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CHAPTER 04
DIGITIZING

At the end of this class, you should be able to 1. identify errors in digitizing 2. analyze quality of a map for digitization 3. select software for digitizing

4.1 INTRODUCTION Map digitization is an important source of spatial data, and its process of production is complicated. The error generated by each step will influence the outcome of data quality.

4.2 DATA STRUCTURES Raster and vector are the two basic data structures for storing and manipulating images and graphics data on a computer. All of the major GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and CAD (Computer Aided Design) software packages available today are primarily based on one of the two structures, either raster based or vector based, while they have some extended functions to support other data structures. 4.2.1 Raster Data Raster data is one method of storing, representing or displaying spatial data in digital form. It consists of using cell data (not necessarily square) arranged in a regular grid pattern in which each unit (pixel or cell) within the grid is assigned an identifying value based on its characteristics such as color, elevation, or an ID number.

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Raster image is normally acquired by optical scanner, digital CCD camera and other raster imaging devices. Its spatial resolution is determined by the resolution of the acquisition device and the quality of the original data source. Because a raster image has to have pixels for all spatial locations, it is strictly limited by how big a spatial area it can represent. When increasing the spatial resolution by 2 times, the total size of a two-dimensional raster image will increase by 4 times because the number of pixels is doubled in both X and Y dimensions. Same is true when a larger area is to be covered when using same spatial resolution. Aerial photos are one commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information regarding elevation, a DEM, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, LANDSAT. 4.2.2 Vector Data Vector Data is one method of storing, representing or displaying spatial data in digital form. Vector data comes in the form of points and lines (as mentioned above) that are geometrically and mathematically associated. Points are stored using the coordinates, for example, a two-dimensional point is stored as (x, y). Lines are stored as a series of point pairs, where each pair represents a straight line segment, for example, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) indicating a line from (x1, y1) to (x2, y2).

In general, vector data structure produces smaller file size than raster image because a raster image needs space for all pixels while only point coordinates are stored in vector representation. This is even more true in the case when the graphics or images have large homogenous regions and the boundaries and shapes are the primary interest. Besides the size issue, vector data is easier than raster data to handle on a computer because it has fewer data items and it is more flexible to be adjusted for different scale, for example, a projection system in mapping application. This makes vector data structure the apparent choice for most mapping, GIS (Geographic Information System) and CAD (Computer Aided Design) software packages.

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Also, topology among graphical objects or items is much easier to be represented using vector form, since a commonly shared edge can be easily defined according to its left and right side polygons. On the other hand, this is almost impossible or very difficult to do with pixels.

4.3 DIGITISING VECTOR Although vector data structure is the choice as the primary form for handling graphical data in most GIS and CAD packages, vector data acquisition is often more difficult than raster image acquisition, because its abstract data structure, topology between objects and attributes associated. In the following, the commonly used methods for getting vector data, their advantages and drawbacks are explained. 4.3.1 Manual digitizing Manual digitizing using a digitizing tablet has been widely used. With this method, the operator manually traces all the lines from his hardcopy map using a pointer device and create an identical digital map on his computer. A line is digitized by collecting a series of points along the line. Although this method is straight forward, it requires experienced operator and is very time consuming. For a complex contour map, it can take a person 10 to 20 days to get the map fully digitized. Another major drawback of this method is its low accuracy. The accuracy of manual digitizing merely depends on how accurate the hardcopy map is duplicated on a computer by hand. The spatial accuracy level the human hand can resolve is about 40 DPI (dots per inch) in the best case and will be lower while the operator is tired and bored after working on it for a period of time. Manual digitizing is supported by most GIS packages with direct link to a digitizing tablets through a computer I/O port. Manual digitizing uses computer program and digitizing tablet to digitize the points on a map. JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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An example of a flow in manual digitizing:

Place the item to be digitized on the tablet

Start the digitizing software program

Input the X and Y axis range X: 38.5 to 39.6 Y: 67.8 to 67.1 Digitize the X and Y axis Digitize points or curves on the map

The software calculates map locations of the digitized points Reports File Save Data Export Print a report with a diagram of the digitized data and the slopes. Save the digitized data for later use and editing Easily export the data to the clipboard and paste into other software programs

