Summary: Processing Options

Austenite () slow cool Pearlite moderate cool Bainite

Adapted from Fig. 10.27, Callister 6e.

rapid quench Martensite (BCT phase

diffusionless transformation)

( + Fe3C layers + a ( + Fe3C plates/needles) proeutectoid phase)

Martensite T Martensite bainite fine pearlite coarse pearlite spheroidite

reheat Ductility Tempered Martensite

( + very fine Fe3C particles)

Strength

General Trends

Chapter 11: Metal Alloys Applications and Processing

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are metal alloys classified and how are they used? What are some of the common fabrication techniques? How do properties vary throughout a piece of material that has been quenched, for example? How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Ferrous Steels Steels <1.4wt%C <1.4wt%C Cast Irons CastIrons 3-4.5wt%C 3-4.5wt%C

Nonferrous

Adapted from Fig. 11.1, Callister 6e.

Cu

Al

Mg

Ti

T(C)
1600

1400 1200 1000

L austenite +L
1148C 4.30

microstructure: ferrite, graphite cementite

L+Fe3C
Adapted from Fig. 9.21,Callister 6e. (Fig. 9.21 adapted from Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief), ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

Eutectic:

800 ferrite

727C

+Fe3C +Fe3C
3 4 5 6 6.7

600 400 0 (Fe)

+
0.77 1

Eutectoid:
2

Fe3C cementite

Co, wt% C

Steels
Low Alloy low carbon med carbon high carbon <0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C
heat plain treatable Cr,V Cr, Ni Additions none none none Ni, Mo Mo Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ TS 0 + ++ + EL + + 0 Name plain HSLA plain
Uses auto bridges struc. towers sheet press. vessels pistons wear crank gears shafts applic. wear bolts hammers applic. blades

High Alloy

tool Cr, V, Mo, W 4190 +++ ++ -drills saws dies

austentitic stainless Cr, Ni, Mo 304 0 0 ++

high T applic. turbines furnaces V. corros. resistant

Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 6e.

increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

Basic Ideas in Alloying Steels: 1. Phase Partitioning at Austenite/Pearlite Interface

Carbide Formers V, Ti, Nb Ferrite Formers (solid solution) Ni, Si, Mn

Paritioning at the Austenite/Pearlite Interface Slows transformation Allows Bainite or Martensite to form on cooling

Basic Ideas in Alloying Steels: 2. Alloying to Control the Eutectoid Transformation

Alloying Control Nose in TTT Diagram Control Eutectoid Temperature and C Composition Cr: added (~8 12wt %) to make steel stainless Ni: High concentrations to stabilize austenite austenitic steels

Hardenability of Steels
Ability to form martensite Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.
1 specimen (heated to phase field) 24C water flat ground 4
Adapted from Fig. 11.10, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.10 adapted from A.G. Guy,

Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill

Book Company, New York, 1978.)

Hardness, HRC

Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Adapted from Fig. 11.11, Callister 6e.

Distance from quenched end

Why Hardness Changes with Position

The cooling rate varies with position.
Hardness, HRC 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 distance from quenched end (in)

T(C)
600 400 200 M(start) AM
A P

0% 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.12, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.12 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)

Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American

te rli ite ea e rl P lit ea + ar e P ite Pe n ns Fi rte ite a s M ten ar

0 M(finish)

0.1

10

100

Time (s)

1000

Hardenability vs. Alloy Content

Hardness, HRC

Jominy end quench results, C = 0.4wt%C

100 60

10

2 Cooling rate (C/s)

100

4340

80 50

%M

40
40 10

4140 8640 5140

Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from figure furnished courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.)

20 0 10 20 30 40 50 Distance from quenched end (mm)

"Alloy Steels"
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) --contain Ni, Cr, Mo (0.2 to 2wt%) --these elements shift the "nose". --martensite is easier to form.

T(C)

800 600 400 200 0 -1 10 10 A B

TE shift from A to B due to alloying M(start) M(90%)

103 105 Time (s)

Quenching Medium and Geometry

Effect of quenching medium:
Medium air oil water Severity of Quench small moderate large Hardness small moderate large

Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases: --cooling rate increases --hardness increases
Position Cooling rate center small surface large Hardness small large

Nonferrous Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3 (costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip. Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct. subst. impurity aircraft parts (bushings, landing & packaging) gear) NonFerrous Mg Alloys Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3 Alloys precip. hardened -ignites easily for strength -aircraft, missles

Cu Alloys

Al Alloys

Ti Alloys

-lower : 4.5g/cm3

Refractory metals
-high melting T -Nb, Mo, W, Ta

vs 7.9 for steel Noble metals -reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt -oxid./corr. resistant -space applic.
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 6e.

