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Distribution and Transmission Systems - A Comparison

Anders Wikstrm o
A-EES-9811

October 8, 1998

Introduction

The aim of this report is to point out dierences and similarities between transmission and distribution systems that might be important to consider when planning, analyzing, optimizing or designing power systems. In [2] the following denitions can be found: Distribution system (power operations) That portion of an electric system which delivers electric energy from transformation points on the transmission or bulk power system to the customer. Transmission system (power operation) An interconnected group of electric transmission lines and associated equipment for the movement or transfer of electric energy in bulk between points of supply and points for delivery. The original task for the transmission system was to transport bulk power from, often remote, power stations to the load centers. As the power system has developed, new tasks have occurred. As power systems were connected, spinning reserves could be shared and excessive power in one system could be transferred to another. This led to a more economic operation of the power systems. The recent de-regulation of many energy markets has turned the transmission systems into a market place. Also the distribution systems have seen some changes. As the use of embedded generation has increased, distribution systems nowdays can inject power into, and not just distribute power from, the transmission system. For this reason distribution system sometimes are referred to as local networks. Another area for the use of distribution networks is communication, both for remote controll of loads and computer communication. The report starts with comparing physical factors such as voltage levels and structure. Therafter dynamics, reliability and power quality are considered. In the last section some economical comparisons are made.

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2.1

Physichal factors
Voltage levels

Dierent maximum voltages are used in transmission systems in dierent countries. 800 kV is used in Brazil, 765 kV in USA and 755 kV in Canada, but 500 kV is the most common maximum voltage. In Sweden, the voltage levels of the transmission system are 400 and 220 kV. The local distribution systems have voltages of 20 kV down to 0.4 kV. In between the transmission and distribution system there are subtransmission systems (regional networks). These have voltage levels at 130, 70 and 40 kV. [3]

2.2

Power levels

As the transmission system transfer the bulk supply to the customers, the power level in a single transmission power line is much higher then in a cable in the distribution system. In [1] it is said Depending on the number and size of conductors per phase and the distance involved, a single 400 kV transmission circuit could carry the output of a 2000 MW power station. In a cable in a distribution system at 0.4 kV carrying a current of 50 A the transmitted power would be around 35 kW.

2.3

Structure

In [1] dierent topologies for distribution networks are discussed. These are shown in Figure 1, where substations are drawn as circles. According to [4], the most common topology in European distribution systems is radially operated ring networks (see Fig 1 d, called open loop in [1]), while transmission systems are meshed. In [1] some criteria for which topology to choose are mentioned, e.g. wanted reliability, possibilities for later extensions, topography of the countryside, cost of equipment and earlier used designs. In [4] the criteria are divided into external and internal criteria. As external criteria standard voltage levels and public restrictions are mentioned. Internal criteria discussed are e.g. reliability of dierent parts of the network, power and supply quality. According to [6], more then 90 % of the Swedish transmission and distribution system at 20 kV and above is built with overhead lines (OHL). Distribution systems in urban areas are mostly cables and the the percentage of OHL will continue to decrease. The reason for this is visual and public worries from electromagnetic elds. [5]

Generation

The power generated in power plants in remote areas are transferred to load centres by the transmission system. It is getting more common with embedded generation, i.e. smaller power plants connected to the distribution systems. Ref. [5] shows that in ve European countries examined, the capcity of embedded generation increased from 3000 MW 1983 to 8000 MW 1993. The main type of generators are hydro generators, wind turbines and gas engines. 2

Open point

Figure 1: a: Meshed network b: Interconnected network c: Link arrangement d: Open loop e: Radial system The following problems for network planning are pointed out for the increasing share of distributed generation: The network dimensioning could be wrong if it is based on recorded load data that include a signicant share of embedded generation. The dimensioning maximum load would then be higher than the recorded value. The supply and power quality could decrease due to starting and stopping generators. Furhermore, windturbines could cause problems with rising voltages and icker. The safety of maintenance sta could be aected, if the protection of the generators does not trip the generator during faults. Then the sta risks entering a live working site that is fed backwards from embedded generators.

