Iv:vov:cn N:v+zscnv

APhilosophical Biography
!n this bcautilully writtcn account, Julian Young providcs thc most comprchcnsivc bio
graphy availablc today ol thc lilc and philosophy ol thc ninctccnthccntury Gcrman philos
ophcr Fricdrich Nictzschc. Young dcals with thc many puzzlcs crcatcd by thc conjunction
ol Nictzschcs pcrsonal history and his work: why thc son ol a Luthcran pastor dcvclopcd
into thc scllstylcd Antichrist, why this archctypical Prussian camc to loathc 8ismarcks
Prussia, and why this cncmy ol lcminism prclcrrcd thc company ol lcminist womcn. Sct
ting Nictzschcs thought in thc contcxt ol his timcs thc risc ol Prussian militarism, anti
Scmitism, arwinian scicncc, thc Youth and cmancipationist movcmcnts, as wcll as thc
dcath ol God Young cmphasizcs thc dccisivc inucncc ol Plato and ol Richard Vagncr
on Nictzschcs attcmpt to rclorm Vcstcrn culturc. Hc also dcscribcs thc dcvastating ccct
on Nictzschcs pcrsonality ol his unhappy lovc lor Lou Salom c and attcmpts to undcrstand
why, at thc agc ol lortylour, hc wcnt mad.
Tis book includcs a sclcction ol morc than thirty photographs ol Nictzschc, his lricnds,
and his work sitcs. Scvcntccn ol thc philosophcrs musical compositions, which arc kcy to
a dccpcr undcrstanding ol his intcllcctual projcct, arc availablc onlinc.
ducatcd at Cambridgc Univcrsity and thc Univcrsity ol Pittsburgh, Julian Young is Kcnan
Prolcssor ol Humanitics at Vakc Forcst Univcrsity, Prolcssor ol Philosophy at thc Uni
vcrsity ol Auckland, and Honorary Rcscarch Prolcssor at thc Univcrsity ol Tasmania. A
scholar ol ninctccnth and twcnticthccntury Gcrman philosophy, hc is thc author ol ninc
books, most rcccntly Nietzsches Philosophy of Feligion, and has bccn invitcd to spcak at uni
vcrsitics and conlcrcnccs throughout thc world.
Note
Chaptcrs and scctions with hcadings in italics discuss Nictzschcs works. Tc
rcmaindcr discuss his lilc. Tcrc arc thus thrcc ways ol rcading this book. nc
can rcad about Nictzschcs lilc, about his works, or, bcst ol all, about both his lilc
and his works.
Scvcntccn ol Nictzschcs musical compositions, togcthcr with a com
mcntary, arc availablc on thc books Vcb sitc, http://www.cambridgc.org/
8o:+8++.
Iv:vov:cn N:v+zscnv
A
Philosophical
Biography

Jiii~x Yoixc
c~:nvi bcv ixi vvvsi :v vvvss
Cambridgc, Ncw York, Mclbournc, Madrid, Capc Town, Singaporc,
S ao Paulo, clhi, ubai, Tokyo
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss
: Avcnuc ol thc Amcricas, Ncw York, xv +oo+:, is~
www.cambridgc.org
!nlormation on this titlc: www.cambridgc.org/8o:+8++
c
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss :o+o
Tis publication is in copyright. Subjcct to statutory cxccption
and to thc provisions ol rclcvant collcctivc liccnsing agrccmcnts,
no rcproduction ol any part may takc placc without thc writtcn
pcrmission ol Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss.
First publishcd :o+o
Printcd in thc Unitcd Statcs ol Amcrica
catalog record for this publication is a.ailable from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data
Young, Julian.
Fricdrich Nictzschc : a philosophical biography / Julian Young.
p. cm.
!ncludcs bibliographical rclcrcnccs and indcx.
isnx 8o:+8++ (hardback)
+. Nictzschc, Fricdrich Vilhclm, +8+oo. !. Titlc.
n+6.v68 :o+o
+ dc:: :ooo::
isnx 8o:+8++ Hardback
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss has no rcsponsibility lor thc pcrsistcncc or
accuracy ol ivis lor cxtcrnal or thirdparty !ntcrnct Vcb sitcs rclcrrcd to in
this publication and docs not guarantcc that any contcnt on such Vcb sitcs is,
or will rcmain, accuratc or appropriatc.
Contcnts
List of Illustrations page x
ckno.ledgments xiii
List of bbre.iations xv
PART N
r
YOUTH
cnav+vv +
r
a Capo
R ockcn,
r
Naumburg, +:
r
God, +8
cnav+vv :
r
Plorta :+
A ividcd Hcritagc, ::
r
Tc Curriculum, :6
r
Tc Germania Socicty, :
r
Rcligious oubt, :8
r
Tccnagc Rcbcllion, :
r
Ncw Fricnds, +
r
Lcaving
School, :
r
Literary !orks ::&,,
r
Feligion,
r
Music,
r
Tragedy, o
r
Poetry, +
r
Morality and Politics, 6
r
Homeland .ersus !orld
Citizenship,
r
Fate and Freedom, o
cnav+vv
r
8onn +
Frcc at Last, +
r
8ccrrinking on thc Rhinc,
r
Tc Colognc 8rothcl,

r
avid Strauss and thc Critiquc ol Christianity, 6
r
Lcaving 8onn, 6+
cnav+vv
r
Lcipzig 6
Gctting Scttlcd, 6
r
Happy Timcs, 6
r
Tc Study ol Classics, 6
r
Var and
Politics, 6
r
Military Scrvicc, :
r
Rcturn to Lcipzig: First Mccting with
Vagncr,
r
FairyTalcLikc and ScvcnLcaguc8ootish, 8
cnav+vv
r
Schopenhauer 8+
Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation, 8+
r
Nietzsches Con.ersion, 86
r
Te
Impact of Kant and Lange, 8
r
Criticising Schopenhauer, o
r
Feconstructing
Schopenhauer, +
PART TV
r
THI RIIUCTANT PROIISSOR
cnav+vv 6
r
8ascl
8ascl in +8o,
r
Univcrsity Lilc, +o+
r
Collcagucs and Fricnds, +o
r
8urckhardt, +o
r
vcrbcck, +o
r
!slc ol thc 8lcsscd, +o
r
Tc nd ol an
!dyll, ++o
cnav+vv y
r
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy ++:
Te !agnerian !orld.ie., ++
r
Te rt.ork of the Future, ++8
r
Te Impact of
Schopenhauer, ++
r
Te !isdom of Silenus, +:
r
Homers rt, +:6
r
Greek

.
.i

Contents
Tragedy, +:
r
Te Fole of Myth, +o
r
Solution to the Fiddle of !agners Felation
to the Greeks, ++
r
Socrates and the Death of Tragedy, +:
r
!hat Is !rong .ith
Te !ay !e re No.?, +:
cnav+vv 8
r
Var and Altcrmath +
Tc FrancoPrussian Var, +6
r
Nictzschcs Var, +
r
Tc Altcrmath, +8
r
!iolence, +
r
Prussia, ++
r
On the Future of Our Educational Institutions, +:
cnav+vv q
r
Anal Philology +8
Rohdcs Highcr Advcrtising, +o
r
Vilamowitzs Countcrblast, ++
r
Alicnation ol Ritschl, +:
r
Vagncrs !ntcrvcntion, +
r
\on 8 ulow and thc
Manlrcd Mcditation, +
r
Rctrcat to thc Mountains, +
r
Anal
Compulsivc Philology, +6
r
xistcntial Philology, +6
r
Rclations with thc
Vagncrs, +
r
Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten Books, +8
cnav+vv +o
r
Untimcly Mcditations +6
Fun in 8ascl, +6
r
Gloom in 8ayrcuth, +66
r
First Untimely Meditation:
Da.id Strauss, the Confessor and the !riter, +68
r
Rcst Curc in Flims, ++
r
Tc Rosalic Niclscn Aair, +:
r
Summons to thc Gcrmans, +
r
Second
Untimely Meditation: Te Uses and Disad.antages of History for Life, +
r
Notes
from the Underground, +
cnav+vv ++
r
Aimczvous 8rahms: +8:
cprcssion, Marriagc, and ropping ut, +8:
r
!agner in the Balance, +8
r
Tc Homc Front, a Ncw Publishcr, Vomcn, +8
r
8crg un, ++
r
8rahms
8anncd in 8ayrcuth, +:
r
Tird Untimely Meditation: Schopenhauer as
Educator, +
r
Christmas at Homc and thc Hymn to Fricndship, :oo
cnav+vv +:
r
Aul Vicdcrschcn 8ayrcuth :o+
!e Philologists, :o
r
A Rcvicw, a Farcwcll to Romundt, a 8irthday Grccting to
Vagncr, and a Hcalth Crisis, :o
r
Curc in Stcinabad, :o8
r
A Ncw
Apartmcnt and Ncw Fricnds: Paul R cc and Hcinrich K osclitz, :+:
r
\cytaux,
Gcncva, and a Marriagc Proposal, :+
r
!agner in Bayreuth, :+
r
Tc First
8ayrcuth Fcstival, ::
r
Rcturn to 8ayrcuth and a Flirtation, ::6
cnav+vv +
r
Sorrcnto ::
Going South, :o
r
Malwida von Mcyscnbug, :o
r
Tc \illa Rubinacci,
::
r
Roscnlaui: Nictzschc and Shcrlock Holmcs, :
r
8ack in 8ascl, :8
r
Tc Shocking !ncidcnt ol thc Fricndly octor and thc octoring Fricnd, :
cnav+vv +
r
Human, AllTooHuman :+
Tc Turn to Positivism, ::
r
Tc Frcc Spirit: Nictzschc and thc LilcRclorm
Movcmcnt, :
r
Tc Monastcry lor Frcc Spirits, :
r
Human, ll-Too-
Human: Te ttack on Metaphysics, :
r
!hy Deconstruct Metaphysics?, :
r
Nietzsches Higher Culture, :6o
r
Te Teory of Cultural E.olution, :6+
r
Fational Li.ing: Sla.ery, Punishment, Euthanasia, Eugenics, Conser.ation, :6:
r
Feligion and rt in a Higher Culture, :6
r
Globalization, :66
r
Te Problem of
Free !ill, :6
r
On Mans Need for Metaphysics, :68
Contents

.ii
PART THR
r
THI NOMA
cnav+vv +
r
Tc Vandcrcr and His Shadow :
Rcccption ol Human, ll-Too-Human, :
r
ssorted Opinions and Maxims,
:
r
Lcaving 8ascl, :6
r
St. Moritz, :
r
Hcalth and picurus, :
r
Te
!anderer and His Shado., :8+
r
Building !alden T.o, :8
r
!omen, :8
r
Is
Nietzsche a Democrat?, :88
r
Naumburg, Riva, \cnicc, Maricnbad, Strcsa,
:8
r
Gcnoa, Rccoaro, and Sils Maria, :
cnav+vv +6
r
Da.n :6
Book for Slo. Feaders, :6
r
Happiness, :
r
Te Teoretical Frame.ork,
:
r
Critique of Christian Metaphysics, oo
r
Critique of Christian Morality,
o+
r
Te Counter-Ideal to Christianity, o
r
Self-Creation, o
r
Te Paradox
of Happiness, o
r
Te Heroic-Idyllic, o8
r
Bene.olent Egoism, o
r
Concrete
d.ice, +:
r
Te Status of the Teoretical Frame.ork, +
cnav+vv +y
r
Tc Gay Scicncc +6
First Summcr in Sils Maria, +6
r
Enter Eternal Feturn, +8
r
Sccond Vintcr
in Gcnoa, :o
r
Carmen, St. Januarius, R cc, and Sarah 8crnhardt, :+
r
Mcssina, :
r
Idylls from Messina, :
r
Te Gay Science, :6
r
Te Main
rgument, :6
r
Cultural E.olution, :
r
Te !ay !e re No., :
r
Nietzsches Future, o
r
Life as an rt.ork,
r
Feality, Truth, and
Kno.ledge,
cnav+vv +8
r
Tc Salom c Aair
Lou Salom c,
r
Nictzschc in Romc, o
r
Tc Mystcry ol Sacro Montc
and thc Vhip Photograph, :
r
Undcrhand calings,
r
Nictzschc in
Tautcnburg,
r
lizabcth vcrsus Lou, 6
r
Shc Said Shc Said Hc Said,

r
Lou in Tautcnburg,
r
To Pain, o
r
Family Rupturc, :
r
Tc nd ol thc Aair,
r
Altcrmath,
cnav+vv +q
r
Zarathustra
Rctrcat to Rapallo,
r
AntiantiScmitism, 8
r
Nictzschc as Vagncrs
Hcir,
r
Sccond Summcr in Sils Maria, 6o
r
Continuation ol thc Salom c
Aair, 6+
r
Tc Shadow ol 8crnhard F orstcr, 6
r
First Vintcr in Nicc,
6
r
Two isciplcs, 6
r
A Ncw 8iblc, 66
r
Tus Spoke Zarathustra:
Te Prologue, 6
r
Zarathustra Part I: Te Speeches of Zarathustra, 6
r
Zarathustra Part II,
r
Zarathustra Part III, 8o
r
Zarathustra Part I!,
8
r
Te ss Festi.al, 8
cnav+vv :o
r
Nictzschcs Circlc ol Vomcn 8
Joscph Pancth, 8
r
Rcsa von Schirnholcr, 88
r
Tc thcr Nictzschc,
8
r
Mcta von Salis, o
r
Tird Summcr in Sils Maria, o
r
Hclcn
Zimmcrn, +
r
Hcinrich von Stcin, :
r
Rcconciliation with lizabcth in
Zurich,
r
Hclcnc ruskowicz,
r
Sccond Vintcr in Nicc,
r
Fourth Summcr in Sils Maria, 6
r
Nictzschc and His Fcminist Fricnds,
8
r
Tc F orstcrs, oo
r
Tc Schmcitzncr Mis` crc, o+
r
Tird Vintcr in
Nicc, o:
r
Nietzsches Cosmopolitanism, o
r
Publishing Beyond Good and
E.il, o
r
ynamitc, Junkcr Philosophy, Pathological, o
.iii

Contents
cnav+vv :+
r
Beyond Good and E.il o
Te Heart of Darkness, o
r
Teoretical Philosophy: Te Prejudices of
Metaphysicians, ++
r
Te Metaphysics of Po.er, +
r
Epistemology, +6
r
Cultural Criticism, +
r
Ho. to O.ercome Diseased Modernity: Philosophers of the
Future, ::
r
Nietzsches Fepublic, :
r
Hierarchy, :
r
Te Sla.ery Issue,
:
r
!omen gain, :
r
Morality, Feligion, and rt in the Ne. !orld, :
cnav+vv ::
r
Clcaring thc ccks :
Filth Summcr in Sils Maria, :
r
xplosions 8clow,
r
Hymn to Lilc,

r
A Month in thc Country,
r
Fourth Vintcr in Nicc, 6
r
Prcparations lor Grcatncss, 6
r
Te Prefaces of :&,
r
Te Gay Science,
Book !: Being Scientic about Science,
r
Te !anderer Speaks,
r
Nietzsches Undisco.ered Land,
r
Communal Health,
r
Mental
Health, 6
r
Lo.ely Tought: !ia Sils to Greece!, 8
cnav+vv :
r
Tc Gcncalogy ol Morals o
Parsifal, ostoycvsky, and a Vcll!ntcntioncd arthquakc, o
r
Youths and
AntiScmitcs, :
r
!ntcrmczzo, :
r
cprcsscd in Chur,
r
Filth
Summcr in Sils Maria,
r
Filth and Final Vintcr in Nicc,
r
Litcrary
Projccts,
r
On the Genealogy of Morals, 6o
r
First Essay: Good and E.il,
Good and Bad, 6+
r
Te First Essays Contribution to a !ision of the Future,
6
r
Second Essay: Te Morality of Custom and the So.ereign Indi.idual, 6
r
Origins of the Bad Conscience, 68
r
Te Second Essays Contribution to a !ision of
the Future, o
r
Tird Essay: !hat Do scetic Ideals Mean?, +
r
!agner and the scetic Ideal, +
r
Sex and the Philosopher, :
r
Perspecti.ism
and Objecti.ity,
r
Te scetic Ideal as Practised and Propagated by Priests,
6
r
Te scetic Ideal in Modernity, 8
r
!hat Is !rong .ith the scetic Ideal?,

r
Science and the scetic Ideal, 8o
r
Masters of the Uni.erse, 8:
r
Te Question of Method, 8
cnav+vv :
r
+888 8
Vintcr in Nicc, 8
r
First \isit to Turin, 86
r
Sic !ncipit Gloria Mundi,
8
r
Last Summcr in Sils Maria, 8
r
\isitors, o
r
!ritings in Sils
Maria: Tc Vagncr Casc, :
r
D ecadence,
r
Te Story of Tc Ring,

r
!ritings in Sils Maria: Twilight ol thc !dols,
r
!hat Is the Nature of
Feality?, 8
r
!hat Is Freedom?,
r
!hat Is Happiness?, oo
r
!hy Is
!illing the Eternal Feturn Dionysian?, o+
r
Ho. Can an Immoralist Deal
.ith Harmful ctions?, o
r
Isnt Selshness Harmful?, o
r
!hats !rong
.ith the Germans?, o6
r
!hat !ould You Like to See Feplace Modern Culture?,
o8
r
!hat Is the Place of rt in Your Ne. Society?, o8
r
Last Stay in Turin,
o
r
Te ntichrist, o
r
Judaism and the Origin of Sla.e Morality, +o
r
Te
Historical Jesus, ++
r
Pauls Per.ersion, +:
r
Te Charges against Christianity,
+:
r
Te Great Noon, +
r
Feligion in Nietzsches Fepublic, +
r
Ecce Homo,
+8
r
Ho. One Becomes !hat One Is, :o
r
!hat Nietzsche Became, ::
r
cploying thc Artillcry, :
r
Nictzschcs Mcntal Condition, :
cnav+vv :
r
Catastrophc :8
8ccoming God, :8
r
Tc Horsc Story, +
Contents

ix
cnav+vv :6
r
Te Fise and Fall of Tc Vill to Powcr
Te Casaubon Impulse, 6
r
Te Explanation of ll E.ents,
r
Fe.aluation of
ll !alues,
r
History of a Failed Literary Project, o
r
Intellectual
Cleanliness, :
r
Te Cosmological Doctrine,
r
Te Biological Doctrine,

r
Te Psychological Doctrine, 6
r
!hat Femains of the !ill to Po.er?,

r
Te Problem of the Healthy Monster, 8
cnav+vv :y
r
Tc nd o
!n thc 8ascl Clinic, o
r
!n thc Jcna Asylum, +
r
!n Naumburg,
:
r
8ccoming a Star,
r
lizabcth Cashcs !n,
r
Tc Shrinc in
Vcimar, 6
r
Nictzschcs cath, 8
cnav+vv :8
r
Nictzschcs Madncss
Chronology 6
Notes 6
Bibliography of Secondary Literature 6
Index 6
Music of Friedrich Nietzsche .ith Commentary by !olfgang Bottenberg
(on thc Vcb sitc lor this book)
List ol !llustrations
Plates follo. page x.i
+. Karl Ludwig Nictzschc (Nictzschcs lathcr). Photo Klassik Stiltung Vcimar,
GSA |Gocthc und SchillcrArchiv| +o+/:.
:. Franziska Nictzschc (Nictzschcs mothcr), agcd about :. Photo GSA
+o+/+.
. Tc vicaragc in R ockcn, whcrc Nictzschc was born, with his lathcrs church
bchind. Photo thc author.
. +8 Vcingartcn, Franziska Nictzschcs housc in Naumburg. Photo thc author.
. Nictzschc, agcd +. Photo GSA +o+/+.
6. Fricdrich Ritschl, Nictzschcs bclovcd prolcssor in Lcipzig. Photo GSA
+o+/:.
. Paul cusscn, agcd about +. Photo GSA +o+/+.
8. Nictzschc, agcd :, at thc timc ol his military scrvicc. Photo GSA +o+/.
. Arthur Schopcnhaucr, thc hcavcnly picturc ol our mastcr by Julcs
Luntcnsch utz. ilpainting SchopcnhaucrArchiv, Univcrsit atsbibliothck,
Franklurt a.m.
+o. Franz vcrbcck. Photo GSA +o+/6:.
++. Tc Vagncrs housc at Tribschcn, Luccrnc. Photo thc author.
+:. Richard and Cosima Vagncr in May +8:, thc timc ol thcir translcr to
8ayrcuth. Photo (by F. Luckhardt) Richard Vagncr Muscum, 8ayrcuth.
+. Nictzschc with his lricnds rwin Rohdc (on lclt) and Carl von Gcrsdor,
ctobcr +8+. Photo GSA +o+/+.
+. Vahnlricd, thc Vagncrs housc in 8ayrcuth. Photo thc author.
+. Tc Fcstival Tcatrc in 8ayrcuth. Photo thc author.
+6. Malwida von Mcyscnbug. Photo GSA +o+/:.
+. lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc (Nictzschcs sistcr), agcd about o. Photo GSA
+o+/+6o.
+8. Paul R cc. Photo GSA +o+/8.
+. Hcinrich K osclitz (Pctcr Gast). Photo GSA +o+/:+.
:o. Mathildc Trampcdach. Photo GSA +o+/:.
:+. Tc urisch housc in Sils Maria. Nictzschcs room top right, at thc back.
Photo thc author.
::. Nictzschcs room in thc urisch housc. Photo thc author.
:. Tc mighty pyramidal block ol stonc by Lakc Silvcrplana whcrc thc
thought ol ctcrnal rcturn rst camc to Nictzschc. Photo thc author.
:. Lou Salom c in +88:, thc ycar ol thc Salom c aair. Photo GSA +o+/:.
x

List of Illustrations

xi
:. You arc going to womcn: Tcn dont lorgct thc whip. Lou Salom c, Paul
R cc, and Nictzschc, Luccrnc, May +88:. Photo (by Julcs 8onnct)
Vikimcdia Commons.
:6. Mcmorial to Nictzschc on Chast c pcninsula, with quotation lrom
Zarathustras !ntoxicatcd Song. rcctcd in +oo by Carl Fuchs and Valthcr
Lampc. Photo thc author.
:. Rcsa von Schirnholcr. Photo Privatc Collcction.
:8. Mcta von SalisMarschlins. Charcoal drawing (by V. Allcrs) R atischcs
Muscum, Chur.
:. Lakc Silvcrplana, looking towards Sils Maria. Photo thc author.
o. Tc Nictzschc Archivc, lormcrly \illa Silbcrblick, Vcimar. Photo thc
author.
+. Nictzschc in May +8, shortly bclorc his dcath. Photo GSA +o+/.
:. lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc and Chanccllor Adoll Hitlcr. Photo GSA
:/+6.
Acknowlcdgmcnts
!
~: bvvviv gratclul to thc lollowing: Curt Paul Janz lor an illuminating corrcspond
cncc conccrning thc inlamous whip photograph, Prolcssor Gcrhard Schaumann, who
spcnt an cntirc day showing mc round Tautcnburg, thc placc ol Nictzschcs t ctc` at ctc
with Lou Salom c, and his wilc, Karin, who introduccd mc to thc SaalcUnstrut wincs
with which Nictzschc grcw up, Frau Pctra orlm ullcr, thc archivist ol Schulplortc, who
gavc mc grcat insight into thc school as it was in Nictzschcs timc, r. Gudrun F ottingcr,
acting dircctor ol thc Vagncr Muscum in 8ayrcuth, who, in thc midst ol thc :oo Fcst
ival, talkcd to mc at lcngth about carly Vagncr productions, Prolcssor Mario Russo, who
cnablcd mc nally to track down what rcmains ol thc \illa Rubinacci in Sorrcnto, Vollgang
8ottcnbcrg, who, as wcll as producing thc rccordings ol Nictzschcs music availablc on thc
Vcb sitc lor this book, illuminatcd many aspccts ol his lilc and thought, Joanna 8ottcnbcrg
lor bcing similarly illuminating and lor wondcrlul hospitality in Montrcal, Pctcr Loptson,
who, as usual, kcpt mc up to thc mark philosophically, as wcll as corrccting mc on scv
cral points ol ninctccnthccntury history, Fricdrich \oit, as always my backstop on di
cult issucs ol translation, Christinc Swanton, who on countlcss occasions dircctcd mc away
lrom thc lalsc and towards thc truc, my proolrcadcr, Mary Montgomcry, who savcd mc
lrom numcrous grammatical solccisms, and my cditor, 8catricc Rchl, who has bccn con
sistcntly cnthusiastic and wisc. Abovc all, ! am gratclul to Anja van Polancn Pctcl: only a
supcrwoman could havc bornc, ycar altcr ycar, a husband vanishcd without tracc into thc
dcpths ol thc ninctccnth ccntury.
Tc complction ol this book has bccn madc possiblc by sabbatical lcavc lrom thc Univcr
sity ol Auckland in :oo6 and a Vriting Fcllowship in :oo, as wcll as a iscovcry Projcct
Grant lrom thc Australian Rcscarch Council lor :oo8. Parts ol Chaptcr appcarcd in
my cssay, Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschc, cath and Salvation in thc European Journal of Philos-
ophy \ol. +6 No. :, :oo8, pp. ++:, and parts ol Chaptcr in my Richard Vagncr and
thc 8irth ol Te Birth of Tragedy in thc International Journal of Philosophical Studies \ol. +6
No. :, :oo8, pp. :+. ! am gratclul to thc cditors ol thosc journals lor pcrmission to
rcusc this matcrial.

xiii
List ol Abbrcviations
wovxs nv N:v+zscnv
Tc works Nictzschc himscll publishcd arc citcd using thc lollowing abbrcviations: Roman
numcrals rclcr to major parts ol thc works, Arabic numcrals rclcr to scctions, not pagcs.
Rclcrcnccs to KGVand KSAcitc a volumc numbcr lollowcd by thc notcbook numbcr and,
in brackcts, thc notc numbcr (c.g., KSA + + |:o|). Rclcrcnccs to KG8 citc a volumc
numbcr lollowcd by a lcttcr numbcr (c.g., KG8 ii. ). Tc translations ol KG8, KGV,
and KSA arc cntircly my own. ! havc somctimcs modicd thc translations ol Nictzschcs
publishcd works that ! citc.
A Te ntichrist in Te nti-Christ, Ecce Homo, T.ilight of the Idols and Other !ritings cd.
A. Ridlcy, trans. J. Norman (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo). Hcrcaltcr
Ridlcy and Norman.
AM ssorted Opinions and Maxims in Human, ll-Too-Human cd. . Hcllcr, trans. R.
Hollingdalc (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +86). Hcrcaltcr Hcllcr and
Hollingdalc.
8G Beyond Good and E.il cd. R.P. Horstmann and J. Norman, trans. J. Norman
(Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, :oo:).
8T Te Birth of Tragedy in Te Birth of Tragedy and Other !ritings cd. R. Gcuss and R.
Spcirs, trans. R. Spcars (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +).
Daybreak cd. M. Clark and 8. Lcitcr, trans. R. Hollingdalc (Cambridgc: Cambridgc
Univcrsity Prcss, +). Rclcrrcd to by mc as Da.n.
H Ecce Homo in Ridlcy and Norman.
! On the Future of Our Educational Institutions trans. M. V. Grcnkc (South 8cnd, !N:
St. Augustincs Prcss, :oo).
GM On the Genealogy of Morals cd. K. AnscllPcarson, trans. C. icthc (Cambridgc:
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +).
GS Te Gay Science cd. 8. Villiams, trans. J. Naukho(Cambridgc: Cambridgc
Univcrsity Prcss, :oo+).
HH Human, ll-Too-Human in Hcllcr and Hollingdalc.
HKG Friedrich Nietzsche: !erke und Briefe: Historisch-kritische Gesamtausgabe, \ol. !!
cd. Hans JoachimMcttc (Munich: 8cck, +).
KG8 Nietzsche Brief.echsel: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (: vols.) cd. G. Colli and
M. Montinari (8crlin: dc Gruytcr, +:oo).
KGV Nietzsche !erke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe (: vols + Cs) cds. G. Colli and
M. Montinari (8crlin: dc Gruytcr, +6:oo6).
KSA Kritische Studienausgabe (+ vols.) cds. G. Colli and M. Montinari (8crlin: dc
Gruytcr, +).

