Electrical Vehicles

Dr.ir. Johan Driesen

overview
• history • technology
• why drive “e” ? – car types
• what can be – drive system
• motor
achieved ? • power electronics
• outlook • control system
– energy
storage/production
– driving style

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

1
 history: 1895-1910
• electric vehicles were the
most promising drive
technology end 1800’s:
speed records, neater cars
• combustion engine took
over in early 1900’s:
became more powerful,
easy to take with cheap
fuel
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

Janetzy Jamais Contente

• first car ever to
exceed 100 km/h
– 24/04/1899
– 105.882 km/h
– 2 electric motors in
‘aerodynamic’ car
– driven by Camille
Janetzy (B.) in
Achères (Fr.)
– named “Jamais
Contente”
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

2
 history: 1905-1925
• gasoline vehicles take over completely:
discovery of many oil wells drop fuel prices
• mass production techniques introduced by
Ford
• short revivals:
– Edison battery (NiFe)
– WW I: oil shortage
• 1900 US car production: 1575 electric cars
vs. 936 gasoline cars down to 4% in 1925
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

history: after WW II
• 60s: small ‘smog buster’ cars
– GM 512, Ford Comuta (failed to sell: smog
reduction incentive too limited)
• 1973: oil crisis
– economical push to revive EV R&D as a
mean to reduce oil dependence
• 80s: growing environmental concerns
– Clean Air Acts (California) and other
• 90s: evolution in power electronics
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

3
 EV types
• BEV: battery-electric vehicle
– rechargeable batteries ONLY source
(storage) of energy
• HEV: hybrid electric vehicle
– electrical energy storage plus onboard
means of power generation, which may be
converted into electricity
– additional diesel, gasturbine, fuel cell

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

noxious emissions
• ‘zero-emission vehicle’ (ZEV) in fact does
not exist !
• emissions MUST be considered over entire
energy cycle, including power plants
– reference: traditional combustion drive
– battery vehicles need to be charged with
electricity produced elsewhere: yet, in total
only 1/10 of emissions
– hybrid vehicles can reach 1/8 of emissions
(just clean enough ?)
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

4
 emissions: detail
• Full cycle (B)EV compared to CV
– CO: -99%, HC: -97%, NOx: -92%, CO2: -50%
• EV emissions continuous; no peak
emissions in ‘cold starts’ and short trips
• hybrid emissions close to BEV levels: just
clean enough
• fuel cells: emissions almost eliminated

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

internal-combustion engine
characteristics
• internal combustion
engine: bad
efficiency
characteristics
• size determined by
peak power
• gears necessary
• fuel efficiency: 18%
(46 % electric)
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

5
 enhance efficiency
• enhance efficient use of
combustion engine
– use a second drive (electric) to
stay in point of maximum
efficiency
– size determined by peak power
demand: shave the peak with
electric motor
– bring own energy source to
produce (some of) the electricity
• different philosophies leading
to hybrid cars

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

HEV types
• series HEV • parallel HEV
– engine powers – engine delivers
generator mechanical energy
– generator charges to drivetrain directly
batteries and/or – electric motor
supplies motor (generator) on
directly drivetrain as well
– purely electrical
interface to
drivetrain

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

6
 HEV types: power system
architecture

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

series HEV
• ‘extend BEV with
onboard charging’
• switch off engine (BEV
mode) for short trips
or to drive clean
• energy production and
driving are decoupled
• simple mechanical
drive (no gears)
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

7
 parallel HEV
• keep engine in optimal
operation
• use motor while
accelerating
• use as generator while
decelerating
• engine can be very
small
• complex mechanical
train J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

alternative HEVs
• fully decoupled • series/parallel:
complicated

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

8
 hybrid car layout

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

Hybrid driving: starting

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

9
 Hybrid driving: driving

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

Hybrid driving: Acceleration

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

10
Hybrid driving: deceleration
& braking

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

Hybrid driving: charging

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

11
 Hybrid driving: stopping

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

HEV: non-electrical parts

• ‘engine’ with • energy storage
rotating output – batteries
– diesel: kept in – flywheel
optimal operation – supercapacitors
point
– high-speed
gasturbine
• ‘engine’ with
electrical output
– fuel cell
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

12
 flywheel storage
• major problem: gyroscopic effects
– difficult to manoeuvre, overturn danger
– use special fixture

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

battery types
• Pb-acid: cheap, low • NiMH, Li-Ion: high
performance densities, long life,
• NiCd: reliable, high charge/discharge
‘memory effect’, rates, safe, no
environmental maintenance,
problems (Cd) pollution-free
• NaS, NaNiCl: operate
above 300°C,
dangerous, not flexible
• NiZn: small number of
load cycles

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

13
 batteries: overview

Properties of the main battery types.

Pb-Acid NiCd NaNiCl NiZn NiMH LiIon

specific energy [Wh/kg] 35 50 90 55 60 120
energy per volume [W/A] 80 85 140 130 125 200
specific power 120 130 150 150 165 230
(*)[W/kg]
cycle life (**) 800 3000 1500 300 > 600 600
operating temperature ambient ambient 300º C ambient ambient ambient
(*) peak power density at 80% DOD (depth of discharge) over 30 s
(**) cycle life (80% of initial capacity)

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

fuel cells
• controlled oxidation reaction: direct conversion
of chemical energy into electrical energy (DC)
• run on pure H2 or H2-rich reformed methane,
methanol, ethanol or gasoline
• store gaseous fuel in pressure cylinder or metal
hydride tank
• higher efficiency than combustion-based: no
Carnot-limit
• different types, polymer electric membrane fuel
cell (PEMFC) most promising
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

14
 fuel cell : PEMFC
• output power: 35 kW
• stack voltage: 50-55 V
• efficiency at rated load: 59 %
• efficiency at 20% load: 69 %
• operating temperature: 80°C