4.3.2 Heads-Up Digitizing and Interactive Tracing Heads-up digitizing is similar to manual digitizing in the way the lines have to be traced by hand, but it works directly on the computer screen using the scanned raster image as backdrop. While lines are still manually traced, the accuracy level is higher than using digitizing tablet because the raster images are scanned at high resolution, normally from 200 DPI to 1600 DPI. With the help of the display tools, such as zoom in and out, the operator can actually work with the resolution of the raster JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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data therefore digitize at a higher accuracy level. However, the accuracy level is still not guaranteed because it is highly dependent on the operator and how he digitizes. This method is also timeconsuming and takes about same amount of time as the manual digitizing method. The interactive tracing method automates individual line tracing process by tracing one line at a time under the guidance of the operator. This is a significant improvement over manual heads-up digitizing in terms of digitizing accuracy and speed, especially when fully automatic raster to vector conversion can not be applied in cases such as low image quality and complex layers. The main advantage of using interactive tracing is the flexibility of tracing lines selectively and better operator control. 4.3.3 Automatic Raster to Vector Conversion Automatic digitizing or so called automated raster to vector conversion, traces lines automatically from the scanned raster image using image processing and pattern recognition techniques. The idea behind automated raster to vector conversion algorithm is to let the computer do the actual line tracing and eliminate tedious manual tracing the human operator has to do. Because of the importance to automate raster to vector conversion process and the difficulties involved, it has been a major research focus during the past two decades. Only in recent years, automated raster to vector conversion software on PCs and small computers become practical and commercially available for data acquisition applications. 4.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages i. There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality. ii. Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. iii. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that, depending on the resolution of the raster file, may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. iv. Vector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-project. This can simplify combining vector layers from different sources. v. Vector data is more compatible with relational database environments. They can be part of a relational table as a normal column and processed using a multitude of operators. vi. The file size for vector data is usually much smaller for storage and sharing than raster data. Image or raster data can be 10 to 100 times larger than vector data depending on the resolution. vii. Another advantage of vector data is that it is easy to update and maintain. For example, a new highway is added. The raster image will have to be completely reproduced, but the vector data, "roads," can be easily updated by adding the missing road segment. viii. In addition, vector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for "networks" such as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. For example, with vector data attributed with the characteristics of roads, ports, and airfields, allows the analyst to query for the best route or method of transportation. In the vector data, the analyst can query the data for the largest port with an airfield

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within 60 miles and a connecting road that is at least two lane highway. Raster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays. 4.4 ERRORS in MAP SCANNIG DIGITIZATION Errors in map scanning digitization are mainly caused by the data source, digital hardware, digital software, and operator factors . 4.4.1 i. Data Source Uncertainty of Map Inherent Error

Map inherent error refers to error of original map itself for the digitization, map inherent error can not be controlled in the process of digital map, which directly impacts on mapping precision. Main causes of inherent errors is caused by map projection error, measurement error, control point plotting error, map compilation errors. Map inherent error are clearly printed on the provision in the corresponding cartography and manufacturing specifications, but it is difficult to determine the relationship on errors, therefore, it is difficult to make an accurate assessment on data quality caused by map inherent error. ii. Uncertainty of Map Deformation:

Because of the long-term storage, map will produce distortion and ambiguous surface or surface contamination with changes in temperature and humidity. Drawing materials for digitization are generally polyester film, its deformation is generally less than 0. 2 . Deformation of drawing is relatively large with changes in temperature and humidity, the paper size may change 1.6% under the same temperature when humidity change from 0% to 25%. Because the paper's expansion and contraction rate is not the same, even if the moisture is back to the original size, the drawing can not restore the original size. And a standard of measure is within the scope of error, the range itself is uncertain, so drawing deformation errors can not be ignored on the accuracy of the results. iii. Uncertainty of Measurement and Description about Map Elements:

There is a fixed sign for point feature that only signifies its geographic location and attribute, and that can not signify actual size; linear feature drawn in no scale can only express its length and can not express its width; for area feature, its border is drawn in accordance with the provisions rather than the actual feature on the width of border, so it is uncertainty. 4.4.2 Digitization Hardware

Uncertainty of map digitization hardware mainly dues to the scanning equipment. Map scanning error is an important error source of scanning digitization. The quality of scanner directly affects quality of map scanning image; scanner quality is good or bad due to the technical parameters of the scanner itself. The resolution and accuracy of scanner is essential to quality of the results of the scanning digitization. Scholars have studied relationship of the size of map scanning resolution and data precision of the results, and deduce the formula between the scanning resolution and the accuracy of corresponding results. But an error can be caused by several reasons, and there is no clear correspondence, so it is uncertainty, and the scanning error will accumulate to the next process and affect the quality of image processing.