x.
x.i

List of bbre.iations
NCV Nietzsche Contra !agner in Te Portable Nietzsche cd. V. Kaulmann (NcwYork:
Pcnguin, +8:).
PTA Te Complete !orks of Friedrich Nietzsche, \ol. :, Early Greek Philosophy cd. . Lcvy,
trans. M. A. M uggc (NcwYork: Gordon Prcss).
S Nietzsche: !erke in Drei B anden ( vols.) cd. K. Schlcchta (Munich: Hanscr, +6).
T! T.ilight of the Idols in Ridlcy and Norman.
UM Untimely Meditations cd. . 8rcazcalc, trans. R. Hollingdalc (Cambridgc:
Cambridgc Univcrsity Prcss, +). Hcrcaltcr 8rcazcalc and Hollingdalc.
V8 !agner in Bayreuth in 8rcazcalc and Hollingdalc.
VC Te Case of !agner: Musicians Problemin Ridlcy and Norman.
VP Te !ill to Po.er cd. V. Kaulmann, trans. V. Kaulmann and R. Hollingdalc
(NcwYork: \intagc +68).
VS Te !anderer and His Shado.in Hcllcr and Hollingdalc.
Z Tus Spoke Zarathustra trans. and cd. G. Parkcs (NcwYork: xlord Univcrsity Prcss
:oo).
o+nvv wovxs
8M On the Basis of Morality, Arthur Schopcnhaucr, trans. . F. J. Paync (NcwYork:
8obbsMcrill, +6).
C Friedrich Nietzsche: Chronik in Bildern und Texten, cds. R. 8cndcrs and S. cttcrmann
lor thc Stiltung Vcimarcr Klassik (Munich\icnna: Hanscr, :ooo).
J Friedrich Nietzsche: Biographie ( vols.), C. P. Janz (Munich\icnna: Hanscr, +8).
FR Te Fourfold Foot of the Principle of Sucient Feason, Arthur Schopcnhaucr, trans. . F.
J. Paync (La Sallc: pcn Court, +).
LN Te Lonely Nietzsche, lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc, trans. P. Cohn (London:
Hcincmann, ++).
PP Parerga and Paralipomena (: vols.), Arthur Schopcnhaucr, trans. . Paync (xlord:
Clarcndon Prcss, +).
VM !agner on Music and Drama, Richard Vagncr, cds. A. Goldman and .
Sprinchorn, trans. V. Aston llis (London: Gollancz, +6).
VN On the !ill in Nature, Arthur Schopcnhaucr, trans. . Paync (NcwYork: 8crg,
+:).
VPV Fichard !agners Prose !orks, \ol. , Richard Vagncr, trans. V. Ashton llis
(London: Kcgan Paul, Trcnch, Tr ubncr and Co., +86).
VR Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation (: vols.), Arthur Schopcnhaucr, trans. . Paync
(NcwYork: ovcr, +6).
YN Te Young Nietzsche, lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc, trans. A. Ludovici (London:
Hcincmann, ++:).
+. Karl Ludwig Nictzschc (Nictzschcs
lathcr).
:. Franziska Nictzschc (Nictzschcs mothcr)
agcd about :.
. Tc vicaragc in R ockcn, whcrc Nictzschc was born, with his lathcrs church bchind.
. +8 Vcingartcn, Franziska Nictzschcs housc in Naumburg.
. Nictzschc, agcd +. 6. Fricdrich Ritschl, Nictzschcs bclovcd
prolcssor in Lcipzig.
. Paul cusscn, agcd about +. 8. Nictzschc, agcd :, at thc timc ol his
military scrvicc.
. Arthur Schopcnhaucr, thc hcavcnly pic
turc ol our mastcr by Julcs Luntcnsch utz.
+o. Franz vcrbcck.
++. Tc Vagncrs housc at Tribschcn, Luccrnc.
+:. Richard and Cosima Vagncr in May +8:, thc timc ol thcir translcr to 8ayrcuth.
+. Nictzschc with his lricnds rwin Rohdc (on lclt) and Carl von Gcrsdor, ctobcr
+8+.
+. Vahnlricd, thc Vagncrs housc in 8ayrcuth.
Hcrc whcrc my VAHNFR! Namc this
dclusions lound housc.
pcacc
+. Tc Fcstival Tcatrc in 8ayrcuth.
+6. Malwida von Mcyscnbug. +. lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc (Nictz
schcs sistcr), agcd about o.
+8. Paul R cc.
+. Hcinrich K osclitz (Pctcr Gast).
:o. Mathildc Trampcdach.
:+. Tc urisch housc in Sils Maria. Nictzschcs room top right, at thc back.
::. Nictzschcs room in thc urisch housc.
:. Tc mighty pyramidal block ol stonc by Lakc Silvcrplana whcrc thc thought ol
ctcrnal rcturn rst camc to Nictzschc.
:. Lou Salom c in +88:, thc ycar ol thc
Salom c aair.
:. You arc going to womcn: Tcn dont lorgct thc whip.
:6. Mcmorial to Nictzschc on Chast c pcninsula, with quotation lrom Zarathustras
!ntoxicatcd Song. rcctcd in +oo by Carl Fuchs and Valthcr Lampc.
:. Rcsa von Schirnholcr. :8. Mcta von SalisMarschlins.
:. Lakc Silvcrplana, looking towards Sils Maria.
o. Tc Nictzschc Archivc, lormcrly \illa Silbcrblick, Vcimar.
+. Nictzschc in May +8, shortly bclorc his dcath.
:. lizabcth F orstcrNictzschc and Chanccllor Adoll Hitlcr.
v~v: oxv
Youth
1
a Capo
R ocken
N
iv:zscnvs cvv~:vs: inspiration, hc bclicvcd, was thc idca that il onc is in a
statc ol pcrlcct mcntal hcalth onc should bc ablc to survcy oncs cntirc lilc and
thcn, rising ccstatically to oncs lcct, shout Da capo! ncc morc! ncc morc!
8ack to thc bcginning! to thc wholc play and pcrlormancc. !n pcrlcct hcalth onc would
cravc nothing morc lcrvcntly than thc ctcrnal rcturn ol oncs lilc throughout innitc timc
not an cxpurgatcd vcrsion with thc bad bits lclt out, but exactly thc samc lilc, down to thc
vcry last dctail, howcvcr painlul or shamclul. His own particular task was to bccomc ablc
to do this, to rcach a point whcrc hc could shout Da capo! to his own lilc. Lct us scc what
hc had to contcnd with bclorc rcaching that point.
Fricdrich Nictzschc, Fritz, was born (cxactly a wcck bclorc onc ol his divinitics, Sarah
8crnhardt) on ctobcr +, +8, in thc Saxon villagc ol R ockcn. Two lacts about this
birthplacc arc important.
Tc rst is that R ockcn lay in that part ol Saxony which had bccn anncxcd in +8+ by thc
rising powcr ol Prussia. Tis was a punishmcnt lor thc Saxon kings alliancc with Napolcon,
whom thc Prussians, togcthcr with thcir allics, thc Russians, Austrians, and Swcdcs, had
dclcatcd in thc battlc ol Lcipzig in +8+. (Nictzschc rccalls that, unlikc thc rcst ol thc lamily,
his patcrnal grandmothcr had bccn a grcat admircr ol Napolcon,
+
an attributc which, latcr
on, would bccomc an important part ol his own political outlook.)
As wc shall scc, Prussia looms largc in Nictzschcs intcllcctual landscapc. !n his youth
hc was intcnscly proud ol his Prussian nationality ! am a Prussian, hc dcclarcd in a
momcnt ol summary sclldcnition and was a strong admircr ol tto von 8ismarck,
Primc Ministcr ol Prussia and latcr Chanccllor ol thc unitcd Gcrman Feich. Altcr thc
horrors ol thc FrancoPrussian Var (+8o+), 8ismarcks war ol choicc initiatcd in ordcr
to compcl thc Gcrman statcs to unitc against a common cncmy, Nictzschc bccamc morc and
morc appallcd at thc usc madc ol Prussian powcr by thc blood and iron Chanccllor, and by
thc complaccnt, jingoistic philistinism growing up bchind its shicld. Yct, as a rcsult ol bcing
brought up in a passionatcly Prussian houschold and in thc Prussian cducation systcm, hc

,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
acquircd, ! shall suggcst, an archctypically Prussian pcrsonality. Tat thc philosophcr who
dcmandcd that onc organisc oncs lilc as a ramrod straight linc towards a singlc goal,
:
and
that onc achicvc a rankordcring in both thc soul and thc statc, should havc bccn claimcd as
thc godlathcr ol contcmporary postmodcrnism is a tributc to thc almost unlimitcd capacity
ol philosophcrs willully to misundcrstand cach othcr.
Tc sccond important lact about thc location ol Nictzschcs birthplacc is its position
in thc hcartland ol thc Protcstant Rclormation: R ockcn is about scvcnty kilomctrcs lrom
islcbcn, thc birthplacc ol Martin Luthcr, about twcntyvc kilomctrcs southwcst ol
Lcipzig, whcrc Johann Scbastian 8ach workcd and dicd, and about lty kilomctrcs lrom
Hallc, whcrc Gcorg Fricdrich H andcl was born and workcd. 8oth 8ach and Handcl thc
two grcat musical voiccs ol Gcrman Luthcranism and ol Nictzschcs homcland wcrc ol
grcat importancc to thc proloundly musical Fritz. Hc rccords that on hcaring thc Hallclu
jah Chorus lrom Handcls Messiah during his ninth ycar, hc lclt as il ! had to join in . . . thc
joylul singing ol angcls, on whosc billows ol sound Jcsus asccndcd to hcavcn and dccidcd
to try to writc somcthing similar (track + on thc Vcb sitc lor this book).

Tat thc luturc scllstylcd Antichrist should bc born into thc cradlc ol Protcstantism
crcatcs a paradox wc shall havc to try to rcsolvc. How was it, wc will nccd to ask, that
Gcrman Protcstantism nurscd such a vipcr in its bosom:

Fritz was christcncd Fricdrich Vilhclm bccausc hc was born on thc birthday ol thc King
ol Prussia, Fricdrich Vilhclm !\, and bccausc his lathcr, Karl Ludwig (scc Platc +), was
passionatcly K onigsstreu, a passionatc royalist.
Ludwig, as Nictzschcs lathcr was known, had bccn born in +8+, thc son ol Fricdrich
August (+6+86:), a supcrintcndcnt (roughly, archdcacon) in thc Luthcran church and
a writcr ol trcatiscs on moral and thcological subjccts. Ludwigs mothcr, rdmuthc, was
dcsccndcd lrom vc gcncrations ol Luthcran pastors. Tat Ludwig was a Prussian royalist
was at lcast partly a mattcr ol gratitudc. Having complctcd his thcological studics at Hallc
Univcrsity, hc bccamc tutor to thc thrcc daughtcrs ol thc ukc ol SaxAltcnburg, a small
principality which, likc R ockcn, lay in Prussian Saxony. !t was hcrc that hc acquircd a
somcwhat dandyish tastc in drcss lar rcmovcd lrom thc usual clcrical drabncss a tastc
his son would inhcrit. And it was hcrc that hc mct thc King ol Prussia, on whom hc must
havc madc a good imprcssion, sincc it was by royal dccrcc that, in +8:, hc rcccivcd thc
living ol R ockcn togcthcr with thc ncighbouring villagcs ol Michlitz and 8othlcld.
!n thc samc ycar thc twcntynincycarold Ludwig mct thc scvcntccnycarold Franziska
chlcr (scc Platc :), daughtcr ol avid rnst chlcr, pastor in thc ncarby villagc ol Poblcs.
His nc clothcs, courtly manncrs, and talcntcd piano playing a gilt again inhcritcd by his
son must havc madc a lavourablc imprcssion, sincc thcy wcrc marricd thc lollowing ycar.
Nictzschc was thus surroundcd by Luthcran pastors, wall to wall, as it wcrc. 8ut it would
bc a mistakc to scc his latcr attcmptcd assassination ol Christianity as a rcaction against a
lundamcntalist or puritanical background. His lamily was ncithcr ol thcsc, as hc himscll
arms in Ecce Homo, thc quasiautobiography hc wrotc at thc cnd ol his carccr: !l ! wagc
war against Christianity, ! am thc right pcrson to do so, sincc it ncvcr causcd mc pcrsonally
any grcat mislortunc or constrictcd my lilc committcd Christians havc always bccn wcll
disposcd towards mc.

Nictzschcs lathcr, that is to say, was a man ol widc cspccially musical culturc who
was unintcrcstcd in dogma and hcld thc nicctics ol thcological bclicl to bclong within thc
Da Capo


privacy ol individual conscicncc. And rdmuthc Nictzschc, as Fritzs sistcr, lizabcth,
rccollccts, had grown up at a pcriod ol dry rationalism. . . and conscqucntly lclt ill at casc
during thc orthodox rcvival ol thc +8os, whcn pcoplc wcrc bcginning to bc born again
and dcnouncc thcmsclvcs in public as dcspcratc sinncrs.

Tc samc antilanaticism was

truc ol Fritzs matcrnal grandlathcr, to whosc cosy |gem utlich| and indulgcnt houschold
thc young Fritz bccamc cxtrcmcly attachcd. avid chlcr was thc son ol a wcavcr who,
through intclligcncc, cducation, and marriagc, had clcvatcd himscll into thc landcd gcntry
and was thus ablc to livc thc lilc ol a country squirc. Hc lathcrcd clcvcn childrcn, cnjoycd
playing cards, and was a larmcr and a kccn huntsman. Hc was a giltcd musician who organ
iscd rcgular musical gathcrings to livcn up thc wintcr cvcnings and posscsscd a largc library
that bccamc onc ol Fritzs lavouritc haunts.
Tc Luthcran Church was, in lact, much likc thc Anglican. !t was a path to social
advanccmcnt and a lilc ol rclativc gcntility. Yct it would bc a mistakc to rcach lor thc adjcc
tivc Trollopian: to supposc that Christian laith mcant nothing to thc Nictzschc/chlcrs,
that thcy obscrvcd mcrcly its outward, social lorm. Tcir laith was gcnuinc and unqucs
tioncd, untroublcd lor thc most part by doubt.

!t was thc loundation ol thcir livcs. liza

bcth makcs this clcar:
Troughout our childhood Christianity and rcligion ncvcr sccmcd to contain any clcmcnt
ol rcstraint, but wc actually had cxamplcs ol both constantly bclorc us in thc most sublimc
manilcstations ol natural submission.
6
Tc Nictzschc/chlcrs surroundcd thc childrcn with authcntic Christian livcs, with thc
unlorccd manilcstation ol Christian virtuc.
Tis is what makcs thc lcrocity ol thc maturc Nictzschcs attack on Christianity a bio
graphical puzzlc. Christianity was thc matcrial and cmotional loundation ol an cxtcndcd
lamily that llcd his childhood with lovc and sccurity, a warmth hc ncvcr ccascd to valuc.
To his lathcr, in particular, Fritz was intcnscly attachcd. !n thc autobiographical rccctions
writtcn whcn hc was thirtccn, hc rccalls him as
thc vcry modcl ol a country parson! Giltcd with spirit and a warm hcart, adorncd with
all thc virtucs ol a Christian, hc livcd a quict, simplc, yct happy lilc, and was lovcd and
rcspcctcd by all who kncw him. His good manncrs and chccrlul dcmcanour graccd many a

Tcrc is onc rccordcd cxccption to this, which appcars in a lcttcr Nictzschcs unclc, dmund chlcr,
wrotc him in +86:: You will want to know how ! am. !m vcry wcll now, thank God. Tc mclan
choly, damp logs arc past and thcrc is again purc, lrcsh air . . . Altcr a timc ol dark night and grcat
inncr sucring a ncw day and a ncw lilc bcgins to brcak. Jcsus Christ, crucicd and rcsurrcctcd
and asccndcd into hcavcn, still livcs and rulcs today, hc is now my only Lord and thc king ol my
hcart, him alonc will ! lollow, lor him will ! livc and dic and work. For a considcrablc timc ! livcd
in doubt duc to lollowing mcn, my own rcason, and worldly wisdom. As you indccd know, thc
opinions ol mcn constantly canccl cach othcr out, which mcans that a scarching soul can nd no
rm loundation. Now, howcvcr, that Jcsus has bccomc lord ol my hcart thc timc ol doubt is past.
Now ! havc a rm loundation, lor Jcsus rcmains always onc and thc samc . . . My dcar Fritz, ! know
lrom our convcrsations that you too arc a scarching, struggling, conictcd soul. Follow my advicc
and makc Jcsus your Lord, whom alonc you lollow . . . not any human systcm. Jcsus alonc, Jcsus
alonc, and again Jcsus alonc . . . Jcsus alonc (KG8 +.+ To Nictzschc 8). Tis sccms to suggcst that
Nictzschcs unclc dmund, altcr a rcligious crisis, cmcrgcd into a born again Christianity which,
in thc main, thc Nictzschc/chlcrs lound quitc alicn.
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
social occasion to which hc had bccn invitcd, and madc him straight away lovcd by all. His
lcisurc hours hc occupicd with thc dclights ol scicncc and with music. !n his piano playing
hc had achicvcd a notablc skill, cspccially in improvising variations on a thcmc . . .

a skill in which Fritz, too, would soon cxccl. lizabcth qualics this picturc ol thcir lathcr
with a slightly rcprcssivc nuancc, rccalling that no discord was allowcd to comc to his attcn
tion sincc
hc was an cxtraordinarily scnsitivc man, or, as was said ol him at thc timc, hc took
cvcrything so much to hcart. Any sign ol discord cithcr in thc parish or in his own lamily
was so painlul to him that hc would withdraw to his study and rclusc to cat or drink, or
spcak with anyonc.
8
Yct not lor a momcnt docs shc doubt Fritzs intcnsc dcvotion to him:
ur lathcr uscd to spcnd much ol his timc with us, but morc cspccially with his cldcst son,
Fritz, whom hc callcd his littlc lricnd, and whom hc allowcd to bc with him cvcn whcn
hc was busy, as hc |Fritz| kncw how to sit still and would thoughtlully watch his lathcr at
work. vcn whcn Fritz was only a ycar old hc was so dclightcd by his lathcrs music that
whcncvcr hc cricd lor no apparcnt rcason our lathcr was bcggcd to play thc piano to him.
Tcn thc child would sit upright in his littlc pram, as still as a mousc, and would not takc
his cycs o thc musician.

!n Ecce Homo, Nictzschc statcs that hc

rcgard|s| it as a grcat privilcgc to havc had such a lathcr, it cvcn sccms to mc that whatcvcr
clsc ol privilcgcs ! posscss is thcrcby cxplaincd . . . Abovc all, that it rcquircs no intcntion on
my part, but only a mcrc waiting, lor mc to cntcr involuntarily into a world ol cxaltcd and
dclicatc things |thc world ol books|: thcrc ! am at homc, only thcrc docs my inncrmost
passion bccomcs lrcc.
+o
Vhatcvcr, thcrclorc, thc grounds lor Nictzschcs turn against Christianity, thcy arc not to
bc lound in any cdipal dcsirc to kill thc lathcr.

Tc R ockcn vicaragc (scc Platc ) was prcsidcd ovcr by womcn by Ludwigs widowcd
mothcr, rdmuthc, a kind but sickly woman scnsitivc to noisc, and by his spinstcr stcp
sistcrs: Augustc, who ran thc houschold and was a victim ol gastric troublcs, and Rosa
lic, who was mildly dominccring, sucrcd lrom ncrvcs, was intcrcstcd in politics, and
unusual lor a woman ol hcr timcs rcad thc ncwspapcrs. Fritz was lond ol thcm all.
Franziska, cightccn whcn shc gavc birth to Fritz, was a woman ol somc spirit, a warm
hcart, a modcst cducation, simplc laith, and thc narrow, conscrvativc outlook typical lor a
girl ol rural upbringing. To hcr tccnagc son shc would complain ol his dcsirc to bc dicr
cnt. Hc in turn would complain ol hcr, and lizabcths, Naumburg virtuc, a tcrmdcnoting
narrow, lcgalistic, opprcssivc smalltown morality takcn lrom thc namc ol thc town to
which thcy would soon movc.
Da Capo


Fritzs sistcr, lizabcth, born on July +o, +86, was christcncd lizabcth Tcrcsc Alcx
andra altcr thc thrcc princcsscs hcr lathcr had tutorcd at thc court ol SaxAltcnburg. liza
bcth, or Llama, as Fritz nicknamcd hcr, worshippcd hcr cldcr brothcr, who in turn patron
iscd hcr in a lordly, though kindly, manncr. lizabcth rccalls that altcr cntcring grammar
school hc startcd calling hcr littlc girl, cvcn though thcy wcrc lcss than two ycars apart,
and, in thc strcct, insistcd on walking vc paccs ahcad ol hcr and any lcmalc compan
ion shc might havc.

From an carly agc, shc dcvclopcd thc habit ol squirrcling away any
thing Fritz had writtcn, thc origin ol thc rcmarkably cxtcnsivc collcction ol unpublishcd
matcrial (thc Nachlass) that survivcd Nictzschcs dcath. cvoid ol any capacity lor abstract
thought and givcn to scntimcntality (hcr writing would bc so much bcttcr il shc could gct
ovcr all thc ohs and ahs, Nictzschc complaincd to thcir mothcr),
++
lizabcth noncthc
lcss dcvclopcd a capacity lor shrcwd (cvcntually criminal) cntrcprcncurship which, as wc
shall scc, cnablcd hcr to makc a good living lrom hcr brothcrs namc altcr his dcsccnt into
madncss.
Sincc Franziska was not rcsponsiblc lor running thc houschold and sincc shc was almost
as closc in agc to hcr childrcn as to thc adults ol thc houschold, shc bccamc as much an
oldcr sistcr as a mothcr to Fritz and lizabcth.

Hcrc is how thc scvcntccnycarold Nictzschc rccalls thc villagc ol his birth in onc ol thc
ninc autobiographical lragmcnts hc wrotc during his tccnagc ycars:
! was born in R ockcn, a villagc which lics along thc high road and is ncar to L utzcn.
nclosing it arc woods ol willows as wcll as a lcw poplars and clms, so that lrom a distancc
only thc chimncys and thc towcr ol thc ancicnt church arc visiblc abovc thc trcc tops. !nsidc
thc villagc arc largc ponds, scparatcd lrom cach othcr only by narrow strips ol land. Around
thcm arc bright grccn, knotty willows. Somcwhat highcr lics thc vicaragc and thc church,
thc lormcr surroundcd by a gardcn and orchard. Adjaccnt is thc ccmctcry lull ol gravcstoncs
partially collapscd into thc carth. Tc vicaragc itscll is shadcd by thrcc nc, broadbranchcd
clms whosc statcly hcight and shapc makcs a plcasing imprcssion on thc visitor . . . Hcrc !
livcd in thc happy circlc ol my lamily untouchcd by thc widc world bcyond. Tc villagc
and its immcdiatc cnvirons wcrc my world, thc cvcrything bcyond it an unknown, magical
rcgion.
+:
Trcc ycars carlicr his rccollcctions, though in thc main as sunny as this, arc touchcd by
somc gothic shadows:
Tc villagc ol R ockcn . . . looks quitc charming with its surrounding woods and its ponds.
Abovc all, onc noticcs thc mossy towcr ol thc church. ! can wcll rcmcmbcr how onc day

!n +86:, at thc agc ol sixtccn, lizabcth was scnt to rcsdcn, thc cultural capital ol Southcast
Gcrmany, to complctc hcr cducation. Tc lollowing lcttcr rcvcals both Fritzs acction lor and his
schoolmastcrly patronising ol his sistcr: car, dcar Lisbcth . . . ! think ol you almost always . . . cvcn
whcn !m aslccp ! oltcn drcam ol you and our timc togcthcr . . . You will survivc anothcr couplc ol
months in rcsdcn. Abovc all try to gct to know wcll all thc art trcasurcs ol rcsdcn, so that you
can gain somc rcal prot. You must visit thc art gallcrics at lcast oncc or twicc a wcck and it would
bc good il you look at only two or thrcc picturcs so that you can givc mc a dctailcd dcscription in
writing, naturally (KG8 +.+ o:).

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
! walkcd with my dcar lathcr lrom L utzcn back to R ockcn and how hall way wc hcard
thc uplilting ringing ol thc bclls sounding thc astcr lcstival. Tis ringing oltcn cchocs
in mc still and nostalgia carrics mc back to thc distant housc ol my lathcr. How oltcn
! intcrcstcd myscll in luncral bicrs and black cr cpc and old gravcstonc inscriptions and
mcmorials whcn ! saw thc old, old mortuary . . . ur housc was built in +8:o and so was in
cxccllcnt condition. Scvcral stcps lcd up to thc ground oor. ! can still rcmcmbcr thc study
on thc top oor. Tc rows ol books, among thcm many picturcbooks and scrolls, madc
it my lavouritc placc. 8chind thc housc lay thc gardcn and orchard. Part ol this tcndcd to
ood in spring as did thc ccllar. At thc lront ol thc housc lay thc courtyard with barn and
stalls which lcd to thc owcr gardcn. ! was usually to bc lound sitting in its shady spots.
8chind thc grccn wall lay thc lour ponds surroundcd by willows. To walk among thcm, to
scc thc rays ol thc sun rcccting o thcir surlaccs and thc chccrlul littlc shcs playing was
my grcatcst joy. ! havc yct to mcntion somcthing that always llcd mc with sccrct horror:
in thc gloom ol thc church stood on onc sidc an ovcrlilcsizc imagc ol St. Gcorgc, carvcd
in stonc by a skillul hand. Tc imprcssivc gurc, thc tcrriblc wcapon and thc mystcrious
twilight always causcd mc to shrink back whcn ! lookcd at it.

