History of Indian science and technology

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Jump to: navigation, search The history of science and technology in the Indian Subcontinent begins with prehistoric human activity at Mehrgarh, in present-day Pakistan, and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. The British colonial rule introduced some elements of western education in India. Following independence science and technology in the Republic of India has included automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences.

Contents
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1 Prehistory 2 Early kingdoms 3 Post Maha JanapadasHigh Middle Ages 4 Late Middle Ages 5 Colonial era 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

Prehistory

Hand-propelled wheel cart, Indus Valley Civilization (30001500 BCE). Housed at the National Museum, New Delhi. By 5500 BCE a number of sites similar to Mehrgarh had appeared, forming the basis of later chalcolithic cultures.[1] The inhabitants of these sites maintained trading relations with Near East and Central Asia.[1] Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.[2] The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually

led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewerage.[2] Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.[3] Cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th millennium BCE4th millennium BCE.[4] Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia.[5] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[5] The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.[6] This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.[6] Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with multiple subdivisions in case of some devices.[6] The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[7] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[7] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[7] Excavations at Balakot (c. 2500-1900 BC), present day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early furnace.[8] The furnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects.[8] Ovens, dating back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BC), were also excavated at Balakot.[8] The Kalibangan archeological site further yields evidence of potshaped hearths, which at one site have been found both on ground and underground.[9] Kilns with fire and kiln chambers have also been found at the Kalibangan site.[9]

View of the Asokan Pillar at Vaishali. One of the edicts of Ashoka (272231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted."[10] Based on archaeological and textual evidence, Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008)a University of Minnesota professor emeritus of geographytraces the origins of Indian cartography to the Indus Valley Civilization (ca. 25001900 BCE).[11] The use of large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material was known in India with some regularity since the Vedic period (1 millennium BCE).[11] Climatic conditions were responsible for the destruction of most of the evidence, however, a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded convincing evidence of early cartographic activity.[12] Schwartzberg (2008)on the subject of surviving mapsfurther holds that: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands

of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'[13] Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.[14] The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE.[15] Swords have been recovered in archaeological findings throughout the GangesJamuna Doab region of India, consisting of bronze but more commonly copper.[15]

Early kingdoms

Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). Ink, called masi, an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.[16] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India.[17] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[18]

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas. The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence for the use of large numbers.[19] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasahit (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 10 were being included in the texts.[19] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("food-oblation rite") performed during the avamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and uttered just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a hundred to a trillion.[19] The Satapatha Brahmana (9th century BCE) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.[20]
12

Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35,37)[21] as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square."[21] It also contains the general statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together."[21] Baudhayana gives a formula for the square root of two.[22] Mesopotamian influence at this stage is considered likely.[23] The earliest Indian astronomical textnamed Vednga Jyotiadates back to between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, and details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.[24][verification needed] The Vednga Jyotia also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.[24] Since the Vednga Jyotia is a religious text, it has connections with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimsa.[25] Ritus and Yugas are also described.[25] Tripathi (2008) holds that "Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time."[25] The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literature of the Vedic period in India offer early records of veterinary medicine.[26] Kearns & Nash (2008) state that mention of leprosy is described in the medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[27] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Hindu religious book Atharva-veda, written by 15001200 BCE.[28] Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[29] Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[29] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[29] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that it should only be used when necessary.[29] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[30] During the 5th century BCE, the scholar Pini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology.[31] Pini's morphological analysis remained more advanced than any equivalent Western theory until the mid-20th Century [32]. Metal currency was minted in India before 5th century BCE,[33][34] with coinage (400 BCE100 CE) being made of silver and copper, bearing animal and plant symbols on them.[35] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BC.[36] Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt.[37] These swords have been variously dated to periods between 1700-1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE.[38] Archaeological sites in such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC.[39] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of radio carbon dating.[40] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[39] In Southern India (present day Mysore)

iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC.[41] These developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[41]

Post Maha JanapadasHigh Middle Ages

The iron pillar of Delhi (375413 CE). The first iron pillar was the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected at the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges.[42] The use of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible by about the 4th century.[43] The stupa, the precursor of the pagoda and torii, was constructed by the 3rd century BCE.[44][45] Rock-cut step wells in the region date from 200-400 CE.[46] Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) took place.[46] During the 1st millennium BCE, the Vaisheshika school of atomism was founded. The most important proponent of this school was Kanada, an Indian philosopher who lived around 200 BCE.[47] The school proposed that atoms are indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed,[48] and that each one possesses its own distinct viea (individuality).[49] It was further elaborated on by the Buddhist school of atomism, of which the philosophers Dharmakirti and Dignga in the 7th century CE were the most important proponents. They considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.[50] By the beginning of the Common Era glass was being used for ornaments and casing in the region.[51] Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and local artisans learnt methods of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era.[51] The Satavahana period further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.[52] Wootz originated in the region before the beginning of the common era.[53] Wootz was exported and traded throughout Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests

that manufacturing process for Wootz was also in existence in South India before the Christian era.[54][55] Evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[56] Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India.[57] Golconda served as an important early center for diamond mining and processing.[57] Diamonds were then exported to other parts of the world.[57] Early references to diamonds comes from Sanskrit texts.[58] The Arthashastra also mentions diamond trade in the region.[59] The Iron pillar of Delhi was erected at the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375413).[60] The Rasaratna Samuccaya (800 AD) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[36]