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4.4.3 i.

Digital Processing Uncertainty of Digital Processing

Software plays an important role in the process of digitization map. Digitization map generally uses software with the scanner itself or common processing software, processing software is only relatively suitable for digital processing, because processing power of various software is different, and the parameters setted are different, so the results are different in dealing with the same problem. Uncertainty of software error affects quality of image processing and map orientation accuracy. ii. The Uncertainty of the Operator:

Digital processing is inseparable from human action, it is uncertain on the human visual error and operational levels, so that processing results will be different by different operators on the same image, uncertainty of operators will affect the final image quality , but no specific amount of this impact is measured. iii. The Uncertainty of Geometric Correction:

Geometric correction is to correct drawing deformation errors and scanning errors. During geometric correction process, correction model is created by using multiple control points, because of a number of control points chosen randomly and the correction model similarly, it is uncertain of effect on the quality of the results caused by these factors.

4.5 MAP DATA QUALITY Based on the characteristics of map digitization, the data quality model of map digitization is defined as follows: First grade quality element is divided into position accuracy, attribute accuracy, logical consistency, completeness and correctness. Among them, the position accuracy is divided into plane position accuracy and height accuracy; attribute accuracy is divided into property values and attributes edge accuracy; logical consistency is divided into the data format consistency and time consistency; completeness and correctness include mathematics, graphics, property, time, complete and accurate metadata. Data quality model may help data producers to control quality well targeted in the production process to ensure data quality of results; quality evaluation based on quality model may help data users to choose their own spatial data according to spatial data quality report. 4.6 QUALITY CONTROL OF MAP DIGITIZATION Quality control of map digitization is mainly process control and outcome control, process control includes quality control of the preprocessing before digital mapping and map digitization process; quality control of results is the timely inspection and evaluation of data error and precision and takes corresponding measures to reduce the impact of errors on the results. Data quality control runs through the digital process 4.6.1 Data Quality Control of Map i. Quality Control of Original Map It is one of the key factors for quality of scanning original map to ensure the quality of the outcome. Therefore, the data source error is controlled within the quality requirements. According to users JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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needs and the application purpose for outcome data, user selects data sources to meet the requirements ,which is a key role for data quality in the outcome. It is required strong updating, smooth and no folding, surface cleaning, elements clear and no local deformation for original map provided ,so it is necessary to try to collect the latest maps; then, it is necessary to analyze and evaluate the original map and put forward feasible options and solve methods of existing problems. Enhancing pretreatment examination for topographic map and controling elevation error of added the point. Edge elements of adjacent maps are required by one to ensure the identical location and property. It can not only reduce digitization errors but also improve the efficiency of digitization through the pretreatment for data source of low quality .If the original map is too much deformed, then it is necessary to scan sub-domain; map is scanned with color scanning to obtain color raster maps for surface elements complex and convenient interpretation of themap for the operator. The errors of the original map have a corresponding requirement on GB. For example, according to GB/T17106 - 1997 1:500,1:1000,1:2000 topographic map digitization specification,a part of provides are as follows: a) Original Quality Requirement: Original materials should be polyester film, the deformation should be equal orless than 0. 2. b) Accuracy: Position error of figure profile is equal or less than 0. 15mm, side error of map profile is equal or less than 0. 2mm, diagonal error of chart Profile is equal or less than 0. 3mm. plane displacement error of point features is equal or less than 0. 25cm, plane displacement error of linear and flat elements is equal or less than 0. 3mm. c) It should be expressed clearly and correctly to the surface features, topography, water, vegetation, residential areas and other factors on original map 4.6.2 Quality Control of Hardware

Scanner with high precision and high resolution can improve the image quality, but the amount of data will increase exponentially to result in data processing problems. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate scanning accuracy and resolution. Digital scanning resolution is no less than 300DPI by analyzing sampling theory and elements of line width of topographic map and taking into account the scanning errors and image processing error. 4.6.3 Quality Control of Geometric Correction

Electing the appropriate correction model and gray resampling methods and using automatic centering algorithm to improve point coordinate measurement precision, arranging operator to correct unifiedly, making the local geometric correction according to grid to reduce geometric correction error. After that, figure profile and public network lines are generated by the figure theory coordinates, and checking the accuracy of geometric correction and controlling geometric correction accuracy in less than 10mm. 4.6.4 Quality Control of Map Orientation

