Underwater Repairs

18.1 General
Offshore structures are exposednot only to the extreme conditions of the environment such as wave slam, ice impact, and fatigue, but also to accidentaleventssuch as boat impact and objects dropped off the platform. The list of suchaccidentaleventsthat haveoccurred over the past severaldecades myriad. is It includes ramming by a supply boat that went full ahead rather than full astern, impact from the reinforced corner of a cargobarge,and impact by a derrick bargewhosen}ooring lines had parted. The dropped-objects category includes a number of pedestal cranes pulled off their supports when they attempted to follow the movementsof a supply boat and thus exceeded their allowable radii, also drill collars,casing,a mud pump, and pile hammer.Anchors havebeen draggedacrossa pipeline. Leaksinto ~derwater compartments have developedthrough corroded and ruptured piping. In the environmental category,horizontal bracings near the waterline have been excited by vortex action and subjectedto vertical cyclingbeyondthat for which they weredesigned, with consequentfailure by fatigue. Scour has undermined a pipeline, to develop long, unsupported spans,which then ruptured under the cyclic loading due to vortex shedding. Defective welds and heat-affectedzoneshave led to crack development,and its subsequentpropagation has been accelerated corrosion in the crack. A by platform may also be damagedby operational failure, which leadsto flooding or overloads.Scour may undermine the legs and lead to excessive lateral response. Finally, corrosion may occur which weakens the structure beyond allowablelimits. Thus repairsbecomenecessary. Obviously,@ach such undertaking is highly case-specific needsto and be engineeredappropriately to the particular needsof the case. One fundamental principle is that the carrying out of the repair must not increasethe risk of failure. This may require auxiliary strengtheningbefore the damagedmember is cut out for repair. It may mean that repairs must be delayeduntil a more favorable season, when the environmental loads are reduced. It may mean that limits are placed on operations until the repairs are completed.Repairsmay have to be carried out step by step.A secondprinciple is that the repaired or reconstructedelement must not adverselyaffect the performance of the structure. As an example,if the reconstructedmember will be significantly stiffer than the original member,a dynamic reanalysis the entire platform may be required. of In order to reducethe time of repairs to a minimum, not only to limit the costsbut especiallyto limit the time when the platform is in a weakened condition, the repair proceduresmust be planned in extreme detail and all necessarytools, rigging, and fittings provided as one package.For complex repairs, a rehearsalwith the crew may be advisableto reduce the problems of communication during the actual repaIr. Many repairs are located near the sea-air interface, and hencethe repair work will have to be carried out under conditions of wave turbulence due to incident, refracted, and reflected waves.Some local protection may be able to be provided by the derrick barge acting as a floating breakwater.

519

lili

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520

Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures

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Gasketed Seal Around Pipe

Habitat Full-PenetrationWelds

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FIGURE 18.2.1 Repairs damaged to braces: scheme 1. A major problem with large offshore structures is that of identifying locations so that divers, ROVs, and submersibles may readily return to specificspots.The pre-installation of large,highly visible (yellow or orange) numerals on platform legs and walls is now routine practice. However,for a specific repair, additional local markers must be installed. Attachment of a wire guide line as a first step will facilitate descentand location and help the diver to maintain position evenin a strong current. Cleaning of marine growth is another operation which must be carried out at an early stage.Highpressurewater jets are the most effectivemeans,although in order to thoroughly inspect or commence repair of a crack in a weld, for example,supplementalwire brushing may be necessary. Inspection canbe carried out by divers,a diving bell, or an ROV with video. The latter two arereplacing much of the diver work in order to reduce costsand increasesafety.Especiallywhen it is necessary to inspect inside the jacket frame, the ROV will eliminate the potential for diversto be trapped.When divers must go into a frame or under a structure, at least two divers must work as a team, with one tending the lines for the other. As a first operation, a guide line can be carried in and attached,enabling the diver to easilyretrace his path. When corrosion is the causeof damage,the repairs must include a determination of the cause. Steps, such as installing sacrificial anodesto provide cathodic protection, must be instituted to prevent ongoing corrosion.

