1.

INTRODUCTION

Pile foundations have always occupied a worthy place in engineering practice. They have come into particularly widespread use in the last 30-35 years. This is associated with an increase in the number of stories, an expansion of the clearance dimensions of buildings and structures, and an increase in the loads taken up per unit area, and use for the development of sites with critical geologic-engineering conditions, complex relief, high ground-water table, etc., in many regions, up to 40-70% of buildings and structures are raised on pile foundations. More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced authorities and development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil characteristics. This has led to the development and improved piles and pile driving systems

In most cases, piles work on a combination of the two principles; both the base end and the friction of the pile bear the load of the structure. Skin friction is cohesion between the soil and the embedded surface of the pile. Friction is more likely to predominate for piles in clays and silts and where long sockets are formed in soft rocks.

In this project which entitles A Comparison of Pile Skin Friction Performance, the performance of pile skin resistance analysis will be study base on the Pile Driving Analysis (PDA) pile capacity value to be compared with several selected analysis method

1.1 Importance of study The importance of this project is because in pile design, there are various static formulas to determine pile skin friction. The difference approach between those formulas, generate a different value. Some of these values are questionable because it increases the Factor of Safety of the pile. The high values of Factor of Safety increase the pile length or pile size and create a high piling cost. These factors are very important in design stage or tendering stage to provide a safe foundation design with optimum cost. So, this project are useful to determine the most compatible formula to be use in pile design depend on the soil condition. It is also useful to give an option to all players in construction industry to choose the best foundation proposal for their project.

1.2 Problem statement

1.3

Objectives In performing some analysis or study, there are certain objectives that need to be achieved. The main objectives in this study are: 1. To determine the skin friction performance of driven concrete pile using different analysis method 2. To differentiate the skin friction analysis value with value obtained from PDA test
3. To determine relationship between various correlated Phi () value formula with skin

friction capacity

1.4 Scope of works

This study is perform base on the data obtain from Soil Investigation Report and Pile Load Test Report on project Cadangan Membina Dewan Serbaguna Dia Atas Tapak Padang Majlis Perbandaran Kuala Kangsar,Perak Malaysia. The type of pile selected for this research is limited to driven pile type 300 diameter spun pile. The load-carrying capacity of the skin friction (Qs) data obtain from dynamic pile load test is using Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) method. The estimation of theoretical load-carrying capacity of the skin friction (Qs) is analyzed using Meyerhofs Method (1976) and Coyle and Castello Method (1981) for sand and for clayey soils, analysis is using Method (1985), Method (1972) and method (1973).The selection of these analysis methods is base on the most preferable design method use in Malaysia pile design practice. Correlation of soil property only for soil skin friction angle ()

CHAPTER 2

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction to pile foundations Piles, as an important type of deep foundation, are generally used to transfer axial and horizontal building loads over low strength soil layers or through water body into load bearing strata. Typical applications are:

single pile foundations for the transfer of single loads pile group foundations for surface loads, and Combined pile-raft-foundations as a special type of pile foundation, with additional transfer of load through contact pressure between the raft and the soil between the piles.

The requirements for a pile or a pile foundation are governed primarily by the type of structure, the construction methods and the low strength subsoil conditions.

As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundation is:

to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load

A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile foundation may be cheaper than any other compared ground improvement costs. In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers.

2.2 classifications of piles In simple terms, pile can be classified by: 1. End bearing piles (point bearing piles) 2. Friction piles (cohesion piles ) 3. Combination of friction and cohesion piles 4. Classification of pile with respect to type of material

2.2.1 End bearing piles These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the penetration

resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile. The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion.

2.2.2 Friction or cohesion piles Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with the shaft of the pile. If the firm soil is at a considerable depth, it may be very expensive to use end bearing piles. In such situations, the piles are driven through the penetrable soil for some distance. The piles transmit the load of the structure to the penetrable soil by means of skin friction or cohesion between the soil and the embedded surface of the pile. This type of pile is called a friction pile. Friction piles may be used to support a downward load or an upward load, and from the diagram, it can be observed that skin friction is acting downwards, in opposition to the upward load.

2.2.3 Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as in a firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles

2.2.4 Classification of pile with respect to type of material Timber Steel Composite piles Concrete 2.2.4.1 Timber piles Timber is a relatively inexpensive material to be used in construction. However, the main drawback of timber piles is the limited structural capacity and length. Hence, timber piles are mostly suitable for construction of residential buildings in marshy areas and for stabilization of slopes. Advantages of timber pile are Good drivability, high elasticity, easy to handle and to cut, high life span below water. The disadvantages are Fast destruction due to rotting in air, not drivable in dense soil, limited load bearing capacity and length

2.2.4.2 Steel piles Steel piles offer excessive strength in both compression and tension. In addition, they are highly resistant to structural damage during driving. Furthermore, they can be spliced very conveniently to suit any desired length. On the other hand, the main disadvantages of steel piles are 1. high expense and 2. Vulnerability to corrosion in marine environments.

