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1
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Range of magn|tudes of quant|t|es |n our
un|verse
Physics seeks to explain the universe itself, from the very large to the very
small. At the large end, the size of the visible universe is thought to be around
10
25
m, and the age of the universe some 10
18
s. The total mass of the universe is
estimated to be 10
50
kg.
The reaIm of physics 1.1
AssessmehI sIaIemehIs
!.!.! Slale and compare quanlilies lo lhe nearesl order ol magnilude.
!.!.2 Slale lhe ranges ol magnilude ol dislances, masses and limes lhal
occur in lhe universe, lrom lhe smallesl lo lhe largesl.
!.!.3 Slale ralios ol quanlilies as dillerenl orders ol magnilude.
!.!.4 Lslimale approximale values ol everyday quanlilies lo one or lwo
signilcanl lgures and/or lo lhe nearesl order ol magnilude.
|c. Jc .o krc. .|| t||s |s t.uo`
\|.t || t|o.o |s nc.o t|.r cro
ur|vo.so`
A p|.rot ..s .ocort|y J|sccvo.oJ |r
t|o ccrsto||.t|cr ||b.. (.bcut 20 ||g|t
yo..s |.cn |..t|) t|.t |.s .|| t|o .|g|t
ccrJ|t|crs tc suppc.t .||or |||o ||s
..t|sts |np.oss|cr s|c.s us |c. |t
n|g|t |cck
2
1IZTJDTBOEQIZTJDBMNFBTVSFNFOU 1
|ost n.ss |s t|o n.ss c| . p..t|c|o
.|or .t .ost, t|o n.ss |rc.o.sos ||
t|o p..t|c|o ncvos |.st orcug|
|| .o c.r sp||t .r .tcn .|y c.rt
.o sp||t .r o|oct.cr`
The diameter of an atom is about 10
10
m, and of a nucleus 10
15
m. The smallest
particles may be the quarks, probably less than 10
18
m in size, but there is a much
smaller fundamental unit of length, called the Planck length, which is around 10
35
m.
There are good reasons for believing that this is a lower limit for length, and we
accept the speed of light in a vacuum to be an upper limit for speed (3 10
8
ms
1
).
This enables us to calculate an approximate theoretical lower limit for time:
time =
distance

_______

speed

=
10
35
m

________

10
8
ms
1
= 10
43
s.
If the quarks are truly fundamental, then their mass would give us a lower limit.
Quarks hide themselves inside protons and neutrons so it is not easy to measure
them. Our best guess is that the mass of the lightest quark, called the UPQUARK, is
around 10
30
kg, and this is also the approximate rest mass of the electron.
You need to be able to state ratios of quantities as differences of orders of magnitude.
For example, the approximate ratio of the diameter of an atom to its nucleus is:

10
10
m

_______

10
15
m
= 10
5
10
5
is known as a difference of fve orders of magnitude.
Scno p|ys|c|sts t||rk t|.t t|o.o ..o
st||| urJ|sccvo.oJ p..t|c|os .|cso
s|.o |s ..curJ t|o ||.rck |orgt|
\|.t ..o t|o .o.scrs |c. t|o.o
bo|rg . |c.o. ||n|t |c. |orgt|`
\|y s|cu|J t|o.o bo . |c.o. ||n|t
|c. t|no`
|.cJuct|cr .rJ Joc.y c| bcttcn ,u..ks
|o.o ..o s|x typos c| ,u..ks c.||oJ VQ,
EPXO, DIBSN, TUSBOHF, UPQ .rJ CPUUPN
Figure 1.1 |o ox.ct pcs|t|cr c|
o|oct.crs |r .r .tcn |s urco.t.|r, .o
c.r cr|y s.y .|o.o t|o.o |s . ||g|
p.cb.b|||ty c| |rJ|rg t|on
3
This is not a small ratio; it means that if the atom were as big as a football pitch,
then the nucleus would be about the size of a pea on the centre circle. This implies
that most of the atoms of all matter consist of entirely empty space.
Another example is that the ratio of the rest mass of the proton to the rest mass of
the electron is of the order:

1.67 10
27
kg

_____________

9.11 10
31
kg
2 10
3
You should be able to do these estimations without using a calculator.
You also need to be able to estimate approximate values of everyday quantities to
one or two signifcant fgures.
For example, estimate the answers to the following:
How high is a two-storey house in metres:
What is the diameter of the pupil of your eye:
How many times does your heart beat in an hour when you are relaxed:
What is the weight of an apple in newtons:
What is the mass of the air in your bedroom:
What pressure do you exert on the ground when standing on one foot:
There is help with these estimates at the end of the chapter.
Measurement and uncertainties 1.2
!.2.! Slale lhe lundamenlal unils in lhe Sl syslem.
!.2.2 Dislinguish belween lundamenlal and derived unils and give
examples ol derived unils.
!.2.3 Converl belween dillerenl unils ol quanlilies.
!.2.4 Slale unils in lhe accepled Sl lormal.
!.2.5 Slale values in scienlilc nolalion and in mulliples ol unils wilh
appropriale prelxes.
!.2.6 Describe and give examples ol random and syslemalic errors.
!.2.7 Dislinguish belween precision and accuracy.
!.2.8 Lxplain how lhe ellecls ol random errors may be reduced.
!.2.9 Calculale quanlilies and resulls ol calculalions lo lhe appropriale
number ol signilcanl lgures.
!.2.!0 Slale uncerlainlies as absolule, lraclional and percenlage uncerlainlies.
!.2.!! Delermine lhe uncerlainlies in resulls.
!.2.!2 ldenlily uncerlainlies as error bars in graphs.
!.2.!3 Slale random uncerlainly as an uncerlainly range () and represenl il
graphically as an 'error bar'.
!.2.!4 Delermine lhe uncerlainlies in lhe slope and inlercepls ol a slraighl
line graph.
1 |o J|.noto. c| . p.ctcr |s c| t|o c.Jo. c| n.gr|tuJo c|
A 10
12
n b 10
15
n 10
18
n | 10
21
n
Exerc|se
|| ncst c| t|o .tcn |s onpty sp.co
.|y Jcos stu| |oo| sc sc||J`
4
The SI system of fundamenta| and der|ved un|ts
If you want to measure something, you have to use a unit. For example, it is useless
to say that a person`s mass is 10, 60, 140 or 600 if we do not know whether it is
measured in kilograms or some other unit such as stones or pounds. In the old
days, units were rather random; your mass might be measured in stones, but your
height would not be measured in sticks, but in feet.
Soon after the French Revolution, the International System of units was developed.
They are called the SI units because SI stands for Systme International.
There are seven base, or fundamental, SI units and they are listed in the table
below.
Name Symbol CohcepI
melre or meler m lenglh
kilogram kg mass
second s second
ampere A eleclric currenl
kelvin K lemperalure
mole mol amounl ol maller
candela cd inlensily ol lighl
Mechanics is the study of matter, motion, forces and energy. With combinations
of the frst three base units (metre, kilogram and second), we can develop all the
other units of mechanics.
density =
mass

_______

volume
kg m
3
speed =
distance

_______

time
m s
1
As the concepts become more complex, we give them new units. The derived SI
units you will need to know are as follows:
Name Symbol CohcepI
8rokeh dowh ihIo
base SI uhiIs
newlon N lorce or weighl kg m s
2
joule J energy or work kg m
2
s
2
wall W power kg m
2
s
3
pascal Pa pressure kg m
!
s
2
herlz Hz lrequency s
!
coulomb C eleclric charge As
voll V polenlial dillerence kg m
2
s
3
A
!
ohm U resislance kg m
2
s
3
A
2
lesla T magnelic leld slrenglh kg s
2
A
!
weber Wb magnelic lux kg m
2
s
2
A
!
becquerel 8q radioaclivily s
!
Scno pocp|o t||rk t|o |cct ..s
b.soJ cr, c. Jo|roJ by, t|o |orgt|
c| t|o |cct c| .r |rg||s| k|rg, but |t
c.r bo t..coJ b.ck tc t|o .rc|ort
|gypt|.rs
|o syston c| ur|ts .o rc. c.|| S|
..s c.|g|r.||y Jovo|cpoJ cr t|o
c.Jo.s c| ||rg |cu|s `\| c| |..rco
|o ur|t |c. |orgt| ..s Jo|roJ
|r to.ns c| t|o J|st.rco |.cn t|o
o,u.tc. tc t|o pc|o, t||s J|st.rco
..s J|v|JoJ |rtc 10 000 o,u.| p..ts
.rJ t|oso .o.o c.||oJ k||cnot.os
|o ur|t |c. n.ss ..s Jo|roJ |r
to.ns c| pu.o ..to. .t . co.t.|r
tonpo..tu.o, cro ||t.o (c. 1000 cn
3
)
|.s . n.ss c| ox.ct|y cro k||cg..n
|ut .rct|o. ..y, 1 cn
3
c| ..to.
|.s . n.ss c| ox.ct|y 1 g..n
|o ur|ts c| t|no gc b.ck tc t|o
.rc|orts, .rJ t|o soccrJ ..s
s|np|y .ccoptoJ .s . |..ct|cr
c| . sc|.. J.y |o b.so ur|t |c.
o|oct.|c|ty, t|o .npo.o, |s Jo|roJ
|r to.ns c| t|o |c.co bot.oor t.c
cu..ortc...y|rg .|.os .rJ t|o ur|t
|c. tonpo..tu.o, t|o ko|v|r, ccnos
|.cn .r o..||o. sc.|o Jovo|cpoJ by
. S.oJ|s| n.r c.||oJ o|s|us
5
Worked exampIes
1 Give units for the following expressed as (i) the derived unit (ii) base SI units:
(a) force
(b) kinetic energy.
2 Check if these equations work by substituting units into them.
(a) power = work/time or energy/time
(b) power = force velocity
4PMVUJPOT
1 (a) (i) N (ii) kg (m s
2
) or kg m s
2

(b) (i) J (ii) kg (m s
1
)
2
or kg m
2
s
2

2 (a) W : J/s or W : (kg m
2
s
2
)/s or W : kg m
2
s
3
(b) W : N (m s
1
) or W : (kg m s
2
) (m s
1
) or W : kg m
2
s
3
In addition to the above, there are also a few important units that are not
technically SI, including:
Name Symbol CohcepI
lilre l volume
minule, hour, year, elc. min, h, y, elc. lime
kilowall-hour kWh energy
eleclronvoll eV energy
degrees celsius C lemperalure
decibel d8 loudness
uniled alomic mass unil u mass ol nucleon
xaminer's hint:
|c.co = n.ss .cco|o..t|cr
xaminer's hint:
k|rot|c oro.gy =
1

_

2
nv
2
2 \||c| one c| t|o |c||c.|rg ur|ts |s . ur|t c| oro.gy`
A o\ b \ s
1
\ n
1
| | n s
1
3 \||c| one c| t|o |c||c.|rg ||sts . Jo.|voJ ur|t .rJ . |urJ.nort.| ur|t`
A .npo.o soccrJ
b ccu|cnb k||cg..n
ccu|cnb ro.tcr
| not.o k||cg..n
Exerc|ses
6
Worked exampIe
Convert these units to SI:.
(a) year (b) C (c) kWh (d) eV
4PMVUJPO
(a) 1 year = 1 365 days 24 hours 60 minutes 60 seconds
3.15 10
7
s
(b) Here are some common conversions:
0 K = 273 C
273 K = 0 C
300 K = 27 C
373 K = 100 C
(c) 1 kWh (energy) = 1000 W (power) 3600 s (time)
= 3 600 000 J
= 3.6 10
6
J
(d) electrical energy = electric charge potential difference
1 eV = 1.6 10
19
C 1 V
= 1.6 10
19
J
The SI units can be modifed by the use of prefxes such as MILLI as in millimetre
(mm) and KILO as in kilometre (km). The number conversions on the prefxes are
always the same; MILLI always means one thousandth or 10
3
and KILO always means
one thousand or 10
3
.
These are the most common SI prefxes:
Prex AbbreviaIion VaIue
lera T !0
!2
giga C !0
9
mega M !0
6
kilo k !0
3
cenli c !0
2
milli m !0
3
micro !0
6
nano n !0
9
pico p !0
!2
lemlo l !0
!5
xaminer's hint: c c|.rgo k||c..tt
|cu.s tc cu|os |rvc|vos us|rg t|o
o,u.t|cr
oro.gy = pc.o. t|no
1 k\ = 1000 \
.rJ 1 |cu. = 60 60 soccrJs
xaminer's hint: |o o|oct.crvc|t
|s Jo|roJ .s t|o oro.gy g.|roJ by .r
o|oct.cr .cco|o..toJ t|.cug| . pctort|.|
J||o.orco c| cro vc|t Sc t|o o|oct.crvc|t
|s o,u.| tc t|o c|..go cr .r o|oct.cr
nu|t|p||oJ by cro vc|t
4 |.rgo 2 360 000 ' tc sc|ort||c rct.t|cr .rJ tc V '
5 A pcpu|.. ..J|c st.t|cr |.s . |.o,uorcy c| 1 090 000 |. |.rgo t||s tc sc|ort||c rct.t|cr .rJ tc V|.
6 |o .vo..go ..vo|orgt| c| .||to ||g|t |s 50 10
n \|.t .cu|J t||s bo |r r.rcnot.os`

