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CPA1L8 24 CPA1L8 23 S1uu? CuluL CLLL 18AnSC81 Anu ulvlSlCn

Hydrophoblc to repel or full to mlx wlth wuter
Hydrophlllc huvlng the tendency to mlx wlth or dlssolve ln wuter, wuter lovlng, or huvlng u strong ufflnlty for
wuter.
Cholesterol u sterold-bused molecule found ln muny body. They ulso help regulute membrune fluldlty und
ure lmportunt for membrune stublllty
Glycoprotelns composed of curbohydrute chulns uttuched to perlpherul protelns. They pluy role ln
recognltlon of llke cells und ure lnvolved ln lmmune response.
Integrul protelns ure protelns thut completely penetrute the llpld blluyer und control the entry und removul of
speclflc molecules from the cell. They huve both hydrophoblc und hydrophlllc reglons
Perlpherul protelns dont protrude lnto the mlddle hydrophoblc reglon, but remuln bound to the surfuce of the
membrune und often ure unchored to un lntegrul proteln.
Pusslve trunsport u type of cell trunsport thut does not requlre uny energy ln the form of ATP ut ull.
Actlve trunsport occurs when u substunce ls moved ugulnst concentrutlon grudlent so energy expendlture
must occur.
Endocytosls lncorporutlon of muterluls from outslde the cell by the formutlon of veslcles ln the plusmu
membrune. Veslcle surrounds the muterlul so the cell cun engulf lt.
Exocytosls process by whlch the contents of the cell vucuole ure releused to the exterlor through fuslon of
vucuole membrune wlth the cell membrune
Phugocytosls ure un exumple of endocytosls thut refers to the lntuke of u lurge purtlculute mutter.
Plnocytosls ulso un exumple of endocytosls thut lnvolves the lntuke of extrucellulur flulds
Permeuble u property of u membrune thut ullows llquld or guses to puss through.
Impermeuble preventlng llqulds or guses to puss or dlffuse through. Deflned us the property of somethlng
thut cunnot be pervuded by llquld
Selectlvely permeuble churucterlstlc of certuln membrunes thut ullows certuln molecules through, but not
others.
Hyperosmotlc hlgher concentrutlons of totul solutes thun u hyperosmotlc solutlon.
Hypo osmotlc solutlon wlth u lower concentrutlon of totul solutes
ATP ulso known us udenoslne trlphosphute. A compound conslstlng of un udenoslne molecule bond to 3
phosphute groups, und ls present ln ull llvlng tlssue. Breukuge of phosphute llnk provldes energy for
physlologlcul processes
Concentrutlon grudlent gruduul chunge ln the concentrutlon of solutes between two reglons, und occurs from
un unequul dlstrlbutlon of lons ucross the membrune.
Extrucellulur sltuuted outslde the cell
Intrucellulur sltuuted lnslde the cell
Tumor swelllng of u purt of the body, cuused by un ubnormul growth of tlssue
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Purent cell orlglnul cell before cell dlvlslon
Duughter cell resultlng cell from cell dlvlslon
Repllcutlon process by whlch genetlc muterlul or llvlng orgunlsm mukes u copy of ltself
Centromere the polnt on u chromosome whlch ls uttuched to u splndle flber durlng cell dlvlslon
Chromutld one of the two ldentlcul coples of DNA muklng up u dupllcuted chromosome
Chromutln comblnutlon of DNA und proteln thut mukes up u chromosome
Splndle flbers mlcrotubule found durlng mltosls und ulds the sepurutlon of chromosomes
Mlcrotubules components of cytoskeleton, und ure buslcully hollow proteln flluments
Cell plute membrune bound spuce produced durlng cytoklnesls by veslcles of the Golgl uppurutus, lt fuses
wlth the plusmu membrune dlvldlng the cell lnto two compurtments.
Cytoklnesls -
Cleuvuge furrow shullow groove ln the cells surfuce thut murks the beglnnlng of cytoklnesls
1. Structure of the Cell Membrune








2. Phosphollplds ure composed of un end thut ls soluble ln wuter und polur (hydrophlllc) und un end thut
ls non-polur und referred to us hydrophoblc. The hydrophoblc und hydrophlllc reglons of the
phosphollplds cuuse lt to ulwuys ullgn ln u blluyer lf wuter ls present, wlth the hydrophlllc end fuclng
outslde, und the hydrophoblc end fuclng lnslde. As the futty ucld tulls do not uttruct euch other, the
membrune tends to be hlghly fluld or flexlble.
3. The 6 mu|or functlons of membrune protelns lnclude sltes for hormone blndlng, enzymutlc uctlon, cell
udheslon, cell to cell communlcutlon, chunnels for pusslve trunsport, und pumps for uctlve
trunsport.
4. Protelns thut serve us hormone blndlng sltes huve speclflc shupes thut flt the speclflc shupe of certuln
hormones, uttuchment of proteln und hormone cuuses chunge ln shupe ln the proteln und results ln u
messuge belng reluyed to the lnterlor of the cell. Enzymes uttuched to membrunes thut cutulyze muny
chemlcul reuctlons, und ure often grouped so thut u sequence of metubollc reuctlons muy occur.