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I i When diagonal or horizontal braceshavebeenfractured or badly distorted, the damagedsection can be

cut out. By use of a template and careful measurement, a "pup" is now cut to exact length and end profile,

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with the endsbeveledfor full-penetration welding. External clampsare usedto hold the pup in position. Now a habitat is placed around the brace and dewatered,and the full-penetration welds are made. See factory quality can be attained. Another solution to this problem is to cut out the damagedportion of the brace and then slip in a longer section of slightly smaller-diameterbut thicker-walled pipe to which packersand grout fittings havebeenattached. Alternatively,the pipe may be of larger diameterand slipped over the two undamaged ends.This insert pipe may be madein sectionsof threadedcasing,to enablea longer length to be inserted or slipped over or through a small cutout. By the use of cementing techniquessimilar to pile-to-jacket sleeveconnections,the strength of the brace may be restored.The packersare inflated at each end and the grout injected and vented into a standpipeat the high end to ensurethat all water has been ejected. SeeFigure 18.2.2.A third schemeusesboth an internal and external sleeve.Only the external sleeveis structural. The internal sleeve merely an internal form to facilitate grouting. SeeFigure 18.2.3.Special is grouts are used,having expansive and high-bond capabilitiesin order to developthe transfer in as short

Figure18.2.1. Alternatively, underwater "wet" weldingmaybe employed, providedtestsshowthat satis-

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a lengthof overlap possible. provisions API-RP2A as The of concerning grouttransferfrom pile to sleeve'
are followed as a guide. Multiple weld beadsor shearkeys are usedto enablegrout bond-shear transfer in a short length. Epoxy injection is an alternatemethod.

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Underwater Repairs

521

FIGURE 18.2.2 Repairsto damagedbraces:scheme2. ShearKeys Vent

-GroutInjection Tube

.-

FIGURE 18.2.3 Repairsto damaged braces:scheme3. Structural Shape GroutInjection Tube Vent

Pigor Packer

TwoHalf-Pipes Clamped Together with Gaskets

FIGURE 18.2.4 Repairsto damaged braces:scheme4. Another scheme involves the insert of a heavy internal structural member of smaller diameter than the original tubular. This new section can be a heavy-walled tubular with shear rings welded on the ends or even a rolled shape, for example, an H pile. At the lower end, a pig or packer is attached. An external sleeve is clamped over the gap, using two half sections, with flanged and gasketed joints. Then the brace is pumped full of concrete. The concrete is actually a fine concrete, using cement plus sand, with the sand graded up to about 6-mm maximum size. See Figure 18.2.4. Hydraulic expanders are in the process of development, primarily for use in expanding piles against jacket sleevesto transfer the load by a combination of direct shear on the corrugated surfaces and friction, thus supplementing or replacing load transfer by grout. This "swaging" process appears especially useful for repair of damaged tubular bracing. It is, of course, to be noted that all these schemes are but variants on one scheme, with effort directed toward simplicity and reliability.

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522

Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures

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FIGURE 18.2.5 Schematic representation underwater of repairto tubularbrace Ninian centralplatform. of Other schemes havebeenused)especially where axial loadsarelight, involving clampedexternalsleeves. Thesemay be in two halvesand use high-streqgth bolts to draw them in tight against the arms of the original brace.Load transfer is by friction of steelon steel. In the late 1980sChevron reported the discoveryof a seriousfracture in one of the underwater tubular braces of the Ninian Southern platform. The fracture was discovered by an ROV during routine inspection. The fracture actually was a complete severance the tub~ar and is believed to have been of due to a faulty weld on a fabrication window used to gain access a backup weld at a node. It is for interesting to note how many serious fractures in tubulars have occurred not at the critical nodes but rather at temporary closuresor attachments:the Alexander Kjelland tragedywas due to a faulty weld in attaching a sonic transducer. Repairs were carried out by Chevron at a depth of 43 m. The tubular was 1200mm in diameter) fabricated of 30-mm plate. Because brace would have to take cyclic tension)the decision was made the to use a welded r~pair.It was fearedthat a bolted and grouted connection might not havethe necessary fatigue resistanceunder the required stressrangesand number of cyclesinvolved.
i

