A2 Physics Exam Unit 4 Momentum and Energy Work done = force x distance 1J = 1 Nm GPE = mgh EPE = kx KE = mv = p/2m Momentum

p/2m Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision (if no friction) KE conserved in elastic collisions Some KE converted to internal energy of surroundings in inelastic collisions I = Ft = mv mu For 2 equal mass particles, angle between them after elastic collision =90 Heavy ball strikes lighter one at rest angle less than 90 Light ball strikes heavier one at rest angle more than 90

Circular Motion For an object to move in a circle, a centripetal force acts on it towards the centre of the circle to try to obey Newtons 1st Law No movement in direction of force, as velocity and centripetal force at right angles to each other, so no work done Without the centripetal force, according to Newtons 1st law, the object will continue to move in a straight line along a tangent to the circle Time period T is time for 1 complete rotation (second) Frequency f is number of complete rotations per second (Hz)

Electrons Gases conduct by connecting 2 metal electrodes in sealed tube at high voltages and low pressures. Cathode gives off cathode rays of electrons J J Thompson discovered electron in 1897 by conducting experiments where he bent these rays in electric and magnetic fields Thermionic emission Metal cathode heated and electrons are given enough energy to leave surface. If anode near, then electrons are accelerated towards it, due to force exerted on them by electric field In electron gun, electrons then go through hole in anode and carry on at constant speed E=QV When electrons hit layers of graphite, they are diffracted by gaps between atoms and give maxima on the fluorescent screen when theyre in phase, therefore electrons act as waves, = h/mv, (E = hc/)

Magnetic Fields Lines of flux go from North to South pole Magnetic field strongest at poles, where lines of flux are most dense At neutral points magnetic fields cancel out and resultant field strength is 0 Magnetic flux density amount of flux passing through unit area at each point in field (strength of magnetic field) Lines of flux act an angle to Earths surface angle of dip An electric current is always surrounded by a magnetic field Flux density greatest close to wire Solenoid large coil with large number of turns of wire Magnetic field outside solenoid has same shape as bar magnet field The field is uniform and strong inside solenoid lines parallel, equally spaced and close together Magnetic fields caused by movement of charged particles Electrons spinning in atoms create tiny magnetic field. In some materials these effects cancel, in ferro magnetic materials they do not they line up and produce a strong magnetic field When ferro magnetic core placed inside solenoid, magnetic field greatly increased as atomic magnets line up along lines of flux, core becomes magnetised. When current turned off, steel stays magnetised as atomic magnets stay lined up, but iron quickly demagnetises as atomic magnets have enough vibrational energy to turn in random directions (electromagnet) Hall probe used to measure B Long straight wire o Doubling current doubles flux density o Doubling distance from wire halves flux density o Permeability, of material is measure of effect on strength of magnetic field o B = I/2r Solenoid o Doubling current doubles B o Doubling number of turns per metre doubles B o B = nI A wire carrying a current in a magnetic field feels a force The magnetic field of permanent magnets interacts with the magnetic field of the current in rod/wire providing a resultant force in direction of motion Magnets placed on balance, set to 0, current passed along clamped aluminium rod, FLHR rod moves upwards due to force from magnets, rod exerts equal and opposite force downwards, increasing reading Size of force depends on angle, but direction is always perpendicular to current and field

Magnetic flux density B is force acting per unit length on a wire carrying unit current, which is perpendicular to magnetic field D.C. electric motors mobility buggies, milk floats (can start engine) A magnetic flux density of 1 T produces a force of 1N on each metre of wire carrying a current of 1A perpendicular to the field T = 2m/BQ Faster moving electron moves in circle of larger radius but takes same time to make 1 revolution (Time period doesnt depend on speed) 2 parallel current-carrying wires exert equal and opposite forces on each other currents flowing in same direction attract, currents flowing in opposite directions repel

Electromagnetic Induction When you move rod, its free electrons move with it. Charges moving in magnetic field feel force. Electrons accumulate at one end, making one end negative and other positive. This induces voltage across ends induced e.m.f. if ends connected current will flow E.m.f. induced whenever relative movement between magnet and coil Its the cutting of lines of flux that cause an e.m.f. to be induced Increase size of emf induced across coil by: o Using stronger magnet o Using a coil with more turns of wire o Using coil with greater cross-sectional area o Moving the magnet faster Faradays Law: the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage 2 coils side by side 1 connected to battery and switch, other connected to sensitive ammeter: when switch closed meter flicks to right then back to 0 as growing magnetic field link turns of other coil, induces emf and drives current. When current reaches final steady value, flux linkage not changing so no induced emf and no current. Magnetic flux (Wb) = BA Total flux linkage of coil (Wb) = N = NBA = /t = N/t When metal moved in magnetic field or placed in changing magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in metal in direction as to oppose change in flux which caused them, which cause metal to become hot A.c. generator converts kinetic energy into electrical energy rectangular coil rotates in magnetic field. Each end of coil connected to slip ring, they rotate with coil and press against stationary carbon brushes. Electric motors convert electrical energy into kinetic energy. Current conducted by rotating split-ring commutator and fixed carbon brushes. Reverses direction of current flow every half turn so coil rotates continuously