Therefore, steel piles are ideal for supporting excessively heavy structures such as multi storey buildings in soft ground underlain by dense sands, stiff clays, or bedrock in non-marine environments.

2.2.4.3 Composite piles Composite piles are Combinations of different materials in the same pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level.

2.2.4.4 Concrete pile Concrete piles can be selected for foundation construction under the following circumstances: 1. The need to support heavy loads in maritime areas where steel piles easily corrode. 2. Existence of stronger soil types located at relatively shallow depths that are accessible to concrete piles. 3. Design of bridge piers and caissons that require large-diameter piles. 4. Design of large pile groups is needed to support heavy extensive structures so that the total expense can be minimized. The disadvantages of concrete piles are that they can be damaged by acidic environments or organic soils and they undergo abrasion due to wave action when used to construct offshore foundations. Concrete piles are in wide use in construction due to their relatively high capacity and reasonable cost.

The two most common types of concrete piles are 1.

2.

precast and Casting-in situ.

Of these, precast piles may be constructed to specifications at a separate casting yard or at the pile construction site itself if a large number of piles are needed for the particular construction. In any case, handling and transportation can cause intolerable tensile stresses in precast concrete piles. Hence, one should be cautious in handling and transportation so as to minimize the bending moments in the pile. Two other important issues that have to be addressed with precast piles that have to be driven are the ground displacement that they cause and the possible damage due to driving stresses. Therefore, driving of precast piles would not be suitable for construction situations where soil- displacement- sensitive structures are located in the proximity. Preaugering or jetting would be alternative installation techniques to suit such construction situations. Cast-in-situ piles are of two types: 1. Cased type, which is piles that are cast inside a steel casing that is driven into the ground. 2. Uncased type, which are piles that are formed by pouring concrete into a drilled hole or into a driven casing before the casing is gradually withdrawn.

2.3 Installation of piles Most piles are driven into the ground by hammers or vibratory drivers. In special circumstances, pile also can be inserted by jetting or partial augering. In a pile driving, when the pile need to penetrate a thin layer of hard soil, such as sand and gravel overlying a softer soil layer, a technique called jetting is sometimes used.

Based on the nature of their placement, piles may be divided into two categories: displacement and non displacement piles. Driven piles are displacement piles because they move some soil laterally, hence, there is a tendency for the densification of soil surrounding them. In contrast bores pile are non displacement pile because their placements causes very little change in the state of stress in the soil.

2.4 Load test. Pile load test is the most reliable in the means of evaluating the load capacity of a pile foundation. It can be used either during the design stage or construction stage, but most typically to validate design during construction. Anyway, it is also the costly and time consuming method. Thus it will be performed only when the following factors are revealing: 1. Critical project site which large and many pile need to be driven or new sites that

have no any standard to be referred.

2.

Soil conditions at the site erratic with high degree of spatial variation (cohesive

soil), which their properties can be easily affected by the pile driving process. 3. The structure that supported by the pile is sensitively subjected to settlement

2.4.1 Equipment and procedure. There are four types of test loading, thus compression uplift test, lateral load test and torsion load test. Load test may conduct in compression or tension, while lateral load test are random justified. The test piles should be the same type and driven by same equipment as for

construction. Driven piles in clays should not be tested for at least after 21 days after installation to allow most of the skin friction to take place. The loading of a test pile enables the ultimate load to be determined directly and provides a means of assessing the accuracy of predicted values. Test may also be carried out in which loading is stopped when the proposed working load has been exceeded by a specified percentage. The result from a test on a particular pile will not necessarily reflects the performance of all other piles on the same site, and therefore an adequate number of tests are required, depending on the extent of the ground investigation.

2.4.2 Maintain load test As a part of foundation's quality assurance, Maintain Load Test, also known as Static Load Test is necessary to ensure the pile that was driven could take the design load of the structure. During this test, load would be applied on the selected pile and the pile settlement under the acting load would be recorded. As a common practice, pile would be loaded up to twice of the working load, which is regarded as the Test Load of the pile. The test load shall be applied in one of the following ways 1. By means of a jack which obtains its reaction from kentledge heavier than the required load; 2. By means of a jack which obtains its reaction from tension piles or other suitable anchors.