!t is said that, oncc, his cycs

ashcd so tcrrilyingly that all who saw him wcrc llcd with horror. Around thc ccmctcry
lay thc larmhouscs and gardcns constructcd in rustic stylc. Harmony and pcacc rcigncd
ovcr cvcry rool, wild cvcnts cntircly abscnt. Tc inhabitants scldom lclt thc villagc, at most
lor thc annual lair, whcn chccrlul throngs ol lads and lassics took o lor busy L utzcn to
admirc thc crowds and thc shiny warcs lor salc.
+
Tranquil though R ockcn was, thc outsidc world was in a quitc dicrcnt condition:
Vhilc wc in R ockcn livcd quictly and pcaccably carthshattcring cvcnts shook almost all
uropcan nations. Ycars carlicr thc cxplosivc matcrial |thc Frcnch Rcvolution ol +8| had
bccn sprcad cvcrywhcrc so it nccdcd only a spark to sct it on rc. Tcn onc hcard lrom
distant Francc thc rst clash ol wcapons and battlc songs. Tc tcrriblc Fcbruary Rcvolu
tion |ol +88| happcncd in Paris and sprcad with cvcrincrcasing spccd. Libcrty, quality,
Fratcrnity was thc cry in cvcry country, pcoplc, humblc and clcvatcd, took up thc sword,
somctimcs in dclcncc ol thc king and somctimcs against him. Tc rcvolutionary war in
Paris was imitatcd in most ol thc statcs ol Prussia. And cvcn though quickly supprcsscd,
thcrc rcmaincd lor a long timc a dcsirc among thc pcoplc lor a Gcrman Rcpublic. Tcsc
ructions ncvcr pcnctratcd to R ockcn, although ! can still rcmcmbcr wagons llcd with
chccring crowds and uttcring ags passing by on thc main road.
+
!n thc royalist houschold at R ockcn, thcrc was ol coursc no sympathy at all lor this
rcpctition ol thc Frcnch Rcvolution (a rcpctition that involvcd Richard Vagncr in rcsdcn
and Karl Marx in thc Rhincland). n hcaring that, in an cort to appcasc thc crowd, thc
Prussian king had donncd thc rcd cockadc ol thc socialist rcvolutionarics, Ludwig brokc
down and cricd.
+
All his lilc, as wc shall scc, Nictzschc rctaincd a hatrcd ol Rousscau (who
gavc thc Frcnch Rcvolution its battlccry ol Libcrty, quality, Fratcrnity), ol socialism, and

Tis is a mistakc. Tcrc has ncvcr bccn a statuc ol St. Gcorgc in thc R ockcn church. !nstcad thcrc
arc two wallrclicls dcpicting mcdicval knights, cach armcd with a largc sword.
Da Capo

,
indccd ol rcvolution ol any kind. And truc to his lathcrs royalism, hc always thought ol
monarchy as thc idcal lorm ol govcrnmcnt.
+6

uring this, throughout uropc, tumultuous spring, Franziska gavc birth to hcr third child,
who was christcncd Joscph, in honour ol ukc Joscph ol SaxAltcnburg whom Karl Lud
wig had oncc scrvcd. Flcxing his prccocious litcrary talcnt, thc thirtccnycarold Nictzschc
takcs up thc story:
Up to now happincss and joy had shonc upon us always: our lilc owcd on unpcrturbcd,
likc a bright summcrs day. 8ut now black clouds pilcd up abovc us, lightning ashcd, and
hammcr blows wcrc scnt lrom hcavcn to strikc us. !n Scptcmbcr +88 my bclovcd lathcr
suddcnly bccamc mcntally ill. Vc consolcd oursclvcs and him, howcvcr, with thc hopc
hc would soon rccovcr. Vhcncvcr a bcttcr day did comc hc would prcach and hold his
conrmation lcssons, lor his activc spirit was incapablc ol slothlulncss. Scvcral physicians
cndcavourcd to discovcr thc naturc ol his illncss but in vain. Tcn wc scnt lor thc lamous
r. polccr, who was in Lcipzig at thc timc, and hc camc to R ockcn. Tis cxccllcnt man
immcdiatcly rccogniscd whcrc thc scat ol thc illncss was to bc lound. To thc horror ol
us all hc diagnoscd it as a soltcning ol thc brain, not yct hopclcssly advanccd, but alrcady
cxtrcmcly dangcrous. My lathcr had to sucr tcrribly, but thc illncss would not diminish, on
thc contrary it grcwworsc lromday to day. Finally thc powcr ol vision was cxtinguishcd, and
hc had to cndurc his sucrings in ctcrnal darkncss. Hc was bcdriddcn until July +8, thcn
thc day ol his rcdcmption drcw nigh. n July :6th hc sank into a dccp slumbcr lrom which
hc awokc only tlully. His last words wcrc: Fr anzchcn Fr anzschcn comc mothcr
listcn God! Tcn hc dicd, quictly and blcsscdly on July :th +8 |at thc agc
ol |. Vhcn ! wokc thc ncxt morning all around mc ! hcard loud wccping and sobbing.
My dcar mothcr camc to mc with tcars in hcr cycs and cricd out God! My good Ludwig
is dcad!. Although ! was vcry young and incxpcricnccd, ! still had somc idca ol dcath:
thc thought that ! would bc scparatcd lor cvcr lrom my dcar lathcr scizcd mc and ! wcpt
bittcrly. Tc ncxt lcw days passcd amid tcars and prcparations lor thc luncral. God! !
had bccomc a lathcrlcss orphan, my dcar mothcr a widow! n August :nd thc carthly
rcmains ol my bclovcd lathcr wcrc committcd to thc womb ol thc carth. Tc parish had
prcparcd lor him a stonclincd gravc. At onc oclock in thc altcrnoon thc scrvicc bcgan,
with thc bclls pcaling thcir loud kncll. h, ncvcr will thc dccpthroatcd sound ol thosc
bclls quit my car, ncvcr will ! lorgct thc gloomy surging mclody ol thc hymn Jcsu, my
trust! Tc sound ol thc organ rcsoundcd through thc cmpty spaccs ol thc church.
+
Sincc an autopsy rcvcalcd a quartcr ol thc brain to bc missing, it sccms ccrtain that
Nictzschc lost his bclovcd lathcr to somc kind ol brain discasc. Tough hc was only vc
ycars old, thc loss markcd him lor lilc. !n +88, having bccn awardcd scvcn thousand Swiss
lrancs in a court scttlcmcnt against his publishcr, thc rst thing hc purchascd altcr paying
o bookstorc dcbts was an cngravcd tombstonc lor his lathcrs gravc thirtysix ycars altcr
Ludwigs dcath.
+8
!t appcars that it was Nictzschc himscll (by now in lull swing as thc
scourgc ol Christianity) who dcsigncd thc stonc on which is inscribcd a quotation lrom
St. Paul: Lovc ncvcr lailcth (! Cor, +, 8).
Tc dcath ol his lathcr, soon to bc lollowcd by thc loss ol thc !aterhaus |lathcrhousc|,
as Nictzschc always rclcrs to thc R ockcn vicaragc, was Nictzschcs rst loss ol sccurity. A
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
scnsc ol homclcssncss bccamc, and would rcmain, a obscssivc thcmc in his poctry. !n his
lourtccnth ycar, lor instancc, allowing lcclings to surlacc that hc could not casily cxprcss
outsidc poctry, hc composcd thc lollowing:
!here to?
Little bird in the air,
Fly a.ay .ith your song,
nd greet for me my dear,
My belo.ed Home.
O lark, take this blossom
Tender .ith you.
I plucked it as decoration
For my far-a.ay fathers house.
O nightingale y do.n to me
and take this rosebud
to my fathers gra.e.
:,

Almost immcdiatcly, howcvcr, Fritzs dcsolation ovcr thc loss ol his lathcr was intcnsicd
by two lurthcr hammcr blows lrom hcavcn. Tc thirtccnycarold continucs:
Vhcn a trcc is dcprivcd ol its crown it withcrs and wilts, and thc tiny birds abandon its
branchcs. ur lamily had bccn dcprivcd ol its hcad. All joy vanishcd lrom our hcarts and
prolound sadncss ovcrtook us. Yct whcn our wounds had only just bcgun to hcal a ncw
cvcnt painlully torc thcm opcn. At that timc ! had a drcam that ! hcard organ music
in thc church, thc music ! had hcard during my lathcrs luncral. Vhcn ! pcrccivcd what
lay bchind thcsc sounds, a gravcmound suddcnly opcncd up and my lathcr, wrappcd in a
lincn shroud, cmcrgcd lrom it. Hc hurricd into thc church and rcturncd a momcnt latcr
with a child in his arms. Tc tomb yawncd again, hc cntcrcd it, and thc covcr closcd ovcr
thc opcning. Tc stcntorian sounds ol thc organ ccascd instantly and ! awokc. n thc day
that lollowcd this night, littlc Joscph suddcnly lcll ill, scizcd by scvcrc cramps, and altcr
a lcw hours hc dicd. ur gricl kncw no bounds. My drcam had bccn lulllcd complctcly.
Tc tiny corpsc was laid to rcst in his lathcrs arms. !n this doublc mislortunc, God in
hcavcn was our solc consolation and protcction. Tis happcncd |in| . . . thc ycar +8o.
:o
Sincc thc vicaragc was nccdcd lor thc ncwpastor, Fritz nowlost not only lathcr and brothcr,
but also thc !aterhaus:
Tc timc approachcd whcn wc wcrc to bc scparatcd lrom our bclovcd R ockcn. ! can still
rcmcmbcr thc last day and night wc spcnt thcrc. Tat cvcning ! playcd with scvcral local
childrcn, conscious ol thc lact that it would bc lor thc last timc. Tc vcspcr bcll tollcd its
mclancholy pcal across thc watcrs, dull darkncss scttlcd ovcr thc carth, and thc moon and
shimmcring stars shonc in thc night sky. ! could not slccp lor vcry long. At oncthirty in
thc morning ! wcnt down again to thc courtyard. Scvcral wagons stood thcrc, bcing loadcd.
Tc dull glimmcr ol thcir lantcrns cast a gloomy light across thc courtyard. ! considcrcd it
absolutcly impossiblc that ! would cvcr lccl at homc in anothcr placc. How painlul it was
to abandon a villagc whcrc onc had cxpcricnccd joy and sorrow, whcrc thc gravcs ol my
Da Capo

::
lathcr and youngcr brothcr lay, whcrc thc villagc lolk always surroundcd mc with lovc and
lricndlincss. Scarccly had thc dawning day shcd its light on thc mcadows, whcn our wagon
rollcd out onto thc high road that took us to Naumburg, whcrc a ncw homc awaitcd.
Adicu, adicu, dcar !aterhaus.
:+

arlicr, ! raiscd thc qucstion ol howit was that Christianitys grcat cncmy could havc grown
up in thc hcartland ol Gcrman Protcstantism, in a lamily that providcd him, to an cxcm
plary dcgrcc, with warmth and lovc. How was it that, in his maturity, hc camc to attack
thc loundation on which his childhood sccurity had bccn built: !t might bc, ol coursc, that
Nictzschcs philosophical commitmcnt to tclling thc truth without lcar or lavour simply
ovcrrodc all pcrsonal considcrations. 8ut it might also bc that, alrcady in carlicst childhood,
hc was awarc ol shadowy corncrs within thc sunlit world ol his Luthcran homcland, that
thc worm ol doubt was alrcady prcscnt in his carlicst cxpcricnccs. Rcad carclully, ! bclicvc,
thc autobiographical lragmcnts writtcn, it should bc cmphasiscd, by a stillcommittcd
Christian suggcst this to bc thc casc.
Tc adult philosophcr has an armoury ol polcmical dcscriptions ol Christianity: mad
housc, torturc chambcr, hangman God,
::
among othcrs. nc phrasc, howcvcr, is ol par
ticular intcrcst: Christian sick housc and dungcon atmosphcrc.
:
Sick housc is ol intcrcst
sincc, lromthc cnd ol Fritzs third ycar, thc Nictzschc houschold was, litcrally, a sick housc.
Tough thc rccollcctions ol his lathcr in Ecce Homo arc a culogy, thcy contain, noncthclcss,
an cmphasis on sickncss: My lathcr dicd at thc agc ol thirtysix: hc was dclicatc, lovcablc
and morbid, likc a bcing dcstincd only tcmporarily lor this world a gracious rcmindcr ol
lilc rathcr than lilc itscll .
:
And, in thc rcmark quotcd on p. 6 abovc what Nictzschc actu
ally says (a major qualication ! thcrc omittcd) is that hc owcs his lathcr cvcry privilcgc
ol his naturc sa.e for lilc, thc grcat Ycs to lilc |which is| not includcd in his dcbt. Putting
thcsc rcmarks togcthcr, wc can scc that Nictzschc rcmcmbcrs his lathcr as morbid not just
physically but also spiritually, rcmcmbcrs him as, in his latcr tcrminology, a lilcdcnicr
rathcr than a lilcarmcr: somconc low in cncrgy, withdrawn lrom lilc in thc hopc ol
nding his truc homc in anothcr, bcttcr world. Rccall, too, lizabcths rcmark that, cvcn
bclorc thc onsct ol his sickncss, Ludwig was so scnsitivc that at thc lcast sign ol discord hc
would withdraw to his study and rclusc to cat or drink, or spcak with anyonc (p. 6 abovc).
!t sccms to mc possiblc that onc ol thc things thc maturc Nictzschc hcld, at lcast uncon
sciously, against thc Christian worldvicw was that, with its rcduction ol this world to a cold
and draughty waitingroom wc sinncrs arc lorccd to inhabit prior to our dcparturc lor thc
truc world abovc, it dcprivcd his lathcr ol thc lullncss ol lilc hc might havc cnjoycd had
hc not bccn in its grips dcprivcd him cvcn, pcrhaps, ol lilc itscll.
As lor thc phrasc dungcon atmosphcrc, this puts onc in mind ol Fritzs horror (about
which hc could tcll no onc) bclorc thc thrcatcning gurc ol St. Gcorgc with his tcrriblc
wcapon and ashing cycs in thc gloomy church (p. 8 abovc). Could this, onc wondcrs,
bc an carly cncountcr with thc hangman God: And thcn thc mortuary, thc tombstoncs,
thc black cr cpc and thc luncral bicrs: thc immcdiatc cnvironmcnt ol Nictzschcs childhood
providcd daily cncountcrs with dcath and with thc tcrror ol its Christian mcaning. Tough
Fritzs autobiographical rccctions arc, lor thc most part, convcntionally sunny, thcy includc
cnough ol what ! callcd a gothic undcrtonc latcr, hc will spcak ol Christianity as a sunlcss
world ol grcy, lrosty, uncnding mist and shadow
:
to suggcst that somc ol thc sccds ol
thc latcr critiquc ol Christianity lic in thc carlicst tcrrors ol an imaginativc child.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Naumburg
C
ompcllcd to vacatc thc R ockcn vicaragc, thc Nictzschcs movcd in April +8o to ncarby
Naumburg. !nitially thcy took lodgings in thc Ncugassc, in thc housc ol a railhaulagc
agcnt, Hcrr tto. (Tc railway connccting Naumburg to Lcipzig in onc dircction and Vcis
scnlcls in thc othcr had only just bccn complctcd.) Following thc dcaths ol Aunt Augusta
in +8 and Grandmothcr rdmuthc in thc lollowing ycar, howcvcr, Franziska movcd to
thc housc ol a lricnd and thcn, rclicvcd to cscapc thc dominion ol oldcr womcn, to hcr own
cstablishmcnt. !n thc autumn ol +88 shc movcd oncc again, to (today +8) Vcingartcn,
whcrc shc rcmaincd thc rcst ol hcr lilc (scc Platc ). !t was lrom this housc that Nictzschc
lclt lor boarding school in +88, and to it that hc rcturncd, insanc, thirtytwo ycars latcr,
to bc carcd lor by his mothcr until hcr dcath in +8.

Situatcd ncar thc conucncc ol two slowmoving rivcrs, thc Unstrut and thc largcr Saalc,
Naumburg is a small cathcdral town. 8ut, coming lrom a tiny hamlct, thc vcycarold
Fritz cxpcricnccd it as a vast and lrightcning mctropolis. Hcrc is his rccollcction ol his rst
cncountcr:
ur grandmothcr togcthcr with Aunt Rosalic and thc scrvant girl wcnt on ahcad |lrom
R ockcn| and wc lollowcd latcr, lccling vcry sad . . . For us |Fritz and lizabcth| it was a
tcrriblc cxpcricncc altcr living lor so long in thc countrysidc. So wc avoidcd thc gloomy
strccts and sought thc opcn countrysidc, likc a bird that ccs its cagc . . . ! was amazcd by
thc unaccustomcd crowds ol pcoplc. And thcn ! was astonishcd whcn ! obscrvcd that nonc
ol thcm wcrc known to cach othcr, lor in thc villagc cvcryonc kncw cvcryonc clsc. Vhat !
lound most unplcasant wcrc thc long, pavcd strccts.
:6
Fritz, wc saw, cxpcricnccd thc loss ol his lathcr as a wound. Tc loss ol R ockcn and thc
transplantation to a strangc and lrightcning cnvironmcnt was anothcr. Soon, ol coursc, it
bcgan to hcal as, with a hcalthy boys adaptability, hc bcgan to scttlc into lilc in Naumburg.
8ut though thc wound hcalcd, it lclt a scar. As alrcady rcmarkcd, thc ycarning lor thc
sccurity ol a rccovcrcd homcland rcmaincd an undcrtonc throughout Nictzschcs lilc.

ncc Fritz had adjustcd to thc changc ol scalc, onc thing that may havc hclpcd him acquirc
at lcast rclativc sccurity in Naumburg is thc lact that thc town was thcn cncloscd by a
mcdicval wall. Hcrc is lizabcths dcscription:
!t was surroundcd by walls, and lrom tcn oclock at night to vc oclock in thc morning
vc hcavy gatcs closcd it in on all sidcs lrom thc outcr world. !t was only by dint ol loud
ringing, and thc gilt ol a small donation, that thc gatckccpcr could bc induccd, oltcn altcr
a prolongcd wait, to allow thosc standing outsidc to cntcr, so that anyonc who spcnt thc
cvcnings outsidc thc city in thc vincyards on thc hills would hastcn his lootstcps whcn hc
hcard thc littlc bcll ring lrom thc towcr ol thc townhall, giving warning, a lcw minutcs
bclorchand, ol thc closing ol thc gatcs. All round thc town thcrc was a dccp moat, boundcd
on thc othcr sidc by a nc avcnuc ol clms, which in its turn was surroundcd by gardcns,
clds and vincclad hills.
:
Da Capo

:
At lcast until thc bcginning ol his nomadic modc ol lilc at thc cnd ol thc +8os, Nictzschc
hatcd largc citics. 8ut small towns whcrc onc was protcctcd lrom thc dangcrs ol thc widc
world by a wall, whcrc onc camc to know oncs ncighbours and rcmaincd in contact with
thc countrysidc, hc camc to lovc, particularly Gcrmanys old mcdicval towns. !n +8, lor
instancc, hc wrotc to his lricnd dwin Rohdc
:8
that hc planncd to lcavc thc city ol 8ascl
and movc to thc wallcd (to this vcry day) mcdicval town ol RotcnburgobdcrTaubcr in
Franconia sincc, unlikc thc citics ol modcrnity, it was still altdeutsch |Gcrman in thc old
lashioncd way| and wholc.
Naumburg, too, spiritually as wcll as architccturally, was altdeutsch. !t was, as liza
bcth writcs, a thoroughly Christian, conscrvativc town, loyal to thc King and a pillar ol
Tronc and Church.
:
Hcrc is Fritz, thc thirtccnycarold royalist, rccollccting thc visit ol
his namcsakc, thc King ol Prussia:
ur dcar King honourcd Naumburg with a visit |in +8|. Grcat prcparations wcrc madc
lor thc occasion. All thc schoolchildrcn wcrc dcckcd out with blackandwhitc lavours
|ribbons or badgcs signilying allcgiancc to thc crown| and stood in thc markct placc lrom
clcvcn oclock in thc morning awaiting thc arrival ol thc lathcr ol thc country. Gradually
thc sky bccamc ovcrcast, rain pourcd down on us all thc king would not comc! Twclvc
oclock struck thc King did not comc. Many ol thc childrcn bcgan to lccl hungry. A
lrcsh downpour occurrcd, all thc strccts wcrc covcrcd in mud. nc oclock struck thc
impaticncc grcw intcnsc. Suddcnly about two oclock thc bclls bcgan to ring and thc sky
smilcd through its tcars upon thc joyously swaying crowd. Tcn wc hcard thc rattlc ol thc
carriagc, a boistcrous chccr roarcd through thc city, wc wavcd our caps in cxultation and
chccrcd at thc top ol our voiccs. A lrcsh brcczc sct ying thc myriad ags which hung
lrom thc rools, all thc bclls ol thc town rang out, and thc vast crowd shoutcd, hurrahcd,
and litcrally pushcd thc carriagc in thc dircction ol thc cathcdral. !n its alcovcs had bccn
placcd a largc numbcr ol young girls with whitc drcsscs and garlands ol owcrs in thcir
hair. Tc King alightcd, praiscd thc prcparations and cntcrcd thc rcsidcncc prcparcd lor
him. Tat cvcning thc wholc town was lit up. Countlcss numbcrs ol pcoplc throngcd thc
strccts. Tc pyramids ol garlands on thc town hall and cathcdral wcrc lit lromtop to bottom
with tiny lamps. Tousands ol banncrs dccoratcd thc houscs. Fircworks wcrc sct o in thc
cathcdral squarc so that lrom timc to timc thc dark shapc ol thc cathcdral was lit up by an
uncarthly light.
o

Shortly altcr arriving in Naumburg, Fritz was scnt to thc Knaben-B urgerschule, thc towns
primary school lor boys, rathcr than to a privatc school. Tc rcason, as lizabcth rccords,
was that Grandmothcr rdmuthc hcld thc startlingly modcrn idca that, up to thc agc ol tcn,
childrcn ol all social strata should bc taught togcthcr sincc thc childrcn ol thc highcr classcs
would thus acquirc a bcttcr undcrstanding ol thc attitudc ol mind pcculiar to thc lowcr
ordcrs.
+
(Tis samc thought, onc supposcs, motivatcs thc 8ritish royal lamilys practicc
ol having thcir sons do military scrvicc.) 8ut though hc did acquirc his rst rcal lricnds,
thc cousins Vilhclm Pindcr and Gustav Krug, mixing thc shortsightcd, bookish Fritz
with thc rough boys lrom thc lowcr ordcrs did not work particularly wcll. Altcr a ycar,
thcrclorc, thc thrcc boys wcrc translcrrcd to thc privatc school ol a Hcrr Vcbcr, dcvotcd
to prcparing pupils lor cntry into grammar school. Tcy staycd hcrc until +8, whcn thcy
duly gaincd admission to thc Domgymnasium, thc Cathcdral Grammar School, a building
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
attachcd to thc cathcdral itscll. Hcrc, lor thc rst timc, Nictzschc bcgan to sucr lrom thc
blinding hcadachcs that would plaguc him lor thc rcst ol his lilc, and was oltcn abscnt lrom
school. Noncthclcss hc workcd cxtrcmcly hard, oltcn until clcvcn or twclvc at night, cvcn
though hc had to gct up at vc oclock thc ncxt morning.
:
As a rcsult hc won a scholarship
to thc prcstigious boarding school Plorta, to which hc translcrrcd in thc autumn ol +88.

Tough bookish, thc Fritz ol thc Naumburg ycars was also rathcr charmingly boyish. Hc
rccollccts thc lilc hc and his two lricnds lcd at Vcbcrs prcp school:
Hcrr Candidatc |lor ordination| Vcbcr, a diligcnt, Christian tcachcr, kncw ol our lricnd
ship and did not scck to scparatc us. Hcrc was laid thc loundation ol our luturc cducation.
For along with cxccllcnt rcligious instruction, wc rcccivcd our rst lcssons in Grcck and
Latin. Vc wcrc not ovcrloadcd with work, and had timc thcrclorc lor physical activity.
!n summcr wc oltcn madc small cxcursions into thc surrounding countrysidc. Vc visitcd
thc lovcly Sch onburg, castlc Goscck Fricburg, as wcll as Rudclsburg and Saalcck, usu
ally togcthcr with thc wholc !nstitutc. Valking togcthcr in a group always makcs onc lccl
chccrlul, patriotic songs soundcd out, cnjoyablc gamcs wcrc playcd, and whcn thc routc
wcnt through a lorcst wc dccoratcd oursclvcs with lcavcs and twigs. Tc castlcs rcsoundcd
with thc wild crics ol thc rcvcllcrs it put mc in mind ol thc carousing ol thc knights ol old.
!n thc courtyards and in thc lorcst, too, wc had horscback battlcs, imitating in miniaturc
thc most glorious timc ol thc middlc agcs. Tcn wc climbcd thc high towcrs and guard
posts and survcycd thc goldcn vallcy shimmcring in thc cvcning light, and whcn thc mist
dcsccndcd on thc mcadows wc rcturncd homcwards with our mcrry crics. vcry spring wc
had a lcast that was our vcrsion ol thc chcrry lcstival. Tat is, wc wcnt o to Rossbach,
a small villagc ncar Naumburg, whcrc two birds awaitcd out crossbows. Vc shot cnthusi
astically, Hcrr Vcbcr dividcd up thc spoils and a grcat timc was had by all. !n thc ncarby
woods wc playcd cops and robbcrs.

Apart lrom thc idca ol arming small boys with crossbows, thcsc may strikc onc as prctty
normal boys gamcs. !n lact, howcvcr, thc way Fritz playcd his war gamcs cvinccs a prcco
cious, crcativc intclligcncc.
!n +8, lollowing Russian succcsscs against thc Turks in thc 8lack Sca rcgion, thc 8rit
ish and Frcnch dcclarcd war on Russia, aiming to prcvcnt its lurthcr wcstward cxpansion,
which thrcatcncd thc Mcditcrrancan and thcir main ovcrland routcs to !ndia. Major battlcs
wcrc lought at thc Rivcr Alma, 8alaclava, and !nkcrman. !n spitc ol major 8ritish incom
pctcncc lamously, thc suicidal chargc ol thc Light 8rigadc thc lall ol thc coastal Russian
lortrcss ol Scbastopol in Scptcmbcr +88 lcad nally to pcacc ncgotiations. Tc thirtccn
ycarold Fritz rccalls how thc Crimcan Var was vicwcd lrom Naumburg:
Tc Frcnch and nglish cquippcd an army and cct and scnt thcm to hclp |thc Turks|. Tc
thcatrc ol war was in thc Crimca, and thc hugc army bcsicgcd Scbastopol whcrc thc grcat
Russian army undcr Mcnschiko madc a stand. Vc approvcd ol that, so wc immcdiatcly
took up thc Russian causc and angrily challcngcd anyonc who sidcd with thc Turks to battlc.
Sincc wc posscsscd tin soldicrs and a construction sct wc sparcd no cort in rccrcating thc
sicgc and thc battlc. Vc built walls ol carth, cvcryonc lound ncw mcthods ol making thcm
propcrly stablc. Vc all kcpt a small book which wc callcd war lists, had lcad balls pourcd
Da Capo

:
and incrcascd thc sizc ol our armics with ncw purchascs. Somctimcs wc dug a littlc pool
lollowing thc plan ol thc harbour ol Scbastopol, constructcd thc prccisc lortications, and
llcd our harbour with watcr. Vc lormcd a lot ol balls lrompitch, sulphur and saltpctrc and
whcn thcy wcrc alight hurlcd thcm at thc papcr ships. Soon bright amcs blazcd away, our
cxcitcmcnt grcw and it was rcally bcautilul sincc wc oltcn playcd latc into thc cvcning
to scc thc cry balls whistling through thc darkncss. !n thc cnd thc wholc cct as wcll as all
thc bombs wcrc burncd up, during thc conagration amcs oltcn rosc two lcct into thc air.
!n such a manncr ! had happy timcs, not just with my lricnds |Pindcr and Krug| but also
with my sistcr. Vc, too, constructcd lortications with our construction kit and through
much practicc lcarncd all thc ncr points ol building . . . Vc discusscd at lcngth cvcrything
wc could discovcr about thc scicncc ol war, so that ! bccamc prctty cxpcrt. Var lcxicons as
wcll as rcccntly publishcd military books cnrichcd our collcctions and alrcady wc wantcd
to writc a grcat military dictionary.

Anothcr gamc cxhibiting Fritzs lrcakish, multilacctcd intclligcncc, as wcll as his royalist
scntimcnts, is rccallcd by lizabcth:
My brothcr and ! . . . crcatcd an imaginary world ol our own in which tiny china gurcs
ol mcn and animals, lcad soldicrs, ctc., all rcvolvcd round onc ccntral pcrsonality in thc
shapc ol a littlc porcclain squirrcl about an inch and a hall high whom wc callcd King
Squirrcl ! . . . !t ncvcr lor a momcnt cntcrcd our hcads that thcrc is nothing rcgal about a
squirrcl, on thc contrary, wc considcrcd that it had a most majcstic prcscncc . . . this small
king gavc risc to all sorts ol joyous littlc ccrcmonics. vcrything that my brothcr madc
was in honour ol King Squirrcl, all his musical productions wcrc to glorily His Majcsty, on
his birthday . . . pocms wcrc rccitcd and plays actcd, all ol which wcrc writtcn by my brothcr.
King Squirrcl was a patron ol art, hc must havc a picturc gallcry. Fritz paintcd onc hung
round with Madonnas, landscapcs, ctc., ctc. A particularly bcautilul picturc rcprcscntcd a
room in an old monastcry in which an oldlashioncd lamp burnt in a nichc and llcd thc
wholc apartmcnt with a quaint glow.

Fritz had closc and acctionatc rclations with both his sistcr and mothcr. 8ut hc also
bccamc vcry closc to Vilhclm Pindcr and Gustav Krug, who wcrc, as obscrvcd, his rst
rcal lricnds. Tcy rcmaincd lricnds throughout thcir schooldays, though thcy bcgan drilting
apart whcn Vilhclm and Gustav lclt to attcnd univcrsity in Hcidclbcrg whilc Fritz wcnt to
8onn.
8oth lricnds camc lrom lamilics ol highcr social standing than thc Nictzschcs. Vil
hclm, a gcntlc, somcwhat lragilc boy, livcd with his lathcr, a judgc, and his grandmothcr in
hall ol onc ol thc bcst houscs in town (thc othcr hall was occupicd by thc Krugs), a vc
storicd villa lacing thc markctplacc, whcrc both Frcdcrick thc Grcat and Napolcon wcrc
said to havc staycd. A good lricnd ol Fritzs grandmothcr, Grandmothcr Pindcr was onc
ol Naumburgs lcading ladics, hcr housc a gathcringplacc lor all who wcrc intcrcstcd in
litcraturc and thc arts. Shc and rdmuthc cncouragcd thc boys to bccomc lricnds. Judgc
Pindcr was ol a litcrary disposition, and it was hc who introduccd Fritz to thc works ol
Gocthc, whom Nictzschc would comc to admirc morc than any othcr human bcing. Poctry
was thc principal bond bctwccn Fritz and Vilhclm.
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Gustav was ol a morc ruggcd disposition than Vilhclm. His lathcr, as Fritz rccalls,
was a grcat music cnthusiast and virtuoso. Hc had cvcn writtcn scvcral signicant composi
tions . . . Hc posscsscd a wondcrlul grand piano so that ! oltcn stood spcllbound in lront ol
his housc listcning to 8ccthovcns sublimc music. Mcndclssohn was a closc lricnd as wcll
as thc M ullcr brothcrs, thosc lamous violin virtuosi whom ! was oncc lucky cnough to hcar.
!n his housc thcrc oltcn asscmblcd a sclcct group ol lricnds ol music, and virtually cvcry
virtuoso who wantcd to pcrlorm in Naumburg sought Hcrr Krugs rccommcndation.
6
8rought up in such a houschold, Gustav dcvclopcd a passion lor music as strong as Fritzs,
and soon bccamc a violinist ol what must havc bccn considcrablc ability, sincc in cccm
bcr +86 hc writcs Fritz that hc is playing thc cxtrcmcly dicult Mcndclssohn violin
conccrto. Music was thc principal bond bctwccn him and Fritz, a bond that was nourishcd
by thc wondcrlully rich musical cnvironmcnt providcd not just by thc Krug houschold, but
by Naumburg in gcncral. Fritz rccalls that as a boy
! hcard many oratorios. Tc brcathcatching Rcquicm was what ! hcard rst how thc
words ics irac, dics illa touchcd mc at thc corc. 8ut oh thc truly hcavcnly 8cncdictus!
! oltcn attcndcd rchcarsals. Sincc thc rcquicmmass was usually pcrlormcd at luncrals many
ol thcsc occurrcd during thc loggy, autumn cvcnings. !n thc sacrcd, scmidarkncss ol thc
cathcdral ! sat and listcncd to thc noblc mclodics. At this point ! must mcntion thc cathc
drals music dircctor, Hcrr Vctig, an uttcrly committcd musician who both conductcd and
composcd. His small choir was always in rstratc ordcr, and hc rchcarscd thc choir ol thc
choral socicty in an cxcmplary manncr. n top ol this hc was accountcd thc bcst music
tcachcr in Naumburg. His wilc, a lormcr opcra singcr, also did much to improvc pcrlor
manccs. 8csidcs thcsc wc havc two lurthcr music dircctors in Naumburg, tto Claudius,
conductor ol thc lormcr Liedertafel, a diligcnt composcr though somcwhat vain and con
ccitcd, and Fuckcl, who dircctcd thc town choir. Also ! hcard Handcls Judas Maccabaeus
and, abovc all, Haydns Creation. And thcn ! was at thc pcrlormancc ol thc tcndcr and apt
Midsummer Nights Dream by Mcndclssohn.

