Retina where the sensory receptors are for vision. There is a circuit in the retina..

. a chain of three neurons before anything goes into the central nervous system. There are receptor cells that are divided into cones and rods They synapse onto bipolar cells And then they synapse onto ganglion cells (which have axons and the other cells dont) **ganglion cells are the only cells in the retina that have spikes** Ganglion cells collect together to form the optic nerve Rods and cones synapse onto bipolar cells.. and these synapse onto ganglion cells. Pg. 42 (second slide) Both cell types have three segments: Rods: Outer segment shed disks which are phagocytisized - these membranous disks have photopigment in them (rhodospin) Inner segment has mitochondria and nucleus Synaptic ending which synapses onto bipolar cells Cones: Outer segment disks are connected to the membrane so they dont shed Inner segment Synaptic ending Pg. 43 (first slide) - Retina is inverted from what we think should be the case - The receptor cells face the pigment epithelium at the back end of the retina - The light has to go through all these cells to reach the outer segment of the receptor cells Fovea (macula) small area in the optical center where there is a specialization - light can go directly to the outer segment - greatest sensitivity

no bipolar or ganglion cells (which are pushed to the side) the rest of the retina is peripheral retina

Transduction converting from one form of energy to another Phototransduction ( slides 3 and 4 on pg 43) In the rod disk membranes rhodopsin consists of opsin and 11-cis retinal ( the 11-cis retinal captures photons) A photon of light doesnt create a big chemical reaction - light makes 11-cis retinal straight - converts 11-cis retinal to all-trans-retinal (sterisoerization) - all trans-retinal disassociates from the opsin and thats what starts the process Insufficiency of vitamin a is called night blindness. Pg 44 (slides 2 and 3) There are neurons which dont have spikes (no action potentials) Dont have long axons If they depolarize a little, release a little neurotransmitter If depolarized a lot, more neurotransmitter is released Small neurons that conduct signals in a small area (local responses)

In the dark: the sodium channels in the outer segment are open and sodium leaks in and these cells are depolarized in the cell Light - when all-trans retinal disassociates from opsin, release of GTP from transducin which activates PDE which breaks down c-GMP converts it 5 GMP and the Na channel closes cell becomes hyperpolarized -- sensory stimulus causes inhibition (hyperpolarization) Pg 46 first slide More intense light stimulus greater hyperpolarization Third slide: Neighboring cell- complexes (which include receptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells) are inhibited by lateral inhibition caused by horizontal and amacrine cells which communicate in the central circuit.

Importance: Contrast in the nervous system excitation surrounded by inhibition Lateral inhibition allows contrast to be created and able to distinguish things in our sensory field. Audition: To hear sound, you need molecules of a substance. Only vibrating body will produce sound. Condensation pressing each other when vibrating molecules are moving (molecules in front will be compressed) Rarefraction wave of rarefraction Wave of compression travels through the environment Sound wave = increase in pressure, decrease in pressure, rarefraction, and compression Pg. 48 (second slide) Increase in amplitude loudness - greater the pressure, greater the loudness Increase in frequency pitch Decibels is the scale for sound Pg. 49: 0 decibel = threshold (minimal sound that you can hear) Above 120 decibels its painful. Inner ear is spiral shaped structure that contains the receptor cells (cochlea) Once the oval window is stimulated by the stapes, it goes into the inner ear. Pg 50: - why do you have to have the middle ear (malles, incus, stapes) - intensity of sound is much less under water than it is above - When you have 2 fluids of two different impedances, only a little bit of sound energy will go into the water. - Cochclea is filled with perilymph - If sound went directly to perilymph, most of the energy would be reflected off the surface

The bony ossicles get more sound energy into fluid-filled ducts of inner ear

How do they do this: - concentrate the area of the force - the oval window is very small, so more energy is conducted onto a smaller area, which is conducted into the inner ear - Leverage more movement on one end than the other end. If the bony ossicles arent found, then severe hearing loss. Middle ear is closed off except the Eustachian tube (from the middle ear into the nasopharynx) When you go on an airplane flight, pressure in the middle cavity is much greater than the external ear causes middle ear to bulge To equalize this pressure, the Eustachian tube is used (swallowing and chewing gum enhances this) Lets uncoil the cochlea to understand its structure (drawing on page 51) Make sure you understand the structure of the cochlea. How do you get the mechanical movement to become action potentials? Pg. 51 first slide Cilia of the hair cells are linked to mechanically- gated ion channels. When cilia are bent over, the timplinks (the spring that connects the cilia) open the gated channels. Potassium enters and depolarizes the cell, which opens the calcium channels.. then vesicles fuse with the membrane and release transmitter onto the afferent nerve. **simplicity is extraordinary** Place principle of frequency coding the basilar membrane is not uniform. It has a paddle shape which means its narrow at the basal end and wide at the apical end. This creates a width gradient. The further you go out to the apex, the wider it gets. Stiffness gradient the basal end is much stiffer than the apical end (where its flabby)

A sound of low frequency will vibrate the whole basilar membrane, but particularly at the apical end (where its most excited at low frequency) As you raise the frequency, the basal end will more excited (the stiff,narrow end).. the flabby apical end cant follow the high frequencies. For each frequency, there is a place on the basilar membrane where maximum excitation occurs. The hair cells are tuned at different places to different frequencies on the basilar membrane as well. Pg. 53Sensorineural damage to the auditory nerve or to the hair cells or the basilar membrane Conduction- something that interferes with the conduction of sound (tympanic membrane or bony ossicles or oval window) Professional deafness repeated intense sounds at a certain intensity will cause people to lose certain parts of the basilar membrane You lose high frequency hearing first. Otitis media infection of the middle ear (interfere with bony ossicles) Ostosclerosis connective tissue overgrowth that interferes with the bony ossicle movement Conduction deafness when you put the vibrating tuning fork on the skull, it can get through the skull and can get to the auditory tube) Senorineural regardless of where you put the tuning fork, they wont be able to hear the sound. The hearing level would be less at the frequency the child cant hear . Tinnitus ringing of the ears