2.4.5 Dynamic load test

Dynamic pile testing (commonly known as PDA test) is performed by well-trained and experience engineers using a Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) on site and pile wave analysis will be carried out on the signal acquired by using Pile Wave Analysis Program by Characteristic (WAPC). It assesses the capacity of several piles in a single day. The PDA also evaluates shaft integrity and investigates driving stresses and hammer energy during pile installation. The driving hammer itself is used to perform PDA tests, or High Strain Dynamic Tests, on pilot or production piles. If necessary, it is possible to perform re-strike PDA tests even after the driving hammer is no longer on site, by using a drop weight to impact the foundation. The PDA software calculates results from velocity and force signals obtained by accelerometers and strain transducers attached to the pile Dynamic pile testing technology had been introduced to the industry for more than 30 years. This time and cost saving method of pile testing has eventually getting popular and is

widely recognized nowadays. The American Society of Testing and Materials has developed a standard (ASTM:D4945) for the performance of dynamic load test. It is a very cost-efficient tool used to replace the time consuming conventional static load test in determination of pile capacity. PDA is a very powerful tool in monitoring the response of a pile subjected to hammer impact applied at the pile head. The response is measured in terms of force and acceleration close to the pile head. Other than determination of pile capacity, the behavior during the pile installation works, such as the pile integrity, driving stresses and the energy transmitted to the pile. Once the pile wave analysis is completed, the full report will present the predicted static

load-settlement behavior and the pile capacity distribution among the pile shaft and pile toe. All these information are very useful in assessment of the pile capabilities by the engineers. There are 2 type of test that been categorized under Dynamic load test. Which are Pile Integrity test and Statnamic Pile Load Test 2.4.5.1 Statnamic Pile Load Test The Statnamic system for pile load testing is a relatively new method that does not require an independent reaction system. For this reason, it can be an economical alternative to conventional loading methods The test method is designed to produce accurate data on a pile's capacity in an efficient and cost-effective way, using state-of-the-art technology. A Load-Displacement curve is produced immediately. These parameters are directly measured by use of calibrated instruments, not mathematically derived.

2.4.5.2 Pile integrity test Pile Integrity Test (PIT) as a quick and economical way to determine the integrity of foundation piles. This kind of test can be applied on all kind of concrete and composite piles, especially bore piles. The integrity of a foundation pile is very important in order to ensure its serviceability to support the load transferred from the building or structure constructed. As for driven piles, overstressing during pile driving also can cause crack and damage to the pile installed. Therefore, effort must be taken to ensure each pile installed on site to be free from any kind of defects during the installation. During testing, a special hand held hammer is utilized to generate a low strain compressive wave impact on the pile. The wave created is measured by an accelerometer attached at a leveled section of the test pile top. Recorded wave is graphically displayed for defect determination. A significant reflection on the wave recorded shows changes in pile impedance which could tell integrity problem detected on the tested pile.

2.5 Standard penetration test The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to provide information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil. The purpose of the Standard Penetration Test is to identify the soil stratification and engineering properties of soil layers. During the SPT, it was possible to take disturbed and undisturbed samples (using split barrel-sampler) which were used for further laboratory tests.

The in situ penetration test provides a soil sample for identification purposes and for the laboratory tests that allow the use of disturbed samples. The method of sampling soil consists of driving a split-barrel sampler to obtain a representative, disturbed sample and to simultaneously obtain a measure of the resistance of the subsoil to the penetration of a standard sampler. The resistance to penetration is obtained by counting the number of blows required to drive a steel tube of specified dimensions into the subsoil to a specified distance using a hammer of a specified weight (mass). All pertinent borehole data, penetration resistance, and sample data must be recorded on a boring log data sheet.

2.6 Lateral loading Sources of lateral load of pile normally are come from earth pressures on retaining walls, wind loads, seismic loads, impact loads from ships (berthing, pier collision, etc.), eccentric loads on columns, ocean wave forces, slope movements and cable forces on transmission towers. Frequently dictate the diameter (section modulus) of the foundation, so it should be considered first. The behavior of laterally loaded deep foundations depends on stiffness of the pile and soil, mobilization of resistance in the surrounding soil, boundary conditions (fixity at ends of deep foundation elements), and duration and frequency of loading.

1.7 Axial load A pure tension or compression load acting along the long axis of a straight structural member. Behavior of pile under axial loading is Pile soil slippage and yielding at the base primarily governs the nonlinear axial deflections. The large amount of the axial load is resisted through skin friction and the pile base contributes less than 10% of the total load. Load carrying

capacity at the level of each depth is dictated by the limiting friction value at that level. Above this value, the pile and soil slip locally.