Tis wondcrlul ovcrturc! !t sccmcd to mc as

though clvcs in a moonsparkling silvcr night wcrc dancing in airy rings.
8

8ccausc hc was shy and bccausc hc had high cxpcctations, Nictzschc lound it dicult to
makc lricnds. 8ut oncc madc hc valucd thcm dccply. Unsurprisingly, thcrclorc, lricndship
is much discusscd in his maturc writings. !n dicrcnt placcs hc proposcs two clcmcnts
ol lricndship, both ol which should cxist, to onc dcgrcc or anothcr, in a truc lricndship.
Tc rst ol thcsc, which may bc callcd thc agonistic clcmcnt, is bascd on his study ol
thc Grcck idcal ol agon aggrcssivc compctition containcd within ultimatcly coopcrativc
bounds. !n your lricnd, says Tus spoke Zarathustra, you shall nd your bcst cncmy.

Tc
lricndship with Krug sccms to havc bccn markcd by a strongly agonistic clcmcnt: Fritz
rccords that wc oltcn lookcd at a musical scorc togcthcr, ocrcd contrary opinions, tricd
this and that, playing altcrnatcly on thc piano.
o
As wc shall scc, it was Gustavs pcrsistcncc
which nally ovcrcamc Fritzs innatc musical conscrvatism and pcrsuadcd him to bccomc,
lor a latclul dccadc, an cnthusiast lor thc Zukunftsmusik |music ol thc luturc| ol Richard
Vagncr.
Da Capo

:
Nictzschc did not bclicvc in cxposing oncs soul to thc othcr: onc should wcar oncs best
clothcs and not wish to appcar bclorc thc lricnd with no clothcs, says Zarathustra.
+
!n
placc ol soultosoul intimacy, hc proposcs, as thc sccond clcmcnt in truc lricndship, sharcd
commitmcnt to a common goal. !t is this that constitutcs thc sharcd bounds to thc ago
nistic strugglc. Comradcship sccms to havc bccn strongly to thc lorc in thc lricndship with
Pindcr. Hc was, Nictzschc rccalls, mildcr than Gustav, cvcn thc oppositc, with thc rcsult
that wc workcd almost always in harmony so that our opinions and idcas almost always
agrccd.
:
!n thc lattcr part ol his crcativc lilc Nictzschc sucrcd acutcly lrom lonclincss. Likc his
altcr cgo, Zarathustra, hc lound himscll alonc on a (Swiss) mountain top. 8ut, intcllcctually
at lcast, hc acccptcd this condition. Sincc, hc rcasoncd, a radical social critic, a lrcc spirit
such as himscll, scts himscll cvcr morc in opposition to thc loundational agrccmcnts on
which social lilc dcpcnds, hc rcduccs thc pool ol possiblc comradcs, and so ol possiblc
lricnds, to vanishing point. 8ut in his youth hc was lar lrom bcing a social critic. Hc was,
rathcr, as wc will shortly scc, a social conlormist, indccd a passionate social conlormist. And
so hc by no mcans lackcd lricnds. Tc accusation oltcn madc that hc was constitutionally
incapablc ol lricndship is manilcstly mistakcn.

Vhat was Fritz rcally likc in thosc carly, prcpubcsccnt ycars in Naumburg: First, ol coursc,
hc was, though not a prodigy in thc Mozartian mould, noncthclcss prodigious. Vc havc
alrcady noticcd thc unusual crcativc intclligcncc bchind his boyhood gamcs. !n Naumburg
hc startcd piano lcssons and was alrcady playing thc casicr 8ccthovcn piano sonatas altcr
two ycars ol study. (!n 8ritish tcrms, that is, hc rcachcd Gradc 8 within two ycars.) !n
his autobiographical rccctions hc lists lortysix pocms writtcn bctwccn thc agcs ol clcvcn
and thirtccn (hc had a passion lor lists). And alrcady in prcpubcsccnt days hc likcd noth
ing bcttcr than lossicking around in Grandlathcr chlcrs library and visiting thc Lcipzig
bookshops with him.

As lizabcth rcports, it was in lact Grandlathcr chlcr who rst

spottcd Fritzs unusual gilts, tclling Franziska that hc was thc most talcntcd boy hc had cvcr
sccn, morc talcntcd than his own six sons put togcthcr.

Lcss oltcn noticcd, but cqually markcd, is thc lact that hc was an cxtrcmcly acctionatc
boy, acctionatc towards his cntirc cxtcndcd lamily, cspccially Grandlathcr chlcr, and
towards his lricnds. Vithout his two noblc, truc, lricnds, hc rccords,
! would pcrhaps ncvcr havc lclt at homc in Naumburg. 8ut sincc ! havc won such livcly
lricnds, bcing hcrc is dcar to mc, and it would bc cxtrcmcly painlul to havc to lcavc. For
wc thrcc arc ncvcr apart cxccpt whcn ! madc a holiday trip somcwhcrc clsc with Mamma
and my sistcr.

Vilhclm supports this, calling Fritz, in his own rccollcctions (also rccordcd in his tccnagc
ycars) a vcry dcar and loving lricnd to mc.
6
!t is truc that Fritz also nccdcd solitudc. Hcrc is his own, rctrospcctivc charactcr
asscssmcnt:
! had, in my young lilc, alrcady sccn a grcat dcal ol tragcdy and sadncss and was thcrclorc
not as wild and jolly as childrcn usually arc. My schoollcllows uscd to tcasc mc on account
ol my scriousncss. Tis didnt just happcn in thc primary school but also in thc !nstitutc
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
|ol Hcrr Vcbcr| and cvcn in grammar school. From childhood onwards ! sought to bc
alonc and lclt bcst whcn ! could bc undisturbcd by myscll. And this was usually in thc lrcc
tcmplc ol naturc, whcrc ! lound thc trucst joy. So a thundcrstorm always madc thc dccpcst
imprcssion on mc, thc rumblc ol distant thundcr and thc brightly ickcring lightning only
incrcascd my awc in thc lacc ol God.

Tc twin human nccds, lor solitudc and lor socicty, arc, prcsumably, univcrsal. 8ut thcrc
is no doubt that Nictzschc posscsscd thc lormcr to an abnormally high dcgrcc in his
maturity, largcly bccausc hc had a grcat many things to say and an incrcasing scnsc that thc
timc hc had to say thcm in was short. Solitudc, onc might suggcst, is thc latc ol thc writcr.
Yct in thc abovc scllasscssmcnt thcrc is surcly a dcgrcc ol adolcsccnt sclldramatisation.
For, as wc havc sccn, thcrc was a grcat dcal ol normal boyish sociability, cvcn boistcrousncss,
in Fritzs carly lilc. nc should not, morcovcr, bc tcmptcd to discovcr any hint ol misan
thropy in his dclight in cntcring thc lrcc tcmplc ol naturc. Tc rcason hc nds thcrc his
trucst joy is not that thcrc is no joy to bc lound among humans but rathcr that it is in thc
sublimity ol naturc that hc discovcrs God.
God
F
or most ol his youth, Nictzschc intcndcd to cntcr thc pricsthood. Trough, no doubt,
idcntication with his dcad lathcr, hc was givcn to pricstly momcnts at an carly agc.
lizabcth rccords that hc was nicknamcd thc littlc pastor sincc, alrcady in primary school,
hc could rccitc biblical tcxts and hymns with such lccling that hc almost madc onc cry.
8
Yct thcrc was morc to Nictzschcs picty than thcatrc. Tc lollowing privatc notc lrom his
thirtccnth ycar contains a startling intcnsity ol gcnuinc rcligious lccling, lccling bound up
with thc nccd to bclicvc that onc day hc would bc rcunitcd with his lathcr:
! had alrcady cxpcricnccd so much joy and sorrow, chccrlul things and sad things but
in cvcrything God has salcly lcd mc as a lathcr lcads his wcak littlc child . . . ! havc rmly
rcsolvcd within mc to dcdicatc myscll lorcvcr to His scrvicc. May thc dcar Lord givc mc
strcngth and powcr to carry out my intcntions and protcct mc on my lilcs way. Likc a child
! trust in his gracc: Hc will prcscrvc us all, that no mislortunc may bclall us. 8ut His holy
will bc donc! All Hc givcs ! will joylully acccpt: happincss and unhappincss, povcrty and
wcalth, and boldly look cvcn dcath in thc lacc, which shall onc day unitc us all in ctcrnal
joy and bliss. Ycs, dcar Lord, lct Ty lacc shinc upon us lorcvcr! Amcn!

An important armation hcrc is: All Hc givcs ! will joylully acccpt. Tis is an almost cxact
lormulation ol thc doctrinc ol Nictzschcs maturity which hc somctimcs calls amor fati |lovc
ol latc| and somctimcs willing thc ctcrnal rcturn ol thc samc: thc doctrinc that an idcal
ol human wcllbcing is bcing ablc to say a joylul Ycs to e.erything that has happcncd and
thus will its ctcrnal rcturn. Tis doctrinc was lormulatcd long altcr hc had ccascd to bclicvc
in thc Christian God. 8ut what thc closc similarity bctwccn it and Nictzschcs youthlul
Christian picty suggcsts is that at thc hcart ol his maturc thought is thc cort to rcdiscovcr,
cvcn in Gods abscncc, ccntral clcmcnts ol thc passionatc Christians stancc to cxistcncc.
Da Capo

:,
Anothcr aspcct ol Fritzs Christian picty which is rccctcd in thc philosophy ol his adult
hood is his lovc ol Christmas. Partly, ol coursc, hc lovcs Christmas lrom a normal, boyish
dclight in high days, holidays and prcscnts, but partly, too, out ol somcthing morc. As a
thirtccnycarold hc asks himscll why it is hc lovcs Christmas cvcn morc than birthdays,
and answcrs that Christmas is thc most blcsscd lcstival ol thc ycar bccausc it docsnt con
ccrn us alonc, but rathcr thc wholc ol mankind, rich and poor, humblc and grcat, low and
high. And it is prcciscly this univcrsal joy which intcnsics our own mood.
o
Tis samc
dccply rootcd ycarning lor union and harmony bctwccn all mcn appcars in Fritzs rccord ol
a visit, in August +86o, to Gorcnzcn, a lorcstcncirclcd town not lar lrom Luthcrs birth
placc at islcbcn, on thc southcast lringc ol thc Harz mountains, whcrc his unclc dmund
chlcr was thc pastor:
And thcn it was Sunday. My unclc was vcry busy thc wholc morning. ! sawhimrst outsidc
thc cntrancc to thc church. Tc attcndancc was largc and rcgular. And what a wondcrlul
scrmon hc gavc. Hc spokc about rcconciliation, taking as his tcxt !l you bring your gilt to
thc altar, rst makc pcacc with your brothcr. !t was thc day lor Communion. !mmcdiatcly
altcr thc scrmon two ol thc villagc ocials, cducatcd mcn but cncmics ol long standing,
camc lorward and madc pcacc, cach rcaching out his hand to thc othcr.
+
cspitc his hostility to Christianity, thc maturc Nictzschc always rctaincd his dclight in
thc authcntic spirit ol Christmas. !t rcappcars in his philosophy as thc ycarning lor a timc
whcn all mcn . . . sharc thc cxpcricncc ol thosc shcphcrds who saw thc hcavcns brightcn
abovc thcm and hcard thc words n carth pcacc, good will towards all mcn.
:
How
Nictzschc could possibly combinc this ycarning lor world pcacc with his cclcbration ol thc
Grcck agon, not to mcntion thc will to powcr, is a mattcr wc shall havc to think about.

As wcll as pious, thc young Nictzschc was also good, somctimcs cxaggcratcdly so. !n hcr
mcmoirs, lizabcth wishcs shc could rccount at lcast onc incidcnt ol gcnuinc naughtincss
on his part but rcgrcts that shc rcmcmbcrs not onc. Tc ncarcst is hcr rctricval ol an incidcnt
in which thc two ol thcm wcrc praiscd lor donating thcir vcry bcst toys lor thc missionarics
to givc to thc black littlc hcathcns in Alrica, whcn, in lact, thcy had donatcd only rathcr
inlcrior oncs. Full ol shamc, Fritz says to hcr:
Lizzic, ! wish ! had givcn my box ol cavalry. Tcsc wcrc his ncst and lavouritc soldicrs.
8ut ! had still cnough ol thc scrpcnt and ol vc in mc to answcr with somc hcsitation:
ught God rcally to dcmand thc vcry bcst toys lrom us, Fritz: (Tc idca ol scnding
my bcstlovcd dolls to black and probably cxcccdingly savagc cannibals sccmcd uttcrly
impossiblc to mc.) 8ut Fritz whispcrcd in rcply: Ycs indccd, Lizzic.

Fritz was also dccply obedient, again in a somctimcs cxaggcratcdly incxiblc Prussian
manncr. lizabcth rccollccts a hcavy downpour ol rain causing all thc boys to run likc mad
on thcir way homc lrom primary school. All cxccpt Fritz, who was walking slowly with
his cap covcring his slatc and his littlc handkcrchicl sprcad ovcr thc wholc, oblivious to his
mothcrs instructions to Run, child, run!. Vhcn shc rcmonstratcd with him lor coming
homc soakcd hc rcplicd 8ut Mamma, thc school rulcs say that on lcaving school, boys
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
arc lorbiddcn to jump and run about in thc strcct, but must walk homc quictly and dcco
rously.

!n sum, on thc cvc ol his dcparturc lor boarding school, Fritz was a prccocious, shy,
acctionatc, pious, virtuous and obcdicnt boy, unconvcntional only in thc intcnsity ol his
dcvotion to thc convcntions ol his PrussianLuthcran upbringing. !t is hard to discovcr cvcn
thc rcmotcst hint ol thc Samson who would onc day pull down thc pillars ol thc Christian
tcmplc.
2
Pforta
!
x Svv:v:nvv +88 Franziska Nictzschc rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom thc rcctor ol Plorta
boarding school ocring Fritz a scholarship at thc bcst and most lamous sccondary
school in Gcrmany. According to lizabcth, ncws ol thc outstanding acadcmic promisc
hc had shown at thc Cathcdral Grammar School had rcachcd thc rcctors cars via Naumburg
rclativcs. Fritz had wantcd to go to Plorta sincc thc agc ol tcn, cxprcssing his dcsirc in
somcthing lcss than magniccnt vcrsc:
Tere, .here through her narro. door
Pfortas pupils e.ermore
Pass out into life so free
Tere in Pforta .ould I be!
And sincc thc scholarship would sccurc his nancial luturc lor thc ncxt six ycars it was an
ocr Franziska though bittcrly rcgrctting scvcrancc lrom thc child ol hcr hcart could
not rclusc. Tc lollowing month Fritz bccamc a Plorta pupil and would rcmain onc until
Scptcmbcr +86.
riginally a Cistcrcian abbcy callcd Porta Cocli (Gatc ol Hcavcn), Plorta (Gatc now
to cducation rathcr than hcavcn) had bccn translormcd into a school in + by thc Princc
lcctor Moritz ol Saxony, a dissolution and rccycling ol thc monastcrics that was a major
plank ol thc Protcstant Rclormation. (Tcn ycars latcr dward \!, in a similar spirit, lound
cd Christs Hospital on thc sitc ol thc lormcr Grcylriars lriary in thc City ol London.)
Plorta, or Schulplortc (Plorta School), as it is known today, is about an hours walk lrom
Naumburg Fritz somctimcs walkcd homc lor thc holidays. !t lics just south ol thc ambling
Saalc Rivcr in a woodcd vallcy that cxtcnds lrom thc wcstcrn cdgc ol Naumburg to thc
narrow gorgc ol K oscn. Tc school cstatc compriscs somc scvcntythrcc acrcs ol gardcns,
orchards, grovcs ol trccs, buildings, and cloistcrs, protcctcd lrom thc outcr world by a thick
twclvcloothigh wall, which lorms an almost pcrlcct rcctanglc. Abranch canal ol thc Saalc
ows through thc middlc ol thc cnclosurc, scparating thc work buildings and gardcns and

::
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
most ol thc tcachcrs houscs lrom thc school itscll. Small and highly sclcct, thc school, in
Nictzschcs day, accommodatcd somc two hundrcd pupils.
A ivided Heritage
V
hat sort ol a placc was Plorta: First, as thc rcctor put it in +8, in a spccch ccl
cbrating thc ooth annivcrsary ol thc schools loundation, it was a scllcontaincd
scholastic statc, a statc within a statc in which all parcntal rights arc handcd ovcr to thc
alma matcr lor thc six most dccisivc ycars, lrom adolcsccncc until cntry into univcrsity, in
ordcr that that thc boys bccomc divorccd lrom all distractions associatcd with town lilc.
+
As wcll as in total isolation, Plorta pupils also cxistcd undcr a condition ol ncartotal
control. nc nccdcd pcrmission lor virtually cvcrything. Tc Nictzschc Nachlass contains
innumcrablc chits writtcn to his tutor rcqucsting pcrmission to go lor a walk, havc somc
pockct moncy, rcnt a piano, buy somc cakc, mcct his lamily, ctc. ctc. Givcn such control,
it was no idlc boast ol thc rcctors to claim that thc school lormcd thc totality ol a pupils
bcing, not just thc dcvclopmcnt ol thcir minds but also thc lormation ol thcir morals and
charactcr, with thc rcsult that cvcry Plorta boy, as a rulc, lcavcs thc institution with thc
dcnitc stamp ol a ccrtain sound diligcncc which lasts him throughout his lilc.
:
Sound diligcncc is typical Plorta modcsty. (lizabcth commcnts that though thc mas
tcrs kncw that Fritz was thcir most talcntcd pupil in living mcmory, hc was ncvcr allowcd
to suspcct a word ol this, lor Plorta undcr no circumstanccs attcrcd its giltcd schol
ars.)

Vhat thc rcctor lails to mcntion is thc schools trcmcndous csprit dc corps. !ntcnscly
proud ol its lamous alumni Klopstock, Novalis, Fichtc, thc Schlcgcl brothcrs, almost a
roll call ol thc grcat namcs ol Gcrman romanticism, as wcll as thc grcat historian Lcopold
von Rankc it saw its rolc as that ol training young mcn lor thc geistige F uhrung des !olkes,
thc spiritual lcadcrship ol thc pcoplc,

lor thc intcllcctual, cultural, spiritual, and, ulti

matcly, morc or lcss dircct political lcadcrship ol thc nation. How was this Plorta stamp
on thc cultural aristocracy ol thc luturc to bc achicvcd: Trough, as thc rcctor put it, a virilc,
scvcrc, and powcrlul spirit ol disciplinc which taught thc pupils obcdicncc to thc command
and will ol thcir supcriors, thc scvcrc and punctual lullmcnt ol duty, scllcontrol, and
carncst work, whilc at thc samc timc cncouraging thc dcvclopmcnt ol original pcrsonal
initiativc.

Vhat this mcans will bc lamiliar to anyonc who has attcndcd, cvcn in rcccnt
timcs, a 8ritish boarding school: thc classical tcchniqucs ol Sparta cold baths, a hicr
archy ol prclccts and subprclccts with thc powcr ol lilc and dcath ovcr thcir subordinatcs,
a rcgimcntcd daily routinc, lack ol privacy savc in thc lavatorics and somctimcs not cvcn
thcrc (total obscrvation as Michcl Foucault calls it), corporal punishmcnt, and so on. All in
all, Plorta closcly rcscmblcd a Prussian military acadcmy savc lor thc lact that it produccd
occrs lor, in thc rst instancc, cultural rathcr than military lcadcrship
6
though, as wc
shall scc, it produccd thc lattcr too.
Fritz bcgins his dcscription ol thc daily routinc:
! will nowattcmpt to givc a picturc ol cvcryday lilc in Plorta. As carly as lour in thc morning
thc dormitory doors arc thrown opcn, and lrom that timc onwards anyonc is lrcc to risc
who wishcs to do so. 8ut at vc oclock (in wintcr at six) cvcrybody must bc out ol thc room:
as usual thc school bcll rings, thc dormitory prclccts pcrcmptorily shout, Gct up, gct up,
Pforta

:
makc hastc and punish anyonc who docsnt nd it so casy to gct out ol bcd. Tcn all thc
boys scramblc into a lcw light garmcnts as quickly as possiblc, and hurry to thc washrooms
to sccurc a placc bclorc thcy gct too crowdcd. Rising and washing lasts tcn minutcs, altcr
which cvcryonc rcturns to thcir rooms whcrc thcy drcss propcrly. At twcntyvc past thc
rst praycrbcll sounds, and at thc sccond cvcryonc has to bc in hall lor praycrs. Hcrc thc
prclccts kccp ordcr until thc mastcr comcs . . . punctually at six (in thc wintcr scvcn) thc bcll
rings lor thc boys to go to thcir classrooms.

Ronald Haymans biography ol Nictzschc has littlc timc lor Plorta. Rclcrring to an cpi
sodc in which Fritz hcld a lightcd match to his hand to provc that his sclldisciplinc was
up to Roman standards, hc obscrvcs that thc sadism in authoritarian opprcssion always
tcnds to gcncratc masochism in thc dcsirc to cxccl through obcdicncc and suggcsts that
Plorta translormcd Nictzschc into a sadomasoch|ist|.
8
Tough clcvcr, this sccms to mc
to ignorc, rst, thc lact that somc pcoplc enjoy a lilc ol obcdicncc, and, sccond, thc warmcr
sidc ol Plorta.
To bcgin at thc most basic lcvcl, thc mcals at Plorta (comparcd, at lcast, to my own
boardingschool cxpcricncc) wcrc substantial, and, lrom a nutritional point ol vicw, sur
prisingly sound. Sincc, morcovcr, thc lruit and vcgctablcs wcrc all lrcshly gathcrcd lrom
thc schools own orchards and gardcns, thcy wcrc probably cnjoyablc. Fritzs dcscription ol
daily lilc continucs:
Tc mcnu lor thc |midday mcal| lor thc wcck is as lollows:
Monday: soup, mcat, vcgctablcs, lruit.
Tucsday: soup, mcat, vcgctablcs, brcad and buttcr.
Vcdncsday: soup, mcat, vcgctablcs, lruit.
Tursday: soup, boilcd bccl, vcgctablcs, grillcd kidncys and salad.
Friday: soup, roast pork, vcgctablcs, and brcad and buttcr, or soup, lcntils, sausagc, and
brcad and buttcr.
Saturday: soup, mcat, vcgctablcs, lruit.
And lor thc cvcning mcal at .oo p.m.:
Monday and Friday: soup, brcad and buttcr and chccsc.
Tucsday and Saturday: soup, potatocs, hcrring, and brcad and buttcr.
Vcdncsday: soup, sausagc, mashcd potatocs or picklcd cucumbcr.
Tursday: soup, pancakcs, plum saucc, brcad and buttcr.
Sunday: soup, ricc boilcd in milk, brcad and buttcr, or cggs, salad and brcad and buttcr.

Sccond, thc disciplinc and rcgimcntation wcrc not, in lact, as total or as incxiblc as thc
rcctor makcs out. Plcnty ol timc was allowcd lor walks, playing bowls, and swimming in, or,
in wintcr, skating on, thc Saalc, both ol which Fritz lovcd and bccamc good at. !n spitc ol thc
carly rising at .oo a.m., bcdtimc was at 8.o or .oo p.m., so thc boys wcrc actually allowcd
about cight hours slccp. And, as Fritz rccords, in summcr, il thc tcmpcraturc rcachcd :

C,
classcs wcrc canccllcd lor thc rcst ol thc day and thc wholc school wcnt swimming. n
Sundays, thc boys wcrc givcn winc (SaalcUnstrut is Gcrmanys northcrnmost appellation)
lrom thc schools own vincyards.
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tird, Fritzs school cxpcricncc, so lar as onc can tcll, sccms to havc bccn rclativcly lrcc
ol thc usual pcrils ol boarding school, bullying and scxual abusc. !t is possiblc that clcmcnts
ol school lilc wcrc rcprcsscd in thc lcttcrs hc wrotc homc scvcral timcs a wcck, but thc
gcncral picturc, apart lrom bouts ol ill hcalth, is ol a happy schoolboy: about thc only
timc hc complains is whcn bad wcathcr makcs skating impossiblc or whcn his ordcrs lrom
homc arc not promptly llcd. (Hc tcnds a habit that pcrsistcd into adulthood to trcat
his mothcr as a mailordcr rm, dcmanding instant dclivcry ol, among othcr itcms, strong
glasscs, ink bottlcs, stccl pcns, soap, cocoa, walcr biscuits, notcbooks, writing pads, scissors,
morning shocs, boot jacks, and a draughts sct.)
+o
Contra Haymans suggcstion ol sadism,
lizabcth mcntions how kind thc prclccts wcrc to hcr brothcr. And it is ccrtainly truc that
hc likcd and admircd scar Kr amcr, thc prclcct to whom hc was immcdiatcly answcrablc
(and who, thcrclorc, morc than anyonc, could makc his lilc cithcr hcll or hcavcn), and whom
hc invitcd homc to tca with his mothcr.
++
!t was Kr amcr who knockcd lrom his hand thc
lightcd candlc with which hc was burning himscll and told him not to bc so stupid. (8arcly
out ol his tccns, Kr amcr dicd as a licutcnant in thc battlc ol Sadowa in +866, an cvcnt which
ccrtainly inucnccd thc maturc Nictzschcs loathing ol warlarc.)
Fourth, in spitc ol thc rcctors claim ol total scqucstration lrom town and homc, thcrc
was in lact lrcqucnt contact with homc. Not only wcrc thcrc thc rcgular lcttcrs and supplics
lrom homc, but most Sundays Fritz would makc thc hallhour walk to Almrich thc
midway point bctwccn Plorta and Naumburg to spcnd thc altcrnoon with his mothcr and
sistcr.
l coursc, uprootcd lrom his sccond homc and his two bcst lricnds, Fritz at rst sucrcd
tcrribly lrom homcsickncss. As hc approachcd Plorta lor thc rst timc in thc grcy light ol
dawn, shivcring with lcar bclorc an ominous luturc vcilcd in grcy, thc walls ol Plorta
lookcd, hc wrotc Vilhclm, morc likc a prison than an alma matcr.
+:
Fortunatcly hc lound
in his tutor (cquivalcnt to a houscmastcr in thc 8ritish systcm) a man ol simplc laith and
grcat kindhcartcdncss who ocrcd him what Fritz calls thc curc lor homcsickncss (accord
ing to Prolcssor 8uddcnsicg):
(+) !l wc want to lcarn anything ol valuc wc cannot always stay at homc.
(:) ur dcar parcnts do not wish us to rcmain at homc, wc should thcrclorc lull thcir
wishcs.
() ur lovcd oncs arc in Gods hands. Vc arc continually accompanicd by thcir
thoughts.
() !l wc work diligcntly our sad thoughts will vanish.
() !l nonc ol thc abovc hclps, pray to God almighty.
+
Tough nonc ol this may sccm vcry ccctivc, Fritz lovcd Robcrt 8uddcnsicg dcarly (lairly
clcarly, hc was thc rst ol Nictzschcs scvcral substitutc lathcrs) and wcpt bittcr tcars ovcr his
untimcly dcath lrom typhus in August +86+.
+
Tough hc rctaincd lricndly rclations with
his ncwtutor, Max Hcinzc

lor thc rcst ol his lilc, Hcinzc was no substitutc lor 8uddcnsicg.

