The Cutting Tools Nateiials

Introduction
Principal categories of cutting tools include single point lathe tools, multipoint milling tools, drills, reamers, and
taps. All of these tools may be standard catalog items or tooling designed and custom-built for a specific
manufacturing need.
The number one error when selecting tooling is calculating monetary savings based on lowest cost per tool,
rather than on maximized productivity and extended tool life. To effectively select tools for machining, a
machinist or engineer must have specific information about:
- Lhe sLarLlng and flnlshed parL shape
- Lhe workplece hardness
- Lhe maLerlals Lenslle sLrengLh
- Lhe maLerlals abraslveness
- Lhe Lype of chlp generaLed
- Lhe workholdlng seLup
- Lhe power and speed capaclLy of Lhe machlne Loo Changes ln any of Lhese condlLlons may requlre a
Lhorough revlew of any cuLLlng Lool selecLlon


ulfferenL machlnlng appllcaLlons requlre dlfferenL cuLLlng Lool maLerlals 1he
ldeal cuLLlng Lool maLerlal should have all of Lhe followlng characLerlsLlcs

- harder Lhan Lhe work lL ls cuLLlng
- hlgh LemperaLure sLablllLy
- reslsLs wear and Lhermal shock
- lmpacL reslsLanL
- chemlcally lnerL Lo Lhe work maLerlal and cuLLlng fluld

no slngle cuLLlng Lool maLerlal lncorporaLes all Lhese quallLles lnsLead
Lradeoffs occur among Lhe varlous Lool maLerlals lor example ceramlc cuLLlng
Lool maLerlal has hlgh heaL reslsLance buL has a low reslsLance Lo shock and
lmpacL Lvery new and evolvlng Lool developmenL has an appllcaLlon where lL wlll
provlde superlor performance over oLhers Many newer cuLLlng Lool maLerlals Lend
Lo reduce buL noL ellmlnaLe Lhe appllcaLlons of older cuLLlng Lool maLerlals









1heres a cuLLlng Lool for every appllcaLlon as Lhls array of lnserLs
lllusLraLesand LhaLs noL even Laklng lnLo accounL round Lools
As a critical part of the overall machining system, cutting tools are often
targeted when manufacturers look for improvements in overall productivity.
Technologies such as high-speed machining, dry machining, and
continuing development of tough workpiece materials place extreme
demands on cutting tools. To keep pace, tool suppliers must continue to
develop products that can perform at higher speeds and last longer under
increasingly rigorous operating conditions.
As a critical part of the overall machining system, cutting tools are often
targeted when manufacturers look for improvements in overall productivity.
Technologies such as high-speed machining, dry machining, and continuing development of tough workpiece
materials place extreme demands on cutting tools. To keep pace, tool suppliers must continue to develop
products that can perform at higher speeds and last longer under increasingly rigorous operating conditions.
Higher speeds and metal removal rates generate increased heat. As a result, cutting tool suppliers have
placed heavy emphasis on development of heat-resistant tool materials. The result has been a progression
from high-speed steel (HSS) tools to cemented carbides, cermets, ceramics, and superhard materials.
Regardless of material, all cutting tools have a defined working life. Aside from breakage, cutting tools wear in
many ways, including:
O Edge and flank wear
O Cratering or top wear
O Chipping
O Built-up edge (BUE)
O Deformation
O Thermal cracking
Edge and flank wear are normal, slow types of tool wear. Cratering behind the cutting edge occurs frequently
in machining of materials that produce long, stringy chips, such as many steels. f the crater grows large
enough to contact the cutting edge, the tool will fail immediately.
Edge chipping is an unpredictable form of failure that sometimes begins when a high point on an edge breaks
away. A stronger tool material or different geometry can minimize chipping.
Built-up edge is a deposit of workpiece material adhering to the an insert's rake face. The deposit can break
off, taking carbide from the tool with it. BUE is a common problem when machining ductile materials such as
soft steels, aluminum, and copper alloys.



Tool deformation is a result of heat buildup. t can be minimized by using a more heat-resistant tool material
and/or reducing cutting speed.
Tapping is an application area still dominated by HSS tools. The material is
more forgiving than carbide, and HSS taps are about one-tenth the cost of
carbide. (Emuge Corp)
Thermal cracking occurs when inserts go through rapid heating and cooling cycles. Causes include
interrupted cutting and poorly thought-out application of cutting fluids.
These failure mechanisms dictate that desirable tool material properties would include toughness, wear
resistance, and hardness--especially hot hardness.