7 |o t|no t.kor |c. ||g|t tc c.css . .ccn |s .bcut 1 10
8
soccrJs |.rgo t||s |rtc
n|c.csoccrJs
Exerc|ses
xaminer's hint: |o s|.o c| cro
Jog.oo o|s|us |s t|o s.no .s cro |o|v|r
t|o J||o.orco |s .|o.o t|oy st..t, c. t|o
.o.c pc|rt |o ccrvo.s|cr |rvc|vos .JJ|rg
c. subt..ct|rg 23 S|rco .bsc|uto .o.c c.
0 | |s o,u.| tc 23 , tonpo..tu.o |r
= tonpo..tu.o |r | 23
7
Uncerta|nty and error |n measurement
Even when we try to measure things very accurately, it is never possible to be
absolutely certain that the measurement is perfect.
The errors that occur in measurement can be divided into two types, RANDOM and
SYSTEMATIC. If readings of a measurement are above and below the true value with
equal probability, then the errors are random. Usually random errors are caused
by the person making the measurement; for example, the error due to a person`s
reaction time is a random error.
Systematic errors are due to the system or apparatus being used. Systematic errors
can often be detected by repeating the measurement using a different method
or different apparatus and comparing the results. A zero offset, an instrument
not reading exactly zero at the beginning of the experiment, is an example of a
systematic error. You will learn more about errors as you do your practical work in
the laboratory.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the measurement many times and
taking the average, but this process will not affect systematic errors. When you
write up your practical work you need to discuss the errors that have occurred in
the experiment. For example: 7HATDIFFERENCEDIDFRICTIONANDAIRRESISTANCEMAKE
(OWACCURATEWERETHEMEASUREMENTSOFLENGTHMASSANDTIME7ERETHEERRORS
RANDOMORSYSTEMATIC
Another distinction in measuring things is between PRECISION and ACCURACY.
Imagine a game of darts where a person has three attempts to hit the bull`s-eye.
If all three darts hit the double twenty, then it was a precise attempt, but not
accurate. If the three darts are evenly spaced just outside and around the bull`s-eye,
then the throw was accurate, but not precise enough. If the darts all miss the board
entirely then the throw was neither precise nor accurate. Only if all three darts hit
the bull`s-eye can the throws be described as both precise and accurate!
\|.t ccrJ|t|crs .cu|J bo
rocoss..y tc or.b|o scnot||rg tc
bo no.su.oJ .|t| tct.| .ccu..cy`
Figure 1.2 A|| t|o p|.yo.s t.y tc ||t
t|o bu||s oyo .|t| t|o|. t|.oo J..ts, but
cr|y t|o |.st .osu|t |s bct| p.oc|so .rJ
.ccu..to
20
5
1
2
9
1
4
1
1
8
1
6
7
1
9
3 1
7
2
1
5
1
0
6
1
3
4
1
8
1
20
5
1
2
9
1
4
1
1
8
1
6
7
1
9
3 1
7
2
1
5
1
0
6
1
3
4
1
8
1
20
5
1
2
9
1
4
1
1
8
1
6
7
1
9
3 1
7
2
1
5
1
0
6
1
3
4
1
8
1
20
5
1
2
9
1
4
1
1
8
1
6
7
1
9
3 1
7
2
1
5
1
0
6
1
3
4
1
8
1
preclse,
not accurate
nelther preclse
nor accurate
accurate,
not preclse
both accurate
and preclse
S
It is the same with measurements; they can be precise, accurate, neither or both. If
there have been a large number of measurements made of a particular quantity, we
can show these four possibilities on graphs like this:
Signihcant hgures
When measuring something, in addition to a unit, it is important to think about
the number of signifcant fgures or digits we are going to use.
For example, when measuring the width and length of a piece of A4 paper with a
30 cm ruler, what sort of results would be sensible:
MeasuremehIs (cm)
Number o!
sighi!cahI !gures
Sehsible?
2! 30 ! 2 yes
2!.0 29.7 0.! 3 maybe
2!.03 29.68 0.0! 4 no
With a 30 cm ruler it is not possible to guarantee a measurement of 0.01 cm or
0.1 mm so these numbers are not signifcant.
This is what the above measurements of width would tell us:
MeasuremehIs (cm) Number o!
sighi!cahI !gures
Value probably
beIweeh (cm)
2! ! 2 2022
2!.0 0.! 3 20.92!.!
2!.03 0.0! 4 2!.022!.04
The number of signifcant fgures in any answer or result should not be more than
that of the least precise value that has been used in the calculation.
tec|se out
not occutote
true value of
measured quantlty
number of
readlngs
number of
readlngs
number of
readlngs
number of
readlngs
occutote out
not tec|se
true value
ne|thet occutote
not tec|se
true value
occutote onJ tec|se
true value
Figure 1.3 |o.o |s .rct|o. ..y c|
|cck|rg .t t|o J||o.orco bot.oor
p.oc|s|cr .rJ .ccu..cy, s|c.|rg t|o
J|st.|but|cr c| . |..go runbo. c|
no.su.onorts c| t|o s.no ,u.rt|ty
..curJ t|o cc..oct v.|uo c| t|o
,u.rt|ty
|| ycu ..o Josc.|b|rg . po.scr
ycu |.vo ust not tc ycu. bost
|.|orJ, .||c| |s nc.o |npc.t.rt
.ccu..cy, p.oc|s|cr c. scno ct|o.
,u.||ty`
9
Worked exampIe
Calculate the area of a piece of A4 paper, dimensions 21 cm 29.7 cm. Give your
answer to the appropriate number of signifcant fgures.
4PMVUJPO
21 29.7 = 623.7
Area = 620 cm
2
= 6.2 10
2
cm
2
Uncerta|nt|es |n ca|cu|ated resu|ts
If we use a stopwatch to measure the time taken for a ball to fall a short distance,
there will inevitably be errors or uncertainties due to reaction time. For example, if
the measured time is 1.0 s, then the uncertainty could reasonably be 0.1 s. Here
the uncertainty, or plus or minus value, is called an ABSOLUTEUNCERTAINTY. Absolute
uncertainties have a magnitude, or size, and a unit as appropriate.
There are two other ways we could show this uncertainty, either as a fraction or as
a percentage. As a fraction, an uncertainty of 0.1 s in 1.0 s would be
1

__

10
and as a
percentage it would be 10%.
These uncertainties increase if the measurements are combined in calculations or
through equations. In an experiment to fnd the acceleration due to gravity, the
errors measuring both time and distance would infuence the fnal result.
If the measurements are to be combined by addition or subtraction, then the
easiest way is to add absolute uncertainties. If the measurements are to be
combined using multiplication, division or by using powers like X
2
, then the best
method is to add percentage uncertainties. If there is a square root relationship,
then the percentage uncertainty is halved.
Uncerta|nt|es |n graphs
When you hand in your lab reports, you must always show uncertainty values
at the top of your data tables as a sensible value. On your graphs, these are
represented as ERRORBARS. The error bars must be drawn so that their length on
the scale of the graph is the same as the uncertainty in the data table. Error bars
can be on either or both axes, depending on how accurate the measurements are.
The best-ft line must pass through all the error bars. If it does not pass through
a point, then that point is called an outlier and this should be discussed in the
evaluation of the experiment.
xaminer's hint: |o |o.st p.oc|so
|rput v.|uo, 21 cn, cr|y |.s 2 s|gr||c.rt
|gu.os
xaminer's hint: boc.uso .o ..o
us|rg sc|ort||c rct.t|cr, t|o.o |s rc
Jcubt t|.t .o ..o g|v|rg t|o ..o. tc 2
s|gr||c.rt |gu.os
8 \|or . vc|t.go 7 c| 122 \ |s .pp||oJ tc . | nctc., t|o cu..ort l |r t|o nctc. |s 020 A \||c|
one c| t|o |c||c.|rg |s t|o cutput pc.o. 7* c| t|o nctc. g|vor tc t|o cc..oct .pp.cp.|.to
runbo. c| s|gr||c.rt J|g|ts`
A 2 \ b 24 \ 240 \ | 244 \
Exerc|se
10
3CALARS are measurements that have size, or magnitude. A scalar almost always
needs a unit. 6ECTORS have magnitude and also have a direction. For example, a
Boeing 747 can fy at a speed of 885 kmh
1
or 246 ms
1
. This is the speed and is a
scalar quantity. If the plane fies from London to New York at 246 ms
1
then this
is called its velocity and is a vector, because it tells us the direction. Clearly, fying
from London to New York is not the same as fying from New York to London;
the speed can be the same but the velocity is different. Direction can be crucially
important.
l.0
2.0
tlme (s) 0.2
outller
dlstance
(m) 0.l
3.0
l.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Motion oing a bod traveIIing at a tead peed

Figure 1.4 |..c. b..s c.r
bo cr t|o Y.x|s cr|y,
Z.x|s cr|y c. cr bct|
.xos, .s s|c.r |o.o
Vectors and scaIars 1.3
!.3.! Dislinguish belween veclor and scalar quanlilies, and give examples ol
each.
!.3.2 Delermine lhe sum or dillerence ol lwo veclors by a graphical melhod.
!.3.3 Pesolve veclors inlo perpendicular componenls along chosen axes.
11
Here is another example of the difference between a vector and a scalar. Suppose
you walk three metres to the east and then four metres towards the north.
The distance you have travelled is seven metres but your DISPLACEMENT, the distance
between where you started and where you ended up, is only fve metres. Because
displacement is a vector, we also need to say that the fve metres had been moved
in a certain direction north of east.
Here are some common examples:
Scalar VecIor
Dislance Displacemenl
Speed Velocily
Temperalure Acceleralion
Mass Weighl
All lypes ol energy All lorces
Work Momenlum
Pressure All leld slrenglhs
A vector is usually represented by a bold italicized symbol, for example &for force.
Free body d|agrams
4m north
dlstance walked 7m
dlsplacement 5 m (north of east)
3 m east
Figure 1.5 ||st.rco |s . sc.|.., .rJ

|r t||s c.so, t|o J|st.rco t..vo||oJ |s
3 n + 4 n = n ||sp|.conort |s .
voctc., .rJ |o.o |t |s t|o |ypctoruso c|
t|o t.|.rg|o (5 n)
9 \||c| one c| t|o |c||c.|rg |s . sc.|.. ,u.rt|ty`
A |.ossu.o b |npu|so
V.grot|c |o|J st.orgt| | \o|g|t
1 \||c| one c| t|o |c||c.|rg |s . voctc. ,u.rt|ty`
A ||oct.|c pc.o. b ||oct.|c.| .os|st.rco
||oct.|c |o|J | ||oct.|c pctort|.| J||o.orco
Exerc|ses
welght = llft
thrust drag
llft
thrust of [ets
welght
drag of alr
welght normal force
welght
normal or
supportlng force
Figure 1.6 |.oobcJy J|.g..ns s|c.
.|| t|o |c.cos .ct|rg cr t|o bcJy |o
...c.s s|cu|J bo J...r tc .op.osort
bct| t|o s|.o .rJ J|.oct|cr c| t|o |c.cos
.rJ s|cu|J .|..ys bo |.bo||oJ (c) Aeroplane in level fight ACCELERATING to the right:
(a) Book resting on a table: (b) Car travelling at constant VELOCITY to the left:
welght normal forces
drlvlng force reslstlve forces
welght
normal forces
reslstlve forces
drlvlng force
of englne
12
If two or more forces are acting at the same point in space, you need to be able to
calculate the resultant, or total effective force, of the combination. The resultant is
the single force that has the same effect as the combination.
If they are not parallel, the easiest way to determine the resultant is by the
parallelogram law. This says that the resultant of two vectors acting at a point is
given by the diagonal of the parallelogram they form.
You also need to be able to resolve, or split, vectors into components or parts. A
component of a vector shows the effect in a particular direction. Usually we resolve
vectors into an X-component and a Y-component.
Worked exampIe
A force of 20 N pulls a box on a bench at an angle of 60 to the horizontal. What is
the magnitude of the force & parallel to the bench:
Figure 1.7 \|or t|o voctc.s ..o
p...||o|, t|o .osu|t.rt |s |curJ by s|np|o
.JJ|t|cr c. subt..ct|cr
(a) (b)
(c)
2N 3 N
resultant 5N to rlght
2 N 3 N
resultant l N to left
3N
3N
6N
resultant zero
l0N
6 N
resultant
magnltude of resultant l4N
60
Figure 1.8 \o c.r uso . g..p||c.|
not|cJ tc |rJ t|o .osu|t.rt .ccu..to|y
xaminer's hint: +cu c.r Jc t||s |s
by sc.|o J...|rg us|rg g..p| p.po.
11 |o J|.g..n bo|c. s|c.s . bc.t t|.t |s .bcut tc c.css . .|vo. |r . J|.oct|cr po.porJ|cu|.. tc t|o
b.rk .t . spooJ c| 08 ns
1
|o cu..ort |c.s .t 06 ns
1
|r t|o J|.oct|cr s|c.r
|o n.gr|tuJo c| t|o J|sp|.conort c| t|o bc.t 5 soccrJs .|to. |o.v|rg t|o b.rk |s
A 3 n b 4 n 5 n | n
Exerc|se
bank
bank
0.6ms
l
0.8ms
l
boat
-component
-component ()
A
8
20 N
C
60
Figure 1.9 |osc|v|rg |rtc
ccnpcrorts |s t|o cppcs|to p.ccoss
tc .JJ|rg voctc.s .rJ |rJ|rg t|o
.osu|t.rt
13
4PMVUJPO
The string will tend to pull the box along the bench but it will also tend to pull it
upwards.
cosine 60 =
adjacent

__________

hypotenuse
=
&
___

20

& = 20 N cos 60 = 10 N
xaminer's hint: |r t|o .|g|t.rg|oJ
t.|.rg|o Ab, t|o Yccnpcrort (') |s
.J.cort tc t|o 60 .rg|o .|||o t|o 20 |
|c.co |s t|o |ypctoruso
12 A |c.co c| 35 | pu||s . b.|ck cr . |ovo| su.|.co .t .r .rg|o c| 40 tc t|o |c.|.crt.| |o |.|ct|cr.|
|c.co cppcs|rg t|o nct|cr |s 68| \|.t |s t|o .osu|t.rt |c.co ' p...||o| tc t|o borc|`
Exerc|se
xaminer's hint: |o.o |s .r ox.np|o
c| |c. not tc .rs.o. . b.s|c ,uost|cr
||rJ Y
w||c| oue o |e o||ow|u coua|us ||ee uudareua| uu|s1