Hcinzc bccamc wcll known as an historian ol philosophy. For a short timc hc bccamc Nictzschcs
collcaguc at thc Univcrsity ol 8ascl bclorc moving on to Lcipzig. Among othcr things, hc produccd
an cdition ol Lcnins writings, which suggcsts a man ol considcrablc brcadth ol vision.
Pforta

:
Fritz lookcd lorward to school holidays with somcthing approaching ccstasy. And going
back to school was always an occasion lor sounding likc onc ol Schubcrts licdcr pocts:
Tc goldcn days ol thc holidays arc ovcr, vanishcd likc a drcam, my hcart was darkcncd by
clouds ol sadncss,
+
and so on. 8ut nonc ol this should bc takcn as showing that school was a
placc ol sadistic tormcnt. Fritz ol coursc misscd homc and lamily. 8ut what hc rcally misscd
was freedom, thc lrccdom to cat, drink, slccp, walk, rcad, writc, play thc piano whcn, whcrc,
and with whom hc likcd. Schooldays, as hc himscll obscrvcd, arc dicult ycars . . . bccausc
thc lrcsh spirit must connc itscll in narrow limits.
+6

Tc picturc ol Plorta as a sadistic machinc dcsigncd to producc Prussian robots nccds a lur
thcr qualication: onc nccds to attcnd to thc spirit ol rcnaissancc humanism pcrvading its
worldvicw, which arosc lrom thc ccntrality ol classics to thc curriculum. Plorta humanism
cmbraccd a rcvcrcncc lor Romc, but abovc all lor Grcccc, as thc highcst point ol Vcst
crn civilization. From this it dcrivcd a quict, yct rcal, commitmcnt to an idcal ol lrccdom
and rcpublicanism bascd on thc modcl ol thc Athcnian citystatc and thc Roman Rcpub
lic. Politically, thc dominant culturc at Plorta was libcral in thc ninctccnthccntury scnsc,
which cmbraccd libcration lrom authoritarian rulc, cxtcnsion ol civil rights and thc lran
chisc (somctimcs cvcn to womcn), and movcs towards dcmocratic govcrnmcnt. And, in thc
spccically Gcrman contcxt, it cmbraccd thc causc ol Gcrman unication. Tough in thc
cvcnt, thanks to thc authoritarian 8ismarck and a bcnightcd mpcror, thc Gcrman Rcich
(which camc into bcing in +8+) provcd a grcat disappointmcnt to thcm, libcrals had sup
portcd its crcation, hoping that it would bring an cnd to thc multitudc ol pctty statcs run, on
lcudal lincs, by dukcs and princcs. Morcovcr, thc dcconstructivc spirit ol classical philology,
as soon as it cxtcndcd itscll bcyond ancicnt tcxts, had an intrinsic tcndcncy to undcrminc
cstablishcd convictions and authoritics. (Latcr, Nictzschc rclcrs to \oltaircan dcconstruc
tion as a salicnt ccct ol historical studics.)
+
At lcast as important as arwinism in thc
undcrmining ol Christian laith in thc ninctccnth ccntury was thc philological dcconstruc
tion ol thc 8iblc by scholars such as avid Strauss (scc pp. +68o bclow). (Vhcn Jacqucs
crrida told thc radical studcnts ol +68 that it was morc important to dcconstruct tcxts
than to barricadc thc strccts ol Paris, hc was simply rccalling what philology had bccn doing
lor thc past hundrcd ycars.)
Tus Plorta, likc thc bcst nglish boarding schools both thcn and now, was riddlcd with
crcativc contradictions. n thc onc hand, it vcncratcd Prussian authority, but on thc othcr,
it quictly subvcrtcd all authority. n thc onc hand, it was opprcssivcly Protcstant lrcqucnt
doscs ol praycrs and chapcl wcrc compulsory but on thc othcr, it vcncratcd cvcrything
about antiquity, including thc Grcck that is, pagan gods. And though on thc onc hand
opprcssivcly loyal to thc Prussian thronc, on thc othcr it was quictly rcpublican.
Nictzschc ncvcr doubtcd that Plorta madc him. And hc was always loyal to thc school
and gratclul, not only lor thc magniccnt cducation in thc humanitics, but also lor thc
charactcr lormation it had givcn him. Twcntylour ycars altcr lcaving, hc wrotc,
Tc most dcsirablc thing ol all . . . is undcr all circumstanccs to havc scvcrc disciplinc at the
right time. i.c. at thc agc whcn it makcs us proud that pcoplc should cxpcct grcat things
lrom us. For this is what distinguishcs hard schooling lrom cvcry othcr schooling, namcly
that a good dcal is dcmandcd, that goodncss, nay cvcn cxccllcncc itscll, is rcquircd as il
it wcrc normal, that praisc is scanty, that lcnicncy is noncxistcnt, that blamc is sharp,
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
practical, and has no rcgard to talcnts or antcccdcnts. Vc arc all in cvcry way in nccd ol
such a school, and this holds good ol physical as wcll as spiritual things it would bc latal
to draw distinctions hcrc! Tc samc disciplinc makcs thc soldicr and thc scholar ccicnt,
and, lookcd at morc closcly, thcrc is no truc scholar who has not thc instincts ol a truc
soldicr in his vcins.
+8
As ! cmphasiscd carlicr, Nictzschc was, and would rcmain all his lilc, at hcart a Prussian.
His homc prcdisposcd him thus, but his unwavcring commitmcnt to Prussian disciplinc
to scllovcrcoming, in his own latcr tcrminology was vcry largcly Plortas crcation. 8ut
bcing itscll a contradiction, Plorta produccd, in Nictzschc, a contradiction. As thc 8ritish
public schools havc produccd thc lcadcrs ol mainstrcam socicty but, at thc samc timc, its
disloyal opposition communist spics such as 8urgcss, Maclcan, Philby and 8lunt so
Plorta produccd, in Nictzschc, a Prussian antiPrussian, Prussias vcry own molc, somconc
who, in his maturity, would sct out to undcrminc cvcrything lor which it stood.
Te Curriculum
T
hc hcart ol thc Plorta curriculum was Grcck and Latin and, to a lcsscr dcgrcc, thc
Gcrman classics. Vhat thc studcnts brcathcd was not thc air ol modcrn uropc but
that ol Grcccc and Romc, Gocthc and Schillcr. Natural scicncc and mathcmatics always
camc a poor third, disciplincs to bc spccialiscd by thc lcss ablc boys. Prcdictably, mathcmat
ics was badly taught, so that Fritz, altcr initially doing wcll, camc to nd it cxtrcmcly boring.
Hc bccamc so bad at it that, whcn it camc to his bitur, thc schoollcaving cxam, thc maths
tcachcr wishcd to lail him, prompting anothcr cxamincr to ask quictly, 8ut gcntlcmcn,
arc wc rcally going to lail thc bcst pupil in living mcmory: !n thc +8os, dcvcloping a
kccn intcrcst in natural scicncc, Nictzschc bccamc acutcly awarc ol his lack ol grounding
lollowing thc pcrlunctory way thc scicnccs wcrc taught at Plorta. Vc had, hc writcs in
+88+,
mathcmatics and physics lorccd upon us instead ol our bcing lcd into dcspair at our ignor
ancc, and having our littlc daily lilc, our activitics, and all that wcnt on at homc, in thc work
placc, in thc sky, in thc countrysidc lrom morn to night, rcduccd to thousands ol problcms,
to annoying, mortilying, irritating problcms, so as to show that wc needed a knowlcdgc
ol mathcmatics and mcchanics, and thcn to tcach us our rst delight in scicncc . . . !l only
wc had bccn taught to re.ere thc scicnccs.
+
!n addition to Latin and Grcck, Fritz also studicd Frcnch and Hcbrcw, thc lattcr on
account ol his dutilul intcntion to lollow his mothcrs dcsirc that hc study thcology at uni
vcrsity. !n lact, howcvcr, hc ncvcr complctcly mastcrcd any lorcign languagc, ancicnt or
modcrn. Tough onc was supposcd to bc ablc to think in Latin, Fritz ncvcr quitc man
agcd it, his Latin compositions always looking likc translations lrom Gcrman. !n latcr
lilc, though hc spcnt much timc in !taly, hc undcrstood comparativcly littlc ol thc lan
guagc. To rcad Frcnch hc always nccdcd a dictionary, whilc his nglish was noncxistcnt:
8yron and Shakcspcarc, whom hc lovcd, hc rcad in Gcrman translation. Tcsc lacts arc ol
somc importancc sincc, though hc camc to stylc himscll a good uropcan and to dcplorc
Pforta

:
Gcrman chauvinism, hc always thought in Gcrman and thcrclorc, in a strong scnsc, as a
Gcrman.
Te Germania Society
U
ntil his nal ycar Fritz had no rcally closc lricnds at school. Usually at or ncar thc
top ol his class, hc sccmcd to his lcllows somcthing ol a Streber |strivcr| a goody
goody who strivcs too obviously to bc top. Rcscrvcd, carncst bcyond his ycars, and not
givcn to thc physical roughandtumblc ol boardingschool lilc, hc sccmcd to his lcllows
somcwhat wcird as, givcn thc handburning cpisodc, hc indccd was. For this rcason, his
normal boardingschool ycarning lor thc holidays was a ycarning not only lor thc comlorts
ol homc but also lor thc company ol his only two lricnds, Vilhclm and Gustav.
!n thc summcr holidays ol +86o thc thrcc lricnds dccidcd to lound a socicty lor litcr
aturc and thc arts, to bc callcd Germania.
:o
Tis was thc rst glimmcr ol a vcry Gcrman
phcnomcnon, thc dcsirc to lound a circlc, such as thc Vagncr Circlc or, latcr, thc Stclan
Gcorgc Circlc, dcvotcd to cultural rcgcncration, a dcsirc which would pcrsist throughout
Nictzschcs lilc. lizabcth rccounts thc lounding ol thc Germania socicty:
|n July th| thc lricnds bought a nincGroschcn bottlc ol rcd Naumburg winc and sct
lorth in an carncst and dignicd proccssion to thc ruin ol Sch onburg, an hours distancc
lrom thc town. 8y mcans ol an cxtrcmcly rickcty laddcr thcy climbcd to thc highcst lcdgc
ol thc watch towcr, lrom which thcrc was a magniccnt vicw ovcr thc picturcsquc Saalc
vallcy, and lrom this position, high abovc thc misty rcgions ol thc plain, thcy discusscd
thcir plan lor lullling thcir highcst aspirations lor culturc.
Tc constitution ol thc socicty rcquircd that cach mcmbcr contributc a monthly subscrip
tion which was uscd to purchasc, inter alia, thc works ol thc thcn highly avant gardc poct,
Fricdrich H oldcrlin as wcll as, cach month, an original work ol litcraturc, art, or music
(Nictzschcs compositions rccordcd as tracks on thc Vcb sitc lor this book wcrc all
Germania contributions). Tc work would thcn bc criticiscd in a rigorous but constructivc
manncr by thc othcr mcmbcrs. At thc cnd ol thc lounding ccrcmony, lizabcth continucs,
thc lricnds plcdgcd thcmsclvcs to thc bond ol lricndship and community ol idcas, baptizcd
thc socicty Germania, and hurlcd thc cmpty bottlc into thc abyss.
:+
Likc most socictics, Germania bcgan with a burst ol cnthusiasm but, thcn, undcr thc
prcssurc ol, in Fritzs words, schoolwork, dancing lcssons, lovc aairs, political cxcitc
mcnts,
::
gradually bccamc moribund, and thcn bankrupt, and was nally wound up in
July +86. Fritz provcd its most diligcnt mcmbcr, at lcast partly bccausc, having changcd
schools, hc approachcd bitur six months latcr than Vilhclm and Gustav.
uring Germanias lilctimc thc mcmbcrs contributcd and discusscd (in pcrson during thc
holidays, by corrcspondcncc during tcrmtimc) numcrous works by thcmsclvcs and othcrs.
Tcir most signicant purchascs wcrc, in +86+,
:
a piano rcduction ol thc scorc ol Vag
ncrs Tristan und Isolde (lour ycars bclorc its rst pcrlormancc) and a subscription to thc
Neue Zeitschrift f ur Musik, a magazinc loundcd by Schumann in +8, now dcdicatcd to
cxplaining and dclcnding Zukunftsmusik in gcncral, and Vagncrs music in particular.
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc scorc ol Tristan was thc mcans by which Gustav nally convcrtcd Fritz to thc causc.
Tc convcrsion cxpcricncc, which happcncd cithcr in +86+ or +86:, consistcd in thc two ol
thcm playing through thc piano rcduction with lour hands as wcll as singing all thc parts.
lizabcth rcports that thc rcndition ol this music ol thc luturc by thcir powcrlul voiccs
rcmindcd hcr ol thc howling ol wolvcs and that a ccrtain dcal woman who livcd oppositc
us anxiously rushcd to hcr window whcn shc hcard thc lcarlul noisc that sccmcd to havc
pcnctratcd cvcn hcr cars bccausc shc thought thcrc must bc a rc somcwhcrc.
:
Tc original contributions
:
to thc socicty consistcd ol pocms and musical compositions
as wcll as lccturcs ol a litcrary, historical, musicological, and philosophical charactcr. Fritz
contributcd, inter alia, lour parts ol a Christmas Oratorio (tracks , and 6 on thc Vcb sitc
lor this book) inspircd by 8achs cponymous work and numcrous pocms including Six
Scrbian Folk Songs, translatcd by F. Nictzschc (Vilhclm wondcrcd how hc could havc
donc this givcn hc kncw no ScrboCroatian),
:6
as wcll as lccturcs on 8yron, Napolcon !!!,
and his rst work ol philosophy, Fatc and Frccdom, writtcn in March +86:.
Mcanwhilc, at school, too, Fritz was bcginning to producc works ol signicancc. !n addi
tion to his classical studics, hc wrotc cxtcndcd cssays on, inter alios, H oldcrlin and 8yron,
on thc rmanarich Saga and othcr Norsc sagas, on thc origin and naturc ol civilization
and on thc naturc ol homcland. As hc gaincd insight into thc principlcs ol philological
criticism, hc was, morcovcr, bcginning to takc a morc critical stancc towards thc 8iblc.
Religious oubt
A
s wc havc sccn, Fritzs childhood was markcd by passionatc, rathcr than mcrcly con
vcntional, picty, a picty that spcaks unmistakably lrom his carly musical compositions
(listcn to tracks +, : and on thc Vcb sitc lor this book). His attitudc to thc 8iblc was
onc ol unqualicd bclicl. Picty as wcll as poctry is what hc had in common with his rst
gcnuinc school lricnd, Paul cusscn, also thc son ol a pastor and also intcnding to cntcr thc
ministry. Tis pious phasc culminatcd in thc two bcing conrmcd togcthcr in March +86+.
cusscn rccollccts:
! rcmcmbcr vcry wcll thc holy, worldcnchanting atmosphcrc which took posscssion ol
us during thc wccks bclorc and altcr our conrmation. Vc wcrc quitc prcparcd to dcpart
this lilc, to bc with Christ, and all our thinking, lccling, and striving was irradiatcd by an
othcrworldly chccrlulncss.
:
Almost immcdiatcly, howcvcr, lracturcs bcgan to appcar in thc labric ol Fritzs picty.
uring thc astcr holidays hc had a scrious quarrcl with Franziska which rcsultcd in a
lcttcr ol apology in markcd contrast to thc sunny acction ol thcir corrcspondcncc to datc:
And now, dcar Mamma, a word lor your cars alonc. To mc too it sccms that thc othcrwisc
so wondcrlul astcr holiday was ovcrshadowcd and darkcncd by thosc ugly cvcnts, and it
causcs mc grcat pain cach timc ! think ol it that ! upsct you so much. ! bcg you to lorgivc mc,
dcar Mamma: it would bc tcrriblc il this incidcnt wcrc to damagc our lovcly rclationship
with cach othcr. Forgivc mc, dcar Mamma, . . . From now on ! will try as hard as ! can,
through my bchaviour and lovc lor you, to hcal thc brcach.
:8
Pforta

:,
Almost ccrtainly thc quarrcl conccrncd rcligion, Fritz having bcgun to rcad works whosc
scicntic approach to rcligion (in thc broad Gcrman scnsc according to which any rational
and disciplincd cnquiry counts as scicntic) would havc ocndcd Franziskas simplc tra
ditionalism. Shc was ccrtainly shockcd whcn, in Novcmbcr, hc rccommcndcd Karl von
Hascs rationalistic Life of Jesus to his sistcr.
:
cusscn conrms that scicncc was bcgin
ning to undcrminc Fritzs Christian laith. Tc rcligious intoxication at thc timc ol thcir
conrmation, hc writcs,
sincc it was an articially cultivatcd plant, could not last, and undcr thc inucncc ol our
daily cducation and lilc, dissipatcd as quickly as it arrivcd. Mcanwhilc wc prcscrvcd a ccr
tain dcgrcc ol bclicl until thc bitur cxams wcrc ovcr. Vhat undcrmincd it, without our
noticing, was thc supcrb historicalcritical mcthod which wc cmploycd, in Plorta, to tor
mcnt thc ancicnts and which thcn, quitc by itscll, applicd itscll to biblical mattcrs.
o
Tc historicalcritical mcthod is csscntially what Nictzschc cmploys in his maturc
philosophy to undcrminc Christianity and Christian morality. !n gcncral tcrms, it is thc
hcrmcncutics ol suspicion, closc qucstioning ol a tcxt guidcd by thc prcsumption that
thcrc is morc (or pcrhaps lcss) to it than mccts thc cyc and that what lails to mcct thc cyc is
probably, in onc way or anothcr, disrcputablc. 8ut, as cusscn notcs, thc mcthod is csscn
tially thc (as notcd, incipicntly subvcrsivc) disciplinc ol philology translcrrcd lrom classical
tcxts to thc 8iblc. Vhat was bcginning to happcn, thcrclorc, was thc rcsolution ol onc ol
thc contradictions inhcrcnt in thc Plorta worldvicw. Scicncc was bcginning to undcrminc
laith.
8y thc Spring ol +86:, in thc Fatc and History lccturc dclivcrcd to thc audicncc ol two
that, togcthcr with thc lccturcr, constitutcd thc synod ol thc Germania socicty, Fritz insists
on thc nccd and right to takc a lrcc and unpartisan vicw ol Christianity cvcn though oncs
upbringing madc it sccm almost a crimc. Yct, as wc will scc in discussing this cssay, Fritzs
aim is not rejection ol Christianity but rathcr its modernisation. Tc Christian lilclorm,
csscntial to thc labric ol socicty, is too valuablc to bc discardcd. 8ut its thcological bclicls
must bc rccast so as to accord, rathcr than conict with, modcrn scicncc. Tis qucst lor a
modcrniscd Christianity, wc shall scc, was ccmcntcd by avid Strausss Life of Jesus, which
Fritz rcad during his rst ycar at univcrsity.
Teenage Rebellion
F
ritzs cmcrgcncc lrom navc rcligiosity was accompanicd by a loray into thc gcncral
spirit ol tccnagc rcbcllion. Tis lastcd about a ycar, starting in thc spring ol +86:, altcr
which hc rcturncd to his accustomcd rolc and lclt Plorta in a blazc ol glory. Hc bcgan
kccping company with thc schools rcbcls, dubious charactcrs such as Guido Mcycr and
Raimund Granicr, dcnizcns ol Plortas undcrground countcrculturc. Togcthcr thcy would
makc lun ol thc schools cagcr bcavcrs as wcll as indulging in crimcs such as sccrct drinking,
smoking, and snutaking. Mcycr was in lact cxpcllcd in March +86 lor illcgal drinking,
which Fritz dcscribcd to his mothcr as a hcavyhandcd miscarriagc ol justicc and his saddcst
day at Plorta.
+
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
n thc litcrary lcvcl, Fritz bccamc cnamourcd ol 8yron as an icon ol rcbcllion and sct out
on a path ol blasphcmous transgrcssion. Hc wrotc a novcllragmcnt, Euphorion in which
thc cponymous hcro imprcgnatcs a nun who thcn marrics hcr brothcr and thcn scnt it
to Granicr, his partncr in nihilism, proudly dcscribing it as disgusting, worth using only
as lavatory papcr.
:
A dcath wish cmcrgcs in his poctry that ! could, worldwcary/Fly
away/And likc thc swallow go south/Towards my gravc. !n anothcr pocm a drunk hurls a
bottlc ol schnapps at thc crucicd Christ.
Lcttcrs homc nowbcgan with thc pscudosophisticatcd dcar Pcoplc, as opposcd to car
Mamma, which carncd hima rcprimand. At school, too, thcrc was troublc. 8cing a prclcct,
Fritz was rcquircd to conduct survcys and rcport anything nccding rcpair in thc classrooms
or dormitorics. As a gcsturc ol mild rcbcllion, hc succumbcd to thc tcmptation to inscrt
into his rcports littlc jokcs such as thc bcnchcs in thc uppcr sccond, which wcrc paintcd
rcccntly, bccamc cxccssivcly attachcd to thosc who sat on thcm. For this hc was gatcd,
missing a prcarrangcd mccting with Franziska at Almrich. ncc again car Fritz has
bccn rcplaccd by My dcar son hc rcccivcs a hcavyhandcd rcprimand lrom homc:
Tank God that it is not a worsc punishmcnt, but lrankly . . . ! would havc cxpcctcd morc
tact lrom you. You will bc again chargcd with thc mistakc ol vanity, always wanting to do
somcthing dicrcnt lrom thc othcrs, and ! nd thc punishmcnt quitc justicd, lor it sccms
a tcrriblc prcsumptuousncss against thc tcachcrs to allow oncscll do somcthing likc this.
So plcasc in luturc bc morc carclul in your modc ol thought and action, lollow always your
bcttcr scll and you will bc prcscrvcd lrom all thc strilc and unquict ! havc obscrvcd in you
morc and morc.

Tccnagc rcbcllion camc to a hcad in April +86 whcn Fritz was discovcrcd by a mastcr,
complctcly drunk. Tis rcsultcd in his bcing strippcd ol his status as a prclcct and oncc
morc gatcd, so that again thc Sunday mccting with mothcr and sistcr had to bc canccllcd.
Again hc had to writc to his mothcr in a statc ol cxtrcmc cmbarrassmcnt:
car Mothcr il ! writc today its about onc ol thc most unplcasant and painlul incidcnts
!vc cvcry bccn rcsponsiblc lor. !n lact ! havc misbchavcd vcry badly and ! do not know
whcthcr you can or will lorgivc mc. ! pick up my pcn most rcluctantly and with a hcavy
hcart cspccially whcn ! call to mind our lovcly timc togcthcr during thc astcr holidays,
which wcrc ncvcr spoilcd by discord. Last Sunday ! got drunk and ! havc no cxcusc, cxccpt
that ! did not know how much ! could takc, and ! was rathcr cxcitcd in thc altcrnoon . . . |hc
was cclcbrating coming top in cndolycar cxams|. You can imaginc how ashamcd and
dcprcsscd ! am to havc causcd you such sorrow with such an unworthy talc as ! havc ncvcr
causcd you in my lilc bclorc. !t also makcs mc lccl vcry sorry on Pastor Klctschkcs account
|thc school chaplain whom Fritz had choscn to succccd Hcinzc as his tutor, and who had
madc him a scnior prclcct| . . . Vritc mc vcry soon and vcry strictly lor !vc dcscrvcd it as
no onc knows morc than ! . . . writc mc vcry soon and dont bc too cross, dcar mothcr. \cry
dcprcsscd, Fritz.

Tc magnitudc ol this incidcnt sccms to havc lanccd thc boil ol rcbcllion, sincc lrom now
on his namc makcs no lurthcr appcarancc in thc Plorta punishmcnt book. 8ut it lclt him
Pforta

:
with a lilclong distrust ol alcohol. !n Ecce Homo hc attributcs his prclcrcncc lor watcr ovcr
spirituous drinks to having almost turncd into a sailor whilc at Plorta.

Fritzs nal ycar at Plorta was dominatcd by thc qucstion ol what should bccomc his Brot-
studium, brcadwinning coursc ol study. As a scholarship boy lrom a poor background hc
had no option but to think scriously about brcadwinning. Multitalcntcd as hc was, hc com
plaincd that a choicc ol prolcssion was a lottogamc.
6
For a timc hc thought ol music,
cvcrything sccms to mc dcad whcn ! cant hcar music, hc wrotc his mothcr.

!n thc cnd, ol
coursc, hc dccidcd lor that to which Plorta, both by training and idcology, had prcdcstincd
him classics, classical philology. As hc wrotc in +86,
nly at thc cnd ol my Plorta lilc, having achicvcd propcr scllknowlcdgc, did ! givc up
all artistic lilcplans: into thc rcsulting gap stcppcd philology. ! nccdcd, that is, to achicvc
cquanimity in thc lacc ol thc ux ol disquicting inclinations, a disciplinc (!issenschaft)
that could bc pursucd with cquanimity in thc lacc ol thc changcablc and disquicting ux ol
inclinations, a disciplinc which could bc conductcd with cool lcvclhcadcdncss and logical
coldncss routinc work without its rcsults stirring thc hcart.
8
Vhat this rcvcals, apart lrom Nictzschcs passion lor Prussian order, is that, though hc
lovcd thc Grccks, hc did not lovc philology a lact that would bc sccntcd out by Ulrich
Vilamowitz in a rcvicw ol his rst book that, wc shall scc, was intcndcd to drivc him out
ol thc prolcssion. !n choosing a carccr path lor which hc had no passion Nictzschc was
storing up an agonising dilcmma that, onc day, hc would havc to rcsolvc.
New Iriends

uring his nal months at school, Fritz rccogniscd with sadncss that with Vilhclm
and Gustav bound lor univcrsity in Hcidclbcrg, which did not rccommcnd itscll to a
philologist, hc lricndship with thcm was wcakcning. Two ncw lricndships, howcvcr, wcrc
bcginning to blossom in thcir placc: rst, as notcd, with Paul cusscn,

and soon altcr

with 8aron Carl von Gcrsdor (scc Platc +), thc atypical product ol a Prussian Junkcr
houschold.

At rst Carl and Fritz wcrc drawn togcthcr by a common intcrcst in music,
mccting cach othcr lor thc rst timc in thc Plorta music room. Carl was bowlcd ovcr by
Fritzs piano improvisation, rcmarking that hc would havc no diculty in bclicving that
cvcn 8ccthovcn did not improvisc in morc moving manncr than Nictzschc, particularly
whcn a thundcr storm was thrcatcning.

8y thc timc thcy lclt school thcy had movcd

Likc Nictzschc, cusscn bcgan acadcmic lilc as a Grcck philologist. 8ut thcn, via Schopcnhaucr,
hc branchcd out into astcrn thought, bccoming a lull prolcssor in 8crlin and onc ol thc grcat
oricntalists ol his day.