\W_ of MatWrial_
-Higb-_\WWd _tWWl_
got their name because tools fabricated from HSS materials cut about four times faster than the carbon steel
tools they replaced. Developed beginning around 1900, HSSs are heavily alloyed ferrous materials that can
be divided into three main categories: tungsten, molybdenum, and molybdenum-cobalt based grades. All
three types contain significant amounts of carbon, which reacts with the refractory metals present to form hard
carbides that increase wear resistance and hot hardness. Cobalt works a little differently than the carbide-
forming alloying elements, dissolving to substitute for iron atoms in the matrix.
A reIativeIy recent deveIopment in HSS tools is use of powder metallurgy (P/M) processing. P/M HSS
materials have a uniform structure with very little of the carbide segregation that can occur in conventionally
cast steels. Carbide clusters in conventional HSS can cause processing difficulties and limit toughness--
problems that are minimized in P/M materials.
Uniform distribution of carbides in P/M HSS provides benefits in both processing and tool performance. The
steels have a faster and more uniform response to heat treatment than conventional HSS, and size change
resulting from heat treatment is more predictable. The result is minimal distortion and improved hot hardness,
wear resistance, and toughness compared with conventional HSS.
Processing benefits carry over to tool production. The more uniform microstructure of P/M tool steels
improves their grindability without sacrificing tool properties. mproved grindability is especially important in
highly alloyed grades, and allows toolmaking and regrinding at lower cost. The P/M process also allows more
flexibility to produce complex form tools and other complicated geometries than conventional processing.


Finally, toughness of the finished tool is improved compared with conventional materials. Longer tool life
improves productivity by minimizing tool changes. n addition, the tougher, harder material may allow use of
higher cutting feeds and speeds than conventional HSS.
Applications for P/M HSS tools include drilling and milling operations where carbide tools chip, crack, or fail
because of interrupted cuts or hard spots. Milling cutters are a particularly strong application area for these
materials, as are tools for reaming and drilling.
Highly alloyed P/M HSS materials are especially beneficial in tapping operations, where the machine starts,
reverses, and stops frequently. The material is more forgiving than carbide for many tapping operations,
especially in long-chipping materials such as most steels. P/M HSS taps are about one-tenth the cost of
carbide--a substantial price differential that can make justifying the expense of carbide taps problematic even
taking into account their longer life. Broaching tools and form tools are also commonly produced from P/M
HSS alloys, which facilitate production of very complicated forms.
-BWtwWWn HSS and carbidW_
in terms of properties is a class of cutting tool materials based on cast cobalt alloys. Development of these
materials started in the early decades of the 20th century and continues today.
The molten alloys, which may contain chromium, tungsten, niobium, and other carbide-forming elements in a
cobalt matrix, are cast in graphite chill molds to produce a fine-grained, hard surface made up of complex
carbides. The core of the tool is a relatively tough, cobalt-enriched material. Surface hardness is in the range
R
C
60 - 65, and transverse rupture strength can reach 350,000 psi (2410 MPa).
The materials are said to resist chipping and loading at lower speeds. More important, cast cobalt alloys can
withstand higher temperatures than HSS materials. These materials will not anneal at 1500F (815C), and
maintain cutting edge hardness throughout the life of the tool.
High hot hardness means cast cobalt-alloy tooling can operate at higher speeds and feeds than HSS tools.
One alloy is said to perform at speeds to 450 fpm (137 m/min) and be applicable on machines with limited
speed, power, or rigidity.











-CWWntWd carbidW_
Are the most common cutting tool materials currently in use. The chief advantage of carbide versus HSS is
ability to cut at higher speeds: carbide tools cut 3 - 5 times faster than HSS.
Carbide has essentially replaced HSS in many applications, and is now the material of choice for more than
half of all cutting tools produced worldwide. HSS accounts for about 40%; the remaining 10% or so are made
up of all other materials.
Cemented carbide is a P/M product consisting of fine carbide particles distributed in a cobalt binder phase.
Tungsten carbide (WC) is the main carbide material used; others in use include titanium, tantalum, vanadium,
chromium, and niobium carbides. The percentage of hard particles in carbide tool materials can vary from
about 60 to 95%. By adjusting the type, size and concentration of particles, producers can tailor properties to
meet a wide variety of application requirements.