Oceaneering) built a specially Inc.) designed underwater habitatin which a teamof saturation divers
would 'work. The fractured faceswere removed and sent for a metallurgical examination. The two ends of the braceswere now prepared for the weld. Then a lead-filled template was fitted to each end of the tubular to get an exact impression of the exposedends. Fro,m these impressions)transition piecesof 500-mm plate were fabricated and then welded in place)leaving a gap betweenthem to enableaccess for a backup weld on the insides.Specialcollarshad beenweldedaround the transition pieces.High-strength bolts were now tensionedto draw the collars together with 400 tons of tension force. A 50-mm "pup)) (a closurelength or spool) was now fitted into the gap and welded from the outside. The cooling of the weld added to the pretension in the brace)so that the final stresswas 600 tons of tension)thus restoring the stateof stressthat was originally in the member under static load conditions. SeeFigure 18.2.5.All welds were inspectedand the platform was recertified. Cracksin welds may be treated in a number of ways)depending on their size and extent, the service required) and the causeof the fracture. In any event,the external surfacemust be ground smooth. After inspection) if the crack is in the non-severe category)small holes may be drilled at each end to act as crack-propagation arrestors.The holes and crack may now be filled with epoxy)using crack-injection techniques.More seriouscracksmust be gougedout and re-welded) using either a habitat or wet-welding techniques.Cracked nodes have been repaired by clamping on an external nodal sleevemade up of as many sections as required and injecting the spacewith epoxy.In some minor casesof dented jacket bracing or legs)it may be sufficient to fill the leg with grout to inhibit compressive buckling.

" "",",-

Underwater Repairs

523

18,3 Repairs to Steel Piling

Steelpiling is subjectto corrosion, both in the water and in the air abovewater. Critical zonesare at the mudline, in the splashzone and at the interface where the pile is embeddedin concrete.Welds,and the heat-affectedzone around them, corrode more readily. Short-term protection againstfurther corrosion can be obtained by wire brushing and coating with zinc silicate or a zinc-enriched epoxy. Long-term protection can be obtained by cathodic protection, preferablysacrificial anodes wherethe zoneis below water.Sleeves be installed in two halves, may clamped and welded,them the annulus injected with epoxy or grout.

Repairs to Concrete Offshore Structures

As with steelstructures,concretestructures may be damagedby impact, collision, and dropped objects. They may also be damagedby over- or underpressurizationbeyond that for which they were designed, resulting in flexural and shearcracks.Excessive foundation settlementmay lead to shearcracks.Repeated cycling at high stressranges,especiallyif they extend into tension, may causelow-cycle fatigue of the concrete or reinforcement. Marine structures in a seawaterenvironment are subject to corrosion of reinforcement,to freeze-thaw attack, and to chemical disintegration.

18.4.1 Cracking
The Beryl A platform wasseverely crackedduring construction at the deep-watermoorings, by ballasting which overlookedthe temporary differential in headson the numerous small interstitial cells,called star cells. This led to excessive tension plus shear in the cell walls, resulting in through-wall cracks and displacementsof the star ce.llwalls. Repairswere carried out expeditiously and adequatelyusing the following techniques. 1. Removalof crackedand crushed concreteby chipping by hand or with a very small air hammer so as not to damagefurther the adjacentconcrete; 2. Where major displacementof the walls had occurred (up to 100mm radially), the addition of an inner reinforced concretewall about 200 mm thick, tied to the existing wall with drilled-in and grouted studs and expansionbolts; 3. Use of grout-intruded aggregate a meansof correcting wide cracksand strengtheningwalls; as 4. Use of cement grout injection in moderate-width cracks; 5. Epoxy injection of all cracks,carried out by sealingthe cracksexternally and then injecting a fluid epoxy until material of a similar consistencyflowed out the next port above.The cracks were successfully injected againstan external water pressurethat ranged up to a 40 m head; 6. Shotcreteapplication to build up the shell walls for compressive resistance. Numerous cor~s plus acoustic testing verified the soundnessof the repaired structure, and it was therefore certified for installation. The platform was installed successfully, despite having to sustain differential headsup to 100m. The repairs have shown no problem in over 25 yearsof service. When the Statfjord A platform was ballasted down to mount the deck, a small leak was noted in a juncture wall with another cell. Attempts to epoxy-inject this crack were lesssuccessful than with Beryl A. In the caseof Beryl A, the crackswere through the wall and hencewere crossedby reinforcing steel. In the caseof Statfjord A, the crack was laminar and had no reinforcing acrossit. Even though the injection pressurewas limited, the act of injection propagatedthe crack. A decision was made to limit injections and to fill the adjoining star cellswith a long-term corrosion-inhibiting gel. It would appearfrom the experience StatfjordA aswell asthat on subsequent at long-spanbridges,that stitch bolts should be drilled in and groutedbeforeattemptingto epoxy-injecta laminar (in-plane) crack.