Following thc Junkcr tradition, von Gcrsdor lought in both thc AustroPrussian war ol +866
and thc FrancoPrussian war ol +8o+. nc ol his cldcr brothcrs dicd in thc lormcr, anothcr
in thc lattcr, thc sccond bcing awardcd thc !ron Cross. Although hc was lorccd to takc ovcr thc
administration ol thc lamily cstatc, von Gcrsdor s rcal dcsirc was to bc an artist. Hc spokc at
Nictzschcs luncral in +oo. !n +o, showing incrcasing symptoms ol mcntal illncss, hc committcd
suicidc by throwing himscll out ol a window.
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lrom thc lormal to thc lamiliar you (lrom Sie to du), thcn, cvcn morc than now, a major
stcp in pcrsonal rclations bctwccn Gcrmans.
!n :oo: a book appcarcd cntitlcd Zarathustras Secret
o
in which undctcrrcd by thc com
plctc abscncc ol cvidcncc thc author madc thc scnsational claim that Zarathustras (i.c.,
Nictzschcs) guilty sccrct was that hc was gay. !t is worth rccording, thcrclorc, that both
cusscn and von Gcrsdor wcrc thoroughly hctcroscxual. And that Fritz himscll, in his
pcnultimatc school ycar, was attractcd to Anna Rcdtcl, thc sistcr ol a school acquaintancc,
with whom, whcn shc visitcd hcr grandparcnts in K oscn (bctwccn Plorta and Naumburg),
hc playcd piano ducts. To hcr hc dcdicatcd a collcction ol his carly compositions, licdcr and
piano picccs.
+
Fritz and his malc lricnds wrotc to cach othcr in thc most lulsomc tcrms. Tcy miss cach
othcr tcrribly and long lor thc holidays whcn thcy will bc togcthcr oncc morc. And as was
thc lashion throughout latc \ictorian uropc, thcy constantly cxchangcd photographs ol
cach othcr. Vhcrcas a hcalthy modcrn schoolboy would likcly havc photographs ol largc
brcastcd lm stars on his walls, Fritz dccoratcd thc walls ol his room with photographs ol
his lricnds.
:
Vcrc thcsc gay rclationships: Tcy wcrc not. Flowing cxprcssions ol undying lovc lor
oncs lricnd, though pcrhaps startling to somconc brought up in thc cmotional constipation
ol todays malctomalc communication, wcrc a \ictorian commonplacc. Vcrc homocrotic
lcclings involvcd: Quitc possibly. For \ictorian mcn who had spcnt thcir lormativc ycars in
singlcscx boarding schools which cncouragcd thcmto idcalisc thc livcs ol Grcck aristocrats,
it was natural to rcscrvc thcir most intimatc and tcndcr lcclings lor thosc ol thcir own scx.
And in this rcgard, Fritz was no cxccption. 8ut il Nictzschc was gay thcn so wcrc thc grcat
majority ol middlcclass \ictorian mcn.
Ieaving School
F
ritz lclt Plorta, just short ol his twcnticth birthday, adjudgcd thc ncst pupil lor many
ycars. Supcrbly traincd by tcachcrs who would go back and lorth bctwccn positions
at Plorta and chairs at thc bcst univcrsitics, hc was alrcady lully cquippcd to bccomc a
prolcssional classical philologist. A brilliant luturc lay bclorc him. Two clouds, howcvcr,
hung ovcr his hcad.
Tc rst was his hcalth. Givcn thc Spartan rcgimc ol thc school, onc did not show up
in thc mcdical rccords unlcss onc was unmistakably sick. Yct in his six ycars at Plorta Fritz
was conncd to thc inrmary no lcss than cightccn timcs an avcragc ol thrcc timcs a
ycar. n two occasions thc illncss was so scvcrc that hc was scnt homc to convalcscc.
Mainly hc sucrcd lrom various kinds ol u, but thcsc attacks wcrc always accompanicd
by hcadachcs, which also aictcd him on many othcr occasions. As wc shall scc, blinding
and incapacitating hcadachcattacks accompanicd by nausca and vomiting would plaguc
his cntirc adult lilc.
Nictzschcs hcadachcs may havc had a physical causc. 8ut thcy wcrc likcly cxaccrbatcd by
his cxtrcmc shortsightcdncss and by thc strain imposcd by prodigious amounts ol rcading.
(ltcn hc rcad through an cntirc night, his loot in a buckct ol lrcczing watcr to prcvcnt him
lalling aslccp.

) Morcovcr, thcrc also sccms to havc bccn a psychosomatic clcmcnt in at lcast

thc timing ol thc attacks: strcss sccms to havc madc him morc vulncrablc. Tc ycar +86:,
lor instancc, was particularly bad hc appcarcd in thc inrmarys mcdical rccord lour timcs
Pforta


and was cvcntually scnt homc to convalcscc a pcriod ol illhcalth that coincidcd with his
irtation with thc conluscd nihilismol thc Plorta countcrculturc. And in thc lollowing ycar,
thc cxtrcmc dcprcssion cxprcsscd in thc April +6 lcttcr homc conlcssing thc drunkcnncss
cpisodc (p. o abovc) was lollowcd by conncmcnt to thc inrmary lrom April : until
May and thcn again lrom May to May :o.
Tat a sccond cloud hung ovcr Fritzs dcparturc lrom Plorta is suggcstcd by a pocm
writtcn during his nal days at school. !t rcads, in part,
Once more before I tra.el on
nd cast my glance for.ard
In my solitude I raise my hands
Up to you, my refuge,
To .hom in the deepest depths of my heart
I ha.e solemnly dedicated altars
So that for all time
Your .oice al.ays calls me back.
On them, deeply engra.ed, shines
Te .ord: to the unkno.n god. . . .
I must kno. you, unkno.n one
You .ho reach deep into my soul . . .

Philological sophistication, wc havc sccn, dcprivcd Nictzschc ol thc simplc Naumburg laith
ol his childhood. Tough this in no way lcd him to athcism thc yearning lor God was
undiminishcd hc no longcr kncw who God was. God had bccomc thc unknown god
(thc Grcck dcsignation may havc comc to him via H oldcrlins !n Lovcly 8lucncss). God
had bccomc a qucst, and would rcmain so lor thc rcmaindcr ol his lilc.
Literary Works
!
t would bc casy to dismiss thc litcrary works ol thc Plorta ycars as juvcnilia. 8ut that
would bc a mistakc, sincc many ol thc major thcmcs ol his maturc philosophy (thc two
cxccptions arc thc will to powcr and thc ctcrnal rcturn ol thc samc) rcccivc thcir rst airing
in thcsc tccnagc works. Nictzschc did not, ol coursc, rctain his tccnagc vicws unmodicd
throughout his lilc. Noncthclcss, undcrstanding thcsc vicws is crucial to an undcrstanding
ol what rcally conccrncd him. ! shall ordcr thc discussion by topics rathcr than tcxts, dis
cussing his vicws on rcligion, music, Grcck tragcdy, poctry, politics and morality, homcland
vcrsus cosmopolitanism, and lrccdom ol thc will in that ordcr.
Religion

n thc Childhood ol Pcoplcs,

a lccturc dclivcrcd to thc Germanias audicncc ol two

on March :, +86+, contains thc bcginnings ol Nictzschcs lilclong mcditation on
thc origin ol rcligion. From a scvcntccnycarold, it is an imprcssivc work.
Tc most lundamcntal posscssion ol a !olk |pcoplc|, Fritz argucs, is a common languagc.
Tis is truc by dcnition, sincc a sharcd languagc is what constitutcs a group ol individuals as
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
a pcoplc. 8ut thc ncxt most lundamcntal lcaturc is a sharcd rcligion. At thc most primitivc
stagc ol civilization, Fritz hypothcsiscs, pcoplcs considcrcd thcmsclvcs Gods childrcn. Tcr
ricd by his powcr, which spcaks to thcm in thundcr and lightning, thcy scck his hclp and
lorgivcncss lor thcir sins through praycr and sacricc. Tis rst and most natural rcligion
worships a God who is immancnt in natural phcnomcna thc truth that God is a supra
natural rathcr than natural bcing rcmaincd unknown to thcm. !n timc, howcvcr, primordial
monothcism acquircd thc hcathcn accrction ol polythcism. vcn thc Jcws wcrc polythc
ists, rcgarding Jchovah, thc God ol !sracl, mcrcly as thc highcst ol thc gods, occupying a
kingly rolc with rcspcct to thc othcrs. Tc various natural lorccs and thc dicrcnt scasons,
sccming to rcprcscnt dicrcnt godly powcrs, gcncratcd thc dim rcprcscntation ol a multi
plicity ol supcrnatural agcncics govcrning thc dcstiny ol cach individual. Tc notion that
somc ol thcsc spirits wcrc bcncvolcnt and othcrs malcvolcnt arosc in a natural way, and
cvcryonc bccamc cagcr to cnjoy thc lavour ol thc bcncvolcnt oncs. Tcn prolound mcn,
prcscnting thcmsclvcs as mcsscngcrs ol thc gods, loundcd a ncw lorm ol rcligion by attach
ing thc loundations ol morality to thcological bclicl and propagating thc rcsulting synthcsis
ol gods and morals among thcir pcoplc. Tis is how thc rcligions ol thc most spiritually rich
nations ol antiquity arosc. 8ut, Fritz concludcs, history shows that
cvcrmaturing rcligious thought lcads towards a standpoint lrom which thc dcmand lor
a purc, natural doctrinc is satiscd, whcrc cnlightcncd philosophcrs rcturn us to a singlc
God as thc primordial sourcc ol all bcing. !t is thc mission ol thc Christian rcligion to
cxpcditc this proccss, not through stcpping in and dcstroying hcathcn rcligion by lorcc, but
by awakcning thc natural nccd lor a kindlicr tcaching. |Fritz is surcly thinking, hcrc, ol thc
Gcrman missionarics in Alrica to whom hc and lizabcth, in thcir childhood, had donatcd
thcir sccondbcst toys.| Just as ncccssary, howcvcr, and rcquircd by thc loundational idca
ol Christianity, is thc lovc which lcads thcm out ol thcir unblcsscd condition and into thc
arms ol thc Church through which alonc salvation can bc attaincd.
Tis is clcarly writtcn within thc paramctcrs ol Christian thcology, which constrain him
to postulatc monothcism as thc rst and most natural idca ol thc divinc a implausiblc
hypothcsis hc latcr rcjccts. Noncthclcss, thc lact that hc thinks rcligion has an origin rcvcals
alrcady a ccrtain dctachmcnt lrom Christian laith: as hc says in thc Genealogy of Morals, thc
mcrc rccognition that rcligious bclicl has a history undcrmincs thc assumption that it is thc
product ol divinc rcvclation.
8y thc lollowing ycar, howcvcr, Fritzs proccss ol dctaching himscll lrom navc Chris
tianity has bccomc much morc advanccd. !n thc astcr holidays, in Fatc and His
tory,
6
anothcr Germania lccturc, hc writcs that
!l wc could cxaminc Christian doctrinc and Church history with a lrcc, unconstraincd cyc,
wc would bc compcllcd to arrivc at many conclusions which contradict gcncrally acccpt
cd idcas. 8ut rcstrictcd as wc arc lrom our rst days by thc yokc ol habit and prcjudicc,
rcstrictcd in thc dcvclopmcnt ol our intcllccts and prcdctcrmincd in thc dcvclopmcnt ol
our charactcr by thc stamp ol childhood, wc arc lorccd to rcgard it as almost a sin |by,
ol coursc, Franziska| il wc choosc to adopt a lrcc standpoint, and hit upon an unpartisan
judgmcnt about rcligion appropriatc to thc agc in which wc livc.
Pforta


So Fritz dcclarcs his right ol dctachmcnt latcr hc will call this bccoming a lrcc spirit a
dcsirc to vicw rcligion lrom thc pcrspcctivc ol thc cducatcd knowlcdgc ol his agc. 8ut with,
lor his ycars, a rcmarkably maturc scnsc ol intcllcctual rcsponsibility to his community and
its grcat tradition, hc continucs,
such an attcmpt is not thc work ol a lcw wccks but ol an cntirc lilctimc. For how could
wc, armcd with thc rcsults ol mcrc adolcsccnt broodings, annihilatc thc authority ol two
thousand ycars and thc tcstimony ol thc grcatcst minds: How could onc, with lantasics
and immaturc idcas, discount all thc dccp joys, blcssings and sorrows bclonging to thc
dcvclopmcnt ol rcligion in thc history ol thc world: !t is shccr arrogancc to try to solvc
philosophical problcms about which thcrc havc bccn conicting opinions lor two thousand
ycars, or to ovcrthrow bclicls which, according to thc convictions ol thc highcst intcllccts,
arc alonc capablc ol clcvating thc animal man into a truc man, or to unitc natural scicncc
and philosophy without knowing thc principal rcsults ol cithcr. r, nally, to construct a
systcm ol rcality out ol natural scicncc and history, whilc thc unity ol world history and thc
lundamcntal principlcs thcrcol havc not yct bccn rcvcalcd to thc human mind.
And now wc comc to thc rst appcarancc ol what may bc callcd thc Columbus imagc, thc
imagc ol philosophcr as scalarcr, that rccurs throughout his maturc philosophy:
To darc to launch out on thc sca ol doubt without compass or guidc is dcath and dcstruction
lor undcvclopcd hcads, most arc struck down by storms, lcw discovcr ncw lands. From thc
midst ol this immcasurablc occan ol idcas onc will oltcn long to bc back on rm land.
Noncthclcss Fritz rcmains rcsolutc in his commitmcnt to thc scicntic outlook ol his agc:
history and scicncc, thc wondcrlul lcgacy ol our wholc past and thc hcrald ol our luturc, arc
thc solc loundation on which wc can build thc towcr ol our spcculations. And, anticipating
Te Gay Sciences lorcbodings conccrning thc conscqucnccs ol thc dcath ol God, hc docs
not disguisc thc lact that thc conscqucnccs ol thc contcmporary outlook arc going to bc
traumatic:
Vc stand at thc thrcshold ol a grcat rcvolution whcn thc mass ol mankind rst grasps
that thc wholc labric ol Christianity rcsts on |mcrc| assumptions: thc cxistcncc ol God,
immortality, thc authority ol thc 8iblc will always rcmain problcmatic.
And thcn (anticipating Te Gay Sciences important linc, nly as crcators can wc dcstroy

an aphorism pointing to thc lact that Nictzschc is not just a dcconstructionist) hc writcs,
! havc madc thc attcmpt |!ersuch| to dcny cvcrything. h, dcstruction is casy but to
construct! And cvcn dcstruction sccms casicr than it rcally is sincc wc arc so inucnccd
in our inncrmost bcing by thc stamp ol our childhood, thc inucncc ol our parcnts and
cducation, so that thcsc dccply cmbcddcd prcjudiccs arc by no mcans casily uprootcd by
rational argumcnts.
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc rcsult can oltcn bc thc backsliding, thc loss ol intcllcctual intcgrity, which, in Human,
ll-Too-Human, will bc picturcd as thc lrcc spirits rcturn to a lost lovc, whcthcr shc bc
callcd rcligion or mctaphysics:
8
Forcc ol habit, thc nccd lor somcthing highcr, |lcar ol| thc dissolution ol all social lorms
ght a dctcrmincd battlc with thc suspicion ol having bccn mislcd lor two thousand ycars
by a miragc . . . until in thc cnd sad and bittcr cxpcricnccs lcad us back to thc old childish
bclicls.
Nonc ol thc abovc, howcvcr, amounts as yct to a rcjcction ol Christianity. Vhat Fritz
sccks, rathcr, is its modcrnisation, a rcconciliation bctwccn rcligion and thc naturalistic
outlook ol his agc. Hcrc is what hc writcs to Vilhclm and Gustav in April +86::
Christianity is not latalistic . . . only whcn wc rccognisc that wc arc rcsponsiblc lor oursclvcs,
and that a lailurc to livc a mcaninglul lilc can bc ascribcd only to oursclvcs, not to any
kind ol a highcr lorcc, will thc loundational idca ol Christianity cntcr thc kcrncl ol our
bcing. Christianity is csscntially a mattcr ol thc hcart: only whcn wc cmbody it, whcn it
has bccomc our inncrmost naturc, havc wc bccomc truc Christians. At bottom, thc tcach
ing ol Christianity cxprcsscs only thc lundamcntal idcas ol thc human hcart. Tcy arc
symbols . . .

!n Te ntichrist, virtually thc last thing hc cvcr wrotc, Nictzschc claims that lor thc his
torical Jcsus, thc kingdom ol hcavcn is in thc hcart. Tc rcal Jcsus, that is, was an cth
ical tcachcr, rathcr likc thc 8uddha, who taught thc achicvcmcnt ol a statc ol inncr pcacc
through thc practicc ol univcrsal and unconditional lovc. Hc had no mctaphysical bclicls
at all thc translormation ol hcavcn into a supcrnatural postmortcm dcstination was a
pcrvcrsion ol his tcachings by St. Paul. Tis is thc point hc makcs hcrc: bcing a Christian is
a mattcr ol living thc cthics ol lovc, not ol bclicving in a lilcgovcrning, supcrnatural lorcc.
!n an cssay writtcn at about thc samc timc as Fatc and History, Fritz attacks thc dclusion
ol a supcrnatural world as somcthing that lcads mankind into a lalsc stancc towards thc
natural world: by making thc supcrnatural thc locus ol all that is holy, mctaphysical Chris
tianity dcvalucs, dcdiviniscs thc natural, actual world. Tis quitc wrong undcrstanding
ol Christianity is a naivc product ol thc childhood ol pcoplcs sincc that God bccamc man
shows only that man is not to scck his bliss in thc innitc, but to scck it on carth. And thcn
Fritz rcmarks that only through bcaring thc burdcn ol doubt and strugglc docs humankind
arrivc at its humanity: it rccogniscs in itscll thc bcginning, middlc and cnd ol rcligion.
o
Tc nal rcmark hcrc is in lact a quotation lrom Ludwig Fcucrbachs Te Essence of Chris-
tianity (translatcd into nglish by Gcorgc liot).
+
Fcucrbachs, at thc timc, rcvolutionary
pronounccmcnt was that all gods arc human crcations, projcctions ol human conccptions
ol pcrlcction crudcly put, rolc modcls. Tis cxplains Fritzs claim that what Christianity
dcals in arc csscntially symbols. Rightly undcrstood, Jcsus is not a gatcway to anothcr lilc
but a rolc modcl lor this onc.
!n sum, thcn, by +86: Nictzschc had clcarly rcjcctcd mctaphysical Christianity, but
cqually clcarly rcmaincd lully committcd to cthical Christianity prcciscly thc position
bcing adoptcd, at about thc samc timc, by Gcorgc liot. Vhcn, thcrclorc, in T.ilight of
the Idols, hc criticiscs hcr as a littlc moralistic lcmalc lacking thc brains to rcalisc that
Pforta


Christianity is a packagc dcal, that its cthics makcs no scnsc without its mctaphysics,
:
hc
is also criticising his lormcr scll.
8y +86:, thcn, Nictzschc, whilc rcmaining committcd to its cthics, had abandoncd thc
mctaphysics ol Christianity. Tc qucstion rcmains, howcvcr, as to whcthcr hc had completely
succumbcd to thc positivist spirit ol his agc: whcthcr hc had complctcly rcjcctcd thc supra
natural, or whcthcr somcthing bcyond thc physical, somcthing mctaphysical, rcmaincd
in his outlook. To answcr this qucstion, wc nccd to turn to his writings on art, abovc all on
music.
Music
V
c sawin thc rst chaptcr thc inscparablc conncxion in Nictzschcs childhood bctwccn
music and rcligion. Ncarly all his intcnsc musical cxpcricnccs wcrc ol sacrcd music,
ncarly all thc choral compositions ol his carly ycars wcrc sacrcd picccs. Tis conncxion is
cnshrincd in his carlicst contribution to thc philosophy ol music in an autobiographical
lragmcnt ol +88:
God has givcn us music so that abo.e all it might lcad us upwards. Music unitcs all qualitics:
it can cxalt us, divcrt us, chccr us up, or brcak thc hardcst ol hcarts with thc soltncss ol its
mclancholy toncs. 8ut its principal task is to lcad our thoughts to highcr things, to clcvatc,
cvcn to makc us trcmblc. Abovc all, this is thc purposc ol Church music . . . Tc musical
art oltcn spcaks in sounds morc pcnctrating than thc words ol poctry, and takcs hold ol
thc most hiddcn crcviccs ol thc hcart. 8ut cvcrything God scnds to us can bring us to
blcsscdncss only whcn it is uscd in a wisc and propcr way. Tus song clcvatcs our bcing and
lcads it to thc good and thc truc. !l, howcvcr, music scrvcs only as a divcrsion or as a kind ol
vain ostcntation it is sinlul and harmlul. Yct this lault is vcry lrcqucnt, almost all ol modcrn
music is guilty ol it. Anothcr rcgrcttablc phcnomcnon is that many modcrn composcrs try
to writc as obscurcly as possiblc. 8ut prcciscly thcsc articial corts, which possibly charm
thc connoisscur, lcavc thc hcalthy human car cold . . . abovc all socallcd Zukunftsmusik ol a
Liszt, or a 8crlioz |or a Vagncr| that strivcs to bc, at all costs, dicrcnt.

Trcc thcmcs manilcst thcmsclvcs hcrc. First, thc puritanical conccption that cithcr music
guidcs our thoughts to highcr things or clsc it is sinlul. Sccond, thc idca that sinlul music
comcs in two lorms, low cntcrtainmcnt and high obscurantism. And third, Fritzs innatc
musical conscrvatism: thc autobiographical lragmcnt gocs on to spcak ol his hatrcd ol all
modcrn music, by which hc mcans Zukunftsmusik. Mozart, Haidn (sic), Schubcrt, and
Mcndclssohn, 8ccthovcn and Handcl, thcsc arc thc pillars on which alonc Gcrman music
and ! myscll arc loundcd,

hc statcs dcantly.
Tcsc samc thcmcs appcar thrcc ycars latcr thc lollowing lcttcr to Vilhclm and Gustav
ol January +86+, thc ycar in which hc wrotc lour parts ol a Christmas Oratorio (p. :8 abovc):
Although until nowthc oratorio has always bccn bclicvcd to hold thc samc placc in spiritual
music as docs opcra in worldly music, this opinion sccms wrong to mc, and cvcn a dispar
agcmcnt ol oratorio. !n and ol itscll, thc oratorio is alrcady ol a wondcrlul simplicity, and
indccd, as uplilting and indccd strictly rcligiously uplilting music, it must bc so. Hcncc thc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
oratorio spurns all thosc othcr mcans that opcra uscs lor cccts, no onc can takc it lor just
somcthing incidcntal, as opcratic music still is lor thc masscs. !t cxcitcs no othcr scnsc than
our hcaring. !ts contcnt, too, is innitcly simplcr and morc sublimc and, lor thc most part,
is lamiliar and casily comprchcnsiblc to cvcn an uncducatcd audicncc. Tis is why ! bclicvc
that, in its musical gcnus, oratorio stands at a highcr lcvcl than opcra in that its mcans arc
simplcr, its ccct morc immcdiatc, and its rcccption at lcast ought to bc widcr. !l this is not
thc casc thc causc must bc sought not in thc typc ol music itscll, but partly in thc trcatmcnt
and partly in thc lack ol scriousncss ol our timcs. How can a composition that is dividcd
into many disconncctcd parts makc a unicd and, abovc all, holy imprcssion: . . . Sccondly,
a disadvantagc is in thc much too articial, authcntic (alt. aterisch) mcthod ol pcrlormancc
which bclongs morc in thc study than in our churchcs and auditoriums, and cnsurcs that
music will bc hard, indccd impossiblc, lor thc musically uncducatcd to undcrstand . . . Tc
principal rcason, howcvcr, that thc oratorio is not vcry popular is to bc sought in thc lact
that its music oltcn contains an unholy mixturc ol prolanc clcmcnts. And this is thc prin
cipal rcquircmcnt, that it carry in all its parts, thc cvidcnt mark ol thc sacrcd, thc divinc.

Again wc nd thc dcmand that music lcad our thoughts to thc divinc, and that it bc acccss
iblc to ordinary pcoplc. Tis timc, howcvcr, not willul obscurity by composcrs but pcttilog
ging insistcncc on authcnticity by pcrlormcrs a pcdantic insistcncc on an original stylc
ol pcrlormancc rathcr than onc suitcd to thc contcmporary car is idcnticd as that which
blocks acccssibility. ( Just as Christianity must modcrnisc to rcmain a living phcnomcnon,
so must musical pcrlormancc.) And what wc now nd idcnticd as thc sinlul antithcsis ol
thc propcr usc ol music is cxplicitly idcnticd as opcra. Tis is intcrcsting bccausc altcr hc
bccamc a Vagncrian thc samc puritanical rcjcction ol opcra occurs. Tc only dicrcncc,
as wc shall scc, is that, now, in placc ol oratorio, thc Vagncrian musicdrama has bccomc
thc paradigm ol good music. Tis is bccausc, likc Vagncr himscll, Nictzschc undcrstands
thc musicdrama as pcrlorming a rcligious lunction. And whcn hc turns against Vagncr
it is bccausc hc has changcd his mind about Vagncrs music and dccidcd that it is, altcr
all, mcrcly opcra, chcap sinlul cntcrtainmcnt. Continuous through all thcsc changcs
is Nictzschcs musical picty. vcn altcr thc loss ol his Christian laith, good music, ! shall
suggcst, at lcast until thc timc hc bcgins to losc his sanity, is, in onc way or anothcr, sacrcd
music.
8y +86: Fritz has abandoncd thc navc, mctaphysical Christianity ol his mothcr. Posi
tivism, howcvcr, docs not claim him. Tus, discussing thc csscncc ol music in carly +86,
hc writcs that thc grcat composcr must bc inspircd by an indcnablc Somcthing, thc dac
monic:
thc communication ol this dacmonic Somcthing is thc highcst dcmand thc artistic undcr
standing must satisly. Tis, howcvcr, is ncithcr a scnsation nor knowlcdgc, but rathcr a dim
intimation ol thc divinc. Trough movcmcnt thcrc comcs into bcing a lccling, lrom out ol
which hcavcn suddcnly shincs lorth.
6
Similar scntimcnts arc cxprcsscd in July +86, right at thc cnd ol his Plorta days, in a lct
tcr to a lcllow pupil, Rudoll 8uddcnsicg.

8uddcnsicg had sought to suggcst that music

produccs its cccts by stimulating thc samc parts ol thc ncrvous systcm as all thc othcr
highcr arts. Fritz rcplics that this dcscribcs mcrcly thc physical ccct ol music. Much morc
Pforta

,
important is thc lact that it produccs a spiritual intuition, which, by mcans ol its uniqucncss,
grcatncss and suggcstivc powcr, works likc a suddcn miraclc. o not think that thc ground
ol this cmotional intuition lics in scnsation: rathcr it lics in thc highcst and ncst part ol
thc knowing spirit. !snt it thc samc lor you, too, as though somcthing bcyond, unsus
pcctcd, is discloscd: ont you scnsc, that you havc bccn transportcd into anothcr rcalm,
which is normally hiddcn lrom mcn: . . . Nothing in art surpasscs this ccct . . . |Vriting| to
a lricnd morc than two ycars ago ! namcd thc ccct somcthing dacmonic. !l thcrc can bc
intimations ol highcr worlds hcrc is whcrc thcy arc conccalcd.
8
ight ycars latcr, thc dacmonic appcars in Nictzschcs rst book, Te Birth of Tragedy, as
thc ionysian. !t constitutcs thc spirit ol music out ol which, Grcck tragcdy, thc highcst
art cvcr produccd, is born.
!n his maturc philosophy Nictzschc attacks what hc calls artdcication:
Art raiscs its hcad whcn thc rcligions rclax thcir hold. !t takcs ovcr a host ol moods and
lcclings cngcndcrcd by rcligion, lays thcm to its hcart and itscll grows morc prolound and
soullul . . . Tc nlightcnmcnt, undcrmincd thc dogmas ol rcligion and inspircd a lunda
mcntal distrust ol thcm, so that thc lcclings cxpcllcd lrom thc sphcrc ol rcligion by thc
nlightcnmcnt throw thcmsclvcs into art,

abovc all into music. Tc important point hcrc is that, rst and lorcmost, this is autobi
ography. Fritzs own cnlightcnmcnt during thc Plorta ycars rcquircd him to abandon thc
navc thcological dogma ol his upbringing. Tc ccct, howcvcr, was not not yct to turn
him into a positivist, but to causc him to rclocatc thc bcyond in a dogmalrcc domain
acccssiblc through art. Fritzs picty bccamc a picty towards art.

As thc continuation ol rcligion by othcr mcans, music bccomcs, lor Fritz, thc primary
lorm ol art and thcrclorc thc primary activity ol lilc. 8ut it is also primary in two othcr
conncxions.
First, it is prior to languagc:
thc oldcr a languagc thc richcr in sounds it is, so that oltcn it cannot bc distinguishcd lrom
song. Tc oldcst languagcs, that is, had lcw words and no univcrsal conccpts. nc can
almost asscrt that thcy wcrc languagcs ol lccling rathcr than languagcs ol words.
6o
Tis idca that thc rst lorm ol human communication was morc likc wordlcss song than
what wc would rccognisc as languagc

lcads, in Nictzschcs maturc philosophy, to a suspi

cion ol words, paradoxical in onc ol thc suprcmc wordsmiths ol thc Gcrman languagc. Tc
morc wordy wc bccomc, hc suggcsts in !agner at Bayreuth, thc morc distant wc bccomc
lrom truc lccling and insight.
Tc othcr contcxt in which thc primacy ol music appcars is in Fritzs analysis ol thc origin
and naturc ol Grcck tragcdy.