Selecting the appropriate orientation model according to design requirements. Selecting a sufficient number of orientation points according to model selected, figure points are as orientation points, and increasing orientation points according to requirement. Oriented by a number of known points; improving JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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measurement precision of directional point coordinate; using directional point coordinates to assess directional accuracy, and editing the control points to improve directional precision. The directional accuracy of the map is discussed by adopting a similar transformation and affine transformation, we assume that the maximum of directional errors affecting accuracy of outcome does not exceed the map 0. 15mm, then, directed by 4 points, the orient accuracy should not exceed the map 0.10mm; directed by nine points, the orient accuracy should not exceed the map 0. 15mm. 4.6.5 Quality Control of Screen Digitization

Digital program is uniformly laid down ,including layering, property definition of layer, covering classes of each floor, terrain display color, width of lines, which provides for the operator to directly call; operator must grasp a skilled digital technology and rich experience. Selecting software that is easy to operate, reliable and the higher cost-effective, usually using semiautomated manner for human-computer interoperability, making human intervention in the disconnection and noise to control data quality in real time. In the amplification conditions, the vector element is nested on the raster image to ensure the error nested less than 1 pixel; the maximum of quality control indicators is as follows: sampling point density (0.2mm) , bonding distance (0.02mm), hanging distance (0.007mm), refining distance (0.007mm) and the texture distance (0.01mm)[12]. 4.6.2 Quality Control of Spatial Data 1) Quality Control of Metadata The situation and change about data quality can beunderstanded by tracking metadata. Metadata quality controlincludes: Data integrity checking, such as integrity checking ofattribute items and the integrity checking of elements. Time accuracy checking, including the publication time checking of data sources, data updated time checking and data collection time checking. Data description and documentation checking, including metadata checking and a variety of data for inspection. 2) Quality Control of Geometric Data Some problems may arise in the map digitization, for example, space points are lost or repeated, the line is too long or too short, regional identification points are missed. For this, it is used that visual inspection, logic testing and graphical inspection to check and process. Including: Coordinates in edge nodes are in consistent for node matching; endpoint should be accurately coincide in the edge when line endpoints connect to the middle of other side ; Each segment endpoint of map edge should overlap in the edge of the map. Nodes may be displayed in different colors according to the different number of arc connected with nodes, the data quality is checked and corrected by human-computer interaction through the study of different color nodes.

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3) Quality Control of Topology Relationship Topology rules are topology constraints of user-specified spatial data and data met, such as the adjacent relationship between the elements , connecting relationship, covering the relationship and the intersection relations. If a layer of data exists in editing problems, topological relations need be reestablished in accordance with the provisions. 4) Quality Control of Data Edge For location edge accuracy, moving any element according to original image when the distance between corresponding elements of adjacent maps is less than 0.3mm; each element respectively is moved half according to the original image when the distance between corresponding elements of adjacent maps is between the 0.3mm and 0.6mm; edging according to a general mapping principles when the distance between corresponding elements of adjacent maps is greater than 0.6mm. 4.7 CHALLENGES IN DOING RASTER TO VECTOR CONVERSION

While vector data structure provides a simpler and more abstract data representation than raster image, it is not easy to do an automatic conversion from raster to vector, or so called vectorization process, although the opposite direction (from vector to raster) is quite trivial. There have been extensive research efforts focused on the issued involved in raster to vector conversion during the past decades. A complete raster to vector conversion process includes image acquisition, pre-processing, line tracing, text extraction (OCR), shape recognition, topology creation and attribute assignment. 1. Scanning and Preprocessing A typical map consists of different types of lines, text and symbols in color or black/white. It is scanned in one of the following image types depending on the map quality and capability of a scanner: monochrome, grayscale or color. The sample contour map (Figure 1) is scanned as grayscale image at 400 DPI (dots per inch).