2.8 The behavior of piles and pile group under load the load settlement relationship typical for a single pile driven into a sand when subjected to vertical loading to the point of failure is shown in figure. At the early stage of loading, the settlement is very small and its due almost wholly to elastic movement in the pile and the surrounding soil. When the load is removed at a point such as A in figure..(a) the head of the pile will rebound almost to its original level. If strain gauges are embedded along the length of the pile shaft (figure(b)). As the load is increased, the load settlement curves steepens, and release load from a point B will again show some elastic rebound, but the head of the pile will not returns to its original level indicating that some permanent set has taken place. The strain gauge readings will show that the shaft has taken up an increased amount of skin friction but the load carried by the shaft/pile will not equal the total load on pile, indicating that some proportion of the load is now being carried in the end bearing. The relative proportions of load carried in shaft friction and end bearing depend on shear strength and elasticity of the soil. Generally the vertical movement of the pile which is required to mobilize full end resistance is much required to mobilize skin friction. If the total load on the shaft and the load on the base of a pile are measured separately, the load settlement relationship for each of these components typical for a stiff clays are as shown if figure it will be seen that the skin friction of the shaft increases to a peak value, then falls with increasing strain. On the other hand, the base load increases progressively until complete failure occurs.

Because of elastic movement in pile shaft the upper part of the pile moves relatively to the soil. Thus in the case of a pile driven on to a hard and most compressible rock, the strain gauge readings along the pile shaft will show some load transferred to the soil towards the top of the pile due to mobilization of skin friction as the shaft compresses elastically.

2.9 Pile Load Transfer

When a structural load is applied on a pile, it will be supported by certain amounts of skin friction and point bearing resistance that is mobilized as required. The degree of mobilization of both skin friction and point bearing resistance depends on the relative displacement undergone by the pile at the particular location of reference with respect to the surrounding soil. This condition is graphically illustrated in Figure 6.11, that shows the mobilization of skin friction through shear stress along points on the embedded pile surface governed by the shear strain undergone by the pile with respect to the surrounding soil (slip) at those locations. Although the magnitude of slip needed to mobilize the ultimate shear resistance depends on the soil type, typically it would be within a few millimeters (e.g., <10 mm). Similarly, mobilization of point (tip) resistance depends on the axial strain or penetration of the pile tip in the bearing layer and for complete mobilization, a penetration of 10 to 25% of the pile diameter would be required.

1.10 Skin friction

Skin friction is the frictional resistance developed between soil and a structure or between soil and a pile being driven in it. Pile capacity from skin friction is calculated based on the surface area of the pile, the shear strength of the soil, and various reduction factors to account for the method of pile construction and adhesion between the pile material and the soil. Skin friction can be considered in combination with end bearing, if the movement required to mobilize both sources of support is similar. The skin-friction capacity of piles can be evaluated by means of the following expression:

Where p is the perimeter of the pile section, z is the coordinate axis along the depth direction, f is the unit skin friction at any depth z, and L is the length of the pile. The carrying capacity of piles driven into fine soil ,e.g. silt and clays, is given by the sum of skin friction between the pile surface and the soil, and the end resistance. The skin friction is not necessarily equal to the shear strength of the soil, since driving a pile into a fine soil can alter the physical characteristic of the soil to a marked extent. The skin friction also depend on the material and shape of the pile and the elapse of time after installation.

1.11 Correction of N value

Pect et al.(1953) have given a correlation of N value,the angle of internal friction (phi) and terzaghi bearing capacity factors Nq and Nr. When the test is made in the fine sand or silt below water table, a correction is generally made and N values are reduced due to the development of pore water pressure. If N is the measured SPT value the equivalent value of N for design purposes (N>15) is given by the expression N=15+1/2 (N-15) Further correction of N values to allow for the effect of overburden has been introduced by Gibbs and holtz (1957). For larger depth, when the overburden exceeds 15m, no corrections are required. Since piles normally go down deeper than 15m, no correction for effect of overburden is necessary. The values of N found at different points along the boreholes will vary due to random variations in the density of the deposit. In such case the lowest value within 2 metres below the pile base should be taken for the design.

2. METHODOLOGY

1.1Introduction This chapter will discuss on methodology used of this study as shown in Figure 3.1. The methodology used in this study includes data collection, compilation of data, data analysis, comparison of the results, evaluation of methods, and finally conclusion and recommendation. The methodology used is essential in order to achieve the studys aim which is to identify the most appropriate interpretation methods to estimate the comparison of pile skin friction performance.. In this chapter, there are a few method of analysis and stage of works involved to perform this study. This chapter is important to ensure this study will carry out smoothly. The methods that been used are divided into certain phase.