Metal Fabrication Methods (1)

FORMING
Forging

CASTING
Rolling

JOINING
(I-beams, rails)
roll Ao roll Ad

(wrenches, crankshafts)
force die Ao blank Ad often at elev. T force

Drawing
die Ao die

Extrusion
(rods, tubing)
Ao
tensile force
container

Adapted from Fig. 11.7, Callister 6e.

(rods, wire, tubing)

Ad

force

die holder
extrusion

ram

billet

Ad

container

die

Forming Temperature
Hot working --recrystallization
--less energy to deform --oxidation: poor finish --lower strength

Cold working --recrystallization

--less energy to deform --oxidation: poor finish --lower strength

Cold worked microstructures --generally are very anisotropic!

--Forged --Swaged --Fracture resistant!

(a)

(b)

(c)

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (a) Fig. 10.5, p. 410 (micrograph courtesy of G. Vander Voort, Car Tech Corp.); (b) Fig. 10.6(b), p. 411 (Orig. source: J.F. Peck and D.A. Thomas, Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME, 1961, p. 1240); (c) Fig. 10.10, p. 415 (Orig. source: A.J. McEvily, Jr. and R.H. Bush, Trans. ASM 55, 1962, p. 654.)

Metal Fabrication Methods (2)

FORMING
Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks)
Sand Sand

CASTING

JOINING
(high volume, low T alloys)

Die Casting

molten metal

Investment Casting
plaster die formed around wax prototype

Continuous Casting
(simple slab shapes)
molten solidified

(low volume, complex shapes e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)

wax

Metal Fabrication Methods (3)

FORMING
Powder Processing
(materials w/low ductility)
pressure

CASTING
Welding

JOINING

(when one large part is impractical)

filler metal (melted) base metal (melted) fused base metal heat affected zone unaffected unaffected Adapted from Fig. piece 1 piece 2 11.8, Callister 6e.

heat

area contact
densify point contact at low T densification by diffusion at higher T

Heat affected zone:

Iron Castings Handbook, C.F.

(Fig. 11.8 from

Walton and T.J. (region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.) microstructure has been changed).

Thermal Processing of Metals Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

Stress Relief: Reduce
stress caused by: -plastic deformation -nonuniform cooling -phase transform.

Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for good machining. Heat just below TE & hold for 15-25h.

Types of Annealing
Process Anneal:
Negate effect of cold working by (recovery/ recrystallization)

Full Anneal (steels):

Make soft steels for good forming by heating to get , then cool in furnace to get coarse P.

Normalize (steels):
Deform steel with large grains, then normalize to make grains small.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 6e.

Precipitation Hardening
Particles impede dislocations. 700 Ex: Al-Cu system T(C) Procedure: 600

Other precipitation systems:

Cu-Be Cu-Sn Mg-Al

--Pt A: solution heat treat A 500 (get solid solution) --Pt B: quench to room temp.400 C --Pt C: reheat to nucleate small crystals within 300 0 B 10 crystals. (Al)

+L

L +L

CuAl2

+
20 30 40 50

composition range needed for precipitation hardening

wt%Cu

Temp. Pt A (soln heat treat)

Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.22 adapted from J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)

Pt C (precipitate ) Time

Adapted from Fig. 11.20, Callister 6e.

Pt B

Precipitate Effect on TS, %El

2014 Al Alloy: TS peaks with precipitation time. Increasing T accelerates process.
no so n-eq lid ui so l . lut i on ma p r ny s ec ipi mall a tates ge d

%EL reaches minimum with precipitation time.

tensile strength (MPa)

few p e o recip r lar ve ra itate ge ge d s %EL (2in sample)

30 20 10 0 149C

500 400 300 200

149C 204C

204C

1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time (h)

1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time (h)

Adapted from Fig. 11.25 (a) and (b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 11.25 adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)

Summary
Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding --C (low alloy steels) --Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels) --ductility usually decreases w/additions. Non-ferrous: --Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals. Fabrication techniques: --forming, casting, joining. Hardenability --increases with alloy content. Precipitation hardening --effective means to increase strength in Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.

Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

How do flaws in a material initiate failure? How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different material classes compare? How do we estimate the stress to fracture? How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading from waves.

Adapted from Fig. 8.0, Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.0 is by Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)

Computer chip-cyclic thermal loading.

Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister 6e. (Fig. 18.11W(b) is courtesy of National Semiconductor Corporation.)

Hip implant-cyclic loading from walking.

Adapted from Fig. 17.19(b), Callister 6e.

Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

Highly Ductile Moderately Ductile Brittle

Ductile: Warning before fracture

Brittle: Little warning

Example: Pipe Failure

Ductile failure:
--one piece --large deformation

Brittle failure:
--many pieces --small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with permission.

Moderately Ductile Failure

Evolution to failure:
necking void nucleation void growth and linkage shearing at surface fracture

Resulting fracture surfaces (steel)

particles serve as void nucleation sites.

50 m 50 m

100 m
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures

(2nd ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.)

Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with permission.

Cup-and-Cone Fracture and Brittle Fracture

Cup-and-cone fracture in Al

Dimpling (Center)

Dimpling (Edge)

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Intergranular
(between grains) 304 S. Steel
(metal)

Intragranular
Reprinted w/permission from "Metals Reprinted w/ Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. permission from 633, p. 650. Copyright "Metals Handbook", 9th 1985, ASM ed, Fig. 650, p. 357. International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM Park, OH. (Micrograph International, Materials by J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph Olsen, Oak Ridge by D.R. Diercks, National Lab.) Argonne National Lab.)

316 S. Steel (metal)

(within grains)

4 mm

160m

Polypropylene (polymer)

Al Oxide (ceramic)

1 mm

Reprinted w/ Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. permission from Hertzberg, "Defor"Failure Analysis of mation and Fracture Brittle Materials", p. 78. Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The Engineering American Ceramic Materials", (4th ed.) Society, Westerville, Fig. 7.35(d), p. 303, OH. (Micrograph by John Wiley and Sons, R.M. Gruver and H. Inc., 1996. Kirchner.)

3m

(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Transgranular fracture (ductile cast iron)

Intergranular fracture

Fractography study of fracture surfaces (usually SEM)

Brittle Fracture Surfaces

Brittle fracture surfaces Arrows indicate origin Fracture surface structure: Crack Origin Crack path

Ideal vs. Real Materials

Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

carefully produced glass fiber

TSengineering TSperfect <<

materials materials

E/100 typical ceramic 0.1

typical strengthened metal typical polymer

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...

--the longer the wire, the smaller the load to fail it. Reasons: --flaws cause premature failure. --Larger samples are more flawed!

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.4. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996.

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Elliptical hole in a plate: o Stress distrib. in front of a hole:

2a t

a max o 2 + 1 t

Stress conc. factor: Kt = max / o Large Kt promotes failure:

NOT SO BAD

o = average stress T = radius of crack tip 2a = crack length

Kt=3

BAD!

Kt>>3

Engineering Fracture Design Avoid sharp corners! max o Stress Conc. Factor, Kt =
w
max

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0 0.5 1.0 sharper fillet radius increasing w/h

r, fillet radius

Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c), Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H. Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)

r/h

When Does a Crack Propagate?

t at a crack tip is very small!

Result: crack tip

stress is very large.

tip

tip =

K 2 x

Crack propagates when:

the tip stress is large enough to make:

increasing K

K Kc

distance, x, from crack tip

Geometry, Load, & Material

Condition for crack propagation: K Kc
Stress Intensity Factor: --Depends on load & geometry. Fracture Toughness: --Depends on the material, temperature, environment, & rate of loading.

Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:

units of K :
2a 2a

MPa m or ksi in
Adapted from Fig. 8.8,

Callister 6e.

K = a

K = 1.1 a

Fracture Toughness
Kc = Y c (a) Kc Y c a Fracture toughness Geometric factor (crack geometry) Critical stress for crack propagation Crack length (depends on crack geometry)

Mode I (Tensile)

Mode II (Sliding) Crack Mode Designations

Mode III (Tearing)

Fracture Toughness
Metals/ Alloys 100 70 60 50 40
Steels Ti alloys Al alloys Mg alloys Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 Y 2O 3/ZrO2(p)4 C/C( fibers)1 Al oxid/SiC(w)3 Si nitr/SiC(w)5 Al oxid/ZrO2(p)4 Glass/SiC(w)6

Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond

Composites/ fibers
C-C(|| fibers)1

increasing

K metals c
Kc
comp

K cer K c c

poly

KIc(MPa m0.5)

30 20 10 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.7 0.6 0.5

Based on data in Table B5, Callister 6e.

Composite reinforcement geometry is: f = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p = particles. Addition data as noted (vol. fraction of reinforcement):

Diamond Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride PET PP PVC PC

Si crystal <111> Glass-soda Concrete

<100>

PS Polyester

Glass6

1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int., Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606. 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., Waltham, MA. 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-73. 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO. 5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in Technology for Advanced Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992. 6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.