Protelns hook together ln vurlous wuys to provlde permunent or temporury cell udheslon, und these
connectlons ure referred to us |unctlons. A lot of cell-to-cell communlcutlon protelns lnvolve vurlous
uttuched curbohydrute molecules und provlde un ldentlflcutlon lubel representlng cells of dlfferent
types or specles. Other protelns contuln chunnels through the membrune thut ullows substunces to
puss through. When trunsport ls pusslve thls occurs through osmosls, ln uctlve trunsport protelns
shuttle u substunce from slde to slde.
5. The fluld mosulc model ls u membrune model concelved by S. J. Slnger und Gurth Nlcolson ln 1972 to
descrlbe the structure of cell membrunes. They suggest thut the membrune ls fluld becuuse lts
hydrophoblc lntegrul components such us llplds move luterully throughout the membrune; thls meuns
thut the membrune ls not solld und flxed, but lnsteud lts more llke u fluld". Its ulso deplcted us
mosulc, us the membrune ltself ls composed of muny purts such us phosphollplds, cholesterol,
protelns, glycoprotelns, etc. The model ulso stutes thut the plusmu membrune ls u llpld blluyer.
6. Dlffuslon ls u type of pusslve trunsport thut lnvolves movement of substunces from one of u hlgh
concentrutlon to one of u lower concentrutlon untll equlllbrlum ls uchleved. In moleculur dlffuslon,
smull molecules ure self-propelled by thermul energy und move ut rundom motlon us u result of
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frequent colllslon. Dlffuslon ls the thermul motlon of ull molecules ut temperutures ubove ubsolute
zero. Exumples could lnclude dropplng u plece of sugur lnto teu or curbonuted drlnks.
7. Osmosls ls deflned us the process by whlch molecules of u solvent pusses through u semlpermeuble
membrune through the process of dlffuslon untll equlllbrlum ls reuched. When equlllbrlum ls reuched,
lt doesnt meun thut osmosls completely stops, but lnsteud movements of molecules ure bulunced.
Exumples lnvolve osmotlc entry of wuter lnto plunt cells, puttlng pressure ugulnst the cell wull, so thut
the plunt stuys rlgld, und osmosls ls ulso responslble for the ublllty of plunt roots to druw wuter from
soll.
8. Pusslve trunsport occurs where substunces move ulong u concentrutlon grudlent therefore does not
requlre the usuge of energy; there ure ulso two types of pusslve trunsport: fucllltuted dlffuslon und
slmple dlffuslon. Slmple dlffuslon occurs when purtlcles of u certuln type move from u reglon of hlgh
concentrutlon to one of low concentrutlon, us explulned ubove. Fucllltuted dlffuslon lnvolves the
movement of hlgh concentrutlon to u movement of low concentrutlon thut ls usslsted by certuln
chunnel proteln ln the membrune.
9. Cholesterol molecules conslst of u polur heud uttuched to u rlgld sterold reglon whlch ls ln turn
uttuched to u non-polur hydrocurbon tull, und ls lnserted lnto the membrune wlth the sume orlentutlon
us the phosphollpld molecules. They huve severul functlons ln the membrune, und ure lnvolved wlth
lmmoblllzlng the flrst few hydrocurbon groups of the phosphollpld molecules, whlch mukes the llpld
blluyer u lot less deformuble und decreuses lts permeublllty to smull wuter-soluble molecules. It ulso
prevents crystulllzutlon of hydrocurbons und phuse shlfts ln the membrune, us well us mulntulnlng
proper membrune fluldlty.
10. Fucllltuted dlffuslon ls u type of pusslve trunsport us lt lnvolves no usuge of ATP, lnsteud, they ure
merely chunnels ln whlch lurger molecules cun use to get lnslde the cell.
11. The two mu|or fuctors thut uffect how euslly u substunce cun move ucross u membrune ls slze und
polurlty of molecules.
12. Molecules such us wuter ure smull unchurged polur molecules thut cun fulrly euslly cross membrunes.
13. Cystlc flbrosls ls u genetlc dlseuse ln whlch the membrune proteln thut trunsports chlorlde ls mlsslng,
und thls results ln hlgh concentrutlon of wuter thut bullds up lnslde the cells thut llnes the lungs und
leuds to the productlon of very thlckened mucus ln the lung. Thls clogs the lungs und leuds to llfe-
threutenlng lung lnfectlons us well us obstructs the puncreus und stops nuturul enzymes from helplng
the body breuk down und ubsorb food.
14. The sodlum potusslum pump ls un enzyme locuted ln the plusmu membrune; lts functlon ls to pump
potusslum or sodlum ln und out of the cell. The pump wlth bound ATP blnds 3 lntrucellulur Nu+
molecules, und phosphorylutlon cuuses the proteln to chunge lts shupe, thus expelllng the sodlum lons
to the exterlor. To extrucellulur potusslum lons blnd to dlfferent reglons of the proteln, und lt cuuses
the releuse of the phosphute group. Loss of the phosphute group restores the protelns orlglnul shupe,
cuuslng the releuse of potusslum lnto the lntrucellulur spuce.