Tc idca originatcs with Rousscau, Condillac, and Hcrdcr and plays an important rolc in Vagncrs
Opera and Drama (+8:), which is possibly thc morc or lcss dircct routc by which it camc to Nictz
schc. !t has rcccntly bccn rcvivcd in thc archacologist Stcphcn Mithcns Te Singing Neanderthals
(Mithcn :oo).
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tragedy
T
hc lull titlc ol Nictzschcs rst book, which appcarcd in +8:, is Te Birth of Tragedy out
of the Spirit of Music. Rcmarkably, howcvcr, thc lragmcnts rcmaining lrom thc Plorta
pcriod makc it clcar that thc most lundamcntal, rcvolutionary idca ol this book had alrcady
bccn workcd out bclorc hc lclt school.
!n Toughts Conccrning Choral Music in Tragcdy, writtcn in thc spring ol +86, Fritz
writcs that whilc thc Gcrman dramas dcvclopcd lrom thc cpic,
thc origin ol Grcck drama lay in thc lyric, unicd with musical clcmcnts . . . Still, in thc
oldcst prcscrvcd tragcdics ol Acschylus, thc chorus has by lar thc most dominant rolc,
thc spccchcs in bctwccn oltcn scrvc only to introducc a ncw motil which altcrs thc mood
ol thc chorus and ncccssitatcs a dcvclopmcnt ol lccling. Admittcdly thc chorus gradually
rctrcatcd as thc action was movcd out ol it and into thc parts bctwccn |thc choral pas
sagcs|. !t rctaincd signicancc only bccausc it containcd thc musical clcmcnt csscntial to
tragcdy il it wcrc to havc a gcnuincly tragic ccct. Conccrning this tragic ccct thc Grccks
thought dicrcntly lrom us: it was introduccd in thc sccncs ol grcat pathos, grcat outpour
ings ol cmotion, mainly musical, in which action playcd only a small part. Lyrical lccling,
by contrast |with us|, was cvcrything. Tc chorus in thcsc sccncs containcd onc ol thc most
important, and, lor thc succcss ol thc tragcdy, dccisivc momcnts, thc music in thc tragcdy.
!t is ccrtainly a wcllgroundcd hypothcsis to asscrt that at its highcst point . . . thc cntirc
tragcdy, and not just thc choral parts, is govcrncd by thc ordcr and proportions ol a musical
plan. Vhat is strophc and antistrophc othcr than a musical symmctry:
Not only is Te Births thcsis ol thc primacy ol thc chorus prcscntcd in this cssay, but so too
(now hc has bccn convcrtcd by Gustav) is its thcsis ol thc rcbirth ol tragcdy in Vagncrs
musicdramas: thc mcaninglcssncss ol todays opcra, somcthing which in thcir primc thc
nclccling Grccks would ncvcr havc tolcratcd, is somcthing wc nccd rcscuing lrom by
Richard Vagncrs brilliant dccds and plans ol rclorm. !n thc grcat tragcdics ol thc Grccks,
Fritz concludcs, thc Vagncrian Gesamtkunst.erk (thc collcctivc artwork in which all thc
individual arts arc collcctcd togcthcr) is prcgurcd: in thc Grcck tragcdics wc nd that
which thc ncwcst musical school scts lorth as thc artwork ol thc luturc |Vagncrs tcrm
lor thc collcctivc artwork|, works in which thc noblcst ol thc arts lound thcir way into a har
monic unity.
6+
Tat thc Vagncrasthcsaviourolartandculturc thcmc appcars alrcady
in +86 is important, lor it shows that lar lrom Vagncrs hijacking Nictzschcs rst book
through lorcc ol pcrsonality, as is usually claimcd, thc thcmc was alrcady in Fritzs mind
wcll bclorc hc cvcr mct Vagncr.
8y no mcans, howcvcr, is all ol Te Birth anticipatcd by thc sixthlormcr. And in onc
conspicuous rcspcct thc naturc ol thc tragic ccct thc +86 rccctions arc quitc dicrcnt
lrom thosc ol +8:. Troughout his lilc Nictzschc rcturncd again and again to thc qucstion
ol thc naturc ol this paradoxical ccct: thc qucstion ol why tragcdy docs not play to cmpty
houscs, ol what kind ol satislaction wc could possibly dcrivc lromwitncssing thc dcstruction
ol thc tragic hcro, a gurc who, in many rcspccts, rcprcscnts what is ncst and wiscst within
us. !n total, Nictzschc produccs at lcast lour dicrcnt answcrs to this qucstion, all ol which
sccm to hit upon a gcnuinc aspcct ol what draws us to tragic drama. !n Te Birth, wc shall
Pforta

,:
scc, hc will appcal to thc idca ol transccndcncc ol individuality. 8ut hcrc hc holds that
thc ccct and aim ol tragcdy, rcvcalcd in, lor cxamplc, thc latc ol cdipus, is to guard
against hubris, to rcmind us ol thc gap bctwccn mcn and gods (onc thc Grccks wcrc liablc
to cross, nding it hard to tcll thc dicrcncc bctwccn a god and an lympic champion).
Tragcdy rcvcals that thc divinity oltcn scnds mcn unjusticd sucring, not arbitrarily, but
to prcscrvc a customary worldordcr.
6:
Vhat this rcvcals is thc scriousncss with which thc Grccks took thc tragic lcstival, thc
lact that
thc highcst acsthctic plcasurc did not blind thc judgmcnt ol thc Athcnians to thc cthical
and rcligious aspccts |ol tragcdy|, that thcy always hcld thc rcligious origin bclorc thcir cycs.
Tc ccct ol thcir thcatrical productions was thcrclorc likc ncithcr that ol our thcatrcs nor
ol our churchcs, but thcy wcrc rathcr mixcd togcthcr and intcrtwincd.
6
Tough Te Birth abandons thc lorcgoing account ol thc tragic ccct or at lcast chooscs
to cmphasisc anothcr aspcct this idca ol thc csscntially rcligious naturc ol thc occasion is
ccntral to Te Birth and to virtually all Nictzschcs latcr thinking about tragcdy.
Poetry
T
hroughout thc Plorta pcriod Fritz continucd to producc cnormous numbcrs ol pocms.
8ut hc also wrotc about poctry, in particular about thc poctry ol Fricdrich H oldcrlin
(+o+8).
H oldcrlin had bccn a youngcr lricnd ol Schillcr and an intimatc lricnd ol his lcllow uni
vcrsity studcnts at T ubingcn, Schclling and Hcgcl. As much philosophcr as poct, H oldcrlin
was thc sourcc ol many ol Hcgcls main idcas. !n +8o6, at thc agc ol thirtysix, hc lapscd
into a lorm ol insanity which a modcrn diagnosis would probably classily as schizophrcnia.
H oldcrlins pocms, which hc oltcn callcd hymns, and his always lyrical prosc works
cxprcss a rcligious vcncration lor naturc. Troughout his thinking runs an antithcsis
bctwccn clarity ol prcscntation and thc rc lrom hcavcn, bctwccn, that is, nitc human
rcason and thc innitudc ol thc holy. Hc holds that Vcstcrn modcrnity has bccn ovcr
takcn by clcar but shallow rcason so that it had lost its scnsc ol thc divinc, has lallcn away
lrom thc Vcsts grcat bcginning in ancicnt Grcccc. (A ccntury latcr Max Vcbcr would
spcak ol Vcstcrn modcrnitys discnchantmcnt.) Tc poct, standing ncarcr to thc gods
than othcr mortals, has thc pricstly task ol rcstoring holy pathos. Vhat arc pocts lor in
dcstitutc timcs: H oldcrlin asks in 8rcad and Vinc. Tcy arc, hc answcrs, likc thc winc
gods holy pricsts/Vho roamcd lrom land to land in holy night.
As roaming suggcsts, H oldcrlin lclt that thc pricc hc thc poct paid lor his closcncss
to thc gods was cstrangcmcnt lrom mortals. Scnsing thc approach ol his madncss, hc bcgan
to cxpcricncc himscll as a lalsc pricst about to bc punishcd lor his hubris, lor ovcrstcpping
thc boundary bctwccn mortals and thc gods.
H oldcrlin rst bccamc a major gurc during thc First Vorld Var, whcn many ol his
grcatcst pocms rcccivcd thcir rst publication. Rclativcly littlc known in Nictzschcs day,
and il known dismisscd on account ol his unhappy cnd, hc is now rcgardcd as onc ol thc
two or thrcc grcatcst Gcrman pocts. Hc is a major prcscncc in Nictzschcs works as hc is in
Hcidcggcrs (a lact which cstablishcs a prolound, il subtcrrancan, bond bctwccn thcm).
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Hcidcggcr obscrvcs that Te Birth of Tragedys lundamcntal distinction bctwccn thc
rcalms ol Apollo and ol ionysus, bctwccn thc Apollonian and thc ionysian, is actu
ally a rcprcscntation ol H oldcrlins clarity ol prcscntation/rc lrom thc hcavcns distinc
tion.
6
Givcn that H oldcrlins suprarational rcalm ol thc holy is, as thc quotation lrom
8rcad and Vinc indicatcs, thc rcalm ol thc winc god, ol, in othcr words, ionysus
(or 8acchus), this is surcly corrcct. Nictzschcs own poctry cchocs with H oldcrlins so
norous musicality, and somctimcs with dircct quotation. Allusions to and scmiquotations
lrom H oldcrlin pcrmcatc thc morc poctic ol Nictzschcs maturc philosophical works, in
particular Tus Spoke Zarathustra: Graham Parkcss cxccllcnt annotatcd translation spots
no lcss than ltccn allusions, mostly to thc poctic novcl Hyperion, and thcrc arc, in lact,
morc.
6
Cosima Vagncr notcd in hcr diary in cccmbcr +8 thc (as shc sccs it) somcwhat
dubious inucncc ol H oldcrlin on Nictzschc: Malwida |von Mcyscnbug| gavc R|ichard
Vagncr| H oldcrlins works |lor Christmas|. R and ! rcalisc, with somc conccrn, thc grcat
inucncc this writcr has cxcrciscd on P|rolcssor| Nictzschc, rhctorical bombast, wcirdly
accumulatcd imagcs (thc north wind sings thc blossoms ctc.), but at thc samc timc a bcau
tilul, noblc mcaning.
66

As Gustav Krug introduccd Fritz to Vagncr, so it is likcly that Vilhclm Pindcr introduccd
him to H oldcrlin.
6
Fritzs cvcr incrcasing passion lor thc poct was inspircd not just by
his works but also by his lilc, about which hc was wcll inlormcd
68
and with which hc
almost ccrtainly lclt a strong pcrsonal idcntication on account ol thc similaritics bctwccn
H oldcrlins lilc and his own. Likc Nictzschc, H oldcrlin lost his lathcr at an carly agc, was
much inucnccd by his mothcr, lovcd naturc and wrotc a grcat dcal ol naturc poctry, attcnd
cd a boarding school vcry likc Plorta, had an avcrsion to all lorms ol vulgarity and a tcndcncy
to mclancholy, madc lcw lricnds at school but had a closc lricnd at homc, was distrcsscd
by thc currcnt statc ol Gcrman culturc, and had a passion lor Grcccc but had intcndcd to
study thcology at univcrsity.
!n adulthood, thc similaritics bctwccn thc two livcs continuc. H oldcrlin cxpcricnccd an
impossiblc lovc lor Suscttc Gontard, thc mothcr ol thc boy to whomhc was tutor and whom
hc cclcbratcd in vcrsc as iotima, whilc Nictzschc harbourcd an cqually impossiblc lovc
lor Cosima Vagncr, whom hc cclcbratcd as Ariadnc.
6
And, ol coursc, thc most striking
similarity ol all is that both H oldcrlin and Nictzschc cntcrcd long nights ol madncss, thc
lormcrs lasting lrom +8o6 until his dcath in +8, thc lattcrs lrom +88 until his dcath
in +oo. H oldcrlin, it sccms likcly, had a strong pcrsonal idcntication with mpcdoclcs,
thc ancicnt Grcck poct who, lccling himscll morc god than man, hurlcd himscll into thc
Cratcr ol tna. As Fritz hypothcsiscs in thc cssay ! amabout to discuss, H oldcrlin may havc
undcrstood his own approaching madncss as a kind ol lalling into tna: thc mclancholy
toncs ol his so signicant, dramatic lragmcnt, Te Death of Empedocles, Fritz suggcsts, is
pcrmcatcd with a prcccho ol thc luturc ol thc unhappy poct, thc gravc ol a ycarslong
madncss. 8ut Nictzschc, too, via H oldcrlin, may havc comc to idcntily with mpcdoclcs
modc ol dying. Tis thought raiscs thc possibility, to which ! shall rcturn, that thc manncr
ol Nictzschcs cntry into madncss was, to a dcgrcc, scriptcd.

!n ctobcr, +86+, Fritz was sct by his Gcrman litcraturc tcachcr thc task ol writing an
cssay undcr thc titlc A Lcttcr to a istant |i.c., imaginary| Fricnd Rccommcnding Him to
Pforta

,
Rcad My Favouritc Poct. !ndulging his passion, Fritz chooscs to writc on H oldcrlin.
o
Tc
cssay
+
bcgins as lollows:
Somc rcmarks in your last lcttcr about H oldcrlin havc surpriscd mc vcry much, and ! lccl
compcllcd to cntcr thc lists against you on bchall ol my lavouritc poct . . . You say, How
H oldcrlin can bc your lavouritc poct ! cant comprchcnd. n mc, at lcast, thcsc hazy, hall
crazy outpourings lrom a lracturcd, rupturcd mind can only makc a sad, and also rcpcllcnt,
imprcssion. Unclcar languagc, idcas that bclong in a madhousc, wild outbursts against thc
Gcrmans, dcication ol thc hcathcn world, somctimcs naturalism, somctimcs panthcism,
somctimcs polythcism all togcthcr in a chaotic mixturc his poctry is disgurcd by all this,
albcit composcd in wcllcraltcd Grcck mctrcs.
Fritzs gcncral linc ol dclcncc against thc imagincd attack, a modc ol pcrsuasion that will
pcrvadc his maturc philosophy, is not to challcngc thc lricnds account ol thc lacts but
rathcr to ocr a dicrcnt pcrspcctivc on thcm. Hc points out, rst ol all, that H oldcrlins
lincs arc not just wcllcraltcd but rcprcscnt virtuosity ol thc highcst ordcr. Hyperion, in
particular, hc suggcsts, sounds at timcs likc thc brcaking ol wavcs in thc stormy sca and is,
in lact, with its altcrnation ol solt, mclting sounds with painlul dissonanccs, music lor
Fritz, as wc know, thc highcst condition ol art.
Conccrning thc criticism ol thc Gcrmans, Fritz continucs, H oldcrlin docs indccd tcll
thcm somc hard truths about thc dcsolation cngulng thcir culturc, though what hc hatcs
is not thc Gcrmans, but rathcr thc barbarism, thc philistinism and rcduction ol human
bcings to mcrc cogs in thc machinc |Fachmenschen|, that is dcstroying thcir community.
!t is in othcr words, a casc ol tough lovc, criticism springing lrom a lovc ol thc Fathcr
land which H oldcrlin posscsscd to thc highcst dcgrcc. (Tough hc docs not, Fritz could
havc strcngthcncd his casc by citing H oldcrlins Homccoming/To thc Rclativcs, in which
thc poct, rcturning to his Swabian homcland lrom thc Swiss Alps whcrc hc has joylully
cncountcrcd thc Highcst, is yct in a statc ol holy mourning bccausc thc rclativcs, still
bcing Godlcss, arc not yct propcrly rclatcd to him. Tis is what cstablishcs his poctic min
istry ol lovc: his mission ol actualising thcir rclatcdncss through, as puts it clscwhcrc, his
|rc|lounding thc holy.)
Conccrning thc accusation ol unclarity, Fritz rcsponds that thc sccming opacity ol thc
works is in lact Sophoclcan dcpth crcatcd by thcir incxhaustiblc plcnitudc ol prolound
thoughts. To back up thc claim ol prolundity hc notcs that H oldcrlin is no mcrc poct but
also thc writcr ol works ol philosophical prosc which display his spiritual brothcrhood with
Schillcr and with his intimatc lricnd, thc dccpthinking Hcgcl.
Vhat, according to Fritz, arc thc prolound idcas to bc lound in H oldcrlin: Hc quotcs
lrom a pocm, vcning Fantasy:
In the e.ening sky a springtime o.ers
Innumerable the roses blossom and peaceful seems
Te golden .orld; Oh, take me there
Crimson clouds! nd there on high may
In light and air, lo.e and sorro. melt a.ay! -
But, as if scared by stupid request, the magic
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Takes ight. It becomes dark, and lonely
Beneath the hea.ens, I am as al.ays.
Come no., soft slumber! Too much the heart
Desires, but at the last, youthfulness, you too .ill fade!
You restless dreamer!
Peaceful and serene is my old age then.
!t is not dicult to undcrstand why this bcautilul pocm (onc can casily imaginc it as
onc ol Richard Strausss Four Last Songs) sccms to Nictzschc prolound rathcr than mad:
it cxprcsscs his own !eltschmerz, thc spiritual homcsickncss hc pours into in innumcrablc
pocms with titlcs such as Alonc, Homcsickncss and Homccoming. 8ut hcrc, clcarly,
homccoming is conccivcd in, to thc young Nictzschc, a novcl, postChristian manncr. !t
consists, not in rcunion with dcpartcd souls in a Christian hcavcn, but in what Frcud callcd
thc occanic lccling: thc transccndcncc ol individuality in an cxpcricncc ol unication with
naturc, with thc totality ol bcing, thc All.
Tis will bccomc a major thcmc in Nictzschcs maturc philosophy. !n his rst book, Te
Birth of Tragedy, hc asscrts that individuality |is| . . . thc sourcc ol all sucring
:
and ocrs
its transccndcncc as thc paradoxical joy that is thc csscncc ol thc tragic ccct. And in his
latcr thought, as wc shall scc, transccndcncc is his account ol thc ionysian pcrspcctivc
on thc world, thc kcy to thc task ol willing lilcs ctcrnal rcturn.

H oldcrlins lyrical novcl, Hyperion, which Fritzs cssay singlcs out lor spccial praisc,
cxprcsscs scntimcnts similar to thosc ol vcning Fantasy. !t takcs thc lorm ol a scrics
ol lcttcrs writtcn by Hypcrion, a Grcck, to 8cllarmin, a Gcrman lricnd. Hypcrion, having
spcnt somc timc travclling in Vcstcrn uropc, and having absorbcd ccrtain modcs ol living
charactcristic ol thc Vcst, discovcrs on his rcturn to Grcccc that hc has bccomc cut o lrom
thc cxpcricncc ol wholcncss hc had oncc known in his ancicnt homcland.
Schillcr distinguishcd bctwccn thc scntimcntal and thc navc (ncithcr tcrm is pcjora
tivc). Poctry which cxprcsscs a simplc, unrccctivc unity with naturc ol thc kind cnjoycd
by a owcr is navc, poctry which ycarns to rccovcr such navc unity is scntimcntal. Tc
scntimcntal ycarning lor naivcty, Schillcr suggcsts, rcscmblcs thc sick pcrsons ycarning
lor hcalth. Tc poctry ol ancicnt Grcccc, in particular ol Homcr, hc classicd as navc, that
ol ninctccnthccntury romantics, such as himscll, as scntimcntal. Hypcrions lcttcrs (and
Nictzschcs pocms) arc scntimcntal. Tcy contrast an idcalizcd picturc ol primal Grcck
cxpcricncc with thc discnchantmcnt, thc rationalization and mcchanization, ol Vcstcrn
modcrnity. Tc rst lcttcr cvokcs thc primordial statc ol conncctcdncss to all things, an
cxpcricncc Hypcrion bricy rccovcrs on his rcturn homc:
To bc onc with all this is thc lilc divinc, this is mans hcavcn. To bc onc with all that
livcs, to rcturn in blcsscd sclllorgctlulncss into thc All ol naturc this is thc pinnaclc ol
thoughts and joys, this thc ctcrnal mountain pcak, thc placc ol ctcrnal rcst.
!n thc primal wholcncss ol all that livcs, dcath is ovcrcomc, sincc thcrc cxists only thc
youthlulncss ol cvcrncw bcing:
Pforta

,
To bc onc with all that livcs! At thosc words \irtuc puts o hcr wrathlul armour . . . and
cath vanishcs lrom thc conlcdcracy ol bcings, and ctcrnal indivisibility and ctcrnal youth
blcss and bcautily thc world.
Tc cxpcricncc is lost, howcvcr, thc momcnt Hypcrion cngagcs in rccction:
n this hcight ! oltcn stand, my 8cllarmin! 8ut an instant ol rccction hurls mc down. !
rccct, and ! nd myscll as ! was bclorc alonc, with all thc gricls ol mortality, and my
hcarts rclugc, thc world in its ctcrnal oncncss, is gonc. Naturc closcs hcr arms, and ! stand
likc an alicn bclorc hcr and undcrstand hcr not.
vcryday, Apollonian rationality is what dcstroys unity by introducing a ssurc bctwccn
naturc and knowing subjcct:
Ah! Had ! not gonc to your schools! . . . Knowlcdgc has corruptcd cvcrything lor mc.
Among you ! bccamc so truly rcasonablc, lcarnt so thoroughly to distinguish myscll lrom
what surrounds mc, that now ! am solitary in thc bcautilul world, an outcast lrom thc
gardcn ol naturc in which ! grcw and owcrcd, drying up undcr thc noonday sun.
Following thc biblical narrativc ol paradisc, lall, and rcdcmption, Hyperion cnds with a
vision ol rccovcrcd oncncss:
h thou . . . Naturc! . . . Mcn lall lrom thcc likc rottcn lruits, oh lct thcm pcrish, lor thus
thcy rcturn to thy root, so may !, too, trcc ol lilc, that ! may grow grccn again with
thcc . . . Likc lovcrs quarrcls arc thc dissonanccs ol thc world. Rcconciliation is thcrc, cvcn
in thc midst ol strilc, and all things that arc partcd nd onc anothcr again in thc cnd . . . all
is onc ctcrnal glowing lilc.

Nictzschc says ol Hyperion at thc samc timc cvidcntly disclosing his own statc ol mind
that
although it radiatcs with a transguring shimmcr, cvcrything is dissatislaction and lack ol
lullmcnt, thc lorms thc poct conjurcs up arc airy imagcs, which, in sounds, awakcn homc
sickncss, dclighting us, but also awakcn dissatiscd ycarning. Nowhcrc docs thc ycarning
lor Grcccc rcvcal itscll in purcr toncs than hcrc, nowhcrc is H oldcrlins spiritual rclatcdncss
to Schillcr and Hcgcl, his intimatc lricnd, clcarcr than hcrc.
Ycarning lor thc paradisc ol ancicnt Grcccc cxprcsscs, ol coursc, not only tccnagc angst but
also Plortas communal drcam.

mpcdoclcs was a Grcck poct, prophct, mystic and scicntist who livcd in thc carly lth
ccntury 8C. !n onc ol his pocms hc rcprcscnts himscll as a dcathlcss god, no longcr mortal
surroundcd by crowds asking lor thc hcaling word to curc thcm ol discasc. According to
lcgcnd, hc posscsscd thc powcr to raisc thc dcad and, as alrcady notcd, dicd his own mortal
dcath by throwing himscll into tnas cratcr. l H oldcrlins Te Death of Empedocles a
work which inspircd him to attcmpt his own vcrsion ol thc myth Fritz writcs,
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
!n thc unnishcd tragcdy mpcdoclcs, thc poct discloscs lor us his own naturc. mpcd
oclcss dcath is dicd out ol a gods pridc, scorn lor humanity, satiation with thc carth, and
panthcism. Vhcncvcr ! rcad it thc wholc work shakcs mc to thc loundations in a quitc
uniquc way. !n this mpcdoclcs dwclls a divinc majcsty.
Hcrc, again, thcrc appcars thc idca ol transccnding thc mortality ol human individuality:
mpcdoclcs is ablc to cast o thc mortal coil bccausc hc is, or has bccomc, an immortal. 8ut
what is thc rclcvancc ol panthcism: ! think thc answcr is that thc cxpcricncc ol mcrging
into thc nc must bc, abovc all, a redempti.e cxpcricncc, an cxpcricncc in which all sorrows
arc washcd away. Schopcnhaucr, criticising Spinozas panthcism, claimcd that thc nc is
not divinc but dcmonic. 8ut il that wcrc thc casc thcn thc idca ol mcrging with thc nc
would rcpulsc rathcr than attract. To attract, to rcdccm, to bc thc sourcc ol joylul ccstasy,
thc totality ol things must bc cxpcricnccd as divinc.

Nictzschcs carly cxpcricncc ol H oldcrlin, as cxprcsscd in this culogy on his lavouritc poct,
providcs, ! shall suggcst, thc hiddcn vision that shapcd thc dccpcst rcgions ol his nal
philosophy. For a timc Schopcnhaucr obscurcd thc vision and lcd himaway lromH oldcrlin.
8ut lrom Zarathustra onwards, his philosophy is a long rcturn. !t is hard, thcrclorc, to ovcr
cmphasisc thc cssays importancc. His tcachcr, Prolcssor Kobcrstcin, was uncnthusiastic,
howcvcr. Giving it a mark ol !!/!!a (about a 8+), hc commcntcd, ! should likc to givc
thc author a piccc ol lricndly advicc: to conccrn himscll with a poct who is hcalthicr, morc
lucid and morc Gcrman. 8y rcpcating, cxactly, thc scntimcnts ol thc imaginary lricnd, hc
provcd that thc cntirc cssay was, lor him, watcr o a rathcr dcnsc ducks back.
Morality and Politics
M
uch ol thc alrcadymcntioncd Germania lccturc, Fatc and History,

has littlc to
do with cithcr latc or history. !n particular, it contains a numbcr ol rcmarks about
morality.
As custom (Sitte), thc product ol a particular pcoplc at a particular timc, rcprcscnts a
particular dircction ol thc spirit, Nictzschc writcs, so morality (Moral ) is thc product ol a
univcrsal dcvclopmcnt ol humanity, thc sum ol all truths lor our world. !t is not cntircly
clcar what this mcans, but it bcars on a paradox in Nictzschcs maturc philosophy. Tc
paradox is that although in gcncral an cthical rclativist thcrc arc no culturcindcpcndcnt
moral truths, moral valucs arc at most valid lor a particular culturc at a particular timc
Nictzschc also sccms to ocr his own particular sct ol valucs strcngth, sclldisciplinc, and
sclldcvclopmcnt as absolutc valucs. Possibly this carly rcmark providcs a cluc to rcsolving
thc paradox: as opposcd to customary valucs, Nictzschcs own, vcry abstract valucs arc what
ourishing human bcings always havc, and always will, cxcmplily.
Anothcr intcrcsting rcmark in this carly work is thc good is only thc most subtlc dcvcl
opmcnt ol cvil. Vhat lics bchind thc rcmark thcrc is no way ol knowing. 8ut it is an
intcrcsting onc sincc thc sublimation ol cvil into good is, wc shall scc, a major thcmc in
Nictzschcs maturc philosophy: wc must not scck to castratc thc cvil in man, hc holds,
bccausc all that is good in him is, in rcality, sublimatcd cvil.
A third thcmc ccntral to thc maturc philosophy which rcccivcs an airing in Fatc and
History conccrns thc tcnsion bctwccn individual and community:
Pforta

,
thc strugglc bctwccn thc individual and thc gcncral will: hcrc is indicatcd that ctcrnally
crucial problcm, thc qucstion ol thc justication ol thc individual to thc pcoplc, thc pcoplc
to humanity at largc, and humanity to thc world.
Tc most common undcrstanding ol Nictzschcs maturc philosophy is, in a slogan, that only
thc supcrman counts. nly thc cxccptional individual is ol any valuc, thc rcst ol socicty,
thc hcrd (particularly its lcmalc contingcnt), is usually an impcdimcnt to thc appcarancc
ol thc grcat individual and at bcst his lootstool. Latcr wc shall invcstigatc thc accuracy
ol this rcprcscntation. Vhat can bc said ol this carly thinking, howcvcr, is that it is prc
ciscly thc oppositc ol this vicw: as a pcoplc must nd its justication to humanity and
thc world at largc, so thc individual must nd his justication in his contribution to his
pcoplc.
8clorc lcaving thc topic ol Nictzschcs carly vicws on morality, a word on moral cdu
cation. !n his maturc philosophy, cspccially in On the Uses and Disad.antages of History for
Life, Nictzschc rcpcatcdly locuscs, in a charactcristically ninctccnthccntury way, on thc
ccntrality ol monumcntal gurcs or cducators (roughly spcaking, rolc modcls) to moral
cducation. Tis idca is alrcady strongly prcgurcd in thc Plorta writings. So, lor cxamplc,
in a cssay discussion in March +86 ol thc provcrb that onc should only spcak good ol
thc dcad, Fritz says that, whilc obviously lalsc il onc is intcrcstcd in history as an objcctivc
scicncc, noncthclcss, whcn it comcs to history as an art that is dcvotcd to thc clarication
ol lilc, thc saying posscsscs mcrit sincc, in this contcxt, wc arc intcrcstcd, not in accuracy,
but in moral guidancc. Tc important clcmcnt ol truth in thc saying is that what wc rcally
honour in thc dcad is not thc individual but rathcr thc ctcrnal truth hc cmbodics.