emented carbide and cermet tools are made using P/M techniques. The blended hard particles and binders
are first pressed then sintered to produce inserts or solids used to create round tools. (Sandvik Coromant)
Carbide materials can be used to produce both inserts and solid round tools. Regardless of application, the
materials have a combination of properties that allow them to excel as cutting tool materials. These include:
O Exceptional resistance to abrasion
O High modulus of elasticity
O Chemical inertness
O Torsional strength twice that of HSS
O Compressive strength
O Toughness and resistance to impact
O Wear resistance.
Development in carbide cutting-tool materials continues to yield new grades with application-specific
combinations of properties. Technologies driving material development are shrinking particle sizes and more
complex compositions that increasingly use the non-tungsten carbide additions mentioned above.
n the past few years, grain size of carbide powders used to produce tools has shrunk from on the order of 10
m to 1 m. As in any P/M product, smaller grain sizes in carbides result in smaller voids and a denser
finished material. Tools made with submicron carbide materials have both higher hardness and toughness
than tools produced using larger-grain materials.

n mechanical testing of a standard (grain size 2 - 3 m) WC-8% Co carbide versus a submicron (grain size
0.3 - 1 m) grade containing 11% Co, for example, transverse rupture strength increased from 2000 to 3000
N/mm
2
and compressive strength increased from 5400 to 6000 N/mm
2
. n practice, high compressive strength
is important for machining materials that impose extremely high pressure on the tool cutting edge, such as
superalloys.
Now researchers are exploring the potential benefits of "nano-phase" carbides, with particles on the order of
0.1 - 0.2 m in size. The finer particles again result in significantly higher hardness for a given cobalt level.
nterparticle distances in nano-phase carbides are so small that sintering temperatures can be lowered to
inhibit grain growth that may occur at higher processing temperatures. Nano-phase carbides are being
examined for use as round tools, such as end mills for exotic materials.
Use of different types of carbides with a variety of properties also allows cutting tool manufacturers to tailor
tool materials. Additions of titanium carbide, tantalum carbide, and niobium carbide are common. They tend to
improve high-temperature deformation resistance and hot hardness, and increase resistance to chemical
wear. Other additions, such as vanadium carbide and chromium carbide, tend to inhibit growth of the
submicron grains during pressing and sintering.
Developments in processing technology make possible another advance: cobalt enrichment of the surface
layer of the material. By increasing the concentration of cobalt binder phase near the surface, manufacturers
can improve toughness there while maintaining hardness and wear resistance in other areas of the tool.
The cobalt-enriched layer, which may be approximately 0.0005 - 0.001" (0.013 - 0.025 mm) thick, may contain
cobalt concentrations two to three times or more that of the bulk material. n the most common enrichment
process, the cobalt-enriched zone is produced by diffusion of nitrogen, titanium and cobalt during sintering.
Nitrogen can be obtained by replacing nitrides in the material with carbonitrides, or by nitriding the "green"
powder compact before sintering.
Cobalt enrichment is now so commonplace that manufacturers are using it even in tools developed for high-
speed finishing applications. The idea is to give an added level of tool edge security. The process is also
being carried a step further by some researchers, who are working on changing cobalt concentration only in
insert corners.
ncreasing the concentration of cobalt binder at the surface of
carbide cutting tools improves toughness there while
maintaining hardness and wear resistance in other areas.
obalt enrichment is achieved by controlling sintering
conditions. (Kennametal)
SWlWcting a carbidW tool for a specific application can be
daunting given the number of grades available. nitial
selection can be made based on workpiece material
characteristics such as composition and hardness.
Also helping to narrow the range of grade possibilities for a
specific application using carbide tools are SO insert
designations. The SO classification system provides a starting point for carbide tool selection by dividing
grades into three areas: P, for long-chipping materials such as most steels; M, for more demanding materials
such as stainless and heat-resistant alloys; and K for short-chipping materials such as cast irons, hardened
steels, and many nonferrous materials. These designations combine these letters with numbers indicating the
suitability of the grade for applications ranging from light finishing (01) to heavy roughing (50).
More specific grade recommendations can be obtained from data published by carbide tool manufacturers,
permitting a reasonable first-choice tool selection. Grade optimization, however, requires a complete analysis
of cost, machining times, tool life, and other process parameters.