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Construction

of Marine

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Sea concrete significant carried dewatered.

was of the

platform cracking

was impacted

by an anchor-handling the waterline.

barge whose

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Some spray leakage on the exterior and

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were successfully to it, and

New the

out by use of an external The

then grout.

work

caisson lowered cut out

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clamped
bars i~stalled.

damaged
placed Epoxy

concrete
as gr?~t-int~ded was InJected

was then

additional
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any shrinkage

cracks;

very little

"take"

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The loss of underpressure

in a concrete oil storage platform

may lead to cracking. Essentially this is

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an overpressure situation in which the oil inside, being automatically equalized at the bottom, exerts an upward causing platform multiple horizontal some cracks leakage should

less dense than the water with which it is pressure on the roof of the storage caisson, their juncture with the roof. The Draugen

in the cell walls just below during storms

experienced cases such periphery

due to the pumping by epoxy

action injection,

in the cracks. applied by divers from

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cracks

be able to be repaired However,

of the base caisson.

in the case of Draugen,

the cracks were active cracks, for repairs. Access

open during partial

cycles of wave action,

but closed during

the passive sea states needed

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sealing

was able to be effected and, depending depending

and some cells had to be taken on the circumstances, evaluation will other

out of service. of crack

to star cells may be very may be preferred. fill star cells with

difficult,

means

stopping feasible to

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of the design, leakage

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drilling

prevent

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Repair procedures
by Italian included engineers

for potential
in connection

major damage to concrete structures

with the approval tendons, of the Genoa the repair for which

have been developed and tested

concrete consisted dry dock. These out the of cutting

floating

the case of severed prestressing concrete, recently, concrete splicing

pro~dure

damaged More damaged

the severed tendons, de~onstrated by hIgh-pressure

and restoring

the prestressing

force by internal

jacks. T~e

Taylor-Woodrow was removed

a mean~ of repairing water burner. grid Jets operated Broken was then

seve~ed tendons by divers. The

underwater. damaged were then

and dIscoupled steel.

torted

reinforcing

bars were cut out by an oxy-arc bars.. A prefabricated reinforcing and gasketed After that curing

prestressing plac~d structure. and

tendons tied

to prestressing Prefabricated

to the

existing

formwork in from

was secured the bottom.

to the existing the concrete, strength

Then

a high-strength was stripped

concrete and the bars

mix was pumped stressed

the formwork was fully

and grouted. prestressing

Tests showed has been

the structural

restored. girders structural and would elements appear could

External practi~able

successfully structural

used to repair repairs as well.

damaged Holes

bridge into

for use in underwater

drilled

be used for the end anchors. Leakage small-diameter has occurred grout

Polyethylene-encased Beryl injection

prestressing A platform,

strands with

would water

have long-term penetrating developed

durability. nests of

in the base of the Cement grout

along

piping.

in stages, using

techniques

in tunneling,

has proved successful. The recent development importance properly materials for concrete oriented,

of marine

carbon

fiber

"patch" The patch

and

"strip"

repair on:' using

systems epoxy. patches

appears Provided

of particular the fibers are

structures.

is "glued

the patch

adds stiff reinforcement to restrain

on the face. "Flexible" crack propagation

of suitable

composite

can be "glued

on" underwater

and leakage.

18.4.2
of oxygen low water

Corrosion
then

of Reinforcing
into concrete Problems action,

Steel
depassivates the reinforcing prevalent occur well steel. The concurrent in the "splash-zone" above high water penetration from are especially but can also extending due

The permeation

of chlorides

leads to corrosion. wave

to above-normal The corrosion repairs consist them with

to airborne

chlorides. Standard i short-term rounding

of the steel causes cracking of removing zinc silicate often corrosion the concrete or epoxy, re-emerges anodes,

and spalling from around

of the concrete. the affected new concrete. time reinforcing While this bars, cleaning method gives in " '
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the bars, coating

and placing within attached

improvement, the patch.