Alternating Current Transformers change the value of an alternating voltage. A.c. flows into primary coil which produces alternating magnetic field in soft iron core. So flux linkage of secondary coil is constantly changing so alternating voltage is induced across it. Step-up transformer increase a.c. voltage as secondary coil has more turns than primary. If voltage stepped up, current in secondary is stepped down by same ratio VS/VP = NS/NP Laminations of iron in core make it harder for eddy currents to flow so reduces energy loss P=IV=IR can use high current + low voltage, or low current + high voltage National Grid uses low current and high voltage as current produces heat in resistor, so as to minimise power loss

Electric Fields Field is region of space in which an object experiences a force Rubbed polythene strip gains negative charge Rubbed cellulose acetate strip gains positive charge A charged object can attract an uncharged object Charging occurs when electrons are transferred between materials A conductor can only be charged if insulated from Earth Coulombmeter measures charge Coulombs law F = kQ1Q2/r An electric field is a region in which a charge feels a force Electric field lines arrows show direction of force on positive charge, so go from positive to negative Electric field strength E at a point is the force per coulomb exerted on a positive charge placed at that point in field E = F / Q = V / d = kQ/r 2 ways to produce electric charge which generates electric field frictional contact and battery or d.c. supply Negative plate has 0V potential Electric potential V at any point in electric field is potential energy that each coulomb of positive charge would have if placed at that point in field All points of conducting surface at same potential Things lose charge when earthed Conductors retain charge, even when earthed Work done moving charge between 2 equipotential lines is W = QV The p.d. is energy transferred when 1 C of charge passes from 1 point to another

When a charge moves along an equipotential, no work is done potential energy doesnt change. Equipotentials are perpendicular to field lines Electron beams low-voltage supply heats cathode and electrons escape from surface (thermionic emission). Positive anode attracts electrons, some pass through and travel towards fluorescent screen. mv=eV Deflecting electron beams force on electron F = QV/d Electric dipole 2 equal but opposite charges which experience equal but oppositely directed forces in electric field twisting action until parallel with electric field lines o Microwave oven generates electric field that reverses in direction several billion times per sec. Water molecules in food all tiny dipoles and try to align themselves with electric field, but its reversing so quickly that they just jostle against one another and energy is dissipated as internal energy in surrounding food material o In liquid crystals, dipoles align themselves in response to one anothers electric fields. Electric field can be switched on or off for each segment, resulting change in alignment changes response of crystals in that segment to polarised light

Capacitors Capacitors can store and then release electrical charge 2 conducting plates separated by dielectric amount of energy stored depends on amount of charge moved on to plates Charging and uncharging current in opposite directions Exponential growth/decay something gets larger/smaller by same fraction/proportion in each interval To charge, connect to battery, to discharge, remove battery and reconnect leads together. Brief surge of current during charging and discharging Charging when switch closed, electrons flow from negative terminal of battery on to plate, negative charge builds up there repelling electrons from other plate to battery, equal opposite positive charge on other plate, p.d. across capacitor increases until it equals supply voltage. Rate of flow of charge is proportional to how close to fully charged the capacitor is Q = Q0 (1- e) Discharging electrons driven round to neutralise positive charge, charge and p.d. falls. Resistors make it hard for charge to flow so slows it down. Rate of flow of charge proportional to remaining charge I = Q/RC Half life (t) = RCln2 = RC x 0.693 C=Q/V (the larger the capacitance, the more charge stored for each volt) Use variable resistor (reduce it slowly at first, then quickly) in circuit to keep current constant, as it decreases as capacitor charges up. Charge is area under current-time graph. Divide by p.d. to get capacitance. Or use constant current source instead of cell and rheostat.

P.d. is energy transferred per coulomb W = QV (p.d. varies as capacitor charges) = CV 1V = 1J/C Capacitors in parallel Q = Q1 + Q2, C = C1 + C2, p.d. across each is same and equals V Capacitors in series charge on each is same and equal to Q, V=V1+V2, 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 As C and R increase, discharge takes longer as larger resistance to flow of charge, and the greater the capacitance the greater the charge stored so it takes longer for charge to flow off capacitor plates As p.d. falls, the charge flows off plates more and more slowly and time taken for p.d. to drop takes longer and longer, T=RC After T p.d. falls to 1/e of V0, about 37% After 5RC p.d. falls to 0.7% (effectively discharged) Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor, C = A/d Maximum working voltage if p.d. across plates too high, electric field between plates will break down dielectric and when it conducts, the capacitor cant store charge any more Capacitors under each PC keyboard when key pressed, sides of capacitors become closer together and capacitance changes slightly computer scans all keys and deduces which one been pressed Coaxial cable acts as cylindrical capacitor 1m has capacitance of 100pF total capacitance worked out from total length, used to reduce reflections of signal that appear as shadows P.d. across capacitor proportional to charge on sides/plates Digital voltmeter turned into charge-measuring meter (coulombmeter) by connecting capacitor across its terminals