/ Ve|e K||o|ar Cou|orb
b 'ecoud /rpe|e Newou
C K||o|ar /rpe|e Ke|.|u
0 Ke|.|u Cou|orb 'ecoud
!|e |es|s|.e o|ce f ac|u ou a sp|e|e o |ad|us | ro.|u a speed . ||ou| a ||qu|d |s
|.eu b,
f = c.|
w|e|e c |s a cousau. w||c| o |e o||ow|u |s a co||ec uu| o| c1
/ N
b N s
1
C N r
2
s
1
0 N r
2
s
w||c| o |e o||ow|u |s uo a uu| o eue|,1
/ w s
b w s
1
C | w|
0 | r
2
s
2
!|e powe| l d|ss|paed |u a |es|so| R |u w||c| |e|e |s a cu||eu l |s |.eu b,
l = l
2
R
!|e uuce|a|u, |u |e .a|ue o |e |es|sauce |s 10% aud |e uuce|a|u, |u |e .a|ue
o |e cu||eu |s 3%. !|e bes es|rae o| |e uuce|a|u, o |e powe| d|ss|paed |s
/ o%
b 9%
C +o%
0 19%
Pract|ce quest|ons
14
Here are some ideas to help you with the estimates on page 3:
1 (OWHIGHISATWOmOORHOUSEINMETRES
First we could think about how high a normal room is. When you stand up
how far is your head from the ceiling: Most adults are between 1.5 m and 2.0 m
tall, so the height of a room must be above 2.0 m and probably below 2.5 m.
If we multiply by two and add in some more for the foors and the roof then a
sensible value could be 7 or 8 m.
2 7HATISTHEDIAMETEROFTHEPUPILOFYOUREYE
This would change with the brightness of the light, but even if it were really
dark it is unlikely to be above half a centimetre or 5.0 mm. In bright sunshine
maybe it could go down to 1.0 mm so a good estimate would be between these
two diameters.
3 (OWMANYTIMESDOESYOURHEARTBEATINANHOURWHENYOUARERELAXED
You can easily measure your pulse in a minute. When you are relaxed it will
most probably be between 60 and 80 beats per minute. To get a value for an
hour we must multiply by 60, and this gives a number between 3600 and 4800.
As an order of magnitude or 'ball park fgure` this would be 10
3
.
4 7HATISTHEWEIGHTOFANAPPLEINNEWTONS
Apples come in different sizes but if you buy a kilogram how many do you get:
If the number is somewhere between 5 and 15 that would give an average mass
for each apple of around 100g which translates to a weight of approximately 1
N.
5 7HATISTHEMASSOFTHEAIRINYOURBEDROOM
To estimate this you need to know the approximate density of air, which is
1.3 kg m
3
. Then you need an estimate of the volume of your bedroom, for
example 4 m 3 m 2.5 m, which would give 30 m
3
.
Then mass = density volume would give around 40 kg; maybe more than
expected.
6 7HATPRESSUREDOYOUEXERTONTHEGROUNDSTANDINGONONEFOOT
For this we would use the equation pressure =
force

_____

area
. The force would be
your weight; if your mass is 60 kg then your weight would be 600 N. If we take
average values for the length and width of your foot as 30 cm and 10 cm, change
them to 0.3 m and 0.1 m, and multiply, then the area is 0.03 m
2
. Dividing 600 N
by 0.03 m
2
gives an answer of 20 000 Pa.
You need to practise these kinds of estimations without a calculator.
|| .|. |s t|.t |o.vy t|or .|y Jcrt
.o |oo| |t`
|c. Jcos t|o p.ossu.o oxo.toJ
by cro |cct ccnp..o tc b|ccJ
p.ossu.o .rJ .tncsp|o.|c
p.ossu.o`
\|.t .cu|J |.ppor tc .r
.st.cr.ut |r sp.co || t|o|. sp.co su|t
suJJor|y .|ppoJ cpor`
15
.FDIBOJDT
What |s k|nemat|cs?
Kinematics is the study of motion. As we have already seen, distance is a scalar and
displacement is a vector quantity. Distance travelled is a simple measure of length
while displacement is denned as the distance travelled in a particular direction.
When we want to describe how fast something is moving we say that:
speed =
distance

_______

time

velocity =
displacement

___________

time

These simple equations can be used for two situations; frstly when the body is
moving at a constant speed, and secondly in order to fnd the average speed. In the
second case we need to know the total distance and the total time.
Worked exampIe
Calculate your average speed if your journey to school takes half an hour and the
distance is 10 km.
4PMVUJPO
speed =
10 km

______

0.5 h

= 20 kmh
1
Kinematics 2.1
2.!.! Delne d|:p|acemen|, ve|oc||y, :peed, and acce|era||on.
2.!.2 Lxplain lhe dillerence belween inslanlaneous and average values ol
speed, velocily and acceleralion.
2.!.3 Oulline lhe condilions under which lhe equalions lor unilormly
acceleraled molion may be applied.
2.!.4 ldenlily lhe acceleralion ol a body lalling in a vacuum near lhe Larlh's
surlace wilh lhe acceleralion ol lree lall.
2.!.5 Solve problems involving lhe equalions ol unilormly acceleraled
molion.
2.!.6 Describe lhe ellecls ol air resislance on lalling objecls.
2.!.7 Draw and analyse dislancelime graphs, displacemenllime graphs,
velocilylime graphs and acceleralionlime graphs.
2.!.8 Calculale and inlerprel lhe slopes ol displacemenllime graphs and
velocilylime graphs, and lhe areas under velocilylime graphs and
acceleralionlime graphs.
2.!.9 Delermine relalive velocily in one and lwo dimensions.
xaminer's hint: SpooJ =
J|st.rco

________

t|no

16
.FDIBOJDT 2
This works even though your car or bus has to slow down, speed up and
sometimes stop according to the traffc conditions.
If your vehicle is changing speed, or direction, it must be changing velocity, which
means that it is accelerating. Acceleration is denned as the change in velocity per
unit time. Acceleration a can be written as:
a =
A

___

A

where A is change in velocity and A is change in time.
Worked exampIe
A car starts from rest and accelerates steadily to a speed of 40 ms
1
in a time of
5.0 s. Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the car.
4PMVUJPO
a =
40 ms
1

_______

5.0 s

= 8.0 ms
2
The units of velocity and acceleration are different, and you must always be careful
to measure speed and velocity in ms
1
but acceleration in ms
2
.
If a ball is rolling down a slope, its speed will be increasing. We can fnd the aerage
seeJ of the ball by dividing the total distance by the total time, as seen earlier.
Another way to describe the motion is by using the nsananeous seeJ of the
ball; the speed at any instant in time. You can fnd this by drawing a distance-time
graph of the motion and measuring the tangent at a particular instant - we will
see how this works later on in this chapter.
The equat|ons for un|form|y acce|erated mot|on
If speed or velocity is changing at a steady rate, then the acceleration is constant. In
these situations we can use the equations of uniformly accelerated motion, which
we will call the sua equations. These are a set of equations with fve variables as
follows:
s distance (m)
u initial velocity (ms
1
)
fnal velocity (ms
1
)
a acceleration (ms
2
)
time (s)
|t |s ossort|.| t|.t ycu .ononbo.
t|.t T |r t|oso oou.t|crs st.rJs
|c. J|st.rco t..vo||oJ, .rJ rct |c.
spooJ
17
There are four sua equations and their power is that if we know any three of
the fve variables, by using the equations carefully, we can solve for the other two
unknown quantities.
These are the equations:
= u + a
s =
u +

_____

2

s = u +
1

_

2
a
2

2
= u
2
+ 2as
Worked exampIes
1 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20 ms
1
. Taking
the acceleration due to gravity as 10 ms
2
and neglecting air resistance, fnd:
(a) the time taken to return to the
thrower`s hand
(b) the maximum height reached.
4PMVUJPO
(a) s = :
u = 20 ms
1
= 0
a = 10 ms
2
= :
= u + a
0 = 20 10
10 = 20
= 2 s
Time to return to the thrower`s hand will be twice this = 4 s.
(b) s = :
u = 20 ms
1
= 0
a = 10 ms
2
= 2 s
s =
u +

_____

2

s =
20 + 0

______

2
2
s = 20 m
= 0ms
l
==l0ms
2
= 20 ms
l
Figure 2.1 |o n.x|nun spooJ .|||
bo .o.c|oJ ,ust .|to. t|o b.|| |o.vos t|o
|.|s |.rJ
xaminer's hint: ||.st ||st t|o TVWBU
v..|.b|os
|or c|ccso t|o bost oou.t|cr, t|o cro
.|t| t|o .o|ov.rt v..|.b|os
|r t||s c.so t|o |r.| vo|cc|ty, .|or t|o
b.|| .o.c|os t|o n.x|nun |o||t, .|||
bo .o.c
|o .cco|o..t|cr .||| bo ro.t|vo, || .o
ccrs|Jo. t|o b.|| t..vo|||r up...Js,
boc.uso |t .||| bo s|c.|r Jc.r
xaminer's hint: A|..ys ..|to Jc.r
t|o oou.t|cr ycu ..o us|r, scnot|nos
ycu c.r ot . n..k |c. ,ust ..|t|r Jc.r
t|o cc..oct oou.t|cr
xaminer's hint: |oxt p|u |r t|o
runbo.s .rJ sc|vo |c. t|o urkrc.r
||s typo c| p.cb|on |rvc|v|r
..v|ty |s .|..ys synnot.|c.|, t|o
J|st.rco, t|no .rJ spooJ c|r
up ..o t|o s.no .s t|cso ccn|r
b.ck Jc.r
xaminer's hint: c |rJ t|o
n.x|nun |o||t .o ..|r ||st t|o
v..|.b|os |c. t|o nct|cr up...Js
xaminer's hint: |ccso .r
oou.t|cr .rJ ..|to |t Jc.r
1S
.FDIBOJDT 2
xaminer's hint: ||s t|no t|o |r|t|.|
spooJ |s .o.c .rJ t|o .cco|o..t|cr |s
pcs|t|vo A.|r .o ||st t|o v..|.b|os
xaminer's hint: c |rJ t|o t|no |r
t||s c.so .o ccu|J uso .ry c| t|o ct|o.
t|.oo oou.t|crs
2 A stone is dropped into the sea from a cliff 45 m high. Taking the acceleration
due to gravity as 10 ms
2
and neglecting air resistance fnd:
(a) the speed of the stone when it hits the sea
(b) the time taken to reach the sea.
(a) s = 45 m
u = 0
= :
a = 10 ms
2
= :

2
= u
2
+ 2as

2
= 0 + (2 10 45)
= 900
= 30 ms
1
(b) s = 45 m
u = 0
= 30 ms
1
a = 10 ms
2
= :
s = u +
1

_

2
a
2
45 = 0 + (0.5 10
2
)
45 = 5
2

2
= 9
= 3 s
Try this last problem for yourself using the other two equations to make sure you
get the same value for the time taken.
In the two examples above, the acceleration of the bodies was g, the acceleration
due to gravity. This varies from place to place on the Earth`s surface, but is often
taken as 9.81 m s
2
, or approximated to 10 m s
2
.
The sua equations work for any situation where the acceleration of the body
is constant, and you must learn to spot the type of problem where the sua
equations will provide the solution.
=0s
l
=0s
l
==l0s
2
Figure 2.2 Acco|o..t|cr
|s pcs|t|vo |r t||s c.so |o
stcro .cco|o..tos urt|| |t ||ts
t|o ..to.
1 |r .r oxpo.|nort . sn.|| stoo| b.|| |s ||noJ .rJ t|noJ .s |t |.||s, |.cn .ost, roxt tc . not.o .u|o.
.|cu|.to t|o t|no t.kor |c. t|o b.|| tc |.||
(a) |.cn t|o .o.c n..k tc t|o 90 cn n..k cr t|o .u|o.
(b) |.cn t|o 90 cn n..k tc t|o orJ c| t|o .u|o.
|o|oct .|. .os|st.rco .rJ t.ko H = 98 ns
2
2 A c.. |s t..vo|||r .t 20 ns
1
.|or . Jc .urs cut |rtc t|o .c.J || t|o J.|vo.s .o.ct|cr t|no |s
040 s .rJ t|o c.. Joco|o..tos sto.J||y .t . ..to c| 20 ns
2
, c.|cu|.to t|o n|r|nun J|st.rco
t..vo||oJ bo|c.o t|o c.. c.r ccno tc .ost
Exerc|ses
c v|o. .r .r|n.t|cr c| nct|cr |r
2|, v|s|t |o|ron.rrccuk/|ct||rks,
orto. t|o oxp.oss ccJo 4266S .rJ
c||ck cr t|o \ob||rk 21
19
In the real world, bodies do not fall in a vacuum they experience the effects
of ar ressante. As long as the body is small and hard, and the height is not too
great, then we can ignore these effects. Otherwise air resistance or drag becomes
important; obviously the motion of a falling body such as a feather or a leaf will be
signifcantly changed by the air through which it falls. If a feather or a leaf were to
fall in a vacuum they would drop just like a stone.
Initially the skydiver`s speed is low, so the air resistance is much smaller than
the weight, and the skydiver accelerates. As the speed increases, the air resistance
increases until a point is reached when the drag force is equal and opposite to
the weight. Then the skydiver will fall at a constant, maximum speed called
the ermna| e|oty. When the parachute opens, the air resistance increases
signifcantly and a new, slower terminal velocity is reached, enabling a safe landing.
From O to A, the velocity is low and acceleration fairly constant.
From A to B, air resistance becomes greater as the velocity increases so the rae of
acceleration decreases.
From B to C, acceleration is zero, the skydiver is falling at constant terminal
velocity.
At C, the parachute opens and velocity rapidly decreases.
From D to E, a new, lower, terminal velocity is reached.
At E, the skydiver lands on the ground.
|o .cco|o..t|cr Juo tc ..v|ty |s
s|||t|y |c.o. c| t|o cc.st c| |rJ|.
.rJ s|||t|y |||o. |r t|o Scut|
|.c||c, c.r|r tc t|o r.tu.o c| t|o
.ccks |r t|o |..t|s c.ust
|c. . po.scr |r |.oo |.||, to.n|r.|
vo|cc|ty |s .bcut 180 kn|
1
c.
50 ns
1
, s|n||.. tc . spooJ|r c..
tlme s
veloclty
ms
8 C
D L
Figure 2.3 A vo|cc|tyt|no ..p| c| .
p...c|uto ,unp
xaminer's hint: \|or ycu ..o
.skoJ tc TLFUDI . ..p|, ycu s|cu|J J...
. p.|. c| |.bo||oJ .xos .|t| ur|ts, .rJ .
||ro s|c.|r t|o t.orJ +cu Jc rct |.vo
tc s|c. runbo.s cr . skotc| ..p| but
ycu s|cu|J J... |t c|o..|y .|t| . .u|o.
.rJ porc||
|n.|ro .|.t |.ppors tc t|o spooJ c|
. skyJ|vo. .|c ,unps cut c| . p|.ro,
|.||s |.oo |c. . .|||o .rJ |r.||y cpors .
p...c|uto
20
.FDIBOJDT 2
c v|o. .r .r|n.t|cr c| t|o |ur..
|.rJo., v|s|t |o|ron.rrccuk/|ct||rks,
orto. t|o oxp.oss ccJo 4266S .rJ c||ck
cr \ob||rk 22
Graph|ng mot|on
We have already seen some examples of motion graphs, but now we will look at
them in more detail. Note that time always goes on the -axis.
Distance or dispIacement vs time
The next graph shows Js|atemen against time; remember that displacement is
a vector quantity. The way we show the difference between scalars and vectors on
a graph is to draw the scalar above the -axis only, and the vector both above and
below.
The slope or gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed, while for a
displacement-time graph the gradient gives the velocity. In Figure 2.5 above, the
car is travelling at constant velocity from O to A because the gradient is constant.
From A to B, the velocity is decreasing because the gradient is decreasing; in other
words the car is decelerating.
|r 1944, t|o p|.ro |r .||c| ||c|c|.s A|kon.Jo ..s |y|r, ..s sot cr |.o .rJ ||s
p...c|uto Jost.cyoJ ||c|c|.s c|cso tc ,unp .|t|cut . p...c|uto ..t|o. t|.r st.y |r
t|o bu.r|r p|.ro A|t|cu| |o |o|| ro..|y 6000 n, |o ..s oxt.ono|y |ucky boc.uso |o
b|.ckoJ cut, |.rJ|r .o|.xoJ, t|.cu| p|ro t.oos .rJ |rtc src. |o su|o.oJ cr|y n|rc.
sp..|rs, cuts .rJ b.u|sos .rJ su.v|voJ urt|| 198!
tlme (s)
dlstance
(m)
l 2
3 4