a short

in the peripheral

areas sureffective

Provision

of the zinc strip

to the end of each bar, appears

:;

Underwater Repairs

525

preventingthe spreadof the corrosion.Corrosionbelow water is rare,due to the low oxygenconcentration in seawater and the limitation of the chloride ions.to those in seawater. corrosion doesoccur,sacrificial If anodecathodic protection is effective,practicable,and economical. Impressedcurrent cathodic protection is effectivebut only if it is properly monitored and regulated. Experiencehas shown that in actual p!actice theseprovisions are not consistentlyimplemented over a \, long period of time. Chemical inhibition of corrosion by calcium nitrite is being developedas a means of slowing corrosion if caught at an early age.It is most effectivein permeableconcrete.However,marine and offshore concreteshould be, and usually is, designedand constru~tedfor impermeability, hencethis systemhas limited applicability.

18.4.3 Freeze-Thaw Attack

This is especiallyseverein northern and sub-Arctic zoneswhere freezing weather combineswith high tidal rangesand seawater. Thus two cyclesper day of freezing and thawing occur, along with saturation. The results are rapid and progressive disintegration of the concretesurfaces. Epoxiescontaining tiny glasssphereswere used to insulate concretepiling in the LNG Terminal at f::ovePoint, Maryland. Timber sheathinghas been used on the coastof Sweden. Thesemeasures not do repair the damage,but only stop further disintegration. For above-waterconcrete,removal and reconstruction of the surfaceby concrete-containingair-entrainment is a suitable repair.

18.4.4 Chemical Disintegration

In fresh water, sulfate attack can causeexpansionof unsound aggregates. Fortunately, the presenceof chlorides in seawaterand the generally high cement mixes prevent this from attack in most marine structures.However,alkali-reactivity betweencement and aggregates causedelayedcracking due to can expansion. The addition of silicato the original miX preventsthis but obviously cannot be done to existing structures.The rate of reaction dependson moisture content, so that submergedunder water, it can be a serious long-term problem. The expansion can be restrained, if caught early enough, by external confinement, e.g.,sleevingof piles or wrapping by carbon fiber.

18.5 Repairs to Foundations

The foundations of offshore structures are an integral part of the systemthat resist the environmental forcesand support the operating loads. Hence,they must be maintained in their design condition. Scour around jacket-type structuresis of two types. Of is an arealscour,which lowers the seafloorin a dish-like shape.The remedy here is to dump or chute in rock which will havetwo characteristics: 1. It is small enough so that it will not work its way down into the soil. 2. It is large enough so that it will not scour under currents and wave-inducedforces. A permeablematerial is required in order to prevent trapping wave-inducedpore pressureswhich can promote scour. The aboverequirementscan be met with a two-layeredsystem,consistingof small rock or gravel,the other of large rock, but this is very difficult and cosdy to place around and betweenthe legs of a jacket at greatdepths.A singleblended placementof rock is more effective,requiring more quantity of material but enablingplacementin one operation.Another effectiveschemefor scour prevention is to replacethe small rock by a filter fabric and then cover it with larger rock. The filter fabric can best be assembled in two layers,sewntogether.One layer is a fine mesh to prevent sandmigration; the other is a coarsemesh of heavypolypropylene, reinforced with stainlesssteelwire. Mattresses be made up of reinforced filter fabric with concreteblocks attached.They can then be can lowered into place,using a steelframe. Mattresses filled with fine and coarsegravelhave also been used. Still another systememploys an integral filter fabric to which multiple closelyspacedneoprenebagsare affixed.After placement,the bagsare pumped full of grout.

""""'~..

526

.,:;

Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures

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The other type of scour is a localized erosion around individual legs.This is often accompaniedby gapsforming around the head of the pile asit deflectsunder lateral loads.Here the placementof a mound of small rock (e.g.,pea gravel) has proved to be very effectivein the claysof the Gulf of Mexico. A gasblowout under a platform can lead not only to cratering but also to a generalloss of support for .the piles. T~ restorethe capacity and saf~tyof the foundation after such an event usually in~olvesa major effort. First, the crater can be filled with small rock or coarsesand placedthrough a treffile tube. Then both the newly placedmaterial and the adjoining sedimentsmust be consolidated,sincethe entire
zone will probably have been significantly loosened by the escaping gas. The consolidation has to be