Radioactivity and Atoms John Dalton atoms are tiny indivisible spheres 1897 J J Thompson discovered electron Plum Pudding Model positive sphere of matter with negative electrons dispersed throughout 1909 Ernest Rutherford fired alpha particles at thin gold foil most went straight through, some deflected slightly, few deflected through large angles all atoms positive charge and most of mass concentrated in tiny core (nucleus), most of atom is empty space As alpha particle enters electric field produced by gold nucleus it experiences repulsive force, as both positively charged. Force gets stronger closer to nucleus until all KE of alpha particle stored as electric potential energy, then repelled by nucleus and regains all KE when well away from nucleus Gold nucleus charge = +79e, diameter = 1 x 10^-13 m A = top number nucleon number, mass number Z = bottom number proton number, atomic number

Nuclides (nucleus plus electrons) of same element (isotopes) same number of protons, different number of neutrons Water vapour in the air condenses on the ionised exhaust gases from planes engines to form droplets Charged particles cause ionisation in the substance they pass through Cloud chamber radiation ionises cold air inside chamber. Alcohol vapour condenses on ions of air to form trail of tiny white droplets along path of radiation. Slow heavy alpha particles leave thick dense straight tracks similar in length (intense radiation). Beta trails longer and fainter, vary in length. Gamma trails are not continuous Bubble chamber radiation leaves trail of vapour bubbles in liquid hydrogen

Particle Physics Existence of antimatter predicted mathematically by Paul Dirac in 1928 Anti-electrons (positrons) discovered experimentally by Carl Anderson in 1932 Particle and anti-particle have same mass, equal but opposite charge and spin in opposite directions Mid 1950s antiprotons and antineutrons first observed in accelerator experiments In 1995 at CERN antiproton + positron antihydrogen Antimatter doesnt last for very long when a particle meets its antiparticle, they destroy each other and their mass is converted to energy annihilation e.g. positron + electron 2 gamma rays/photons (to conserve momentum) Pair production photons produce particle-antiparticle pairs. Usually, 3rd particle such as atomic nucleus or electron recoils, carrying away energy PET scans blood injected with liquid containing oxygen-15 (half-life of 122s), as it decays it emits a positron that immediately annihilates with near electron to produce 2 photons (each E = 511 keV) which are detected by scintillators 1963 Murray Gell-Mann predicted existence of quarks Deep inelastic scattering high-energy electrons fired at protons and neutrons (liquid hydrogen in bubble chamber). At low energies, electrons deflected by protons and no loss of KE elastic scattering. At high energies proton fragmented into shower of particles (mainly mesons), elastic collision, KE converted to matter. Some pass straight through, others deflected through large angles as charge concentrated at 3 points (quarks) No free quarks quarks cannot be isolated and exist on their own Electron, muon and tau have charge of -1 Neutrinos have charge and mass of 0

Only electron and electron-neutrino are stable all other leptons decay into these All ordinary matter is made of 1st generation particles: up and down quarks, electrons and electron-neutrinos Baryons 3 quarks only stable baryon is proton Meson 1 quark and 1 antiquark not stable rapidly decay into leptons and photons In weak interactions, strangeness can vary by 1 In strong interaction, strangeness has to be conserved Particles interact by exchanging particles called exchange particles 2 ways of colliding particles together colliding beam experiments (headon, highest energy, low rate of collision); fixed target experiments (less energy, higher rate of collision) E=QV 1eV is the energy gained by accelerating an electron through a p.d. of 1V A charged particle accelerates across a gap between 2 electrodes if there is a potential difference between them Linear accelerator electrodes connected to alternating potential difference so they are alternately positive and negative. Frequency set so that as particles emerge from one electrode, they are attracted towards the next one. Electrodes get longer as the particles get faster because the particles must take the same time to travel through each to keep in step with alternating p.d. Steady speed in tubes drift as no field Cyclotron when charged particle emerges from central source, perpendicular magnetic field makes it follow circular path at steady speed. Bev is only force acting on particles so provides centripetal force. Bev perpendicular to path of electrons, it does no work on them, so their KE and speed remain constant. Each time particle reaches gap between Ds, alternating p.d. accelerates it across. Extra energy in next D so larger radius. Time spent in each D is same. Alternating p.d. must reverse every (m/BQ)s (2f=BQ/m). Frequency at which electron circles independent of initial momentum and KE, provided mass is constant. The top speed of particle in cyclotron is limited by relativistic increase in mass. Synchrotron electromagnets keep particles moving in circle. Electrodes accelerate particles at various points on loop. As particles gain energy, magnetic field increased to keep radius constant. Overcomes problem of relativistic increase in mass.