Figure 2.4 |cu. J|st.rcot|no

..p|s
|o c.. s|c.r |r t|oso ..p|s |s
1 .t .ost, rct ncv|r
2 ncv|r .t . ccrst.rt spooJ
3 .cco|o..t|r
4 Joco|o..t|r
Figure 2.5 ||sp|.conortt|no ..p|
OA ccrst.rt vo|cc|ty |c....Js
Ab Joco|o..t|r
b stcppoJ
| .cco|o..t|r .rJ c|.r|r
J|.oct|cr
|| ccrst.rt vo|cc|ty b.ck tc st..t|r
pc|rt
|| ccrst.rt vo|cc|ty b.ck...Js
| Joco|o..t|r
| stcppoJ
|| .cco|o..t|r .rJ ..|r c|.r|r
J|.oct|cr
|' ccrst.rt vo|cc|ty b.ck tc st..t|r
pc|rt
dlsplacement
(m)
A
8
D
C
L
P
G H
|
1
tlme (s)
21
VeIocity vs time
It is vitally important that you do not mix up the various different types of motion
graph. The next ones we will consider are speed and velocity against time. Try and
describe what is happening to a car moving as follows:
The car starts from rest when the speed is zero, and then from O to A its speed
increases at a steady rate. This is known as tonsan atte|eraon. Then from A
to B the car is no soeJ, but is moving at tonsan seeJ. From B to C we have
constant deceleration and fnally the car again comes to rest. As long as the car is
travelling in a straight line in the same direction, this graph would be exactly the
same with either speed or velocity on the y-axis.
The gradient of a velocity-time graph gives the acceleration. So in Figure 2.7
above from O to A the acceleration is constant because the gradient is constant;
the graph is a straight line. From A to B the gradient is zero because the rise, or
Ay term is zero; so the acceleration is zero. From B to C the gradient is steeper than
from O to A and this tells us that the rate of deceleration was more rapid than the
rate of acceleration.
Now we will analyse the same graph using numbers.
The area under a velocity-time graph gives the displacement. In this case the
area is the sum of a triangle, a rectangle and a smaller triangle. Remember that the
area of a triangle is half the base times the height.
lnstantaneous veloclty
== 20ms
l 40m
2 s
2 s
40m
lnstntn ous veloclty
== 5ms
l 20m
4s
40s
20m
Figure 2.6 |o |rst.rt.rocus vo|cc|ty

|s |curJ by by no.su.|r t|o s|cpo c|
t|o t.rort tc t|o cu.vo
A |o t.rort ||ro |s stoop .t t||s pc|rt
|rJ|c.t|r . ||| |rst.rt.rocus
vo|cc|ty
boc.uso t|o cu.vo |.s |.ttoroJ cut
.t t||s pc|rt, t|o t.rort |s |oss stoop
.rJ t|o |rst.rt.rocus vo|cc|ty |s
|c.o.
veloclty
(ms
l
)
tlme (s)
A 8
C
Figure 2.7 \o|cc|tyt|no ..p|

|o s|cpo c. ..J|ort c| . ..p|
=
.|so

___

.ur
=
Z
2
Z
1

______

Y
2
Y
1
=
AZ
___

AY
veloclty
(ms
l
)
tlme (s)
A
5
l0
8
C
l5 l7
Figure 2.8 ||rJ|r J|st.rco t..vo||oJ
|.cn . vo|cc|tyt|no ..p|
OA ccrst.rt .cco|o..t|cr
=
10 ns
1

_______

5s
= 2 ns
2
Ab ccrst.rt n.x|nun, vo|cc|ty c|
10 ns
1
|c. 10 s
b ccrst.rt Joco|o..t|cr
=
10 ns
1

_______

2s
= 5 ns
2
22
.FDIBOJDT 2
Displacement = (
1

_

2
5 s 10 ms
1
) + (10 s 10 ms
1
) + (
1

_

2
2 s 10 ms
1
)
= 25 m + 100 m + 10 m
= 135 m
You need to be able to sketch and label these types of graph for various situations.
AcceIeration vs time
The last type of motion graph we are going to look at is acceleration against time.
If the acceleration is uniform or constant, then these graphs will be simply vertical
and horizontal straight lines. An acceleration-time graph for the car in Figure 2.8
would look like this:
The area under an acceleration-time graph gives the change in velocity.
So from O to A, the change in velocity = the area of the rectangle
= (5 s 2 ms
2
)
= 10 ms
1
From A to B, the area under the graph is zero, so the change in velocity is zero.
You can check for yourself that the area from B to C is 10 ms
1
in the opposite
direction, and that this all fts with the data in Figure 2.8.
If the acceleration is not constant, we cannot use the sua equations to solve
the problems. The area under the graph will still tell us the change in velocity,
however, as shown in the next example.
3 A |.| t|.c.s . b.|| up |r t|o .|. .rJ t|or c.tc|os |t Skotc| . spooJt|no ..p| .rJ t|or .
vo|cc|tyt|no ..p| |c. t|o nct|cr c| t|o b.||
4 A b.|| |s J.cppoJ crtc t|o |cc. .rJ bcurcos t.|co Skotc| . vo|cc|tyt|no ..p| .rJ t|or .
spooJt|no ..p| |c. t|o nct|cr c| t|o b.||
Exerc|ses
acceleratlon
(ms
2
)
5
A 8 C
2
tlme (s)
5
l5 l7
Figure 2.9 Acco|o..t|crt|no ..p|
OA ccrst.rt .cco|o..t|cr c| 2 ns
2

|c. 5 s
Ab .o.c .cco|o..t|cr |c. 10 s
b ccrst.rt ro.t|vo .cco|o..t|cr c.
Joco|o..t|cr c| 5 ns
2
|c. 2 s
23
Worked exampIe
Find the change in velocity of a body that accelerates as shown in the graph below.
4PMVUJPO
Change in velocity = (
1

_

2
6 s 8 ms
2
) + (6 s 2 ms
2
)
= 24 ms
1
+ 12 ms
1
= 36 ms
1
Re|at|ve ve|oc|ty
Imagine you are riding in a train travelling at 140 kmh
1
. Another train overtakes
you at a speed of 150 kmh
1
. It looks like the other train is moving quite slowly.
This is because re|ae to you, the speed of the other train is only 10 kmh
1
.
Think about the following scenario; Diego is standing on the platform and
Maria, on a train, passes through. We can talk about the relative motion in two
ways; the motion of Maria relative to Diego, or the motion of Diego relative to
Maria. The magnitude, or speed, will be the same but the direction will clearly
be different.
acceleratlon
(ms
2
)
2
tlme (s) 6
A
C
D
8 l0
Figure 2.10 Acco|o..t|crt|no ..p|
|o c|.ro |r vo|cc|ty |s t|o ..o. c|
t.|.r|o Ab p|us ..o. c| .oct.r|o
OA|
c v|o. 5IFNPWJOHNBO s|nu|.t|cr,
v|s|t |o|ron.rrccuk/|ct||rks, orto.
t|o oxp.oss ccJo 4266S .rJ c||ck cr t|o
\ob||rk 23
Marla ls on the traln travelllng to the rlght wlth
a constant veloclty 7 ms
l
7 ms
l
Dlego ls on the platform
Figure 2.11 |o|.t|vo vo|cc|ty
|o vo|cc|ty c| V..|., .o|.t|vo tc ||oc |s
ns
1
tc t|o .||t
|o vo|cc|ty c| ||oc .o|.t|vo tc V..|. |s
ns
1
tc t|o |o|t
24
.FDIBOJDT 2
So far we have been looking at relative motion in one dimension. To understand
how it works in two dimensions, imagine you are in a car driving down a long
straight road. A bird is fying at right angles to the road and you can see it out of
the window.
Pract|ca| h|nts on draw|ng graphs
When you are asked to sketch or plot a motion graph, think about the following
points:
1 Is this a graph of distance, displacement, speed, velocity or acceleration: They
are all usually sketched against time but they are all different graphs!
2 Is this a scalar or a vector graph: In other words do you need to draw it just
above the line, or both above and below:
3 Remember to label the axes with both the name and the unit; sometimes you
will get a mark for just doing that alone.
4 Does the graph start from the origin (the zero-zero point):
5 Is the graph going to be a straight line or a smooth curve:
6 Make sure you plot the graph with a sensible scale; use numbers like 2, 4 and 5,
not numbers like 3 and 7.
7 Aim for your graph to fll at least half the available space.
8 Measure the gradient or tangent over at least half the space.
9 Link what you need to fnd to the gradient, intercept or area under the graph.
10 Always remember the equation of a straight line is of the form y = m + t and
link it whenever possible to any graph you come across.
Much of this applies to other types of physics graphs, not just motion graphs.
at 90 to the road
car drlvlng along
a stralght road
at constant veloclty
motlon of car
relatlve to blrd
motlon of blrd
relatlve to car
Figure 2.12 |o nct|cr c| t|o b|.J
.o|.t|vo tc t|o c.. |s J||o.ort |.cn t|o
nct|cr c| t|o c.. .o|.t|vo tc t|o b|.J
+cu .||| |o..r . |ct nc.o .bcut
.o|.t|vo nct|cr || ycu stuJy
Opt|cr | .||c| |rc|uJos ||rsto|rs
t|oc.y c| Spoc|.| |o|.t|v|ty
|o.Jcr c.. cc|||s|crs ..o ||ko|y tc |.vo
so.|cus ccrsoouorcos Oro .o.scr |s
t|.t t|o .o|.t|vo spooJs .||| .JJ up,
.rJ sc t|o .osu|t|r J.n.o .||| .|sc
|rc.o.so
25
Force, we|ght and mass
In simple terms a force is a pull or a push. Force is a vector quantity and is
measured in newtons. There are many different types of force, including
friction
normal or supporting or contact force
tension and compression
air resistance or drag
upthrust or buoyancy
lift
thrust
weight.
Weight is the pull of gravity on a body. Assuming that the body is on the surface
of the earth, it is directed towards the centre of the earth. Usually we call this
direction 'down`.
Strictly speaking, weight and mass are not the same thing. Veg|
is a vector measured in newtons, and mass is a scalar measured
in kilograms. Mass can be described as the amount of matter in a
body.
In everyday speech, weight and mass are taken to mean the same,
but in physics, we need to remember that there is a difference.
Forces and dynamics 2.2
2.2.! Calculale lhe weighl ol a body using lhe expression W = m.
2.2.2 ldenlily lhe lorces acling on an objecl and draw lree-body diagrams
represenling lhe lorces acling.
2.2.3 Delermine lhe resullanl lorce in dillerenl silualions.
2.2.4 Slale Newlon's lrsl law ol molion.
2.2.5 Describe examples ol Newlon's lrsl law.
2.2.6 Slale lhe condilion lor lranslalional equilibrium.
2.2.7 Solve problems involving lranslalional equilibrium.
2.2.8 Slale Newlon's second law ol molion.
2.2.9 Solve problems involving Newlon's second law.
2.2.!0 Delne ||near momen|um and |mpu|:e.
2.2.!! Delermine lhe impulse due lo a lime-varying lorce by inlerpreling a
lorcelime graph.
2.2.!2 Slale lhe law ol conservalion ol linear momenlum.
2.2.!3 Solve problems involving momenlum and impulse.
2.2.!4 Slale Newlon's lhird law ol molion.
2.2.!5 Discuss examples ol Newlon's lhird law.
Figure 2.13 |c.co c.r bo . pu|| c. .
pus|
|| ycu .ort tc t|o nccr, ycu. n.ss .cu|J rct c|.ro, but ycu. .o||t
.cu|J Joc.o.so boc.uso t|o pu|| c| ..v|ty |s |oss cr t|o nccr
26
.FDIBOJDT 2
Worked exampIe
What is the weight of a 1.0 kg mass on the surface of the earth where g = 9.8 ms
2
:
4PMVUJPO
V = mg
V = 1.0 kg 9.8 ms
2
= 9.8 N
Ba|anced forces
Here, rans|ang means moving from one place to another in a straight line. If
a body is in translational equilibrium then it will not be accelerating. This is the
basic idea described in Newton`s frst law.
We have already seen some free-body diagrams in Chapter 1, but here are some
more examples.
The helium balloon is at rest, so must be in translational
equilibrium.
upthrust = weight + tension
The weight of the balloon will be small but
cannot be zero. If the string breaks, then the tension
becomes zero and the balloon will accelerate upwards.
upthrust
welght
tenslon
Ast.cr.uts cr t|o nccr .o.o .b|o tc
t.ko |.rt stops boc.uso t|o|. .o||t
..s |oss (.|t|cu| t|o|. n.ss |.Jrt
c|.roJ)
\o||t |s .o|.toJ tc n.ss |r .
s|np|o ..y
8=NH
8 |s t|o .o||t no.su.oJ |r |
N |s t|o n.ss no.su.oJ |r k
H |s t|o .cco|o..t|cr Juo tc
..v|ty no.su.oJ |r ns
2
|| . bcJy |s |r USBOTMBUJPOBM
FRVJMJCSJVN |t no.rs t|.t t|o |c.cos
.ct|r cr t|o bcJy, |r .|| t|.oo
J|nors|crs, ..o b.|.rcoJ
Figure 2.14 |ct|co t|.t t|o J|.oct|cr c| t|o
tors|cr |r t|o st.|r nust bo Jc.r...Js tc
b.|.rco t|o |c.cos
27
The free-body diagram must show only the three real forces acting on the block.
Since the block is accelerating, the forces are not balanced down the incline.
> F
fr
y = F
N
where F
fr
is the frictional force and