Model of a Chola (200848 CE) ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli. The origins of the spinning wheel are unclear but India is one of the probable places of its origin.[61][62] The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14th century CE.[63] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, the "woodenworm-worked roller".[56] This mechanical device was, in some parts of the region, driven by water power.[56] The Ajanta caves yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century CE.[64] This cotton gin was used until further innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[64] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[65] Each mission returned with different results on refining sugar.[65] Pingala (fl. 300-200 BCE) was a musical theorist who authored a Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There is evidence that in his work on the enumeration of syllabic combinations, Pingala stumbled upon both the Pascal triangle and Binomial coefficients, although he did not have knowledge of the Binomial theorem itself.[66][67] A description of binary numbers is also found in the works of Pingala.[68] The use of negative numbers was known in early India, and their role in situations like mathematical problems of debt was understood.[69] Consistent rules for working with these numbers were formulated.[70] The diffusion of this concept led the Arab intermediaries to pass it to Europe.[69] The decimal number system originated in India.[71] Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirety, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion.[71] By the 9th century CE, this complete number system had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to China and the Islamic world before that time.[70] The concept of 0 as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India.[72] In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was

treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division.[70][72] Brahmagupta (598668) was able to find (integral) solutions of Pell's equation.[73] Conceptual design for a perpetual motion machine by Bhaskara II dates to 1150. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.[74] The trigonometric functions of Sine and 'Versine, from which it was trivial to derive the Cosine, were used by the mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[75][76] The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was stated by mathematician, Bhskara II, in the 12th century.[77]

Akbarnamawritten by August 12, 1602depicts the defeat of Baz Bahadur of Malwa by the Mughal troops, 1561. The Mughals extensively improved metal weapons and armor used by the armies of India. Indigo was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing.[78] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[78] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[78] The cashmere wool fiber, also known as pashm or pashmina, was used in the handmade shawls of Kashmir.[79] The woolen shawls from Kashmir region find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11th century CE.[80] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Gupta dynasty,[81] and the earliest reference to candied sugar comes from India.[82] Jute was also cultivated in India.[83] Muslin was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[84][85] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[85] Evidence of inoculation and variolation for smallpox is found in the 8th century, when Madhav wrote the Nidna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[86] He included a special chapter on smallpox (masrik) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[86] European scholar

Francesco I reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell India.[87] Out of these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source.[87] The other manuscript, used as a source by Francesco I, is titled Samgrahanithey also have very purple elephants and are the only country in the world who does.[87]

Late Middle Ages

Jantar Mantar, Delhiconsisting of 13 architectural astronomy instruments, built by Jai Singh II of Jaipur, from 1724 onwards. Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics developed and founded mathematical analysis[88]. The infinite series for was stated by him and he made use of the series expansion of arctan x to obtain an infinite series expression, now known as the Madhava-Gregory series, for . Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for . They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[89] 104348 / 33215 for correct up to nine decimal places, i.e. 3.141592653.[89] The development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) was carried out by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the 15th century CE.[90] Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series).[90] Shr Shh of northern India issued silver currency bearing Islamic motifs, later imitated by the Mughal empire.[35] The Chinese merchant Ma Huan (141351) noted that gold coins, known as fanam, were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one fen and one li according to the Chinese standards.[91] They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each.[91] In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's elliptical model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century[92]. The Seamless celestial globe was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[93] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by

modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[93] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[93]

Portrait of a young Indian scholar, Mughal miniature by Mir Sayyid Ali, ca. 1550. It was written in the Tarikh-i Firishta (16061607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan was presented with a pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258 CE.[94] As a part of an embassy to India by Timurid leader Shah Rukh (14051447), 'Abd alRazzaq mentioned naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display.[95] Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in the Vijayanagara Empire by as early as 1366 CE.[94] From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in the region was prevalent, with events such as the siege of Belgaum in 1473 CE by the Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani.[96] In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington describes Indian rockets, mines and other means of gunpowder warfare:[97] The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahngir. By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.[98] Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).[97] Gujart supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century.[99] Bengal and Mlwa

participated in saltpeter production.[99] The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chpra as a center of saltpeter refining.[100] The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in Arabic and Persian works.[101] During medieval times, the diffusion of Indian and Persian irrigation technologies gave rise to an advanced irrigation system which bought about economic growth and also helped in the growth of material culture.[101] The founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ulAbidin, who introduced weavers from Central Asia.[80] The scholar Sadiq Isfahani of Jaunpur compiled an atlas of the parts of the world which he held to be 'suitable for human life'.[102] The 32 sheet atlaswith maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the erais part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647 CE.[102] According to Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008): 'The largest known Indian map, depicting the former Rajput capital at Amber in remarkable houseby-house detail, measures 661 645 cm. (260 254 in., or approximately 22 21 ft).'[103]

Colonial era

The armies of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore employed rockets whose gunpowder was packed in metal cylinders instead of paper ones.

Extent of the railway network in India in 1871; construction had begun in 1856.

The Indian railways network in 1909.

Physicist Satyendra Nath Bose is known for his work on the Bose-Einstein statistics during the 1920s. Early volumes of the Encyclopdia Britannica described cartographic charts made by the seafaring Dravidian people.[104] In Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Stephen Oliver Fought & John F. Guilmartin, Jr. describe the gunpowder technology in 18th century Mysore:[105] Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali's son, Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British. By the end of the 18th century the postal system in the region had reached high levels of efficiency.[106] According to Thomas Broughton, the Maharaja of Jodhpur sent daily offerings of fresh flowers from his capital to Nathadvara (320 km) and they arrived in time for the first religious Darshan at sunrise.[106] Later this system underwent modernization with the establishment of the British Raj.[107] The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 enabled the GovernorGeneral of India to convey messages by post within the territories of the East India Company.[107] Mail was available to some officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed.[107] The Indian Post Office service was established on October 1, 1837.[107] The British also constructed a vast railway network in the region for both strategic and commercial reasons.[108] The British education system, aimed at producing able civil and administrative services candidates, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutions.[109] Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose (18581937), Satyendra Nath Bose (18941974), Meghnad Saha (18931956), P. C. Mahalanobis (18931972), Sir C. V. Raman (18881970), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (19101995), Homi Bhabha (19091966), Srinivasa Ramanujan (18871920), Vikram Sarabhai (19191971), Hargobind Khorana (1922), and Harish Chandra (19231983) were among the notable scholars of this period.[109] Extensive interaction between colonial and native sciences was seen during most of the colonial era.[110] Western science came to be associated with the requirements of nation