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

pure battery EV
• emissions are moved to (more
efficient) power plants
• need recharging stations
• recharging = slow
• recharge overnight (cheap power)
• batteries are heavy and spacious
• extremely silent

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

15
 true ZEV: solar challenge cars
• regular race for photovoltaic powered
cars: in Europe, Australia
• extreme efficiencies required

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

powering up
• filling up a classical car with
gasoline is the equivalent of
an MW energy transfer
• using an electrical cable: tens filling up a hybrid
of kW (need several hours) (trailer system)

• charge overnight: help load

balancing
• 2 systems: conductive,
inductive
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

16
 electrical motor types
• DC machines: brush problems
• induction machines with cage rotor
• synchronous machine types
– permanent-magnet machine, ‘brushless-DC’
– reluctance machine: simple but limited
efficiency and performance, noisy
– hybrid machines (mixed types, e.g. with
additional cage): complicated design and
construction
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

electrical motor location(s)

• large central motor and mechanical
distribution
• motor per wheel
– external motor
– special motor design built-in wheel (direct
drive)
– 2- and 4-wheel drive schemes possible using fast
(digital) control systems

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

17
 field weakening
• higher speeds: induced voltages
increase
– need more insulation
– power electronics must be
capable to handle high voltages
• lower field or introduce ‘anti-
field’
• result: higher speed in
exchange for lower torque, but
keep power and losses constant
• use for cruising: high speed on
highway, but no more vigorous
accelerations (‘overdrive’ gear)

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

DC-machine
• simple to control, simple power
electronics (DC/DC with choppers)
• easy field weakening in shunt machines
• maintenance of brush/collector
• outperformed by all other motor types

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

18
 induction machines
• special construction for use with
inverter
• advanced inverter and control,
especially at low speeds
• field weakening possible for cruising
• significant rotor losses in cage:
difficult to cool
• limited efficiency
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

permanent-magnet
synchronous machine
• same inverter, but slightly simpler
control compared to induction machine
• difficult flux weakening for cruising
• temperature sensitive permanent
magnets: reversible and irreversible
demagnetisation
• only significant stator losses
• different designs
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

19
 motor types: examples
• induction machine

• permanent magnet
synchronous
machine

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

(switched) reluctance
machine
• synchronous machine without field
winding nor permanent magnets
• torque due to Xd/Xq difference
• simple construction
• noisy, vibrations

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

20
 direct wheel drives
• usually PMSM with high number of
poles, integrated into (four) wheels,
special magnetic design
• direct braking as well
• difficult control to maintain
synchronism between wheels, go
through curves: ‘differential axle in
software’
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

motor cooling
• use water cooling to prevent insulation
damage and demagnetisation

Water cooled HEV

mini-van motor
(ESAT/ELEN design)

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

21
 power electronic circuits
• several base circuits necessary, with own (coordinated)
control
– DC/DC (chopping) with battery or fuel cell to deal with changing
DC voltage level
– AC/DC (active rectifier) with generator on diesel/gasturbine for
rectification
– DC/AC based on PWM for AC motor supply
• components: IGBTs
• use special circuits to limit the (switching) losses and
increase performance (high dynamism)
• voltage as high as possible to minimize losses (500 V)

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

electrical drive: scheme

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

22
 electrical drive: detail

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

4-wheel direct drive control

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

23
 car control systems
• implement control system in powerful
digital signal processors (DSPs)
• driver gives linear speed reference, but
mimic feel of traditional gas pedal (non-
linear control of injected power/fuel)
using digital filters
• easy implementation of systems such as
ABS, traction control and cruise control in
DSP software J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

car operation
• using advanced control and power
electronics optimal performance
(maximum torque) at every speed from
0 km/h to top speed
• totally gearless (except some hybrids)
• beyond ‘maximum torque speed’:
cruising using controlled field
weakening
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

24
 city driving cycle
300

80 T [Nm]
200
v [km/h]
60
100
50

40 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
30 n [rpm]
-100
20

10 -200
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 -300
t [s]

standardized city driving registered operating

cycle, based on points in city driving cycle
measurements
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

F3 on race track
• typical driving cycle • electrical F3:
of F3 (Donington comparable
circuit, UK) performance

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles D. Howe: University of Sheffield

25
 regenerative braking
• EV powertrains are reversible
– motor becomes generator
– batteries/flywheels are recharged
• 60% of energy spent in urban driving is
used for inertia effects (acceleration)
• braking/deceleration: recovery of
about half of this energy could be
possible
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

power system architecture

design
• typical design values
– fuel economy: min. 35 km/l (3* better!)
– range: 612 km
– acceleration 0-100 km/h in 12 sec.
– max. speed 140 km/h
– 6.5 % climb at 90 km/h for 20 min.
– drive away in 5 sec., full power after 2 min.
– meet emission standards
– price of family sedan
J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

26
 why drive electric ?
• why ?
– superior engine & driving performance
– minimal emissions, clean(er)
• why not ?
– weight (?)
– complex maintenance (?)
– price

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

commercial (H)EVs
• Traditional companies • EV-only companies
– GM EV-1, S10 pickup – Tzero
– Toyota Prius I & II, RAV4-EV – Solelectrica
– Honda EV-plus, Insight – Enova systems
– Daimler Chrysler Epic – Orion
– Ford Ranger EV – …
– Nissan Altra, Tino
– ...

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

27
 why doesn’t it sell (yet) ?
• societal concerns:
– pollution of environment
– noise, dangerous petrochemicals
• personal concerns
– cheap in investment and use
– comfortable (e.g. noise)
• fail on price argument: electric vehicle
are cars for “Greens with greens”

J.Driesen - Electrical Vehicles

28