Algorithms are developed to deskew an image when scanning distortion happens, to remove dark background from the scanned image using a special designed band-pass filter, and to classify and JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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separate colors using a clustering based unsupervised classification method when a color map is scanned and vectorized. A raster image can also be registered another image with the image warping function. This is often done to correct map distortion and increase the accuracy of later georeferencing. 2. Automatic Vectorization An optimal thresholding algorithm is developed to convert a grayscale image to binary form for vectorization. All lines, text and symbols are automatically vectorized and recorded in a vector form, i.e., line segments are represented by the center X and Y coordinates along the line. The accuracy level is maintained at the original scanning resolution (in our example, 400DPI) as the center pixel is always traced and recorded. Text are first vectorized as lines and then recognized using R2V's trainable OCR (optical character recognition) engine. 3. Vector Editing and Cleaning Broken lines are connected using the line snapping algorithm, which uses a user specified gap threshold value to connect lines that match the snapping criteria. Line smoothing uses a polyline generalization technique to remove rough points caused by local noise and artifacts caused raster image scanning. A line editor is implemented to provide on-screen editing of vector data. It includes adding new lines manually or semi-automatically using line tracing algorithm, line merging and spliting, node editing, and line labeling functions. 4. Text Detection and Recognition (OCR) Text symbols in a map often come in different orientations and fonts. Detecting and recognizing text on a map has been a challenge because of the complexity and mixture of text objects and vector lines and polygons. Our text recognition involves following steps: 1) Text are vectorized as lines in the vectorization process and marked and grouped using a text block detection algorithm. The grouping indicates the letters belong to a group to form a word or a number. Editing functions are implemented to add or remove misdetected text blocks. 2) A OCR signature set is created from the training function. The signature set can be used to other maps with text of similar style and font. 3) Apply text recognition. The text recognition (OCR) engine uses the trained signature set to compare against the text symbols detected and make a decision based on the maximum probability calculated. Text attributes can be automatically converted to text string with OCR functions in R2V. The text strings can be used directly to label polygons or lines. It is often used in tax map digitizing and labeling. 5. Automatic Polygon Layer Creation For maps with polygons, such as parcel or tax maps, polygons are closed with a polygon generating algorithm to create polygon topology and remove redundant lines. The polygon generating algorithm uses a user specified gap threshold to check if a line belongs to a closed polygon. At each intersection, the algorithm uses the search angle to determine the next line segment for the smallest closed polygon. 6. Automatic or Interactive Vector Labeling For polygons and lines, a numerical ID value is attached using the interactive line labeling function or the automatic labeling function if ID values exist in the map and are converted using the OCR function. The ID values are maintained when the vector data is exported to ArcInfo or ArcView system and used together with their attribute database.

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When vectorizing a parcel map, the parcel ID for each parcel is assigned automatically if they are successfully recognized by the text recognition function and available in numeric form. In the case of digitizing a contour map, elevation values are assigned automatically by going from a lower elevation contour line to a higher elevation contour with a given starting and increment elevation values. 7. Geo-referencing Geo-referencing is a crucial part of data capture for GIS and mapping applications. Two types of geometric transformation methods, least square bi-linear and Delaunay Triangulation methods can be created. The least square method is suitable for geo-referencing maps when a small number of control points are available and global geometric correction is needed. The Delaunay Triangulation is more effective when large number of control points are available. With Delaunay Triangulation method, control point locations are maintained as specified after the transformation and local geometric distortion are corrected more efficient. The bi-linear method when geo-referencing both raster image and vector data will be used by ArcInfo or ArcView, which use similar method for geometric transformation. 8. Save to ArcInfo Generate or ArcView Shapefile The final digitized map with lines and points labeled is then saved to ArcInfo generate or ArcView Shapefile formats for use in a GIS or mapping application. A digitized contour map with all their elevation values labeled can be directly used as a sparse DEM. Figure 2 shows the digitized contour map using R2V's automatic vectorization function.

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The image acquisition process generates the initial raster image at a certain spatial resolution. The quality and resolution of the raster image are key factors for the quality and accuracy of the vectorized data. It is always recommended to start with clean and sharp originals and scan at reasonable resolution. The scanning resolution should match the resolution at which the original image source was created. If scanning resolution is set too high than the original image source, it not only uses unnecessary amount of system resource to process, but also noise and artifact are scanned. For most good quality black and white maps and engineering drawing, such as color map separates, can be scanned as 1-bit monochrome. For maps with dirty and smearing background, they can be scanned as 8-bit greyscale and enhanced using imaging software to remove background and noise. Although color scanners have come a long way, large format and high resolution scanning is still quite expensive. Color classification and color separation are very sensitive to the color quality of the scanned image. Other color images, such as satellite and aerial photos, have been used directly to create vector data, such as region boundaries, street and road lines. Because of more bits (normally 24-bit) are used, color image files are normally bigger and requires more system resource to store and process. Recent developments in automated raster to vector conversion technology have made it possible to take a hardcopy image, scan it and convert it into vector format in a matter of minutes or even seconds. With manual method using a digitizing tablet, this process can take days or weeks to complete because all lines have to be traced by hand. 4.8 CHOOSING THE RIGHT CONVERION TOOL