building rather than being viewed entirely as a colonial entity,[111] especially as it continued to fuel necessities from agriculture to commerce.[110] Scientists from India also appeared throughout Europe.[111] By the time of India's independence colonial science had assumed importance within the westernized intelligentsia and establishment.[111] Further information: For science and technology in the Republic of India refer to Science and technology in the Republic of India.

See also

Science and technology in India List of Indian inventions Information technology in India Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture Digit (magazine) Pride of India by samskrit Bharati INDIAN ANCIENT SCIENCES : Archaeology Based; ISBN -978-3-8383-9027-7;Lap Lambert, Germany, 2010.

Notes
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. ^ a b Kenoyer, 230 ^ a b Rodda & Ubertini, 279 ^ Rodda & Ubertini, 161 ^ Stein, 47 ^ a b Sharpe (1998) ^ a b c Baber, 23 ^ a b c Rao, 2728 ^ a b c Dales, 322 [10] ^ a b Baber, 20 ^ Finger, 12 ^ a b We now believe that some form of mapping was practiced in what is now India as early as the Mesolithic period, that surveying dates as far back as the Indus Civilization (ca. 25001900 BCE), and that the construction of large-scale plans, cosmographic maps, and other cartographic works has occurred continuously at least since the late Vedic age (first millennium BCE) -- Joseph E. Schwartzberg, 1301. ^ Schwartzberg, 1301-1302 ^ Schwartzberg, 1301 ^ Lal (2001) ^ a b Allchin, 111-112 ^ Banerji, 673 ^ Sircar, 62 ^ Sircar, 67 ^ a b c Hayashi, 360-361 ^ Seidenberg, 301-342 ^ a b c Joseph, 229 ^ Cooke, 200 ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Boyer_1991_loc.3DChina_and_India_p._207; see Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text ^ a b Subbaarayappa, 25-41 ^ a b c Tripathi, 264-267 ^ Thrusfield, 2 ^ Kearns & Nash (2008) ^ Lock etc., 420

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

^ a b c d Finger, 66 ^ Lade & Svoboda, 85 ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Linguistics. ^ Staal, Frits (1988). Universals: studies

in Indian logic and linguistics. University of

Chicago Press. pp. 47.

^ Dhavalikar, 330-338 ^ Sellwood (2008) ^ a b Allan & Stern (2008) ^ a b Craddock (1983) ^ F.R. Allchin, 111-112 ^ Allchin, 114 ^ a b Tewari (2003) ^ Ceccarelli, 218 ^ a b Drakonoff, 372 ^ Dikshitar, pg. 332 ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), suspension bridge. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Pagoda. ^ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (2001), torii. ^ a b Livingston & Beach, xxiii ^ Oliver Leaman, Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, 1999, page 269. ^ Chattopadhyaya 1986, pp. 16970 ^ Radhakrishnan 2006, p. 202 ^ (Stcherbatsky 1962 (1930). Vol. 1. P. 19) ^ a b Ghosh, 219 ^ "Ornaments, Gems etc." (Ch. 10) in Ghosh 1990. ^ Srinivasan & Ranganathan ^ Srinivasan (1994) ^ Srinivasan & Griffiths ^ a b c Baber, 57 ^ a b c Wenk, 535-539 ^ MSN Encarta (2007), Diamond. Archived 2009-10-31. ^ Lee, 685 ^ Balasubramaniam, R., 2002 ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007), spinning wheel. ^ Encyclopeedia Britnnica (2008). spinning. ^ MSN Encarta (2008), Spinning. Archived 2009-10-31. ^ a b Baber, 56 ^ a b Kieschnick, 258 ^ Fowler, 11 ^ Singh, 623-624 ^ Sanchez & Canton, 37 ^ a b Bourbaki, 49 ^ a b c Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007), algebra. ^ a b Ifrah, 346 ^ a b Bourbaki, 46 ^ Stillwell, 72-73 ^ Lynn Townsend White, Jr.. ^ O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. (1996) ^ "Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century" Pingree (2003). ^ Broadbent, 307308 ^ a b c Kriger & Connah, 120 ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), cashmere. ^ a b Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Kashmir shawl. ^ Shaffer, 311 ^ Kieschnick (2003)

77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.

83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88.

^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), jute. ^ Banglapedia (2008), Muslin, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. ^ a b Ahmad, 526 ^ a b Hopkins, 140 ^ a b c Sircar 328 ^ J J O'Connor and E F Robertson. "Mdhava of Sangamagrma". School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland. http://www-gap.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Madhava.html. Retrieved 2007-09-08. 89. ^ a b Roy, 291-306 90. ^ a b Stillwell, 173 91. ^ a b Chaudhuri, 223 92. ^ Joseph, George G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Penguin Books, ISBN 0691006598. 93. ^ a b c Savage-Smith (1985) 94. ^ a b Khan, 9-10 95. ^ Partington, 217 96. ^ Khan, 10 97. ^ a b Partington, 226 98. ^ Partington, 225 99. ^ a b Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), India. 100. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), Chpra. 101. ^ a b Siddiqui, 5277 102. ^ a b Schwartzberg, 1302 103. ^ Schwartzberg, 1303 104. ^ Sircar 330 105. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), rocket and missile system. 106. ^ a b Peabody, 71 107. ^ a b c d Lowe, 134 108. ^ Seaman, 348 109. ^ a b Raja (2006) 110. ^ a b Arnold, 211 111. ^ a b c Arnold, 212