F
N
is the normal (or perpendicular) force.
Using geometry, you can see that the angle of the incline is equal to the angle
between the weight vector and the y-component. This is because there are 180 in
a triangle and the normal force is at 90 to the incline.
Using trigonometry, we can then deduce that:
sin 0 =

___

mg

= mg sin 0
cos 0 =
y

___

mg

y = mg cos 0
Newton's |aws of mot|on
|o |.st .occ.JoJ cutb.o.k c| t|o b|.ck |o.t| |r |r|.rJ ..s |r 1665 |r t|cso J.ys pocp|o t|cu|t
t|.t t|o p|.uo .cu|J .on.|r |cc.|, sc t|oy .otu.roJ tc t|o|. v|||.os, c|tor sp.o.J|r t|o |r|oct|cr
|r 1665 |s..c |o.tcr ..s . ycur .nb.|Jo p.c|ossc., .c.k|r cr scno p.cb|ons .o..J|r
t|o p|ys|cs c| nct|cr |o p|.uo |c.coJ ||n |rtc |sc|.t|cr .t ||s |.n||y |cno |r \cc|st|c.po .rJ
|o .c.koJ .|cro t|o.o |c. o||toor ncrt|s |u.|r t||s t|no |o n.Jo sovo..| ccnp|oto|y c.||r.|
ccrt.|but|crs tc n.t|on.t|cs .rJ sc|orco, o|oct|vo|y |rvort|r c.|cu|us .rJ .ovc|ut|cr|.|r cu. |Jo.s
.bcut ..v|t.t|cr .rJ |||t
Figure 2.15 || t|o po.scr pu||s |..Jo.
.rJ ,ust succooJs |r |||t|r t|o b|cck,
t|or t|o ccrt.ct |c.co boccnos .o.c
.rJ t|o pu|||r |c.co |s oou.| tc t|o
.o||t
|s..c |o.tcr
Figure 2.16 |rc||roJ p|.ro

t|o .o||t |s .osc|voJ |rtc Y .rJ Z
ccnpcrorts, p...||o| .rJ po.porJ|cu|..
tc t|o |rc||ro |o t|.oo |c.cos .ct|r cr
t|o b|cck ..o NH (t|o .o||t), '
|
.r| '
|.
welght
contact
force
pulllng force
2S
.FDIBOJDT 2
Newton's nrst law states that a body will either remain at rest, or move with
constant velocity, unless acted on by an unbalanced force.
We have already seen how this law works, and it is simply common sense that
something does not start to move unless there is resultant force acting on it. More
diffcult to understand is the idea that a body can be in equilibrium, even though it
is moving. It can be diffcult to accept that a body can move without a force being
exerted, as this goes against both common sense and the teaching of Aristotle.
Newton's second law tells us what happens when an unbalanced force acts and is
expressed in the most important equation of basic mechanics:
&=MA
F is the resultant or unbalanced force measured in N
m is the mass measured in kg
a is the acceleration measured in ms
2
Note that the earlier defnition of weight is a special case of this general law.
For a constant mass, this means that force is directly proportional to acceleration.
If we take a constant out of a simple equation, then we get a relationship that is
directly proportional. For example if:
y = m
and m is a constant
then y
Conversely if two things are directly proportional to each other and we put in a
constant then we get an equality or equation. For example if:
F
and | is a constant
then F = |
Worked exampIe
Find the acceleration of a block of mass 500 g pulled across a table with a force of
12 N, if there is a frictional force of 6 N.
4PMVUJPO
F = ma
a =
F

__

m

a =
6N

_____

0.5 kg

a = 12 ms
2
to the right.
Pract|ca| h|nts on ca|cu|at|ons
The basic method for numerical physics problems is not complicated.
1 Choose the correct equation
2 Usually you can fnd the equations in the Data Booklet but sometimes you
simply have to memorise them.
500g
pulllng force
l2N
6N
force of
frlctlon
Figure 2.17 |o .osu|t.rt |c.co = 6 |
tc t|o .||t
|| t.c v..|.b|os ..o J|.oct|y
p.cpc.t|cr.| tc o.c| ct|o. |t
no.rs t|.t || cro |rc.o.sos, t|o
ct|o. .||| |rc.o.so |r p.cpc.t|cr,
c. .t t|o s.no ..to A ..p| c| t|o
t.c v..|.b|os .||| bo . st..||t ||ro
t|.cu| t|o c.||r
A.|stct|o (384322 b) ..s cro c|
t|o ncst |npc.t.rt c| t|o .rc|ort
.ook p|||cscp|o.s .rJ |o tutc.oJ
A|ox.rJo. t|o .o.t A.|stct|o
t|cu|t t|.t . |o.vy cb,oct .cu|J
|.|| nc.o ou|ck|y t|.r . |||t cro,
.rJ t|.t . |c.co ..s rocoss..y |c.
.r cb,oct tc ncvo
.|||oc (15641642) ..s bc.r |r
||s., |t.|y .rJ |r n.ry ..ys ..s
t|o |curJo. c| ncJo.r p|ys|cs
.|||oc t|cu|t t|.t . |o.vy cb,oct
.rJ . |||t cb,oct s|cu|J |.|| .t t|o
s.no ..to .rJ t|.t . bcJy ccu|J
ncvo |c.ovo. || rc |c.co .o.o
.ct|r
\|c ..s .||t, A.|stct|o c. .|||oc`
|o |c.co |r |o.tcrs soccrJ |.. |s
.|..ys t|o .osu|t.rt c. urb.|.rcoJ
|c.co
crst.rt vo|cc|ty no.rs t.c
t||rs, ccrst.rt spooJ .rJ
ccrst.rt J|.oct|cr, |r ct|o. .c.Js
ccrst.rt spooJ |r . st..||t ||ro
29
3 Make sure you know what the symbols (letters) stand for.
4 When solving the problem, always write down the equation you are using
sometimes you will get a mark for just writing the equation.
5 Plug in the numbers.
6 Make sure the units are consistent; if not, change them all to SI units.
7 Give your fnal answer to the correct number of signifcant fgures and make
sure you have included the correct unit.
8 Before you move on, ask yourself whether the answer you have given is sensible
and realistic.
Momentum and |mpu|se
The momentum of a body is a property that depends on its mass and its velocity.
Linear momentum is denned as the product of mass and velocity. Linear simply
means n a srag| |ne.
Note that the defnition refers to velocity, not speed.
momentum = mass velocity
= m
is the momentum measured in kg ms
1
m is the mass measured in kg
is the velocity measured in ms
1
Given that mass usually remains constant, this is often written:
= mA
Worked exampIe
Find the momentum of a car of mass 600 kg travelling at a constant velocity of
72 kmh
1
.
4PMVUJPO
72 kmh
1
=
72 1000

_________

(60 60)
ms
1
= 20 ms
1
= m
= 600 kg 20 ms
1
= 12 000 kg ms
1
c v|o. . s|nu|.t|cr c| |c.cos |r cro
J|nors|cr |o ..np, v|s|t
|o|ron.rrccuk/|ct||rks, orto. t|o
oxp.oss ccJo 4266S .rJ c||ck cr t|o
\ob||rk 24
5 A t..|r c| n.ss 15 10
5
k |s t..vo|||r .t 40 ns
1
.|or t|o b..kos ..o .pp||oJ .rJ |t
Joco|o..tos sto.J||y |o t..|r t..vo|s . J|st.rco c| 250 n bo|c.o ccn|r tc . |.|t
(a) .|cu|.to t|o Joco|o..t|cr c| t|o t..|r
(b) ||rJ t|o .vo..o b..k|r |c.co
6 A |..o |o||un b.||ccr |s .tt.c|oJ tc t|o .curJ by t.c |x|r .cpos |.c| .cpo n.kos .r .r|o
c| 50 .|t| t|o .curJ |o.o |s . |c.co ' vo.t|c.||y up...Js c| 215 10
3
| |o tct.| n.ss c| t|o
b.||ccr .rJ |ts b.skot |s 195 10
2
k
(a) St.to t|o n.r|tuJo c| t|o .osu|t.rt |c.co .|or |t |s .tt.c|oJ tc t|o .curJ
(b) .|cu|.to t|o tors|cr |r FJUIFS c| t|o |x|r .cpos
(c) |o |x|r .cpos ..o .o|o.soJ .rJ t|o b.||ccr .cco|o..tos up...Js .|cu|.to t|o n.r|tuJo
c| t||s |r|t|.| .cco|o..t|cr
(d) |o b.||ccr .o.c|os . to.n|r.| vo|cc|ty 10 s .|to. t.koc| |o up...J |c.co ' .on.|rs
ccrst.rt |osc.|bo |c. t|o n.r|tuJo c| t|o .|. .os|st.rco cr t|o b.||ccr v..|os Ju.|r t|o
|.st 10 s c| |ts |||t
Exerc|ses
xaminer's hint: |o vo|cc|ty |s rct
|vor |r S| ur|ts sc .o nust ccrvo.t
Vcnortun |s . voctc. ou.rt|ty
30
.FDIBOJDT 2
Conservation of momentum
Momentum is important for solving problems involving collisions and explosions.
We say that momentum is tonsereJ in these interactions. This means that the
total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event.
Worked exampIe
A ball of mass 1.0 kg is dropped and hits the foor with a velocity of 8 ms
1
.
It bounces back with a velocity of 6 ms
1
. Find the change of momentum.
4PMVUJPO
The change in momentum = fnal momentum initial momentum

A = m mu
A = (1.0 kg + 6 ms
1
) (1.0 kg 8ms
1
)
A = 6 kg ms
1
+ 8 kg ms
1
A = 14 kg ms
1
This idea can be expressed as a problem-solving equation in different ways:
m
1
1
= m
2
2
m
1
1
= m
2
2
+ m
J
J
m
1
1
+ m
2
2
= m
J
J
The version we choose depends on the problem, whether it is a collision or
explosion and whether the two bodies stick together after the collision.
6 ms
l
8ms
l
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19 \octc. ou.J..rt
|o |.. c| ccrso.v.t|cr c| ||ro..
ncnortun st.tos t|.t t|o tct.|
ncnortun .on.|rs ccrst.rt |r
.ry |rto..ct|cr, p.cv|J|r t|o.o |s
rc oxto.r.| |c.co
|c. . voctc. p.cb|on ||ko t||s,
.o nust uso . ccrvort|cr |c.
J|.oct|cr |su.||y .o t.ko t|o
J|.oct|crs up c. tc t|o .||t .s
pcs|t|vo .rJ Jc.r c. tc t|o |o|t .s
ro.t|vo
31
Worked exampIe
A car of mass 600 kg travelling at 20 ms
1
collides head on with a truck of mass
2400 kg. If both vehicles come to rest immediately after the crash what was the
velocity of the truck:
4PMVUJPO
m
1
1
+ m
2
2
= m
J
J
(600 kg 20 ms
1
) + (2400 kg
2
) = (3000 kg 0 ms
1
)
12 000 kg ms
1
2400
2
= 0

2
=
12 000

______

2400

2
= 5 ms
1
Impu|se
The change in momentum of a body is also known as the mu|se.
Impulse is denned as the product of a force and the time during which it acts.
Impulse = FA = mA
The unit for impulse is Ns and this can also be used as a unit of momentum.
Imagine what happens if a girl kicks a football and a boy kicks a brick of the same
mass, say 500 g. Both the ball and the brick are accelerated from rest to a velocity
of 10 ms
1
.
The difference is that the brick is harder than the ball so the girl`s foot is in contact
with the ball for a longer time interval. If the girl`s foot is in contact with the ball
for 0.2 s then we can calculate the force exerted like this:
FA = mA
F 0.2 s = 0.5 kg 10 ms
1
F =
5

___

0.2

F = 25 N
If the boy`s foot is in contact with the brick for 0.01 s then the force would be
much greater:
FA = mA
F 0.01 s = 0.5 kg 10 ms
1
F =
5

____

0.01

F = 500 N
xaminer's hint: S|rco t|o bcJ|os
|rvc|voJ st|ck tcot|o. .|to. t|o cc|||s|cr,
uso t||s oou.t|cr
xaminer's hint: |o |r.| vo|cc|ty,
W
3
, |s .o.c, .rJ .o .||| t.ko t|o J|.oct|cr
c| nct|cr c| t|o c.. .s pcs|t|vo
Figure 2.20 |t |s rct . ccJ |Jo. tc
k|ck . b.|ck |c. t|o s.no c|.ro |r
ncnortun, || t|o t|no c| ccrt.ct |s
sn.||o., t|o |c.co .||| bo .o.to. \o s.y
t|.t t|o t|no |s |rvo.so|y p.cpc.t|cr.|
tc t|o |c.co
32
.FDIBOJDT 2
Remember that Newton`s second law is:
F = ma
As we saw earlier in the chapter:
a =
A