Reliability

In [1] the following is pointed out as the main factors to judge the reliability to customers: frequency of interruptions durations of each interruption

Voltage level [kV] 400-220 130-70 40-10 0.4 Total [MSEK]

Lines & Cables [MSEK] 20 000 10 000 20 000 35 000 85 000

[%] 24 11 24 41

Stations [MSEK] 7 000 7 000 7 000 11 000 32 000

% 22 22 22 34

Table 1: Value of investments at dierent voltage levels. [3] Lines & Cables [MSEK] Operation Maintenance 50 (5 %) 20 (8 %) 40 (4 %) 10 (4 %) 440 (45,5 %) 130 (48 %) 440 (45,5 %) 130 (48 %) 970 290 Stations [MSEK] Operation Maintenance 120 (20 %) 60 (27 %) 230 (37,5 %) 40 (19 %) 140 (22,5 %) 60 (27 %) 120 (20 %) 60 (27 %) 610 220

Voltage level [kV] 400-220 130-70 40-10 0.4 Total [MSEK]

Table 2: Costs for lines & cables and stations at dierent voltages. [3] the value a customer places on the supply of electricity at the time that the service is not provided A failure in a transmission system will aect more customers then one in a distribution system. Transmission systems are therefore operated as meshed networks with more than one possible way to transfer the energy. The use of ring networks in distribution system makes it possible to isolate faults and, through reconnections in the network, minimize the impact of the fault for the customers.

Dynamics

In power systems care must be taken to avoid dynamic phenomena that can lead to instability and colapse of the system. In distribution systems static equations are often sucient.

Power quality

The denition for power quality used in [7] is: Any power problem manifested in voltage, current or frequency deviations that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment. Problems that occur are e.g. harmonics, voltage dips, voltage uctuations or transients.

6.1

Interaction between loads and network

Sources of quality problems are often loads. Harmonics are caused by converters, ouroscent lightning and arc furnaces. Non-linearities in transformer magnetization and rotating machines do not cause signicant harmonics while operating

Voltage level [kV] 400-220 130-70 40-10 0.4 Total

Losses [GWh] 2700 (25 %) 2300 (21,5 %) 3400 (32 %) 2300 (21,5 %) 10 700

Table 3: Losses for dierent voltage levels. [3] under normal steady state conditions, but during transient disturbances they can increase their harmonic contribution considerably. [8] In distribution systems converters can be found e.g. in machine drives and computers. Transmission systems can have HVDC stations that causes harmonics. [9] Harmonics might not be a problem in the transmission system itself, but harmonics can be fed in from a distribution system and transfered to another part of the power system. [10] Voltage dips are short duration reduction in the rms voltage. They are mainly caused by short circuits and starting of large motors. Adjustable-speed drives, process-control equipment and computers are very sensitive to dips, and the equipment may trip when the rms voltage drops below 90 % for longer then one or two cycles. [16] Flicker is observable uctuating light intensity caused by uctuations in the voltage amplitude. Sources of voltage uctuations can be arc furnaces or wind turbines. [11] Frequency deviations are caused by unbalance between produced and consumed power. Transients can be caused by switching operations, e.g. capacitor switching.

6.2

Requirements

The recommendations given in Swedish Standard [14] show some of the requirements for distribution systems. The harmonic content, measured as mean value for three seconds, are 4 % for odd harmonics and 1 % for even harmonics. These limits are valid up to the seventh harmonic. For higher harmonics it is just said that they should be lower than the given limits. The highest allowed total relative harmonic content is 6 %. For single, non repetitive cases, e.g. transformer connections or start of engine, the relative harmonic content may shortly be higher then the given limits. The voltage level should always be in the interval 207-244 V at the customer. The highest allowed frequency deviation is 0,5 Hz.

Economy

The gures in this section are taken from [3] and they give the value in SEK in 1990 so the relative investments (in %) might be more interesting then the actual values.

Voltage level [kV] 220-400 130-70 <50

Stations 0,2 0,2 0,6

Lines 0,5 0,2 1,4

Total 0,7 0,4 2

Table 4: Estimated yearly reinvestment needs [GSEK]. [3] Voltage level [kV] 220-400 130-70 <50 Stations [kSEK] 100 000 50 000 25-150 Lines [kSEK/km] 1000-2000 500-1000 100-300

Table 5: Approximate cost for new investments. [3] The value of the xed assets in the Swedish power system is 310 GSEK (310 109 SEK). If the value of land and buildings are subtracted the value is estimated to about 230 GSEK. Of these 48,5 % (110 GSEK) is production assets, 37,5 % (85 GSEK) power lines and cables and 14 % (32 GSEK) stations. Table 1 shows how the investments are divided in dierent voltage levels. The distribution system contains half of the investments, the major part of system losses, and causes almost all energy and power disconnections. Operation and maintenance costs for stations and lines in Sweden (exclusive production plants) are estimated to be 2 GSEK, where the cost for the lines is approximately 1.3 GSEK. Table 2 shows the costs for dierent voltages. Table 3 shows losses for dierent voltage levels. As the production was 140 TWh, the total losses were 7,6 %. More then half of the losses (53,5 %) is produced in the distribution system.

7.1

Scale of investments

As most of the Swedish power system was built between 1940 and 1980, and the equipment often have a lifetime of 30-40 years, there are needs for both reinvestments and new investments. The estimated reinvestment levels and approximate costs for new investments at dierent voltage levels are shown in Tables 4 and 51 .