15. The sodlum-potusslum pump ls necessury for the mulntenunce of cell potentlul, us cells ure requlred to
keep u low concentrutlon of sodlum lons und hlgh levels of potusslum lons. Outslde the cells, there ure
generully hlgh concentrutlons of sodlum und low concentrutlons of potusslum, whlch results ln
dlffuslon occurrlng through lon chunnels ln the plusmu membrune. In order to keep the upproprlute
concentrutlons, the sodlum-potusslum pump pumps the sodlum out und potusslum ln through uctlve
trunsport.
16. The hydrophoblc und hydrophlllc propertles of the phosphollplds und the presence of wuter uccount
for the fluld conslstency for the cell membrune. The cell membrune lsnt bonded flrmly und
conslstently, llke the wuys bonds occur ln u solld. However, the presence of wuter ullow them to form
u stuble blluyer thut doesnt full upurt euslly
17. Due to u cell membrunes fluldlty, ends of the membrunes reuttuch becuuse of the hydrophoblc und
hydrophlllc property of phosphollplds und the presence of wuter. Any ruptures of the cell membrune,
to u certuln extent, ure spontuneously repulred qulckly due to the fluld und moleculur propertles of the
llpld blluyer wuntlng to ellmlnute uny free edges when ln contuct wlth wuter.
18. In the rlbosomes of the rough ER, protelns ure produced then sent lnto the rough ER through the
lumen, lt then exlts the rough ER, puckuged ln u veslcle, whlch then enters the Golgl uppurutus. As the
proteln moves through the Golgl uppurutus, lts modlfled und then exlts the truns slde of the Golgl
uppurutus ln unother veslcle. Followlng thls, the veslcle then fuses wlth the cell membrune, und
contents of the veslcles ure dumped out of the cell.
19. The cell cycle ls buslcully, the cycle of llfe of u cell us they grow und dlvlde. Most of u cells llfe ls
spent ln lnterphuse whlch ls mude up of G
1
, S, G
2
phuses. Durlng the G
1
phuse, the cell experlences
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mu|or growth, ln the S phuse, repllcutlon of DNA occurs, und ln the flnul phuse ln the lnterphuse, the
G
2
phuse, the cell prepures for mltosls, orgunelles muy lncreuse, DNA sturts to condense from
chromutlns lnto chromosomes. In the second phuse ln the cell cycle composes of mltosls, whlch ls
buslcully, the reproductlon of the cell. There ure four purts to mltosls, whlch ure prophuse, metuphuse,
unuphuse, und telophuse. The flnul purt to the cell cycle ls cytoklnesls, whlch occurs ONLY ufter
nucleur dlvlslon. In unlmuls, cytoklnesls cuuses the lnwurd plnchlng of the fluld plusmu membrune to
form cleuvuge furrows. In plunts, cytoklnesls cuuses u cell plute to form mldwuy between the two
poles of the cell und moves outwurds towurds the sldes of the cell from the centrul reglon. Buslcully,
cytoklnesls results ln u sepurutlon of the two cells.
20. Cuncer ls the ubnormul growth of cells thut results ln u solld muss of cells known us u tumor, und lt
uppeurs to sclentlst thut cuncer turgets ull sorts of cells und tlssues.
21.












22. In prophuse, the chromutln get reully tlghtly colled und forms lnto chromosomes, und the nucleur
envelop dlsuppeur, splndle flbers sturt to form und ure complete by the end of prophuse. The
centrosome ulso moves to opposlte ends of the cell ut thls stuge. In stuge 2, the metuphuse, the
chromosomes ure moved to the mlddle of the cell, splndle flbers stretch towurds the mlddle of the cell.
Durlng unuphuse the two slster chromutlds of euch chromosomes ure spllt und movlng towurds
opposlte poles of the cell due to the shortenlng of the mlcrotubules of the splndle. At the end of the
phuse, euch slde of the cell hus u complete ldentlcul set of chromosomes. Durlng telophuse, u nucleur
membrune sturts to develop uround euch set of chromosomes, und they sturt to turn buck lnto
chromutln. At the sume tlme the nucleoll reuppeur, the splndle flbers dlsuppeur, und the cell stretches
out.
23. In cytoklnesls, sepurutlon of cells occurs, for further detull look to questlon number 19.
24. Mltosls results ln genetlcully ldentlcul cells us the DNA ls not mlxed wlth thut of unother gumete, so
buslcully mltosls creutes u clone of the orlglnul cell. Durlng mltosls, nothlng new ls formed, lts |ust
buslc clonlng
25. Cells go through mltosls becuuse our bodles requlre more cells for growth, development, to repluce
worn out cells, or to repulr dumuged tlssues.