___

A

Substituting for a in the second law gives:
F =
mA

____

A

Knowing that:
mA =
We can re-write Newton`s second law as:
F =
A

___

A

Notice this can be rearranged to give the impulse equation:
FA = A = mA
In words we say that impulse is the change in momentum while force is the rate
of change of momentum.
Newton's th|rd |aw of mot|on
Newton's third law states that if body A exerts a force on body B, then body B
exerts an equal and opposite force on body A.
Clearly there must always be two different bodies involved in the third law.
An easy way to demonstrate this is with two spring balances.
There are examples of third law pairs of forces all
around us; here are just a few examples.
When you kick a football (or a brick), your
foot exerts a force on the ball and the ball
exerts an equal and opposite force on your
foot. The ball moves, hopefully towards the
goal, and you can feel the force on your foot.
When a cannon is fred, the cannon ball
moves forward but the ball exerts an equal
and opposite force on the cannon, so it recoils.
If you play tennis, your racket exerts a force
on the ball and the ball exerts an equal and
opposite force on your racket.
The Earth exerts a force on the Moon and the
Moon exerts an equal and opposite force on
the Earth. We know the Earth pulls the Moon
because it remains in orbit around us and we
know the Moon pulls on the Earth because it
infuences the tides in the oceans.
|o p|ctc s|c.s t|o ..ckot st.|rs
bo|r st.otc|oJ .rJ Jo|c.noJ

l5N

l5N
Figure 2.21 .c sp.|r b.|.rcos

|o .o.J|r cr A .||| .|..ys bo t|o
s.no .s t|o .o.J|r cr b
|Juc.t|cr |s rct t|o s.no |r
ovo.y ccurt.y .rJ JoporJs cr
J||o.orcos |r |.ru.o, pc||t|cs,
cu|tu.o .rJ .o|||cr, .ncr n.ry
ct|o. t||rs |r .|| oJuc.t|cr.|
systons t|o.o |s |c.ovo.,
..oonort |r t|o v.||J|ty c| t|o
|Jo.s bo||rJ |o.tcrs t|.oo |..s
c| nct|cr
33
Phys|ca| work
Sometimes in science we use words in a different sense to the way they are
normally used in the English language. Although a word often looks, sounds and is
spelt the same, it sometimes has a different meaning in physics. One example is the
defnition of wor| in the study of physics.
Work is denned as the force times the distance moved in the direction of the force.
This means that if there is no movement in the direction of the force, then no
work is done. If your car is stuck in the mud or the sand, you can push it as hard
as you like, and get completely exhausted, but if you do not move it then you have
done no work (on the car)!
Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules. It is independent of the mass
of the body being moved and the path taken. It only depends on the magnitude of
the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
The equation for work is:
V = Fstos 0
V is the work measured in J
F is the force measured in N
s is the distance moved measured in m
0 is the angle between the applied force and the direction of motion
Worked exampIe
A force of 40 N acting at 60 to the
horizontal pulls a block of mass 10 kg
a distance of 2.0 m across a smooth
surface. How much work is done:
Work, energy and power 2.3
2.3.! Oulline whal is meanl by wor|.
2.3.2 Delermine lhe work done by a non-conslanl lorce by inlerpreling a
lorce-displacemenl graph.
2.3.3 Solve problems involving lhe work done by a lorce.
2.3.4 Oulline whal is meanl by ||ne||c enery.
2.3.5 Oulline whal is meanl by chane |n rav||a||ona| po|en||a| enery.
2.3.6 Slale lhe principle ol conservalion ol energy.
2.3.7 Lisl dillerenl lorms ol energy and describe examples ol lhe
lranslormalion ol energy lrom one lorm lo anolher.
2.3.8 Dislinguish belween elaslic and inelaslic collisions.
2.3.9 Delne power.
2.3.!0 Delne and apply lhe concepl ol e||c|ency.
2.3.!! Solve problems involving work, energy and power.
lkg
applled force
40N
60
2m
Figure 2.22 \c.k Jcro pu|||r .
b|cck
34
.FDIBOJDT 2
4PMVUJPO
The size of the mass makes no difference to the work done.
If the surface is smooth, there is no friction, so the resultant force in the -
direction is the -component of the 40 N force.
Since the -component is adjacent to 60 angle:
cos 60 =

___

40

= 40 cos 60 N
V = Fstos0
V = 40 cos 60 N 2 m
V = 40 J
When a series of weights are hung on a spring causing it to stretch, work is done.
The force is the weg| and the distance moved is the eenson of the spring. As
long as the spring is not stretched beyond a certain point, called the e|ast |m,
then the force is directly proportional to the extension. A graph of force against
extension is a straight line through the origin.
The work done by this nonconstant force is found from the area under the
graph.
work done =
1

_

2
F
W =
1

_

2
k
W =
1

_

2
k
2
In physics, energy and work are very closely linked; in some senses they are the
same thing. Both are scalar quantities and both are measured in joules. If you have
energy, you can do work.
In general, we say that:
work done = energy converted
V = AE
When work is done, energy is converted or changed to different types. In the case
of the spring being stretched, the work done increases the elastic potential energy
of the spring.
elastic potential energy =
1

_

2
k
2
Kinetic energy
Knet energy (E
k
) is the energy a body has because it is moving. The word |net
refers to motion.
Imagine a block of mass m accelerated from rest by a resultant force, F. After
travelling a distance s the mass has an acceleration a.
The work done, V = Fs
but from Newton`s second law F = ma
so that V = mas (substituting for F)
From the sua equations, = u
2
+2as
since u = 0 then
2
= 2as
as =
1

_

2

2
Since V = mas =AE
and the energy converted is kinetic energy
kinetic energy = mas =m
1

_

2

2
%
k
=
1

_

2
MV
2
Figure 2.23 A ..p| c| |c.co ..|rst
oxtors|cr |c. . st.otc|oJ sp.|r
|o ..J|ort L =
'
_

x

' = LY
L |s t|o sp.|r ccrst.rt
extenslon (cm)
force
(N)

|ro.y |s Jo|roJ .s t|o .b|||ty tc
Jc .c.k
xaminer's hint: Scnot|nos |r .r
ox.n ycu .||| bo .skoJ tc Jo.|vo .r
oou.t|cr, suc| .s t|o k|rot|c oro.y
Jo.|v.t|cr |o.o V.ry stuJorts |rJ t||s
J||cu|t .rJ t|o.o |s .o.||y cr|y cro ..y
tc |np.cvo ycu. sk|||s +cu s|np|y |.vo tc
p..ct|so .rJ .opo.t t|on .|t| t|o bcck
c|csoJ .rJ t|or p..ct|so scno nc.o!
xaminer's hint: ||rot|c oro.y |s
c|tor .bb.ov|.toJ tc || c.&
k
35
Worked exampIe
Find the kinetic energy of a truck of mass 4000 kg travelling at a speed of 30 ms
1
4PMVUJPO
E
k
=
1

_

2
m
2
E
k
=
1

_

2
4000 kg (30 ms
1
)
2
E
k
= 1.8 10
6
J
PotentiaI energy
Gravitational potential energy (E
p
) is the energy a body has because of its position,
in particular, its vertical height relative to a given point.
Now imagine a mass m lifted a vertical height |. Here work is being done against
the pull of gravity.
the work done, V = Fs
here the force is the weight = mg
and the distance is the height |
so the work V = mg|
The work is increasing the gravitational potential energy of the mass.
V = AE
p
A%
p
= MGAH
Worked exampIe
The Leaning Tower of Pisa is 56 m high.
(a) Find the gravitational potential energy of a 10 kg cannon ball at the top of the
tower.
(b) If the cannon ball is dropped from the top of the tower, what will be its speed
when it hits the ground:
(Neglect air resistance and take g = 10 ms
2
)
4PMVUJPO
(a) AE
= mg A|
AE
= 10 kg 10 ms
2
56 m
AE
= 5600 J
(b) AE
p
= E
k
5600 J =
1

_

2
m
2
5600 J =
1

_

2
10 kg
2

2
=
5600

____

5

= 33 ms
1
xaminer's hint: \o ccu|J sc|vo
t||s us|r t|o TVWBU oou.t|crs, but
|| .|. .os|st.rco |s ro|octoJ, .|| t|o
..v|t.t|cr.| pctort|.| oro.y .||| bo
c|.roJ tc k|rot|c oro.y
|o.o |s . |.ncus stc.y .bcut
.|||oc J.cpp|r c.rrcr b.||s c|
J||o.ort .o||ts |.cn t|o tcp
c| t|o |o.r|r c.o. c| ||s. tc
Joncrst..to t|.t |o.vy cb,octs .rJ
|||to. cb,octs |.|| .t t|o s.no ..to
||s stc.y n.y c. n.y rct bo t.uo
c v|o. . nc.o .ocort vo.s|cr
c| .|||ocs oxpo.|nort, v|s|t
|o|ron.rrccuk/|ct||rks, orto.
t|o oxp.oss ccJo 4266S .rJ c||ck cr
\ob||rk 25
xaminer's hint: |ctort|.| oro.y |s
c|tor .bb.ov|.toJ tc || c. &
p
36
.FDIBOJDT 2
Conservat|on of energy
The idea of one form of energy changing into another is summarised in a very
important principle or law of physics, the principle conservation of energy.
We usually classify energy as the following forms:
1 Kinetic energy
2 Gravitational potential energy
3 Elastic potential energy
4 Thermal or heat energy
5 Light energy
6 Sound energy
7 Chemical energy
8 Electrical energy
9 Magnetic energy
10 Nuclear energy
In any given transformation, some of the energy is almost inevitably changed to
heat.
There are energy changes happening all around us all of the time. Here are a few
examples to think about.
A bouncing ball
The gravitational potential energy is changed to kinetic energy and back again
with each bounce. While the ball is in contact with the ground, some energy is
stored as elastic potential energy. Eventually the ball comes to rest and all the
energy has become low grade heat.
An aeroplane taking off
As fuel is burned in the engines, chemical energy is converted to heat, light and
sound. The plane accelerates down the runway and its kinetic energy increases.
There will be heat energy due to friction between the tyres and the runway. As the
plane takes off and climbs into the sky, its gravitational potential energy increases.
A nuclear power station
Nuclear energy from the uranium fuel changes to thermal energy that is used to
boil water. The kinetic energy of the steam molecules drives turbines, and as the
kinetic energy of the turbines increases, it interacts with magnetic energy to give
electrical energy.
A laptop computer
The electrical energy form the mains or chemical energy from the battery is
changed to light on the screen and sound through the speakers. There is kinetic
energy in the fan, magnetic energy in the motors, and plenty of heat is generated.
A human body
Most of the chemical energy from our food is changed to heat to keep us alive.
Some is changed to kinetic energy as we move, or gravitational potential energy if
we climb stairs. There is also elastic potential energy in our muscles, sound energy
when we talk and electrical energy in our nerves and brain.
|o p.|rc|p|o c| ccrso.v.t|cr c|
oro.y st.tos t|.t oro.y c.rrct
bo c.o.toJ c. Jost.cyoJ, cr|y
c|.roJ |.cn cro |c.n tc .rct|o.
A|| c| t|o oro.y cr |..t| |.s
ccno c.||r.||y |.cn t|o Sur |s t||s
st.tonort t.uo` |c. Jc ycu krc.`
xaminer's hint: |r .r ox.n Jc rct
s.y t|.t oro.y |s |cst but |rsto.J s.y |t
|.s boor c|.roJ c. ccrvo.toJ tc ct|o.
|c.ns
37
There is a useful relationship between kinetic energy and momentum which will
help you to solve numerical problems.
E
k
=
1

_

2
m
2
=
m
2

____

2

Multiplying top and bottom by m gives E
k
=
m
2

2

_____

2m

Momentum = m
Squaring gives
2
= m
2

2
Finally substituting in the above equation E
k
=
2

___

2m

Co|||s|ons
When we looked at momentum earlier, we mentioned that it was important for
collisions. Now we must distinguish between two different types of collisions.
When e|ast to||sons occur, momentum is conserved and kinetic energy is also
conserved. This means that no energy is changed to heat in an elastic collision. In
fact there is really no such thing as a perfectly elastic collision, although, of course,
some collisions are more elastic than others. After an elastic collision the bodies
always move separately.
During ne|ast to||sons, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not
conserved. In other words, some of the kinetic energy is converted to heat and
other forms of energy. After an inelastic collision the bodies may stick together.
Kinetic energy can sometimes increase, for example, if there is an input of
chemical energy from a fuel or explosive material.
Power
Power is a measure of how fast work is done or how quickly energy is converted.
Power is a scalar quantity.
power =
energy or work

_____________

time

If the energy or work is measured in joules and the time in seconds, then the
power will be measured in watts (W).
1 W = 1 Js
1
A 100 W light bulb converts electrical energy to heat and light at the rate of 100 J
every second.
Sometimes you will see power given in kW or even MW.
|..t|c|o p|ys|c|sts bo||ovo scno
cc|||s|crs bot.oor sub.tcn|c
p..t|c|os ..o po.|oct|y o|.st|c
xaminer's hint: |r ox.n ouost|crs
.bcut cc|||s|crs .rJ oxp|cs|crs,
ospoc|.||y nu|t|p|oc|c|co, .ssuno t|.t
ncnortun |s .|..ys ccrso.voJ
b||||..J b.|| cc|||s|crs ..o ||||y o|.st|c
boc.uso t|o b.||s ..o sc |..J |r .
po.|oct|y o|.st|c cc|||s|cr, cro b.|| ccu|J
stcp, .rJ t|o ct|o. ncvo c| .|t| t|o
s.no spooJ .s t|o |.st |r p..ct|co, t||s
c.rrct |.ppor boc.uso scno c| t|o
k|rot|c oro.y c|.ros tc |o.t .rJ
scurJ
|c.o. |s Jo|roJ .s t|o ..to c|
Jc|r .c.k
3S
.FDIBOJDT 2
Worked exampIe
Calculate the power of a worker in a supermarket who stacks shelves 1.5 m high
with cartons of orange juice, each of mass 6.0 kg, at the rate of 30 cartons per
minute.
4PMVUJPO
power =
work

_____

time

power =
Fs

__

power =
(30 60 N) 1.5 m

_________________

60 s

power = 45 W
There is another way to calculate power.
power =
Fs

__

= F
s

_

= F
In other words, power is equal to force times velocity, providing the velocity is
constant.
Efhciency
Effciency is a ratio of how much work, energy or power we get out of a system
compared to how much is put in.
effciency =
useful output