There are quite a few commercial packages available for raster to vector conversion. Below are few questions one should ask when selecting the right tool for the task: 1. Does it support different image types, such as 1-bit black/white, greyscale and 24-bit RGB color? This is quite important for people whose source images are in color. Treating color images as black and white or greyscale apparently loses all color information and a significant amount of editing may be needed to separate colors by hand. By starting directly with a color image, one can use color classification or separation functions to separate colors into layers and vectorize layers.

2. Is it designed for maps or engineering drawings? In practice, the handling of map data and engineering data are quite different although they both are vector based. If a package is designed for CAD drawings, the algorithms normally works well for JABATAN SAINS UKUR & GEOMATIK

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straight lines and regular geometric shapes and will not be efficient for curving lines, polygons and topology between polygons.

Attribute labeling is another issue here. GIS and mapping data requires extensive attribute labeling to link graphical items to database, while CAD drawing are mostly shape and geometry oriented and spatial analysis is hardly done. Other specialized functions, such as geo-referencing, contour labeling and polygon creation are critical for mapping and GIS while they are not concerned when creating a CAD drawing. 3. Does it support the native format for your application? Its unfortunate that most vector file formats used today are different and data exchange between two formats may result some data loss. One format may be excellent for CAD data transfer, but very limited if you need to get data into a GIS or mapping database. When creating vector data, it is always better to use the native format the target system supports. 4. What methods of raster to vector conversion does a package support? As discussed previously, there are advantages and drawbacks for methods using fully automatic conversion or interactive tracking. A good package should support all methods, including fully automatic vectorization, interactive tracing and easy-to-use heads up digitizing, in order to handle a wide variety of maps and drawings. 5. How Good Is The Editing Functions? Does it provide editing functions for both vector data or raster image? How easy can it be used for complex mapping or GIS data sets? Raster image editing and preprocessing are important to clean up the original scanned image when it's impossible to do anything to the original hard copy source. Image sources vary greatly, in terms of age, quality, and scanning device used, you will need raster image editing functions sometime. A powerful grayscale image background removal function, such as the one provided by R2V, is essential to remove dirty or dark background when images are scanned from old maps or blue prints. 6. Specialized tools, such as 3D DEM (digital terrain model) creation and display, are very important when digitizing a topo map. When all contour lines are vectorized and labeled, how can you verify if the data is correct? Displaying the data in 3D makes it easier to spot errors and correct them.

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4.9

CONCLUSION

A very important aspect of digitisation is the accuracy of the digitised products. Spatial accuracy of the features depicted on the map is very important for a good GIS database. But accuracy of the digitised map depends on a number of different types of errors. The most important of which are geodetic, machine, cartographic, manuscript and random errors. Geodetic error crops out of the improper choice of a projection system. This is because maps present the three-dimensional face of the surface into a two-dimensional paper according to a projection system. Digitisation in a different projection system results in inaccurate placement of features such that the map and the digitised image do not overlap each other. Machine error is an inherent error which cannot be removed but can only be minimised. It depends on the accuracy of the digitisation table and maybe introduced while conversion from analogue to digital form of the map. Cartographic errors are errors that are present in the source map itself and which get transferred into the digital form of the map. The source maps may sometimes depict inaccurate results because of incorrect interpretations or because of incorrect drafting of features as seen on the map. Manuscript errors are introduced based on the quality of the source maps. Paper maps are known to shrink with time. Any warping, stretching, folding or wrinkling of the original map will affect the digitisation process as proper co-ordinates of such maps cannot be placed. Apart from this, the quality of digitisation also depends upon the operator who is digitising the maps. An experienced digitiser can digitise the maps with more accuracy and speed as compared to a newly appointed digitiser. Similarly, on-screen digitisation is more accurate as compared to manual digitisation as the images for on-screen digitisation are scanned at higher resolutions such that the operator can zoom the image to the scale of the original raster data and digitise with a higher level of accuracy. But ultimately the quality of digitisation still remains with the operator !

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