Find site investigation report and dynamic load test (PDA) result from a specified project

Identify all the data in order to determine a suitable pile size and soil properties

Extract all design parameter and related information from S.I report and PDA test report

Analysis Perform correlation value for any parameter which is not available in S.I report Perform skin friction analysis using various formulas

PDA result

Determination of the skin friction performance

Analyze the relationship between correlated phi values

Differentiate the skin friction analysis value with value obtained from PDA test Differences of skin friction value between analysis and PDA result

Skin friction performance value

Relationship between correlation phi value (the highest and the lowest

Figure 3.1 Methodology flow chart

1.2

Information acquiring stage

1.2.1

Data from soil investigation report

The information taken from Soil Investigation Report will be use for pile design. The information taken is the location of borelog on site that will be use to check which test pile is suitable with borelog location. The depth on each soil profile and ground water level information is also taken for overburden pressure () estimation. The description of soil from S.I Report is taken to use in Specified Gravity (Gs) value assumption. Moisture content information together with specified gravity value will be use in calculated soil unit weight (). Whereas undrained shear strength and sieve analysis value is taken from S.I Report to be use in pile design

1.2.1.1

Correlated Data from Soil Investigation Report

For granular soils, the corrected N-value can be used to estimate the effective friction angle of the soil, . Wolff (1989), based on research by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn in 1974 has produced an empirical formula to correlate friction angle with Ncor. The formula is shown as:

Kulhawy and Mayne (1990), based on the work by Schmertmann in 1975 has approximate an empirical formula to estimate the friction angle Nf = Tan -1 12.2 + 20.3 v Pa

Where pa is the atmospheric pressure in the same unit as v. Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) suggested
' = 20 N + 20

' = 12 N 45 + 20

A lower bound for the above equation is given as;

' = 12 N 45 +15

1.2.2

Data from pile dynamic analysis (PDA) report

The information taken from Pile Load Test Report will be use later on in a pile design and design comparison. The information taken from Pile Load Test Report is the location of test pile on site, pile type and size, pile length, pile penetration depth, pile integrity, skin friction value and end-bearing resistance value.

1.3

Analysis stage

1.3.1

skin resistance capacity

The skin resistance part is currently computed using either a combination of total and effective stresses. Some evidence exist that use of only effective stresses gives a better correlation of prediction to load test. However, both method are widely use.

1.3.1.1

pile skin resistance in cohesive soils

There are three procedures currently used for computing skin resistance of piles in cohesive soils. These will be called , and methods.

1.3.1.1.1

the method

the method was proposed by Tomlinson (1971), and basically the skin resistance is computed as K tan Where = coefficient from figureor table c= average cohesion for the soil stratum of interest = effective vertical stress on element L K= coefficient of lateral earth pressure ranging from volume displacement, initial soil density,etc. to about 1.75, depending on

= effective friction angle between soil and pile material (use either (drained angle) or values from table . for piles is most commonly computed as

The correlation reported by Tomlinson for this method is in order 25%

1.3.1.1.2 the method

Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972) presented an alternative method of obtaining the skin resistance of a pile in clays as ) Where undrained shear strength =coefficients which can be obtained from figure.

1.3.1.1.3 The method The method suggested by Burland (1973). That is used for the determination of skin friction in granular soils. It can be expressed in the following

general formulation: tan Which can be rewritten as :

1.3.1.2 Pile skin resistance in non cohesive soil

1.3.1.2.1 Meyerhof method

This method was proposed by Meyerhof (1977) to obtain a skin friction in sandy soil. It is expressed as

Where

perimeter of the pile section =incremental pile length over which p and f are taken constant = unit friction resistance at any depth z

1.3.1.2.2 Coyle and Castellos Method

Coyle and Castello (1981) presented, since the origin of skin friction in granular soils is due to the frictional interaction between piles and granular material, the unit skin friction (skin-frictional force per unit area) can be expressed as:

Where K = earth pressure coefficient (K0 for bored piles and 1.4 K0 for driven piles), = angle of friction between the soil and the pile material (usually assumed to be 2/3 if one looks for a generic value; = effective vertical stress It can be seen from the above expression that the unit skin friction can increase linearly with depth. However, practically, a depth of 15-20 B (where B is the cross-sectional dimension) has been found to be the limiting depth for this increase. this critical depth,L, depends on several factors such as soil friction angle, compressibility and relative density. A conservative estimate is to assume that L=15D

The values of from various investigations appear to be in the range of 0.5 to 0.8 . Judgment must be used in choosing the value of .