___________

total input

Since it is a ratio, there is no unit, and we can express effciency as a percentage by
multiplying by 100%.
No real machine or system can ever be 100% effcient, because there will always be
some energy changed to heat due to friction, air resistance or other causes.
'.nos \.tt (1361819) ..s
. Scctsn.r .|cso .c.k cr
t|o sto.n or|ro ..s . n.,c.
|r|uorco cr t|o |rJust.|.|
|ovc|ut|cr
||s or..v|r s|c.s . sto.n or|ro
Jos|roJ by '.nos \.tt
|.cn t|o J.ys c| A.|stct|o, t|.cu|
t|o t|no c| .|||oc, |o.tcr,
\.tt .rJ 'cu|o .||t up urt||
||rsto|r |r t|o o..|y 20t| cortu.y,
sc|ort|sts .c.koJ ncst|y .|cro
|c..J.ys, sc|ort|sts c|tor .c.k |r
nu|t|r.t|cr.| to.ns |oso to.ns
n.y n.ko |npc.t.rt J|sccvo.|os
|r |o|Js suc| .s p..t|c|o p|ys|cs, c.
.c.k cr sc|v|r t|o .o.t |cb.|
p.cb|ons ||ko ||\/A|Js .rJ |cb.|
...n|r
Oro c| t|o ncst o|c|ort Jov|cos
|s t|o o|oct.|c t..rs|c.no. |oy
c.r bo cvo. 99 o|c|ort boc.uso,
s|rco t|o.o ..o rc ncv|r p..ts,
t|o.o ..o rc oro.y |cssos Juo tc
|.|ct|cr c. .|. .os|st.rco
39
xaminer's hint: |o o|c|orcy |s
20 .||c| oou.|s 02
Worked exampIe
A car engine has an effciency of 20% and produces an average of 25 kJ of useful
work per second. How much energy is converted to heat per second:
4PMVUJPO
effciency =
useful output

___________

total input

0.2 =
25 000 J

_________

total input

total input =
25 000

______

0.2
= 125 000 J
If the total input is 125 kJ, and 25 kJ of useful work are obtained then the heat
produced must be:
125 kJ 25 kJ = 100 kJ
7 ||s ouost|cr |s .bcut J.|v|r . not.| b.. |rtc t|o .curJ
|..o not.| b..s c.r bo J.|vor |rtc t|o .curJ us|r . |o.vy |.|||r cb,oct
|r t|o s|tu.t|cr s|c.r, t|o cb,oct |.s . n.ss 20 10
3
k .rJ t|o not.| b.. |.s . n.ss c| 400 k
|o cb,oct st.|kos t|o b.. .t . spooJ c| 60 n s
1
|t ccnos tc .ost cr t|o b.. .|t|cut bcurc|r
As . .osu|t c| t|o cc|||s|cr, t|o b.. |s J.|vor |rtc t|o .curJ tc . Jopt| c| 05 n
(a) |oto.n|ro t|o spooJ c| t|o b.. |nnoJ|.to|y .|to. t|o cb,oct st.|kos |t
(b) |oto.n|ro t|o .vo..o |.|ct|cr.| |c.co oxo.toJ by t|o .curJ cr t|o b..
8. ||s ouost|cr |s .bcut ost|n.t|r oro.y c|.ros |c. .r osc.|.tc. (ncv|r st.|.c.so)
|o J|...n bo|c. .op.osorts .r osc.|.tc. |ocp|o
stop cr tc |t .t pc|rt A .rJ stop c| .t pc|rt b
(a) |o osc.|.tc. |s 30 n |cr .rJ n.kos .r .r|o
c| 40 .|t| t|o |c.|.crt.| At |u|| c.p.c|ty,
48 pocp|o stop cr .t pc|rt A .rJ stop c| .t
pc|rt b ovo.y n|ruto
(i) .|cu|.to t|o pctort|.| oro.y .|roJ
by . po.scr c| .o||t 0 10
2
| |r
ncv|r |.cn A tc b
(ii) |st|n.to t|o oro.y supp||oJ by
t|o osc.|.tc. nctc. tc t|o pocp|o ovo.y n|ruto .|or t|o osc.|.tc. |s .c.k|r .t |u||
c.p.c|ty
(iii) St.to one .ssunpt|cr t|.t ycu |.vo n.Jo tc cbt.|r ycu. .rs.o. tc (||)
|o osc.|.tc. |s J.|vor by .r o|oct.|c nctc. t|.t |.s .r o|c|orcy c| 0
(b) |s|r ycu. .rs.o. tc (.) (||), c.|cu|.to t|o n|r|nun |rput pc.o. .oou|.oJ by t|o nctc. tc
J.|vo t|o osc.|.tc.
Exerc|ses
ob[ect
mass 2.0 l0
3
kg
bar
mass 400kg
xaminer's hint: 25 k' = 25 000 '

40
.FDIBOJDT 2
Mot|on |n a c|rc|e
If a body is travelling in a circular path, then it is constantly changing direction;
at no point is it travelling in a straight line. Even if it is travelling at constant or
uniform speed, a body that is moving round a circle must be changing velocity.
This is because velocity is a vector and a change in velocity can be a change of
speed or direction.
If the velocity of the body is changing, then, by defnition the body must be
accelerating. This type of acceleration is called tenrea| atte|eraon. The word
tenrea| means tenre-see|ng and the direction of the acceleration is always
owarJs |e tenre o[ |e trt|e.
The equation for centripetal acceleration is:
a =

2

__

r

a centripetal acceleration ms
2
speed ms
1
r radius of the circle m
Since the body moves with constant speed we can use the simple equation:
speed =
distance

_______

time

If the body goes round the entire circle once, then this can be written:
=
2rr

____

T

2r r is the circumference of a circle.
T is the period (or time period) and is the time taken for one complete
revolution.
If we square this equation it becomes:

2
=
4r
2
r
2

_____

T
2

Uniform circuIar motion 2.4
2.4.! Draw a veclor diagram lo illuslrale lhal lhe acceleralion ol a parlicle
moving wilh conslanl speed in a circle is direcled lowards lhe cenlre ol
lhe circle.
2.4.2 Apply lhe expression lor cenlripelal acceleralion.
2.4.3 ldenlily lhe lorce producing circular molion in various silualions.
2.4.4 Solve problems involving circular molion.
Figure 2.25 A p..t|c|o ncv|r |r .

c|.c|o |o |rst.rt.rocus vo|cc|ty, W, |s
t|o t.rort tc t|o c|.c|o |o J|.oct|cr
c| t|o cort.|pot.| |c.co .||| bo |r t|o
s.no J|.oct|cr .s t|o cort.|pot.|
.cco|o..t|cr
41
Substituting for
2
in the centripetal acceleration and cancelling one of the r terms
gives:
a =
4r
2
r

____

T
2

If a body is accelerating, we know from Newton`s second law that it must be being
acted on by an unbalanced force. The force causing the centripetal acceleration is
called the tenrea| [orte. The direction of the centripetal force is also towards the
centre of the circle; this is logical because bodies accelerate in the direction of the
resultant force.
To understand this, think about a car driving round a circular track. If the friction
is too low, for example, if the car skids on a patch of ice, then the car will fy off at
a tangent.
The friction is the force that turns the car into the bends and it is directed towards
the center of the circle. The friction here is the centripetal force.
In the same way, when the Moon orbits the Earth there is a centripetal force from
the Moon towards the centre of the Earth. In this case the force is gravitational. If
you whirl a rubber bung or a stone tied to a piece of string around your head, then
the centripetal force that keeps the stone turning is the tension in the string. If the
string breaks and the tension becomes zero, the bung or stone fies off in a straight
line.
If the equation for centripetal acceleration is:
a =

2

__

r

and we know that F = ma
we can substitute for a to give:
F =
m
2

____

r

This is the equation for centripetal force.
Worked exampIe
A ball of mass 50 g tied to the end of a piece of string is whirled by a student in a
horizontal circle of radius 1.2 m at constant speed. The ball makes 1.5 revolutions
per second.
(a) Find the acceleration of the ball.
(b) Find the force that the student must exert on the string.
|o cort.|pot.| |c.co |s s|np|y .r
oxt.. r.no .o |vo tc . |c.co t|.t
|s .|.o.Jy t|o.o, |t |s rct . ro. c.
J||o.ort |c.co
Figure 2.26 |o.o nust bo |.|ct|cr
bot.oor t|o c.. ty.os .rJ t|o .c.J tc
koop t|o c.. c|r .curJ
xaminer's hint: || ycu ..o .skoJ tc

J... t|o |c.co cr . bcJy ncv|r |r .
c|.c|o, .|..ys J... |t pc|rt|r tc...Js
t|o cort.o c| t|o c|.c|o |c rct bo
tonptoJ tc .JJ .rct|o. ...c. pc|rt|r
cut...Js tc b.|.rco t|o |c.cos, t|oy
..o rct b.|.rcoJ boc.uso t|o bcJy |s
.cco|o..t|r
42
.FDIBOJDT 2
4PMVUJPO
(a) speed =
distance

_______

time

=
1.5 2r 1.2 m

______________

1.0 s

= 11.3 ms
1
a =

2

__

r

a =
(11.3 ms
1
)
2

__________

1.2 m

= 107 ms
2
(b) F =
m
2

____

r

=
0.050 kg (11.3 ms
1
)
2

____________________

1.2 m

= 5.3 N
xaminer's hint: S|rco t|o b.|| |s
ncv|r |r . c|.c|o, t|o .cco|o..t|cr .|||
bo cort.|pot.|
9 Ar .|.c..|t .cco|o..tos |.cn .ost .|cr . |c.|.crt.| st..||t .ur..y .rJ t|or t.kos c| |o n.ss
c| t|o .|.c..|t |s 80 10
3
k
(a) |o .vo..o .osu|t.rt |c.co cr t|o .|.c..|t .|||o t..vo|||r .|cr t|o .ur..y |s 0 k| |o
spooJ c| t|o .|.c..|t ,ust .s |t |||ts c| |s 5 n s
1
|st|n.to t|o J|st.rco t..vo||oJ .|cr t|o
.ur..y
(b) |o .|.c..|t c||nbs tc . |o||t c| 1250 n .|cu|.to t|o pctort|.| oro.y .|roJ Ju.|r t|o
c||nb
(c) \|or .pp.c.c||r |ts Jost|r.t|cr, t|o p||ct puts t|o .|.c..|t |rtc . |c|J|r p.tto.r ||s
no.rs t|o .|.c..|t ||os .t . ccrst.rt spooJ c| 90 n s
1
|r . |c.|.crt.| c|.c|o, .rJ t|o ..J|us
c| t|o c|.c|o |s 500 n
|c. t|o .|.c..|t |r t|o |c|J|r p.tto.r,
(i) c.|cu|.to t|o n.r|tuJo c| t|o .osu|t.rt |c.co cr t|o .|.c..|t
(ii) st.to t|o J|.oct|cr c| t|o .osu|t.rt |c.co
10 A ocst.t|cr..y s.to|||to, |c. ox.np|o . ccnnur|c.t|crs s.to|||to, c.b|ts t|o |..t| .|t| . t|no
po.|cJ c| 24 |cu.s || t|o J|st.rco |.cn t|o s.to|||to tc t|o cort.o c| t|o |..t| |s 42 10
n,
c.|cu|.to t|o .cco|o..t|cr c| t|o s.to|||to
Exerc|ses
1 / oa||, |u||a||, a |cs, a|cs |rc o a|| ||ou| a .c||ca| d|saucc |. l a|| |cs|saucc |s
|uo|cd, |c |rc a|cu o| |c oa|| o a|| |or |cs ||ou| a .c||ca| d|saucc 9| |s
/ 3
8 5
C 9
0 10
2 / |a|ud|op a|||u ||ou| a|| |cac|cs a c|r|ua| .c|oc|, oco|c |||u |c |ouud. /
c|r|ua| .c|oc|,, |c ||c|oua| o|cc ou |c |a|ud|op |s
/ .c|o.
8 |css |au |c wc|| o |c |a|ud|op.
C |cac| |au |c wc|| o |c |a|ud|op.
0 cqua| o |c wc|| o |c |a|ud|op.
Pract|ce quest|ons
43
3 /u a||cc |uus |ouud a c||cu|a| |ac| a cousau spccd. w||c| one o |c
o||ow|u |ap|s ocs |cp|cscus |c .a||a|ou w|| |rc o |c rau|udc d o |c
dispIacement o |c a||cc |or |c sa||u pos||ou du||u ouc |ap o |c |ac|1
A 8
0
0

0
0
C
0
0

0
0
4 / oa|| |s d|oppcd |or |cs a

|rc = 0 ou o a |o||.oua|
su|acc |or w||c| | |coouuds.
!|c |ap| s|ows |c .a||a|ou
o |rc w|| speed . o
|c oa||.
w||c| ouc o |c o||ow|u ocs |cp|cscus |c po|u a w||c| |c oa|| jus |oscs couac
w|| |c su|acc ac| |c |s oouucc1
/
8
C
0
5 Iuau |s saud|u ou |c p|ao|r a a |a||wa, sa|ou. / |a|u passcs ||ou| |c sa|ou
w|| spccd 20 r s
1
|u |c d||cc|ou s|owu rcasu|cd |c|a|.c o |c p|ao|r. Ca|rcu
|s wa|||u a|ou ouc o |c ca|||acs o |c |a|u w|| a spccd o 2.0 r s
1
rcasu|cd
|c|a|.c o |c ca|||ac |u |c d||cc|ou s|owu. vc|oc|, |s rcasu|cd as pos||.c |u |c
d||cc|ou s|owu ou |c d|a|ar.
!|c .c|oc|, o Ca|rcu |c|a|.c
o Iuau |s
/ 22 r s
1
8 18 r s
1
C +18 r s
1
0 +22 r s
1
Carmen
1uan
platform
2.0ms
l
20 ms
l
posltlve dlrectlon
0
44
.FDIBOJDT 2
6 !|c |ap| oc|ow s|ows |c .a||a|ou w|| |rc o |c d|saucc ro.cd o, a ca| a|ou a
s|a|| |oad. 0u||u w||c| |rc |uc|.a| docs |c ca| |a.c |s |cacs accc|c|a|ou1
tance
moved
tlme
A 8 C D
7 !|c .a||a|ou w|| |rc o |c spccd . o a ca| ro.|u a|ou a s|a|| |oad |s s|owu
oc|ow.
S
l
S
2
S
3
0
0
w||c| a|ca, '
1
, '
2
o| '
3
, o| coro|ua|ou o a|cas, |cp|cscus |c oa| d|saucc ro.cd
o, |c ca| du||u |c |rc |a |s spccd |s |cduc|u1
/ '
1
8 '
3
C '
1
+ '
3
0 '
1
+ '
2
+ '
3
8 w|cu a ood, |s accc|c|a|u, |c |csu|au o|cc ac|u ou | |s cqua| o |s
/ c|auc o rorcuur.
8 |ac o c|auc o rorcuur.
C accc|c|a|ou pc| uu| o rass.
0 |ac o c|auc o ||uc|c cuc|,.
9 / oa|| o rass r, |a.c|||u |u a d||cc|ou a ||| au|cs o a .c||ca| wa||, s|||cs |c
wa|| w|| a spccd .
1
. l |coouuds a ||| au|cs o |c wa|| w|| a spccd .
2
. !|c oa|| |s
|u couac w|| |c wa|| o| a |rc A. !|c rau|udc o |c o|cc |a |c oa|| cc|s ou
|c wa|| |s
/
r (.
1
+ .
2
)