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approachedwith great care, since the resultant settlement of the upper soils may lead to distortion of
the structure. For that reason, densification by shock (dynamic compaction) or vibration may not be
I

suitable. Placementof an extensiveblanket of rock may be safer,with careful monitoring of both soils and structure at frequent intervals. When, due t.o accid~nt or bl~,:out, the pile capacity.has been r.educed,. insert piles can be installed j through the pnmary piles and Jomedto them by grouting. Thesemsert piles are extendedbeyond the tips of the primary piles by drilling to obtain additional bearing and friction load transfer for axial loads. Insert piles, properly grouted, will also stiffen the pil~es henceimprove their capacityto resistlateral and loads. As an alternative to a drilled and grouted insert pile, a belled footing may be constructedusing a belling tool. This solution may be preferablein stratified soils or where skin friction transfer is uncertain. Because overhangof the deck will probably limit the accessibility, the requiring the insert pile to be , assembledin short lengths and preventing the use of a hammer, a riser can be installed and reverse circulation drilling alongwith a slurry, is employed.Oncethe hole is drilled, the insert pile can be lowered to position, using either welded joints or mechanicalconnectors.Then grout can be injected into the annulus, bonding the insert pile to the soil and to the primary pile. The above assumesthat geotechnicalinvestigations show adequatesoil at the greater depths. Se~ Chapter 8 for more details on drilled and grouted insert piles and belled piles. On two of the early concretestructures in the North Sea,after the platform was installed, drilling was commencedin order to install the conductors.As the drills penetrated the temporary closuresof the concretebaseslab,with the water levelin the drilling shaftbeing lower than sealevel,substantialquantities of foundation sand rushed up into the drilling shaft, leaving a void of severalhundred cubic meters below. Some "piping" even led in from the outside perimeter due to the differencein heads.To repair and fill this void, an underbasegrout mix having a low heat of hydration was flowed in under the slao, working in severalstages ensurecomplete fill. The zone on the periphery which had been disturbed to by the "piping" wasfilled with small rock. Subsequent behavior of the platform, over a period of 25 years~ has been entirely satisfactory. To prevent this adverse phenomenon on future platforms, water levelsin the drilling shaft are required to be equalized, especiallyduring conductor installation. Steel skirts, surrouriding and isolating the drilling compartments,are built into the baseslab design.

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Fire is, of course,one of the most dreadedeventson an offshore platform, and extensivemeasuresare taken to prevent it. In somemore recent structures,fire-protective insulation is placedaround principal structural members of the module support frame, and tubular members of this frame are sometime~ filled with water. Of course, extensivespray and deluge fire systemsare also provided on deck and i~ utility shafts. When structural members have been subject to overheating and distortion due to fire, a comple~~ evaluation and analysismust be made. While in extreme casesa member may have to be cut out aI1;q replaced;in others it may be practicableto reinforce it internally or externally to restoreits capacity.Fire in one of the shaftsof a concreteplatform, in addition to damaging the exposedsteelmembers insider may causespalling of the inside of the shaft walls. In most cases, heavysandblasting,then placementof wire mesh properly anchoredto the existing concrete,followed by shotcrete,will prove adequate.~

Underwater Repairs

527

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FIGURE 18.7.1 Wet-weldingrepairsto damagedpipelines.(Courtesyof Plidco.)

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,:18.7

Pipeline

Repairs

(1i . ~p Chapter 15, repairs to pipelines damagedduring installation were described.Theseincluded the use 9 a hyperbaric chamber lowered down over the line, enabling cutout and replacementin the dry. Wet welding as a meansof repair is still under development.SeeFigure 18.7.1.Satisfactorywelds have peen made in many cases, their overall reliability is still not fully proved. Friction welding appears but t9 be a promising method. Sincerotating existing pipes is not possible,a small pup is placed between two cut ends.Friction sleeves affixed to the ends of the existing pipes so that jacks may draw them are together.The pup is then rotated at high speed.The disadvantage friction welds is that they develop of jpternal ridges which may prevent passage a pig. Wet-welding in hyperbaric chambers has been of successfullycarried out offshore Brazil at 300 m depth. Mild steel-welding electrodeswere used on c~+bpn-manganese steelpipe, while nickel-welding electrodeswere used on high-strength, high-carbon ~quivalentsteel: In relatively shallow water,pipelines may be raised to the surfacefqr repair. The methods and precau:tjonsrequired are discussed Chapter 15. in
;)