-CWrWt_
are essentially cemented carbides that use hard particles other than tungsten carbide. These may include
titanium carbide, titanium nitride, and titanium carbonitride. Molybdenum carbide may also be used as part of
the hard phase, and the metal binder material may be a mix of cobalt and nickel.
Cemented carbides and cermets are produced using very similar processes. As cemented carbide
compositions become more complex, the line between the two types of material blurs. Nonetheless,
applications for cermets, although expanding, are relatively limited compared with those for carbide tool
materials.
Relative to tungsten-based carbide materials, cermets are more wear-resistant. Hardness is comparable to
that of cemented carbides, as is hot hardness; the metal binder is the determining factor in hot hardness.
Strength and toughness of cermets are lower than cemented carbides, as is thermal shock resistance.
Cermets have edge strength similar to that of carbides at smaller, constant loads. They may produce
improved surface finishes, especially in materials that smear easily. They may also cut at higher speeds, have
improved notch resistance, and minimize the tendency to form BUE.

Strong silicon carbide whiskers (left) improve aluminum oxide properties by essentially locking into the
ceramic matrix. Once in place, the whiskers are extremely difficult to pull out of the matrix. (Greenleaf Corp.)
Applications for cermets are increasing as the materials become more capable and as more and more
machining operations use near-net shape workpieces. As depths of cut get smaller, the application area for
cermets grows larger.
Current cermet materials are applicable for interrupted cutting applications, such as semi-finish and finish
milling, in a variety of materials. Cermet cutting tools can handle high cutting speeds with moderate feeds and
deep, consistent cutting depths. Tough cermet grades designed for milling applications can machine stainless
materials and relatively hard steels.
One big difference in the development of cermet materials versus cemented carbides is the grain size of the
hard particles used. Cermets benefit from having various sizes of hard particles, where the current generation
of carbides is made with very fine particle sizes. Varying the size of the hard particles within a cermet grade
blunts crack propagation and minimizes the chance of catastrophic tool failure. ncreasing the nitrogen content
in some cermet materials can increase chemical stability, allowing use of higher percentages of metal binder
material and increasing toughness.
-CWraic_
are hard and nonreactive--two properties that make them attractive as cutting tool materials. This combination
of hardness--even at extreme temperatures--and chemical inertness means that ceramics can run hotter and
longer with less wear than competing materials. They have long tool lives and can machine at high cutting
speeds with very high metal removal rates in the right application.
Ceramic cutting tools have found application principally in turning and milling cast irons and superalloys and in
finishing hardened steels. These are applications where ceramics based on aluminum oxide (Al
2
O
3
) and
silicon nitride (Si
3
N
4
) can significantly outperform carbide tools.
The key to successful application of ceramic cutting tools is to remember that they can take far more heat
than carbides--they soften at temperatures in the range of 4000F (2200C), versus about 1600F (870C) for
carbide materials. Ceramic tools make very hard work materials machinable essentially by cutting at speeds
that generate enough heat to raise the workpiece temperature to the vicinity of 1800F. Cutting speed
generates the heat needed for ceramic tools to work properly.
Alumina-based cutting tool compositions include additions of zirconia (ZrO
2
), titanium carbide, titanium nitride,
or silicon carbide (SiC) whiskers. Alumina-zirconia ("white ceramic") contains up to 10% ZrO
2
for toughness.
White ceramic materials are effective in steel finishing operations. Alumina with additions of up to 40% TiC is
especially abrasion-resistant and is used for machining chilled cast irons and hardened steels.
Alumina reinforced with SiC whiskers is the toughest and most resistant to thermal shock of the Al
2
O
3
-based
ceramics. Unlike other such materials, it can be run with coolant. High-speed finishing of nickel-base
superalloys is a typical application for whisker-reinforced ceramic cutting tools.
The whiskers improve properties by essentially locking into the ceramic matrix, and by virtue of their extremely
high tensile strength--on the order of 1,000,000 psi (6.9 GPa). About 100 times longer than they are wide, the
randomly oriented whiskers can be broken, but it takes tremendous force to pull them out of the matrix.
Whiskered ceramics are applicable to a variety of workpiece materials over a hardness range of about R
C
50 -
65.
Cutting tool materials based on silicon nitride include fully dense Si
3
N
4
and SiAlON materials, which are solid
solutions of alumina in Si
3
N
4
. Fully dense Si
3
N
4
can have fracture toughness nearly as high as cemented
carbides, high strength, and a low coefficient of thermal expansion that results in very good thermal shock
resistance. Tools made with this material are excellent for turning gray cast iron, and are also used for milling
and other interrupted-cut operations on gray iron. Coolant can be used for turning applications.
SiAlONs are typically more chemically stable than Si
3
N
4
but not quite as tough or resistant to thermal shock.
They are mainly used in rough turning of nickel-based superalloys.
SiAlON materials and whisker-reinforced ceramics may also react with certain workpiece materials. This can
be minimized by coating SiAlON tools with TiN or another coating material.