_________

A

0 r (.
1
+ .
2
)A
8
r (.
1
.
2
)

_________

A

C r (.
1
.
2
)A
45
10 / sp|c|c o rass r s|||cs a .c||ca| wa|| aud oouuccs o |, as s|owu oc|ow.
momentum
momentum
!|c rau|udc o |c rorcuur o |c sp|c|c jus oco|c |rpac |s p

8
aud jus ac|
|rpac |s p
/
. !|c sp|c|c |s |u couac w|| |c wa|| o| |rc . !|c rau|udc o |c
a.c|ac o|cc cc|cd o, |c wa|| ou |c sp|c|c |s
/
(p
8
p
/
)

________

8
(p
8
p
/
)

________

C
(p
8
p
/
)

________

r

0
(p
8
+ p
/
)

________

r

11 / |uc| co|||dcs |cad ou w|| a |css rass|.c ca| ro.|u |u |c oppos|c d||cc|ou o
|c |uc|. 0u||u |c co|||s|ou, |c a.c|ac o|cc cc|cd o, |c |uc| ou |c ca| |s f
!

aud |c a.c|ac o|cc cc|cd o, |c ca| ou |c |uc| |s f
C
. w||c| one o |c o||ow|u
sacrcus |s co||cc1
/ f
!
w||| a|wa,s oc |cac| |u rau|udc |au f
C
.
8 f
!
w||| a|wa,s oc cqua| |u rau|udc o f
C
.
C f
!
w||| oc |cac| |u rau|udc |au f
C
ou|, w|cu |c spccd o |c ca| |s |css |au
|c spccd o |c |uc|.
0 f
!
w||| oc cqua| |u rau|udc o f
C
ou|, w|cu |c spccd o |c |uc| |s cqua| o |c
spccd o |c ca|.
12 / sra|| ooa |u s||| wac| |s |.cu au |u||a| |o||.oua| pus| o c | ro.|u. !|c ooa
|adua||, s|ows dowu. w||c| o |c o||ow|u sacrcus |s |uc o| |c o|ccs ac|u ou
|c ooa as | s|ows dowu1
/ !|c|c |s a o|wa|d o|cc |a d|r|u|s|cs w|| |rc.
8 !|c|c |s a oac|wa|d o|cc |a d|r|u|s|cs w|| |rc.
C !|c|c |s a o|wa|d o|cc aud a oac|wa|d o|cc oo| o w||c| d|r|u|s| w|| |rc.
0 !|c|c |s a o|wa|d o|cc aud a oac|wa|d o|cc |a a|c a|wa,s cqua| aud oppos|c.
13 !|c |ap| oc|ow s|ows |c .a||a|ou w|| d|sp|accrcu
d o |c o|cc f app||cd o, a sp||u ou a ca|.
!|c wo|| douc o, |c o|cc |u ro.|u |c ca| ||ou|
a d|saucc o 2 cr |s
/ 10 10
2
I
8 7 10
2
I
C 5 10
2
I
0 2.5 10
2
I
0
0
/l0
2
m
l
l 2 3
2
3
4
5
46
.FDIBOJDT 2
14 w||c| one o |c o||ow|u |s a |uc sacrcu aoou cuc|,1
/ Euc|, |s dcs|o,cd duc o ||c|oua| o|ccs.
8 Euc|, |s a rcasu|c o |c ao|||, o do wo||.
C Vo|c cuc|, |s a.a||ao|c w|cu |c|c |s a |a|c| powc|.
0 Euc|, aud powc| oo| rcasu|c |c sarc quau|,.
15 /u c|cc||c |a|u dc.c|ops a powc| o 1.0 Vw w|cu |a.c|||u a a cousau spccd o
50 rs
1
. !|c uc |cs|s|.c o|cc ac|u ou |c |a|u |s
/ 50 VN
8 200 |N
C 20 |N
0 200 N
16 w||c| o |c o||ow|u quau||cs |s/a|c cousc|.cd |u au |uc|as|c co|||s|ou |u au |so|acd
s,scr o wo oojccs1
,INEARMOMENTUMOFSYSTEM +INETICENERGYOFSYSTEM
/ Ycs Ycs
8 Ycs No
C No Ycs
0 No No
17 !|c d|a|ar oc|ow |cp|cscus cuc|, |ausc|s |u au cu|uc.
englne
useful output energy
OUT
lnput energy
|N
wasted energy
w
!|c cc|cuc, o |c cu|uc |s |.cu o, |c cp|css|ou
/
E
w

___

E
lN

8
E
w

____

E
Cu!

C
E
Cu!

____

E
lN

0
E
Cu!

____

E
w

18 / rac||uc ||s au oojcc o wc|| 1.5 10
3
N o a |c|| o 10 r. !|c rac||uc |as
au o.c|a|| cc|cuc, o 20%. !|c wo|| douc o, |c rac||uc |u |a|s|u |c oojcc |s
/ 3.0 10
3
I
8 1.2 10
4
I
C 1.8 10
4
I
0 7.5 10
4
I.
47
19 /u c|cc||c roo|, w|| au |upu powc| o 250 w, p|oduccs 200 w o rcc|au|ca| powc|.
!|c cc|cuc, o |c roo| |s
/ 20%.
8 25%.
C 55%.
0 80%.
20 / souc o rass r |s aac|cd o a s||u aud ro.cs |ouud |u a |o||.oua| c||c|c o
|ad|us R a cousau spccd v. !|c wo|| douc o, |c pu|| o |c s||u ou |c souc |u
ouc corp|cc |c.o|u|ou |s
/ .c|o
8 2rrv
2
C
2rrv
2

______

R

0
2rrv
2

______

R

21 !wo oojccs \ aud Y a|c ro.|u awa, |or |c po|u l. !|c d|a|ar oc|ow s|ows |c
.c|oc|, .cco|s o |c wo oojccs.
P
veloclty vector for ob[ect
veloclty vector for ob[ect X
w||c| o |c o||ow|u .c|oc|, .cco|s ocs |cp|cscus |c .c|oc|, o oojcc \ |c|a|.c
o oojcc Y1
A 8 C D
22 !||s qucs|ou |s aoou ||ow|u
8.0ms
l
sea

a souc |or a c||.
/uou|a sauds a |c cdc o a
.c||ca| c|| aud ||ows a souc
.c||ca||, upwa|ds.
!|c souc |ca.cs /uou|a's |aud
w|| spccd . = 8.0 rs
1
.
!|c accc|c|a|ou o |cc a|| |s
10 r s
2
aud a|| d|saucc
rcasu|crcus a|c a|cu |or |c
po|u w|c|c |c souc |ca.cs
/uou|a's |aud.
(a) luo||u a|| |cs|saucc, ca|cu|ac
(i) |c ra|rur |c|| |cac|cd o, |c souc.
(ii) |c |rc a|cu o, |c souc o |cac| |s ra|rur |c||.
!|c |rc ocwccu |c souc |ca.|u /uou|a's |aud aud |||u |c sca |s 3.0 s.
(b) 0cc|r|uc |c |c|| o |c c||.
4S
.FDIBOJDT 2
23 !||s qucs|ou |s aoou |c co|||s|ou ocwccu wo |a||wa, |uc|s (ca|s).
(a) 0cuc ||uca| rorcuur.
lu |c d|a|ar ou |c |||,
5.0ms
l
lmmedlately before olllslon
lmmedlately after olllslon

|uc| / |s ro.|u a|ou a
|o||.oua| |ac|. l co|||dcs
w|| a sa|oua|, |uc| 8, aud
ou co|||s|ou, |c wo jo|u
oc|c|. lrrcd|ac|, oco|c
|c co|||s|ou, |uc| / |s ro.|u
w|| spccd 5.0 rs
1
.
lrrcd|ac|, ac| co|||s|ou, |c
spccd o |c |uc|s |s ..
!|c rass o |uc| / |s 800 |
aud |c rass o |uc| 8 |s 1200 |.
(b) (i) Ca|cu|ac |c spccd . |rrcd|ac|, ac| |c co|||s|ou.
(ii) Ca|cu|ac |c oa| ||uc|c cuc|, |os du||u |c co|||s|ou.
24 /u c|c.ao| (||) sa|s |or |cs ou |c |ouud oo| aud corcs o |cs a a |||c| oo|.
ls ro|ou |s cou|o||cd o, au c|cc||c roo|. / s|rp||cd |ap| o |c .a||a|ou o |c
c|c.ao|'s .c|oc|, w|| |rc |s s|owu oc|ow.
4.0 8.0
veloclty
( ms
l
)
l2.0
tlme (s)
3.0 7.0 ll.0 2.0 6.0 l0.0 l.0 0.0 5.0 9.0
0.00
0.l0
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
!|c rass o |c c|c.ao| |s 250 |. usc ||s |uo|ra|ou o ca|cu|ac
(a) |c accc|c|a|ou o |c c|c.ao| du||u |c |s 0.50 s
(b) |c oa| d|saucc |a.c||cd o, |c c|c.ao|
(c) |c r|u|rur wo|| |cqu||cd o |a|sc |c c|c.ao| o |c |||c| oo|
(d) |c r|u|rur a.c|ac powc| |cqu||cd o |a|sc |c c|c.ao| o |c |||c| oo|
(e) |c cc|cuc, o |c c|cc||c roo| |a ||s |c c|c.ao|, |.cu |a |c |upu powc|
o |c roo| |s 5.0 |w.
49
25 !||s qucs|ou |s aoou rorcuur aud |c ||ucra|cs o a p|oposcd jou|uc, o Iup|c|.
(a) 'ac |c |aw o cousc|.a|ou o rorcuur.
/ so|a| p|opu|s|ou cu|uc uscs so|a| powc| o |ou|.c aors o cuou aud o accc|c|ac
|cr. /s a |csu| o |c accc|c|a|ou p|occss, |c |ous a|c cjcccd |or |c spaccs||p
w|| a spccd o 3.0 10
4
rs
1
.
xenon lons
speed = 3.0 l0
4
ms
l
spaceshlp
mass = 5.4 l0
2
kg
(b) !|c rass (uuc|cou) uuroc| o |c cuou uscd |s 131. 0cducc |a |c rass o ouc
|ou o cuou |s 2.2 10
25
|.
(c) !|c o|||ua| rass o |c uc| |s 81 |. 0cducc |a, | |c cu|uc cjccs 7.7 10
18

cuou |ous c.c|, sccoud, |c uc| w||| |as o| 1.5 ,ca|s. (1 ,ca| = 3.2 10
7
s)
(d) !|c rass o |c spaccs||p |s 5.4 10
2
|. 0cducc |a |c |u||a| accc|c|a|ou o
|c spaccs||p |s 8.2 10
5
r s
2
.
!|c |ap| oc|ow s|ows |c .a||a|ou w|| |rc o |c accc|c|a|ou a o |c spaccs||p.
!|c so|a| p|opu|s|ou cu|uc |s sw|c|cd ou a |rc = 0 w|cu |c spccd o |c
spaccs||p |s 1.2 10
3
r s
1
.
2.0 4.0
/l0
5
ms
l
/l0
7
s
6.0 l.0 3.0 5.0 0.0
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
l0.0
(e) Ep|a|u w|, |c accc|c|a|ou o |c spaccs||p |s |uc|cas|u w|| |rc.
(f) us|u daa |or |c |ap|, ca|cu|ac |c spccd o |c spaccs||p a |c |rc w|cu
|c cuou uc| |as a|| occu uscd.
(g) !|c d|saucc o |c spaccs||p |or Ea|| w|cu |c so|a| p|opu|s|ou cu|uc |s
sw|c|cd ou |s .c|, sra|| corpa|cd o |c d|saucc |or Ea|| o Iup|c|. !|c uc|
|uus ou w|cu |c spaccs||p |s a d|saucc o 4.7 10
11
r |or Iup|c|. Es|rac
|c oa| |rc |a | wou|d a|c |c spaccs||p o |a.c| |or Ea|| o Iup|c|.

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Copyright:

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1

n \|.t .cu|J t||s bo |r r.rcnot.os`

Motion oing a bod traveIIing at a tead peed

Figure 1.5 ||st.rco |s . sc.|.., .rJ

w||c| oue o |e o||ow|u coua|us ||ee uudareua| uu|s1

Figure 2.4 |cu. J|st.rcot|no

Figure 2.6 |o |rst.rt.rocus vo|cc|ty

Figure 2.7 \o|cc|tyt|no ..p|

Figure 2.16 |rc||roJ p|.ro

Figure 2.21 .c sp.|r b.|.rcos

xaminer's hint: 25 k' = 25 000 '

Figure 2.25 A p..t|c|o ncv|r |r .

xaminer's hint: || ycu ..o .skoJ tc

4 / oa|| |s d|oppcd |or |cs a

!|c rau|udc o |c rorcuur o |c sp|c|c jus oco|c |rpac |s p

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