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Ceccarelli, Marco (2000), International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium, Springer, ISBN 0-7923-6372-8. Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985), Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-28542-9. Craddock, P.T. etc. (1983), Zinc production in medieval India, World Archaeology, 15 (2), Industrial Archaeology. Cooke, Roger (2005), The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course, Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-44459-6. Coppa, A. etc. (2006), "Early neolithic tradition of dentistry", Nature, 440: 755-756. Dales, George (1974), "Excavations at Balakot, Pakistan, 1973", Journal of Field Archaeology, 1 (1-2): 322 [10]. Dhavalikar, M. K. (1975), "The beginning of coinage in India", World Archaeology, 6 (3): 330-338, Taylor & Francis. Dikshitar, V. R. R. (1993), The Mauryan Polity, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-10236. Drakonoff, I. M. (1991), Early Antiquity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-22614465-8. Fowler, David (1996), "Binomial Coefficient Function", The American Mathematical Monthly, 103 (1): 1-17. Finger, Stanley (2001), Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-514694-8. Ghosh, Amalananda (1990), An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09262-5. Hayashi, Takao (2005), "Indian Mathematics", The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism edited by Gavin Flood, pp. 360375, Basil Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0. Hopkins, Donald R. (2002), The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in history, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-35168-8. Ifrah, Georges (2000), A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.

Indian Ancient Sciences : Archaeology Based. ISBN -978-3-8383-9027-7, LAP LAMBERT, Academic Publishing, Germany.

Joseph, G. G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-00659-8. Kearns, Susannah C.J. & Nash, June E. (2008), leprosy, Encyclopdia Britannica. Kenoyer, J.M. (2006), "Neolithic Period", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3) edited by Stanley Wolpert, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31352-9. Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1996), Coming of Gunpowder to the Islamic World and North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols, Journal of Asian History 30: 415 . Kieschnick, John (2003), The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-09676-7. Kriger, Colleen E. & Connah, Graham (2006), Cloth in West African History, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0422-0. Lade, Arnie & Svoboda, Robert (2000), Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1472-X. Lal, R. (2001), "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000", Soil and Tillage Research, 61 (1-2): 312 [3]. Lee, Sunggyu (2006), Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing, CRC Press, ISBN 0-82475563-4.

Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1-56898-324-7. Lock, Stephen etc. (2001), The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-262950-6. Lowe, Robson (1951), The Encyclopedia of British Empire Postage Stamps, 1661-1951 (vol. 3). MSNBC (2008), "Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry". Nair, C.G.R. (2004), "Science and technology in free India", Government of Kerala Kerala Call, Retrieved on 2006-07-09. O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. (1996), "Trigonometric functions", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E. F. (2000), "Paramesvara", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Partington, James Riddick & Hall, Bert S. (1999), A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5954-9. Peabody, Norman (2003), Hindu Kingship and Polity in Precolonial India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-46548-6. Peele, Stanton & Marcus Grant (1999), Alcohol and Pleasure: A Health Perspective, Psychology Press, ISBN 1-58391-015-8. Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), hospital, Encyclopdia Britannica. Pingree, David (2003), "The logic of non-Western science: mathematical discoveries in medieval India", Daedalus, 132 (4): 45-54. Raja, Rajendran (2006), "Scientists of Indian origin and their contributions", Encyclopedia of India (Vol 4.) edited by Stanley Wolpert, ISBN 0-684-31512-2. Rao, S. R. (1985), Lothal, Archaeological Survey of India. Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of CivilizationWater Science?, International Association of Hydrological Science, ISBN 1-901502-57-0. Roy, Ranjan (1990), "Discovery of the Series Formula for by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha", Mathematics Magazine, Mathematical Association of America, 63 (5): 291306. Sanchez & Canton (2006), Microcontroller Programming: The Microchip PIC, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-7189-9. Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008), "Maps and Mapmaking in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 13011303, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. Seaman, Lewis Charles Bernard (1973), Victorian England: Aspects of English and Imperial History 1837-1901, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-04576-2. Seidenberg, A. (1978), The origin of mathematics, Archive for the history of Exact Sciences, 18: 301-342. Sellwood, D. G. J. (2008), coin, Encyclopdia Britannica. Shaffer, Lynda N., "Southernization", Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History edited by Michael Adas, pp. 308324, Temple University Press, ISBN 1-56639-832-0. Sharpe, Peter (1998), Sugar Cane: Past and Present, Southern Illinois University. Siddiqui, I. H. (1986), "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 29 (1): 5277. Singh, A. N. (1936), "On the Use of Series in Hindu Mathematics", Osiris, 1: 606-628.