-Diaond_
Diamonds have limited application due to the high cost and the small size of the of the stones. They are used
on very hard materials to produce a fine finish and on soft materials. especially those inclined to clog other
cutting materials. They are generally used at very high cutting speed with low feed and light cuts. Due to the
brittleness of the diamonds the machine has to be designed to be vibration free. The tools last for 10 (up to
400) times longer than carbide based tools.


DWbWlo\Wnt of _u\Wrbard cutting tool atWrial_
began in the early 1970s with introduction of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutting tool materials. PCD tools
consist of micron-sized diamonds in a carbide substrate. The abrasion-resistant diamond, coupled with the
relatively strong carbide, produces a tool material with significant performance benefits when used to machine
copper, aluminum, composite materials, and nonmetallics. PCD can approach the toughness of some WC
grades, making it suitable for milling and other interrupted cutting operations.
Today, many types of diamond materials are available for cutting tool applications. These include diamond
coatings deposited by various methods, as well as thick-film diamond, which is a thick (250 m - 1 mm) layer
of pure diamond brazed to a carbide substrate.
Another diamond product developed more recently is chemical vapor deposited (CVD) diamond. The material
is produced when carbon-based gases and hydrogen are disassociated at high temperature, depositing
diamond onto a substrate. The deposited material is fully dense, polycrystalline diamond that is free of metal
binders and thus has hardness and thermal stability near that of natural diamond.
There are two types of CVD diamond tooling: thin coatings typically deposited on a carbide substrate, and
thicker, free-standing diamond layers up to 1 mm thick. Thin-film CVD diamond coatings will be covered in
Part 2 of this series of articles.
Thick-film CVD diamond is grown in sheets that are laser-cut into tips. The tips are then brazed to a carbide
substrate in a process similar to that used to produce PCD tools.
Thick-film diamond competes with PCD for use in general machining applications. Because the material is
pure diamond, it possesses advantages over PCD in terms of greater hardness, wear resistance, and thermal
stability. Thick-film diamond tooling is said to demonstrate tool life two to three times that of PCD in some
applications.
The chief limitation of diamond cutting tool materials--whether PCD or thick-film--is their inability to machine
ferrous alloys. Caused by a chemical reaction between the tool and the work material, this limitation led to
development of the other main class of superhard cutting tool materials, cubic boron nitride (CBN). CBN tool
use is currently growing at a rate of 10 - 15% annually, driven mainly by increased use of hard turning.
Originally developed for hard turning of ferrous workpieces,
grades are now capable of handling a wide variety of
operations, including milling. milling replaced rough
grinding of these hardened (R

=) steel lathe rails. (GE

Superabrasives)



Manufacture of CBN tools is similar to the process used to
produce PCD tools, except CBN crystals replace the
diamond. CBN is used for machining very hard ferrous
materials such as hardened die materials, alloy steels, and hard-facing metals. t is thermally stable up to
1200C, and has good resistance to chemical attack.
A slightly different approach to CBN tool production presses the CBN layer on the green carbide insert and
bonds the two materials together during sintering. The technique is said to provide higher edge security than
brazed tips, and allows multiple edges on the same insert.
As both PCD and CBN have become more widely accepted, demand for application-specific grades has
grown. This is most evident in CBN cutting tool materials, and development of new grades is expected to
continue over the next several years. Researchers expect new CBN materials to have a lower ratio of CBN to
binder material, and to increase productivity 30 - 50% versus existing grades.
Superhard cutting tools have coupled with developments in machine tool technology to constantly push
machining speeds to higher levels. n Europe, for example, hard turning applications using CBN have reached
cutting speeds in the 300 m/min range, and surface milling of aluminum alloys using PCD tools has reached
speeds of 4000 m/min.