7.2

Taris

The energy tari for customers connected to the distribution system has three parts: production costs distribution costs
The price of a 220-400 kv station includes one transformer, two incoming lines and four outgoing lines. At 130-70 kv, the station is assumed to have two transformers, four incomming and six outgoing lines. At the lowest voltage, the lower price is for a pole mounted station and the higher for a ground based station. In the costs for transmission lines in distribution networks the cost for detail distribution (ALUS) is 150-250 kSEK, hngspiralkabel 200-300 kSEK and overhead lines 140-250 kSEK. a
1

taxes In Stockholm the prices in September 1998 was 0.336, 0.277 and 0.190 SEK/kWh for the base tari. [17] Svenska Kraftnt (SvK) has a tari for use of the Swedish transmission a system. The tari has four parts: power fee special power fee energy fee investment contribution The power fee is the main part of the tari (60 %). It is based on the power level the customer uses. As the main power ow is from north to south, it is more expensive to inject power in the north than in the southern parts of Sweden, and consumption is more expensive in south than north. The special power fee is new (included since 1998-01-01). It is supposed to cover the costs SvK has for the reserves. It is just a few percent of the total price. The energy fee is based on injected or consumed energy. It is calculated as the product of the coecient of losses, the price of energy and injected/consumed energy. The coecient of losses varies geographically between 10 %. Negative coecient means that the customer get paid from SvK, as an injection in the southern parts of Sweden decreases the power ow from north to south and therefore also decreases the losses. When a new connection requires investment in new equipment, SvK can charge a contribution fee to cover their costs. [13]

7.3

Regulatory constraints for companies

In Sweden the electricity law regulates the trading of electric energy between companies and customers. The law states the network owner is allowed to charge a reasonable fee for the use of their network. Whether the fee is reasonable or not can be tested in a court. The Swedish National Energy Administration (Statens Energimyndighet) is the authority that supervises the network companies taris. They assume that the distribution companies can lower their taris with 20 %. [12] Net owners can not refuse to connect small scale (less then 1500 kW) power stations to their network unless there are certain reasons. To be able to participate on the deregulated market and be able to change supplier a customer must have an energy meter that reports the consumed energy on an hourly basis. The maximum price for the energy meter is set to 2500 SEK by the government. There are discussions about changing this decision and use the Norwegian model insted, i.e the customers are billed after their expected consumption.

Concluding remarks

As described here there are some dierences between distribution systems and transmission systems. These might be important to take under consideration for example when applying techniques developed for a transmission system on a distribution system or vice versa.

References
[1] E. Lakervi, E. J. Holmes, Electricity distribution network design, 2nd Edition. Exeter: Peter Peregrinus Ltd 1996. ISBN 0 86341 309 9 [2] IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms, 4th Edition. New York: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. 1988. ISBN 1-55937-000-9 [3] Vattenfall Elkraft 91 Sektorsutredningen om elkraftteknisk forskning och utveckling i Sverige 1991. (in Swedish) [4] Unipede Distribution Study Committee Group of Experts Network Conguration and Design Network Design - Applied Practices in European countries [5] Unipede Distribution Study Committee Group of Experts Network Conguration and Design Distribution Network Conguration and Design, Likely trends in distribution systems [6] Svenska Elkraftfreningen Power Distribution in Sweden Stockholm: Stelo lan St tryck 1987. ISBN 91-7622-055-9 al [7] R C Dugan, M F McGranaghan, H W Beaty Electrical Power Systems Quality [8] J Arrillaga, D A Bradley, P S Bodger Power System Harmonics [9] F Jonas Measurement and Calculation of Harmonic Impedances of a 400 kV Network close to an HVDC Station [10] Discussion with Erik Thunberg [11] T Larsson Voltage Source Converters for Mitigation of Flicker Caused by Arc Furnaces. PhD thesis Stockholm: KTH 1998. ISBN 91-7170-274-1 [12] Ntmyndigheten Nyhetsblad a (www.stem.se) (in Swedish) fr an Ntmyndigheten a Nr 6 1997

[13] Svenska Kraftnts Homepage (www.svk.se) a [14] Svensk Standard SS 421 18 11 Spnningsgodhet i l anningsnt fr a agsp a o allmn distribution (in Swedish) a [15] G Andersson, M Ghandhari, A Herbig, L Jones, D Lee Power Flow and Stability Control in Power Systems Department of Electric Power Engineering, KTH 8

[16] M H.J. Bollen Power Quality 14, 15 16 September 1998 (Course material) Department of Electric Power Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology [17] Bill from Stockholm Energi

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