currents in the fluid. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from all matter due to its possessing thermal energy which is measured by the temperature of the matter.

Temperature

Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be calibrated to a variety of temperature scales.

Units of Temperature and Heat

Degree Celsius ( C ) Degree Fahrenheit ( F ) Degree Kelvin ( K )

Conversion of Temperature Units

Kelvin temperature conversion formulae from Kelvin Celsius [C] = [K] 273.15
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to Kelvin [K] = [C] + 273.15

Fahrenheit [F] = [K] 5 459.67 [K] = ([F] + 459.67) 59 Celsius temperature conversion formulae from Celsius Fahrenheit [F] = [C] 95 + 32 Kelvin [K] = [C] + 273.15 to Celsius [C] = ([F] 32) 59 [C] = [K] 273.15

Change in State
A phase transition is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter has uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of some external condition, such as temperature, pressure, and others.

Boiling Point
The boiling point of an element or a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid.

Melting Point

The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it state from solid to liquid. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends (usually slightly) on pressure, but is intended to be defined at standard atmospheric pressure if not otherwise specified.

Freezing
Freezing or solidification is a phase change in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. The reverse process is melting.

Deposition
Deposition is a process in which gas transforms into solid (also known as desublimation). The reverse of deposition is sublimation.

Condensation
Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse of evaporation.

Laws of Thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics allows the assignment of a unique temperature to systems which are in thermal equilibrium with each other. The first law of thermodynamics mandates conservation of energy and states in particular that the flow of heat is a form of energy transfer. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated macroscopic system never decreases, or, equivalently, that perpetual motion machines are impossible. The third law of thermodynamics concerns the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero temperature, and implies that it is impossible to cool a system to exactly absolute zero.