Pipelines service oftendamaged droppedor dragged in are by anchors, sometimes commercial by or

,n;1,val shipping, but most often from derrick bargesand workboatsworking in the samearea.Trawl boards gom fishing vessels may damagethe coating or eventhe pipe, although usually it is the lines to the board \yhich break, resulting in its loss and a claim by the fishing boat. The damageto pipelines may rangefrom concreteweight coatingbeing broken off, to dents,to holing, '. ,..tic;f'~i~"Md to the line being ruptured and the ends draggedapart. Leakage even will usually be detectedby the 'r ~[[p:;;,i,l;very sensitive pressure differentials employed in monitoring pipeline operation or by sheensof oil ""c, .', I I on ~e surface.Exac~ locations canusuallybe found by acousticmeans, hydrocarbon sensors, by
c
"

'c,~c'i,'9~ by Internal Instrumented P!gs.

11:"!!i'iji';ia r

Side-scan sonar can be employedto determine grosspositions of the line and segments. Then divers, "i!;;c,r,'cwanned submersibles, orROV s equipped with video can be employedto give detailed information. Pigs c ", ""c,'" "t' ' cic").;ci,j;) may be run to isolate the damagedsite. Hydrotech Systems, aided by Control Data, Inc., has developed

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528

Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures

FIGURE 18.7.2 Repairing damaged a pipeline.(Courtesy Plidco.) of directional and can be run for severalhundred kilometers, being remotely controlled and monitored from a surfacevesselby external communication through the pipe wall. This was successfully employed on the 34-in. (800-mm) Teesideoil pipeline, enabling retention of the products in the pipeline and continued operation of the remaining downstreamportion of the pipeline. The coatings must first be removed from the damaged area, using a high-pressure water jet, an underwater concretesaw or grinder, and cutters for the mesh. Once cleaned,the damagedareamust be carefully profiled and a determination made regarding"cutouC' Sometimes damagedsection can be the cut out and an external sleeveslipped over the gap. In other cases, pup will be more suitable. a When the rupture is a caseof cracking or splitting, external split sleeves may be adequate.Tightly torqued together and with sealwelding at the ends, sometimesaugmentedby epoxy injection, the line may be restoredto full service.SeeFigure 18.7.2. Using a sleevesecuredto the pipeline with thrust screws,wet-welding techniqueswere employed to repair a 36-in. submarine line in the Mediterranean.A number of other systemsapplicableto shallow water havebeen describedin Chapter.is. Theseinclude the use of a hyperbaric chamber ("dry habitat") pressurizedto permit welds to be made in the dry. Specialgasses must be usedso that the quality of the weld is not affectedadversely. Figure 18.7.3.Continued advances the developmentof hyperbaric See in chambershas extendedtheir effective depth. A number of systemshave been developedin recent yearsto enablepipeline repairs to be made at greater depths and, in many cases, without the need to waterflood the line. In one system,the line is repressurizedand a small hole is drilled just beyond each end of the damagedsection. Inflatable plugs are inserted through the holes and inflated. The gap is now testedto verify that the sealsare tight; then the damagedsection is cut out. A new pup is inserted,using divers trained for hyperbaric welding. Once completed,the plugs are removed by pigging. Deep-waterflow lines havebeen cut by shapedcharges placedby ROV,then lifted by frames attached by the ROV for repair and relaying. SNAM is developinga systemknown asSASfor deep-watersubmarinepipeline repairs.It consistsof five modules:a thruster module which containspower,sensing,and transportation components;a dredge module; a pipe preparation module; a spool-cutter module; and a pantographer module. This last measuresthe exact length and configuration for the new spool piece. Various types of mechanical connectorsare under development.Theseinclude cold-forging tools such as those being developedby Cameron Iron Works and Big Inch Marine.
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Underwater Repairs

Inflated Buoys

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. - -- -FIGURE 18.7.3 Pipe repair operation for deep-waterhyperbaric operations.(Courtesyof Comex.)

Break, break, break, On thy cold grey stones,0 sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. Alfred) Lord Tennyson) "Break) Break) Break')