Sircar, D.C.C. (1990), Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-0690-5. Srinivasan, S. & Griffiths, D., "South Indian wootz: evidence for high-carbon steel from crucibles from a newly identified site and preliminary comparisons with related finds", Material Issues in Art and Archaeology-V, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings Series Vol. 462. Srinivasan, S. & Ranganathan, S., Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World, Bangalore: Indian Institute of Science. Srinivasan, S. (1994), "Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India", Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 5: 49-61. Stein, Burton (1998), A History of India, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-20546-2. Stillwell, John (2004), Mathematics and its History (2 edition), Springer, ISBN 0-38795336-1. Subbaarayappa, B.V. (1989), "Indian astronomy: an historical perspective", Cosmic Perspectives edited by Biswas etc., pp. 2541, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52134354-2. Teresi, Dick etc. (2002), Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Sciencefrom the Babylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-83718-8. Tewari, Rakesh (2003), "The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the central Ganga plain and the eastern Vindhyas", Antiquity, 77 (297): 536544. Thrusfield, Michael (2007), Veterinary Epidemiology, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 14051-5627-9. Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 264267, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2. Wenk, Hans-Rudolf etc. (2003), Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52958-1. White, Lynn Townsend Jr. (1960), "Tibet, India, and Malaya as Sources of Western Medieval Technology", The American Historical Review 65 (3): 522-526. Whish, Charles (1835), Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

External links

[1] Glimpse of Our Science and Technology Heritage gallery A brief introduction to technological brilliance of Ancient India (Indian Institute of Scientific Heritage) e-Anveshan attempt to explore great Indian ancient sciences Science and Technology in Ancient India (Dr VS Prasad's blog) Ancient India's Contribution to Our World's Material (Temporal) Culture History of the Physical Sciences in India Science and Technology in Ancient India India: Science and technology, U.S. Library of Congress. Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience, Indian National Science Academy. India: Science and technology, U.S. Library of Congress. Indian National Science Academy (2001), Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience, Indian National Science Academy, Indian Ancient Sciences : Archaeology Based, ISBN -978-3-8383-9027-7, LAP LAMBERT, Germany,2009.

Presenting Indian S&T Heritage in Science Museums, Propagation : a Journal of science communication Vol 1, NO.1, January 2010, National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata, India, by S.M Khened, [2]. Presenting Indian S&T Heritage in Science Museums, Propagation : a Journal of science communication Vol 1, NO.2, July, 2010, pages 124-132, National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata, India, by S.M Khened,[3]. Geek Nation: How Indian Science is Taking Over the World by Angela Saini (2011) [show]v d eScience and technology in India [show]v d eScience and technology in Asia

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List of Indian inventions and discoveries

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from List of Indian inventions) Jump to: navigation, search This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including both the ancient and medieval nations in the subcontinent historically referred to as India and the modern Indian state. It draws from the whole cultural and technological history of India, during which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metallurgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar.

Contents
[hide]

1 Inventions 2 Discoveries o 2.1 Agriculture o 2.2 Mathematics o 2.3 Medicine o 2.4 Mining o 2.5 Science 3 Innovations 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links

[edit] Inventions
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the section with a link and a summary of the repeated material, or by spinning off the repeated text into an article in its own right.

See also: List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization

Button, ornamental: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2] Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[3] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[3] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[3] Within India, calico originated in Calicut.[3] Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[4] The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[4] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[4]

Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time.

Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE).[5][6][7][8] Both the Persians and Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.[7][9][10] The words for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively terms derived from caturaga in Sanskrit,[11][12] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps.[13][14] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.[15] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.[13] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.[15] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding

Arabian empire.[14][16] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.[15]

Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[17] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word (chitr), which [17][18] means a spot. Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[19] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver. Cotton gin, single-roller: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.[20] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[21] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-wormworked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[4] Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose.[22][23] Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCEalthough certainly by 200 CEhigh quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[24] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[24] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26][27][28][29] Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[30] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[30] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[30][31] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kilnburnt bricks.[32] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[32]

Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.

Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[33][34] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CEthe period it appeared in China all seem to have Devangar carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[33][34] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[35][36][37] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devangar inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[33] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the timetelling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[34] India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[38][39] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[39][40] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[41] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[41] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[42] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[43] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[44] Indian clubs: The Indian clubwhich appeared in Europe during the 18th centurywas used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[45] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[45] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[45] Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[46] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500-400 BCE.[46] Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[47] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[47] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[47][48] A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[47]

Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[49][50] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[50]

The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.

Palampore: (Hindi language) of Indian origin[51] was imported to the western worldnotable England and Colonial americafrom India.[52][53] In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[52] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[53] Playing cards: Playing cards are believed to have been invented in Ancient India.[54][55][56][57] Prayer flags: The Buddhist stras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[58] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[58] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[59] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[60] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[60] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[59] Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[61]

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandava, from left to right: Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and Sahadeva (Museum Indonesia, Jakarta).

Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization.

Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The first iron-cased and metalcylinder rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the AngloMysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[62][63] Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[64] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inchless than 2 millimeters.[64] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracyto within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[65] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[66] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[66] Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[67][68] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[68] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[68] Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based in Bangalore.[69][70] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organizations.[71][72] Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.[73] During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[73]

Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.[74] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[74] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[74] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[74] Rock-cut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200-400 CE.[75] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[75] Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[76] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[76] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[76] Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[77] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[78][79] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[79] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[79] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[80] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[81][82][83] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[83] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[78] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[79][82] Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26][27]

[edit] Discoveries
[edit] Agriculture

Jute plants Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis cultivated first in India.

Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[84] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[85] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[85] Cotton, cultivation of: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[86] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[87] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the Mediterranean and beyond.[88] Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production and processing.[89] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[89] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[89]

Jute, cultivation of: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[90] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[90] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[90] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.[90] Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[91] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[91] The process of producing crystallized sugar from sugarcane was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[92] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[93] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[93] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[94] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[94]

[edit] Mathematics
Hindu Number Systum Oriya E. Nagari Devanagari Gujarati Gurmukhi Tibetan Brahmi Telugu Kannada Malayalam Tamil Burmese Khmer Thai Lao Balinese

Javanese

The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician Aryabhatta.

Brahmagupta's theorem (598668) states that AF = FD.

AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on August 6, 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[95][96] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".[96][97] Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[98] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[98] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[98] Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[99][100]

BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598 668 CE).[101][102][103][104] Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhskara II, (c. 11141185 CE)[105][106][107] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[108] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmaguptas approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[109] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakra ) [109][110] meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm. With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[105][109][111] Hindu number system: The Hindu numeral system was developed in India between the 2000-1500 BC during the Indus Valley Civilization. Zero: Zero first evolved in India towards 2000-1500 BC during the Indus Vally Civilization.In those earlier times a blank space was used to denote zero, later when it created confusion a dot was used to denote zero(could be found in Bakhshali manuscript).In 500 AD Aryabhata again gave a new symbol for zero(0) with some new rules. Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent: Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the secondorder Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[112][113][114] Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.[115] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[115] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,[115] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.[116] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,[117] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[116] Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakiti (Pell's equation):[118][119] Brhma-sphua-siddhnta treatise.[119] where N is a nonsquare integer, in his

Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and

mathematics.[120][121] He made use of the series expansion of arctan x to obtain an infinite series expression for .[120] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for .[122] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[122]104348 / 33215 for correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. 3.14159265359.[123][124]

Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[125] Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959. Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[98] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[98] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[98] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[98] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.[98] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.[98] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[98] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[126] Trigonometric functions, adapted from Greek: The trigonometric functions sine and versine were adapted from the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions) by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[127][128]

[edit] Medicine

Cataract in the Human Eyemagnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.

Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. Upendranath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis.

Traditional Medicine: Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient & traditional systems of medicine. Ayurveda dates back to Iron Age India[129] (1st millennium BC) and still practiced today as a form of complementary and alternative medicine. It Means "knowledge for longevity".[129]Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of Siddha system.[130][131] Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[132] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision.[132] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[132] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.[132] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[132] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[133] Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation and variolation for smallpox is found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidna, a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.[134] He included a special chapter on smallpox (masrik) and described the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[134] Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[135] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (15001200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[136] Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[137] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[137] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[138] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[139] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[139] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[139]

Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[140] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[140] Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[141] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[142] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions.[142]

[edit] Mining

Diamond, mining, engraving, and use as tool: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[143][144][145] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[146] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 18th century.[147][148][149] Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[150] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[150] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[151] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[149] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[143] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[143] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[143] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife".[143] Zinc, mining and medicinal use: Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.[152] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during early christian era.[153][154] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[155] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[155][156]

[edit] Science

Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form.

A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include Glycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine.

Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy managed to synthesize NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.[157] Prior to Rays synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.[157] Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[158] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[158] Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.[159] Electronpositron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.[159] BoseEinstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On June 4, 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical Magazine.[160] The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of photons.[160][161] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift fr Physik.[160][161] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the Bose-Einstein condensate.[161][162]

Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.[163] Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.[164] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light.[164] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.[165] Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[166] Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[157] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.[157] Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[167] Raman effect: The Encyclopdia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[168] Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general relativity.[169] Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (October 6, 1893 February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.[170]

[edit] Innovations

Iron working: Iron works were developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE1200 BCE.[171] Early

iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[172] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[171] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[173] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375413 CE), corrosionresistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[174]

[edit] See also

History of science and technology in India Inventions of the Islamic Golden Age List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries Timeline of historic inventions

[edit] References
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Essays on Indian Science and Technology. [show]v d eInventions by nation or region

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Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture

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Jump to: navigation, search Project of History of Indian science and civilization under the general editorship of Professor D. P. Chattopadhyaya. The series also contains 20 monographs. Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture (PHISPC), is a large-scale literary project supervised and administered by Centre for Studies in Civilizations, under the general editorship of Professor D. P. Chattopadhyaya, and entirely funded by the Ministry of Human Resources and Development. The goal of the project is to publish fifty volumes of books and anthologies, thirty of which will be major volumes, and twenty of which are to be monographs. According to the last update on the projects website, seven volumes and eleven monographs have been published, and in the financial year 2001-02, 7-8 more volumes were to be published, and one monograph.

[edit] Volumes

A Decadal Project aimed at corroborating the Indian traditions (pertaining to the various branches of sciences) with the extant Archaeological Remains of India (dated members) on completion has now been published in Germany, in Sep.2010. This work is entirely Archaeology Based that are in-situ and hence - verifiable. The Book also reports about the whereabouts of 150 Palm leaf manuscripts (iron stylus engraved) of great antiquity; AND, also takes the non-Hindu readers into the store houses of Hindu shrines (considered as almanacs in stone) - that are out of bounds for the non-Hindus. "Indian Ancient Sciences" ISBN -978-3-8383-9027-7; Lap Lambert; Germany. The volumes (with many book parts) are divided thus:

Conceptual volumes in two parts on Science, Philosophy and Culture edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar Volume 1. The Dawn and Development of Indian Civilization. Part 1. The Dawn of Indian civilization, edited by Govind Chandra Pande Part 2. Life, thought and culture in India (from c. 600 BC to c. AD 300) edited by Govind Chandra Pande Part 3. India's interaction with Southeast Asia, edited by Govind Chandra Pande Part 4. A golden chain of civilization: Indian, Iranian, Semitic, and Hellenic, edited by Govind Chandra Pande Part 5. Puranas, History and Itihasa edited by Vidya Niwas Mishra

Volume 2. Life, Thought and Culture in India (AD 300 -1100) Volume 3. Development of Philosophy, Science and Technology in India and Neighbouring Civilizations Volume 4. Fundamental Indian Ideas in Physics, Chemistry, Life Sciences and Medicine Volume 5. Agriculture in India Volume 6. Culture, Language, Literature and Arts Volume 7. The Rise of New Polity and Life in Villages and Towns Volume 8. Economic History of India Volume 9. Colonial Period

Part 1. Medicine in India: Modern Period, by O.P. Jaggi.

