Data and Signals Data must be transformed to electronic signals (why?

)
Analog data: Continuous information, e.g., voice has a value at any time. Analog clock have values at any time! Digital data: Discrete state information. e.g., digital clock. Analog signal: They have infinitely many levels over a period of time. Digital signals: They have limited number of defined values. Periodic Signals: Repeat a pattern every measurable time frame, period or cycle. (most used for analog signals) Non-Periodic (Aperiodic) Signals: No pattern or cycle. (most used for digital signals)

Figure 3.1

Comparison of analog and digital signals

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Periodic Analog Signals

Figure 3.2 A sine wave

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Frequency (f) = 1/T and T = 1/f Phase: It is the position of waveform relative to time = 0. Ex: The sine phase is 0, where as the cos phase = /2
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

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Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

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Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

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Wave length: It relates the frequency / period of a signal to its propagation speed in the medium. In case of light over fiber:

=c/f

c = propagation speed of light signal. f = frequency of light signal. = Wave length of light signal.

Time vs. Frequency domain:

The amplitude values are plotted versus time in case of time domain signals.
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

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The amplitude is shown for each frequency component of a signal in the frequency domain. The above sin(6t) has one frequency of 6 Hz, with 5 volt peak amplitude.
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

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Composite Signals: Every composite signal is made of many sine waves of different amps, freqs, phases. (Fourier analysis) A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a number of signals with discrete frequencies in the frequency domain. Whereas, a non-periodic composite signal is a group of sine waves with continuous frequencies in the frequency domain.
Figure 3.9
A composite periodic signal

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Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and

frequency domains

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Whereas, a non-periodic composite signal is a group of sine waves with continuous frequencies in the frequency domain.

Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

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Band width: (non/composite signals). Refer fig 3.12

BWcs = fh fl

Hz

Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

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Transmission Impairment
Causes:
1) Attenuation: Loss of energy as a function of the signal traveling distance and its power. Decibel: Unit measure of signals power loss or gain Power units dB = 10 log10 (Pdest/Psrc) Pdest: Signal Power at destination Psrc: Signal power at source 2) Distortion: Signal changes in form / shape. Composite signal components have different propagation speed through the medium; hence destination arrivals delays/phase shifts causing incorrect receiving of the original signal at the destination. 3) Noise: i) Thermal (white) caused by elections random movement in the medium (extra superimposed signals) ii) Induced: Caused by appliances acting as a sending antenna with medium as receiving one iii) Crosstalk: Mutual affect between wires acting as sending/ receiving antenna iv) Impulse: caused by a power lines, lightning shaped as a spike (high frequency on very short time) Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): SNR = avg. signal power / avg. noise power SNR plays a profound role in deciding the bit rate limit (max). It is always desirable to have it high (lower noise than signal power) for good reception of signals passing through noisy environment (low quality channel). It is measured (and always given) in decibel units (powers ratio) dB

SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

Digital Signals
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

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Bit Rate: non-periodic digital signals are the most used in digital data transfer, hence period or frequency are not used, instead we use Bit rate which is the number of bits Tx per sec. Bit length = propagation speed * bit duration (distance one bit occupies on the Tx medium) Bit interval: Time to Tx a bit = 1/bit rate = s/b Baud rate: Number of distinct changes (in signal) over the medium per sec

Bit rate = Baud rate X number of bits per a signal change In binary signals encoding, bit rate = baud rate (why?)

Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

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Transmission of Digital Signals:

1) Baseband (digital/encoding): We use low-pass channel with its BW starting from 0 (i.e., flow = 0), since we are Tx digital signal.
Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

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Since a digital signal is a composite of (infinite) analog signal with infinite BW, the idle case is to have low-pass channel with infinite bandwidth (not in real life!) that must start from frequency component zero in the spectrum.

Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

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Yet, we can still send only the signals frequency components with significant amplitudes within some acceptable threshold for minimum distortion and receive a reasonably acceptable digital signal at the receiver. As the bit rate increases, the signal significant BW (BWss) increases, hence we need a wider medium low-pass wider BW (BWm) For safe digital signal reception: BWm >= BWss

Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

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Figure 3.21 Rough approximation of a digital signal using the first harmonic
for worst case

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Figure 3.22 Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

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2) Broadband (analog/modulation): Digital signal analog signal

Figure 3.23 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

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If the available channel is a bandpass, i.e., the channel lower bound freq., flow, can be any non zero value, we need to convert our digital signal to analog signal (modulation process)-- Why?.
Figure 3.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

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Since we are modulating our digital data into analog signals (sin wave carriers with different amplitude/frequencies/phases) we need not to

start from the zero in the spectrum, but anywhere we select our carrier frequency (no need to have infinite number of frequency components), hence band-pass channel instead of low-pass as in the case of baseband digital Tx. Signal to Noise Ratio (given in dB always): SNRdB = 10log10 SNR where to convert to watts: SNRwatt = Signal power watt / Noise power watt (SNR /10) = 10 dB Noise Free channel: Nyquist Capacity (max channel bit rate) Max Bit Rate CNyq = 2 BWch * log2 L -----------(1) Where L is the number of signal levels Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity Max Bit Rate CShan = BWch log2 (1 + SNRwatt) ---(2)
Both limits are important CNyq to decide the encoding bit/level and CShan for the actual noisy environment limitation. In case of noisy channel, obtaining CShan from
(2) and plugging it in lhs of (1) will guide us in the practical and correct choice of encoding (bit/level). Otherwise, if we made a wrong choice of encoding (not following the above) , then we might end up with an upper bound CNyq that is much lower than a valid CShan.

Example: What is the max bit-rate capacity of a 4000 Hz binary channel (2 levels encoding) has a SNR of 30 dB? CNyq = 2*4000 * log2 2 = 8000 b/s

CShan = 4000 * log2 (1+ 10(30/10)) = 4000 * 9.9672 39869 b/s Even though, the CShan is much higher than the CNyq , yet we are forced to the
lowest value of the two obtained capacities (i.e., 8000 b/s), as a result of bad encoding decision of only two levels!

Performance of Networks
1) Throughput: The actual speed of data traveling a link (notice, the BW of a link is its potential speed)

Throughput (T) <= BW

Example: bad encoding might waste BW in case of Ethernet ME. Therefore TME < BW 2) Delay (Latency): L = propagation + Tx + queuing + processing Propagation delay = Distance (m) / propagation speed (m/s) Tx delay = message size (bit) / data-rate (bit/sec) 3) Jitter: Packets of data will encounter different delays. (not very good for real time multimedia applications!)