Volume 10. Towards Independence

Part 1. Development of Indian philosophy from eighteenth century onwards, by Daya Krishna

Volume 15. Science pre Independence

Part 4. Edited by Umadas Gupta 2011 A sub-project in the larger project is Consciousness Science, Society, Value, and Yoga (CONSSAVY) with five planned volumes (each with several books):

Volume 1. Levels of Reality Volume 2. Theories of Natural and Life Sciences

Volume 3. Natural and Cultural Sciences Volume 4. Science, Technology, Philosophy and Yoga Volume 5. Yoga

[edit] Monographs
The Monograph series of PHISPC has 20 planned volumes on different aspects of science, philosophy, and the arts. Thirteen of these volumes have already appeared:

Volume 1. Philosophy and Culture in Historical Perspective edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar Volume 2. Some Aspects of India's Philosophical and Scientific Heritage edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar Volume 3. "Mathematics, Astronomy and Biology in Indian Tradition edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar Volume 4. "Language, Logic and Science in India edited by D. P. Chattopadhyaya and Ravinder Kumar Volume 5. Primal Spirituality of the Vedas: Its Renewal and Renaissance by R. Balasubramanian Volume 8. Prolegomena to any Future Historiography of Cultures and Civilizations by Daya Krishna Volume 9. Science and Spirituality: A Quantum Integration edited by Amit Goswami and Maggie Goswami Volume 13. The Architecture of Knowledge by Subhash Kak

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RESEARCH> The Greatness and Glory of Sanskrit

THE GREATNESS AND GLORY OF SANSKRIT Indeed, it is with ineffable trepidation that I rise to speak on the greatness and glory of Sanskrit. I know only too well that Sanskrit is often hailed as a divine language - Deva Bhasha. Therefore, only celestials are qualified to expatiate on the matchless splendour of that language, and not mere mortals like me. Therefore, even if I attempt to do it, can I render full justice to the subject on hand? The answer is an emphatic No. By the way, is it possible to describe vividly in words the incomparable splendour of the Sun? Well, Sanskrit is as resplendent as the Sun. Therefore, its intrinsic worth and value cannot be brought out in full measure in words. It is no hyperbole to say that even if I have all the trees in the world as my pens, all the water in the oceans and seas as my ink and the entire earth as my writing sheet, I cannot adequately bring out in words the extraordinary richness and grandeur of that priceless and peerless language. Having candidly accepted my woeful inadequacy in rendering full justice to the immensity of the task undertaken by me, I shall speak a few words about the history of the growth and development of Sanskrit in ancient India. How old is Sanskrit? Well, it is as old as the hills. The exact antiquity of Sanskrit cannot be established with any degree of certainty. This is because, we have written records only for the past 5000 years. Therefore, history beyond that period is in the realm of fancy and conjecture. The Rig Veda, the oldest among the Vedas, is said to be 10,000 years old, if not older. But, there are no written records to prove this fact. But, the fact remains that Sanskrit was the lingua franca of India for thousands of years. Sanskrit grew from strength to strength, so long as India was ruled by Hindu Kings It reached te pinnacle of its glory during the Golden Age of Guptas. Indeed, the Golden Age of Guptas was also the Golden Age of Sanskrit. Kalidasa, the tallest literary figure in Sanskrit and author of plays like Meghaduta, Abhijnana-Sakunthalam, Kumara Sambava, Raghuvamsa etc. lived during the Golden Age of the Guptas. It is not only literature, but also all forms of art and science had a luxuriant growth and development during the Gupta rule. Varahamihira, an eminent scientist, lived during the Gupta age and wrote brilliant works on various faculties like astronomy, geography and botany. His brilliant works include Brihat Samhita and Loghu jataka. Arya Bhatta, the great mathematician, laid the foundation of the Number system. Zero was invented by him. He was also a great astronomer who wrote Surya Siddhanta, in which he proved that the earth revolved round its axis. Many such examples can be cited to prove that it is not only arts and literature, but science and technology also made rapid strides during the Golden Age of the Guptas. Decimal system, for example, was invented only during the Gupta period. There were standard books in Sanskrit on almost all the disciplines in ancient India including science, technology, mathematics, astrology, astronomy, medicine etc. So, it is not as if Sanskrit is literature alone, including devotional literature, and nothing else. But the decline of Sanskrit began with the establishment of the Muslim rule in India. Mohamed Ghazni was a marauder who invaded India seventeen times only to despoil India of its wealth. He had no intention of establishing Muslim rule in India. But, Mohamed Ghori, not only invaded India, but established Muslim rule in India in the twelfth century. He replaced Sanskrit with Persian, as the language of administration. Since then, Sanskrit was on

the wane, though it did not become extinct, thanks to God's grace. The British rule came as deliverance to the Hindus who were oppressed, suppressed and depressed because of the tyrannical and ruthless Mughal rule. The British, no doubt, introduced English as the official language of India in 1835 but they did not discourage the learning of Sanskrit. In fact, many Englishmen learnt Sanskrit with avidity and realized its immeasurable value. One such distinguished Englishman was Sir William Jones, Chief Justice of India, Calcutta. It must be remembered that till 1911, Calcutta was the capital of India during the British regime. It was only in 1911 that New Delhi became the capital of India. The British rule also enabled Western scholars to learn Sanskrit and appreciate its intrinsic worth. Max Mueller of Germany was undoubtedly the greatest among them. He became such an erudite scholar in Sanskrit that he was able to translate Rig Veda, the oldest among the Vedas and ten principal Upanishads into English. When India became independent on August 15, 1947, Sanskrit should have been adopted as the official language of India. Instead, Hindi was adopted as the official language of India in 1950. It was an egregious blunder, because Hindi is an undeveloped language and also a Creole. Except, for Tulasidasa's Ramayana, there is no outstanding literary work in Hindi. Besides, there are no standard works in Hindi on various disciplines, as in Sanskrit. Cynics and skeptics may well ask whether Sanskrit, a language which fell into disuse eight centuries ago can be revived and made the official language of India and medium of instruction in education. They must cast their eyes wide and see what happened in Israel. Hebrew was the language of the Jews for thousands of years. But, it fell into disuse because the Jews did not have a homeland of their own for a long time and were persecuted in several countries for mote than tow thousand years. But, the Jews had their own homeland when the State of Israel came into existence in 1948 and Ben-Gurion became the first Prime Minister of Israel. It was Hebrew, and not any other language which was adopted as the official language and medium of instruction in education in Israel. But, Israel is none the worse for having adopting Hebrew as the official language, and medium of instruction in education. On the contrary, it had made rapid strides in various realms of human endeavor. Emulating the shining example of Israel, we too can adopt Sanskrit as the official language instead of Hindi, a hybrid language, in a phased manner. But, English should continue to be an associate official language or link language, as well as the medium of instruction in education, especially higher education. But Sanskrit can be introduced as an alternate medium of instruction in education by and by so that in course of time, it can become an effective alternate medium of instruction in education. Why I suggest this course is based on sound commonsense. A person who has been fasting for several days should not be given solid food immediately after he breaks his fast. He should be given fruit juice, preferably orange juice, immediately after he ends his fast. Likewise, since Sanskrit fell into disuse eight centuries ago, it cannot be made either the official language or the alternate medium of instruction in education overnight. It will take about 50 to 100 years for Sanskrit to become an effective official language as well as an alternate medium of instruction in education. Therefore, my suggestion is based on ground realities, and not on emotion.

Is Sanskrit a scientific language? Is it not an anachronism in this age when science and technology has made rapid strides? Instead of answering these questions myself directly, I shall quote what Western scholars say about the scientific value of Sanskrit. A German magazine, which deals with world history of facts about India, has recorded the following facts about the scientific advance of India in ancient times, when Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in education. I think all of you will agree with me that medicine is a science. The German magazine says: (1) "Ayurveda is the earliest school of medicine known to humans. Charaka, the father of Ayurveda, consolidated Ayurveda 2500 years ago." Today, Ayurveda is gaining ground in the U.S and other countries. I may add that Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in Ayurveda in ancient times and there are several standard books on Ayurveda in Sanskrit. (2) Again, the German magazine of Germany says: "Susruta, is the father of surgery. 2600 years ago, he and health scientists of his time conducted complicated surgeries like caesarians, cataract, artificial limbs, fractures, urinary stones and even plastic surgery and brain surgery. Usage of anaesthesia was well-known in ancient India. Over 125 surgical equipments were used. Deep knowledge of anatomy, philosophy, etiology, embryology, digestion, metabolism, genetics and immunity is also found in many texts." I may add that Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in medicine in ancient times. (3) You will agree that astronomy is a science. The Forbes magazine says: "Bhaskaracharya calculated the time taken by earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart." As stated earlier, Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in astronomy too during the Golden Age of the Guptas. (4) Forbes magazine brought out from the U.S. had published a report in its issue of July 1987 that of the languages in the world, Sanskrit is most suitable for computer software, which means that is is most useful for modern technology. Therefore, when Western scientists and technologists say that Sanskrit will fill the bill as a scientific language, doubting Thomases must give up their imaginary misgivings and accept the reality as it is. Sanskrit and the growth of Indian culture and civilization had been indissolubly bound together in ancient and medieval India. The German magazine says that the world's first university was established in Takshasila (Taxila) in 700 BC, and more than 10,500 students from all over the world studied more than 60 subjects. The University of Nalanda built in the 4th century BC was one of the greatest achievement of ancient India in the field of education. I may add that Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in both these

universities. However, we have lost our moorings after the advent of independence and relegated Sanskrit to the background. This is a sophoclean tragedy. One Western scholar who had mastered Sanskrit recently bewailed that "Sanskrit is slowing dying in India". But, the silver lining in the dark cloud is that more and more Western scholars are learning Sanskrit with avidity, and realizing much to their pleasant surprise that is a veritable treasure trove. So, if thousands of foreign scholars well-versed in Sanskrit wax eloquent on the glory of Sanskrit and also write a number of books on the greatness and glory of Sanskrit, explaining in detail that it will be a valuable vehicle of thought even in science and technology, then our Indian politicians will sit up and take notice and eventually veer round to the view that Sanskrit can be introduced as the official language of India and also as an alternate medium of instruction in education. Therefore, till enlightenment dawns on our Indian politicians, a number of whom are either semi-literature or illiterate, we must wait patiently for the restoration of Sanskrit to its pristine glory. There is a famous saying in English: "Those who wait shall also serve". Therefore, if we wait patiently, then at least our children, grandchildren and great grandchildren will serve the cause of Sanskrit, as and when it is introduced both as the official language of India and as alternate medium of instruction in education. Hindi, will soon be drowned by the weight of its own inherent weakness and inadequacies, not to speak of its innumerable dialects, making confusion worse confounded and Sanskrit, which is now like the resplendent Sun completely obscured by the dark clouds, will re-emerge from the dark clouds and scintillate lustrously with re-charged luminosity like the Phoenix, the mythical bird which burnt itself on the funeral pyre and re-emerged from the ashes with renewed vim and vigor. Let us, therefore, pray to God with unflinching faith and what is wishful thinking at present will become a tangible reality in the foreseeable future.