Tc samc anticipation ol Te Uses and Disad.antages of History is lound, in January ol

thc samc ycar, in what looks to bc a school cssay cntitlcd n thc Attractivc, ducational
and !nstructivc that Lics lor thc Young in thc Study ol thc History ol thc Fathcrland. Tc
grcat dccds ol our anccstors, hc writcs, acct us bccausc thcy arc sccn as our o.n dccds.
Tc history ol othcr pcoplcs can acct us to a dcgrcc, but not ncarly as powcrlully as that
ol our own, bccausc with thcir hcrocs wc lack a comparablc idcntication. Tc valuc ol
idcntication with thc hcrocs ol national history is that grasping thc Fathcrland as a wholc
warns us to bc truc to its virtucs. !n thc cnchantcd picturcs ol national history, Fritz
concludcs, wc bccomc clcar as to which dcstiny our pcoplc must lull, what thc task is that
is givcn to it.
6

Truc to his upbringing, Fritz bcgan his Plorta ycars a monarchist. Monarchy rcprcscnts thc
bcst lorm ol govcrnmcnt, hc writcs, in mid+86+, particularly in timcs ol war. As alrcady
notcd, thc powcr ol thc Pcrsians hc claims to havc dcpcndcd not on thc clcvcrncss ol thc
pcoplc but on thcir holding thcir monarchy morc in honour than othcrs.

Soon, how
cvcr, monarchism bccomcs modicd by a good dosc ol Plorta libcralism. cvcloping an
cnthusiasm lor Napolcon !!!,

hc madc him thc subjcct ol a Germania lccturc in carly

+86:.
Napolcon !!!, though lcarcd and loathcd by thc Gcrmans (including thc Germania
audicncc, which rcccivcd thc lccturc vcry badly), was a man ol intclligcncc and culturc.

Napolcon !!!, 8onapartcs ncphcw, was clcctcd Prcsidcnt ol thc Frcnch Rcpublic in +8o and
assumcd thc titlc ol mpcror in +8:. Following his disastrous loss ol thc FrancoPrussian war, hc
was cxilcd to ngland in +8+ and spcnt thc rcmaindcr ol his days in Chislchurst, in Kcnt. Quel
dommage!
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Starrycycd with cnthusiasm, Fritz calls him a gcnius (thc anccstorconccpt ol Zarathus-
tras supcrman). Vhat hc admircs, howcvcr, is, as hc sccs it, thc unbclicvablc modcration
ol his advancc to powcr, thc lact that hc was clcctcd prcsidcnt by thc parliamcntary rcp
rcscntativcs ol thc pcoplc and thcn mpcror by a popular votc ol six million and so always
rcprcscntcd thc will ol thc wholc pcoplc. At cvcry stagc, thcrclorc, Napolcon was suppor
tcd by, and cxprcsscd, thc popular will. Tis thc gcnius must always do, lor othcrwisc his
govcrnmcnt will contain thc sccds ol its own corruption. Tc idcal ol a lrcc statc is, in
othcr words, a prcsidcnt approvcd by thc rcprcscntativcs ol thc pcoplc.
8
Tis vcry nglishsounding approval ol parliamcntary dcmocracy is cchocd in Fritzs
Vhiggish commcnts ol thc samc ycar on nglish history itscll. Tc Rcvolution ol +6:
succccdcd, hc holds, bccausc Charlcs ! attcmptcd an absolutc monarchy, an aggrcssivc
dcspotism. His dcath is a strong rcmindcr ol thc lorcc ol public opinion: thc spirit ol thc
pcoplc would not stand lor its lrccdoms bcing attackcd and its authority bcing outcd,
although Charlcss cxccution was unncccssary and cxcccdcd thcir dcmands.

Furthcr signs
ol nglishsounding libcralism arc to bc lound in thc notcs lrom latc +86:, which obscrvc
that human rights, in particularly thc right to lrccdom lrom slavcry, dcrivc not lrom thc
statc but lrom thc godly worth ol cach human individual.
8o
!n spitc ol such libcralism,
8+
howcvcr, Fritz rctains his bclicl in a social hicrarchy undcr
thc strong lcadcrship ol thc political gcnius. And hc bclicvcs thc gcnius must bc allowcd
spccial privilcgcs. As hc puts it in thc Napolcon !!! lccturc, thc gcnius is dcpcndcnt on
othcr and highcr laws than arc ordinary pcoplc. Tis crcatcs a paradox which is, howcvcr,
only apparcnt:
Tc gcnius is dcpcndcnt on othcr and highcr laws than arc ordinary mcn, on laws that oltcn
sccm to contradict thc lundamcntal laws ol morality and justicc. Fundamcntally, howcvcr,
thcsc laws arc thc samc whcn graspcd in thc widcst pcrspcctivc . . . Tc gcnius rcprcscnts
thc pcak ol a natural and spiritual harmony . . .
8:
Tis is an important passagc, lor it dcals with a thcmc that runs through Nictzschcs maturc
philosophy and is oltcn misundcrstood as immoralism. Tc maturc Nictzschc rcgularly
attacks moral univcrsalism thosc who say good lor all, cvil lor all, as Zarathustra puts
it. Tough this is oltcn takcn to bc a manilcstation ol thc supposcd onlythcwcllbcing
olthcsupcrmancounts thcsis it is in lact, as hcrc, a manilcstation ol somcthing quitc
dicrcnt. Partly thc rcjcction ol univcrsalism rcccts Nictzschcs conviction that dicrcnt
valucs arc appropriatc to dicrcnt culturcs at dicrcnt timcs. Tc +86: notcs, lor cxamplc,
arguc that thc mistakc madc by communism is that ol supposing thc samc lorm ol govcrn
mcnt to t all pcoplcs cqually wcll, which it docs not, sincc thcy all cxpcricncc thc world
dicrcntly.
8
8ut Nictzschc also rcjccts univcrsalism on an intrasocial lcvcl. Tis is bccausc
hc holds what ! shall call his stratication ol thc virtucs thcsis: what is virtuous lor mc
dcpcnds on my station in lilc, on thc rolc ! play within thc social totality. \irtucs, that is,
arc spccialiscd bccausc that is thc way in which individuals bcst contributc to thc communal
good. So il ! am cithcr a political or a spiritual lcadcr, privilcgcs indccd accruc to mc which
do not accruc to thosc callcd by naturc to a humblcr rolc in socicty. 8ut this is not bccausc
only my wcllbcing counts but rathcr bccausc thc communal good is bcst scrvcd by my hav
ing thosc privilcgcs. Not just Gocthc but thc community as a wholc sucrs il it is dcprivcd
ol his pocms bccausc hc nccds to carn a living.
Pforta

,,
Homeland versus World Citizenship
V
c havc sccn, in Fritzs carly poctry and rccollcctions ol childhood, a dccp ycarning
lor rootcdncss in blood and carth, in homcland. 8ut altcr hc madc thc transition
to Plorta, signs ol a dicrcnt pcrspcctivc on Heimat (homcland) bcgan to appcar. !n August
+8 hc composcd thc lollowing:
Fleet horses bear
Me .ithout fear or dismay
Trough distant places.
nd .hoe.er sees me, kno.s me
nd .hoe.er kno.s me calls me:
Te homeless man . . .
No one dares
To ask me
!here my homeland is:
Perhaps I ha.e ne.er been fettered
To space and the eeting hours,
I am free as an eagle . . .
8
Hcrc hc sccms to bc discovcring thc upsidc ol homclcssncss, lacilitatcd, pcrhaps, by having
scttlcd somcwhat into boardingschool lilc (though hc might, on thc othcr hand, simply bc
putting a good lacc on having bccn uprootcd lromhis homc.) Asimilar thought is cxprcsscd
at about thc samc timc in thc lragmcnt Capri and Heligoland: wc arc pilgrims in this world
wc arc citizcns ol thc world hc writcs.
8
!n latcr lilc, lollowing a dccisivc turn against
Prussian nationalism, Nictzschc callcd himscll a good uropcan and hopcd that uropcan
culturc would bccomc globaliscd into the world culturc. Such cosmopolitanism sccms to
bc anticipatcd hcrc. !n +86, howcvcr, in thc rccctions on thc importancc ol national
history discusscd abovc (p. ), onc ol thc advantagcs ol national history is said to bc that it
prcvcnts us lromwandcring away into drcams ol worldcitizcnry. Yct only a month latcr, in
a school cssay on thc qucstion ol whcthcr cxilc was a morc scvcrc punishmcnt in thc ancicnt
than in thc modcrn world
86
(thc nglish shipping thcir criminals to Australia is citcd as a
modcrn vcrsion ol cxilc), hc chastiscs vids lamcnt at his cxilc lrom Romc as unmanly.
Suggcsting that wc cnlightcncd modcrns havc ovcrcomc antiquitys cxccssivc attachmcnt
to homcland just as wc havc ovcrcomc its xcnophobia, hc asscrts that wc havc lcarnt not to
bc constrictcd by thc customs into which wc arc born. And bccausc, abovc and bcyond thc
homcland, stands a mans inncr conviction, his honour indccd his wholc spiritual world,
in short a spiritual homcland, wc can cvcn, hc suggcsts, nd a ncw homcland in what was
prcviously lorcign.
All this, in contrast to thc prcvious months dismissal ol worldcitizcnship, looks to bc
a (pcrhaps not wholly cohcrcnt) armation ol it. Vhat wc must say, ! think, is that during
thc Plorta ycars thcrc cxists an unrcsolvcd tcnsion bctwccn homcland and cosmopolitan
ism, with Fritz pullcd somctimcs onc way and somctimcs thc othcr. nc ol thc major
achicvcmcnts ol his maturc thought, ! shall suggcst, is to producc a gcnuinc rcsolution to
thc conict.
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Fate and Freedom
T
hc Germania lccturc ol +86:, Fatc and History, covcrs, wc havc sccn, a numbcr ol
topics that havc littlc to do with its titlc. 8ut now, nally, wc comc to thc topic thc
titlc announccs, thc qucstion ol thc rclation bctwccn causal dctcrminism latc and thc
lrccdom ol thc human will Fritz thinks ol history as a rccord ol lrcc human action.
Tc qucstion hc conlronts a problcm so dicult that somc contcmporary philosophcrs
bclicvc its solution to bc, in principlc, bcyond thc human mind is whcthcr human lrcc
dom thc apparcnt prcsupposition ol thc moral and cxistcntial conccrns wc havc as human
bcings is compatiblc with thc principlc that cvcry cvcnt has a causc, thc hcart ol thc sci
cntic outlook on thc world. Tc supplcmcntary qucstion is: il thcy arc not compatiblc,
which ol thc two should bc abandoncd: !t cannot bc said that Fritz solvcs thc problcm.
!ndccd thc discussion is thoroughly conluscd, as onc might cxpcct lrom a scvcntccnycar
old philosophical novicc.
nc mattcr Fritz is not conluscd about is thc conscqucnccs ol univcrsal causal dctcr
minism: wcrc it to bc thc only lundamcntal truth, man would thcn bc thc plaything ol
dark, causal lorccs, without rcsponsibility lor his mistakcs, complctcly lrcc lrom moral dis
tinctions, nothing but a ncccssary link in a chain. !l it wcrc truc, hc says, thc bcst thing
would bc not to know it, lor thc knowlcdgc ol such a truth would causc unbcarablc ragc,
would causc a man convulsivcly to strugglc in thc bonds that hold him, crcatc in him a
mad lust to upsct thc mcchanism ol thc world.
As to whcthcr latc or lrccdom rcprcscnts thc truth ol thc mattcr, thc cssay is com
plctcly indccisivc. Pcrhaps lrccdom is thc highcst potcntiality ol latc it opincs vagucly
thc idca bcing, possibly, that worldhistory at a ccrtain point causcs thc cmcrgcncc ol caus
ally undctcrmincd cntitics. 8ut as to why wc should think it truc that latc, at a ccrtain
cvolutionary point, as it wcrc, bows out ol thc picturc, it has nothing to say.
As il rcalising hc has not donc justicc to thc qucstion ol lrccdom, Fritz rcturns to thc
topic a lcw wccks latcr in Frccdom ol thc Vill and Fatc.
8
Now his impulsc is to havc his
cakc and cat it, to show latc and lrccdom to bc compatiblc. Tc actions ol an individual
bcgin, hc argucs, not with his birth but in thc cmbryo and pcrhaps in his parcnts and
anccstors. ur actions, in othcr words, arc wholly, it sccms, dctcrmincd by our gcnctic
inhcritancc. So dctcrminism is truc. 8ut lrcc will . . . mcans thc ability to act consciously,
whilc latc is thc principlc that dctcrmincs us unconsciously. Vhat lollows is that thc strict
dicrcncc bctwccn latc and lrccdom disappcars. Tcy arc, in othcr words, compatiblc, cach
ncccssary to a propcr conccption ol thc human individual: fatumlcss, absolutc lrccdom ol
thc will would makc man a god, thc latalist principlc would makc him a robot. Tis has a
nc rhctorical ring, but is ol littlc intcllcctual valuc. For il lrccdom is just consciousness ol
choicc, thosc choiccs bcing onc and all complctcly dctcrmincd by lorccs which arc bcyond
our control and ol which wc arc unconscious, thc problcm ol how wc can possibly attri
butc lrccdom and rcsponsibility to pcoplc rcmains unrcsolvcd. Te Manchurian Candidates
wouldbc assassin, brainwashcd into wishing to kill thc Prcsidcnt, is ccrtainly conscious ol
his choicc to do so. 8ut hc is, in lact, nothing but thc brainwashcrs robot. As wc shall scc,
Nictzschc wrcstlcd with thc problcm ol lrccdom and dctcrminism all his lilc.
3
Bonn
N
iv:zscnv v~ssvb through thc Plorta gatcway, lor thc last timc as a pupil, on
Scptcmbcr , +86. Surroundcd by a crowd ol schoolboys, asscmblcd to givc thc
schoollcavcrs a ccrcmonial scndo, hc and cight othcrs mountcd a garlandcd
carriagc cscortcd on both sidcs by lcstivcly clad postillions. Tc luturc lay in 8onn, at whosc
lamous univcrsity hc had dccidcd to cnrol, mainly bccausc ol its distinguishcd philologists,
tto Jahn (cn passant, a rcnowncd Mozart biographcr) and Fricdrich Ritschl (scc Platc 6),
but also bccausc hc would havc a lricnd thcrc: born and brought up in thc Rhincland, Paul
cusscn (scc Platc ) planncd to attcnd his homc univcrsity. !n thc mcantimc, thc two
young mcn had vc lrcc wccks bclorc thc bcginning ol thc univcrsity ycar.
Iree at Iast
T
hc rst two wccks wcrc spcnt in Naumburg, whcrc cusscn madc a vcry good imprcs
sion on thc Nictzschc lamily. Tcn, on Scptcmbcr :, thc two lricnds sct o on a slow
mcandcr wcstwards towards 8onn.
nc must, Nictzschc wrotc to a lricnd still at Plorta, cxpcricncc constraint in ordcr to
bc ablc to savour lrccdom.
+
Altcr six ycars ol intcnsc study, coopcd up in a quasimonastic
institution which locatcd thc rcal world a couplc ol millcnnia in thc past, Nictzschc, on his
Rhincland trip, cxpcricnccd thc charms ol rst lrccdom to an intcnsc dcgrcc. His lcttcrs
sparklc with thc cxcitcmcnt ol bcing ablc to do just what hc wants, and with thc lascination
ol a ncw world (hc had ncvcr bclorc bccn out ol castcrn Gcrmany) whosc cvcry dctail is
vibrant and important: ! takc notc ol cvcrything, thc distinctivc charactcristics ol thc lood,
activity, agriculturc and so on, hc writcs homc.
:
Tc wcstward mcandcr was punctuatcd by thrcc stops. Tc rst was at lbcrlcld, ncar thc
Rhinc, cast ol usscldorl, Nictzschcs rst cncountcr with Catholic Gcrmany. Hcrc thcy
spcnt thc night with onc ol cusscns aunts:
Vc rclrcshcd oursclvcs with winc and brcad around hcrc, cvcrywhcrc you go you gct
lovcly cakcs and sliccs ol pumpcrnickcl . . . thc town is cxtrcmcly commcrcial, thc houscs

:
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
mostly clad in slatc. Among thc womcn that onc sccs, ! noticcd, a strong prcdilcction lor a
pious hanging ol thc hcad. Tc young womcn arc vcry clcgant wcaring coats with cxtrcmcly
narrow waists . . . Altcr visiting scvcral cal cs on Sunday altcrnoon wc drank a nc Moscllc
winc in thc cvcning . . . my piano improvisations achicvcd considcrablc ccct . . . cvcrything
is complctcly as Lisabcth would say cnchanting.

Tc lricnds thcn procccdcd to K onigswatcr, a lcw kilomctrcs downstrcam lrom 8onn, on

thc oppositc bank. Hcrc thcy cngagcd in thc boyish high jinks onc would cxpcct lrom
young mcn on rst rclcasc lromboarding school. cusscns madcap cousin, rnst Schnabcl,
pcrsuadcd thcm to takc a horsc ridc about which Nictzschc rcmaincd wiscly silcnt in his
lcttcrs homc, but which cusscn dcscribcs in his mcmoirs:
!ntoxicatcd with winc and camaradcric, wc allowcd oursclvcs, in spitc ol having vcry littlc
moncy, to bc pcrsuadcd into hiring horscs to ridc up thc rachcnlcls |ragon Rocks, a
lamous tourist sight along thc Rhinc, visiblc lrom 8onn|. !t is thc only timc ! havc cvcr
sccn Nictzschc on horscback. Hc was in a mood to intcrcst himscll lcss in thc bcauty ol
thc sccncry than in thc cars ol his horsc. Hc kcpt trying to mcasurc thcm and makc up his
mind whcthcr hc was riding a donkcy or a horsc. !n thc cvcning wc actcd still morc insancly.
Tc thrcc ol us wcrc wandcring through thc strccts ol thc littlc town making ovcrturcs to
thc girls wc assumcd to bc conccalcd bchind thc windows. Nictzschc whistlcd and coocd
Prctty darling, prctty darling. Schnabcl was talking all kinds ol nonscnsc, making out that
hc was a poor Rhincland boy, bcgging lor a nights shcltcr.

Tough onc drcads to think how thc boys lclt thc ncxt morning, thc mattcr ol thc cars lcnds
a ccrtain MidsummcrNightsrcam charm to this cscapadc.
Tc lricnds third and longcst stop was with cusscns parcnts in bcrdrcis, ncar
Koblcnz, again closc to thc Rhinc. Hcrc Nictzschc lound cusscns lathcr (likc his own,
a Luthcran pastor) a good and grcat man who howcvcr, docsnt always stick to thc point,
and his mothcr, thc Frau Pastorin, a woman ol such cducation, dclicacy ol lccling and
cxprcssion, and ol such capacity lor hard work, as to bc almost uniquc. His main intcrcst
howcvcr was rcscrvcd lor cusscns sistcr, Maric (somctimcs shc rcminds mc ol you, so !
cannot withhold my cspccial lavour,

hc wrotc lizabcth) to whom, as with Anna Rcdtcl,

hc cxprcsscd his acction with a musical dcdication.
n ctobcr +, +86 Fritz and Frau cusscn cclcbratcd thcir joint birthday:
arly in thc morning wc sang a lourpart choralc Praisc thc Lord, oh my Soul outsidc Frau
Pastor cusscns bcdroom. . . !n thc cvcning wc playcd party gamcs on thc grass and did
somc dancing . . . arly thc ncxt morning wc travcllcd six hours to Ncuwicd, having takcn
a moving larcwcll. Vc wcrc a littlc tircd whcn wc got to thc stcamship |to travcl down thc
Rhinc| and arrivcd in 8onn at about oclock.
6

8onn was an cxpcnsivc placc and bccausc ol Franziskas straitcncd circumstanccs shc
could aord him only twcnty talcrs a month, whcrcas hc nccdcd at lcast thirty Nictzschc
was constantly short ol cash. His lcttcrs homc arc lull cvcntually to his own cmbarrass
mcnt ol thc old complaint, a plca lor morc moncy. Hc was so hard up that it took him
two wccks just to raisc thc scvcn talcrs nccdcd to cnrol in thc univcrsity. vcntually hc did
cnrol, lor his mothcrs sakc as a thcology studcnt, though hc intcndcd to locus primarily on
classics.
Bonn


Nictzschc lound a room on thc sccond oor ol a housc, 8onngassc +8, whosc rclativc
comlort spacious, with thrcc largc windows, cvcrything vcry clcgant and clcan, and with a
sola

dclightcd himas thc hcight ol luxury altcr six Spartan ycars at Plorta. !mpovcrishcd
though hc was, hc could not rcsist rcnting a pianino (piccolo piano), ovcr which hc hung a
portrait ol his lathcr.
!n spitc ol and ol coursc, adding to his povcrty, Nictzschcs timc in 8onn was llcd
with studcnt partics on Rhinc stcamcrs, copious quantitics ol Rhincland winc, many bccry
cvcnings in thc Kneipe |pub|, and trips up thc rivcr to ncarby Colognc. Tc principal occa
sion ol this dissolutc lilcstylc was thc lact that on arrival in 8onn, Nictzschc dccidcd to
join a studcnt lratcrnity thc Franconia.
Beer-rinking on the Rhine
F
ratcrnitics, Burschenschaften, or Corps wcrc (and to a considcrablc cxtcnt still arc) a
dominant lcaturc ol studcnt lilc in Gcrmany. stablishcd in +8+ by young Gcrmans
rcccntly rcturncd lromthc wars ol libcration against Napolcons armics ol occupation, thcir
original aim was to promotc a unitcd, gcncrally libcral, Gcrmany. 8y +86o, howcvcr, thcy
had dcgcncratcd into littlc morc than social clubs dcvotcd to bccr and duclling, thc point ol
thc lattcr bcing to acquirc a duclling scar. Mcmbcrship usually had (and still has), howcvcr,
a scrious, ultcrior purposc: cstablishing conncxions with luturc lcadcrs ol industry and poli
tics that would bc usclul in latcr lilc nctworking, in short. To his mothcr, unimprcsscd
by thc lratcrnity phcnomcnon, Nictzschc put this in morc clcvatcd tcrms: thc lratcrnitics
wcrc, hc wrotc, thc luturc ol Gcrmany and thc nurscry ol Gcrman parliamcnts.
8
Nictzschcs own motivcs lor joining Franconia wcrc mixcd. Hc admircd thc original
idcalismol thc lratcrnity movcmcnt, dcscribing it, in thc +8: On the Origins of Our Educa-
tional Institutions, as thc inncr summoning and rcncwal ol thc purcst cthical lorccs. 8ut ol
coursc hc kncw lull wcll that thc lratcrnitics ol +86o had dcgcncratcd into drinking clubs.
Partly, ! think, hc joincd lor company Franconia had a largc Plorta contingcnt whom
hc alrcady kncw, including cusscn. 8ut also, ! think, as an ambitious boy lrom a poor
background, hc was not abovc wishing to plug into a nctwork ol powcr and inucncc that
might givc him a lcg up in his luturc lilc.
Vriting as a law studcnt lrom G ottingcn (whcrc, lollowing lamily tradition, hc had
joincd thc Saxonia lratcrnity), Nictzschcs artistic and scnsitivc lricnd Carl von Gcrsdor
complaincd that, though hc had madc good lricnds in thc lratcrnity, only lamily prcssurc
kcpt him lrom rcsigning on account ol thc disgusting, barbaric bccrdrinking.

Nictz
schc, howcvcr, rcplicd that whocvcr, as a studcnt, wants to gct to know his agc and his
pcoplc, must sport a lratcrnitys colours. Tc conncxions and thcir dircctions rcprcscnt, in
thc sharpcst possiblc way, thc typc ol thc ncxt gcncration ol mcn. Admittcdly, hc contin
ucs, thc bccrmatcrialism |Biermaterialismus| ol somc ol thc mcmbcrs is intolcrablc but
it just had to bc cndurcd.
+o
Tough this might rcmind onc ol Princc Hals carousing with
lowlilc Falsta so that, as king, hc would know his pcoplc, Nictzschcs posc ol sociological
dctachmcnt is surcly disingcnuous. Vhat hc is saying, in codc, is that onc nccds to bc in a
lratcrnity in ordcr to nctwork.
n anothcr occasion Nictzschc rclcrs to his dcsirc to cxpcricncc thc lilc ol a lastliving
studcnt.
++
Ronald Hayman, cvcr kccn to gct thc subjcct ol his biography onto thc psy
choanalysts couch, suggcsts that thc shy introvcrt lrom Plorta was cngagcd in a conscious
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
programmc ol turning himscll into a grcgarious cxtrovcrt.
+:
8ut this sccms to mc unncccs
sarily csotcric. Tc lact is, surcly, that altcr six ycars coopcd up in boardingschool, giving
thc hormoncs a run, giving oncscll a good blast ol winc, womcn and song, is normal, cvcn
standard, bchaviour. Likc thc ridc on thc rachcnlcls, bccr drinking on thc Rhinc comcs
undcr thc rubric, tasting thc rst dclights ol lrccdom.

Vriting to his mothcr to announcc his mcmbcrship in Franconia, Nictzschc says dclcn
sivcly ! can scc you shaking your hcad and trics to put a clcvatcd gloss on things: scvcn
Plorta alumni joincd at virtually thc samc timc . . . most arc philologists and all arc lovcrs ol
music.
+
To Pindcr hc rcprcscnts himscll and his lcllow Plorta alumni as thc authcntically
culturcd mcmbcrs ol thc Fratcrnity, trying to turn thc (in a latcr slang) jocks in a morc spir
itual dircction.
+
Tis is probably truc. Noncthclcss, thcrc can bc no doubt that Nictzschc
himscll lully indulgcd in bccrmatcrialism. For onc thing hc admits to lrcqucnt cxcursions
to lun lairs, danccs, nights in thc pub and to dcvcloping a bccr bclly.
+
And lor anothcr, hc
admits, with a combination ol shamc and bravado, to a hangovcr (not, it should bc said, to
his mothcr, but to lizabcth, who could bc rclicd upon, in thc cnd, to smilc indulgcntly on
cvcn thc worst loiblcs ol hcr big brothcr):
Having just wrcnchcd myscll out ol bcd, ! am writing this morning in dircct rclutation
ol thc opinion that ! havc a hangovcr |Kater, which also mcans tomcat|. You will not
know this hairytailcd animal. Ycstcrday cvcning wc had a grcat asscmbly, ccrcmonially
singing Fathcr ol thc Pcoplc and cndlcssly drinking punch . . . Vc wcrc lorty pcoplc in
all, thc pub was splcndidly dccoratcd . . . ycstcrdays Gem utlichkeit (warm togcthcrncss), was
hcavcnly . . .
+6
Not only did Nictzschc gct drunk, hc also bccamc cnough ol a jock to indulgc in a ducl.
As rcportcd by cusscn, walking onc day in thc markctplacc, hc struck up an acquaintancc
with a lad lrom anothcr lratcrnity. Tcy had a plcasant chat about art and litcraturc and
thcn Nictzschc askcd him, in thc politcst possiblc way, il hc would cngagc in a ducl. Tc
othcr agrccd, and though cusscn was cxtrcmcly worricd lor his myopic and by now lattish
lricnd (von Gcrsdors cousin had almost dicd lroma duclling wound),
+
thcrc was nothing
hc could do about it.
Tcy lockcd swords, and thc glinting bladcs danccd around thcir unprotcctcd hcads. !t
lastcd scarccly thrcc minutcs, and Nictzschcs opponcnt managcd to cut in low carte at thc
bridgc ol his nosc, hitting thc cxact spot whcrc his spcctaclcs, prcssing down too hcavily,
had lclt a rcd mark. 8lood tricklcd to thc ground, and thc cxpcrts agrccd that past cvcnts
had bccn satislactorily cxpiatcd. ! packcd my wcllbandagcd lricnd into a carriagc, took
him homc to bcd, assiduously comlortcd him, lorbadc him visits and alcohol. Vithin two
or thrcc days our hcro had lully rccovcrcd, cxccpt lor a small slanting scar across thc bridgc
ol his nosc, which rcmaincd thcrc throughout his lilc and did not look at all bad on him.
+8
(Tc last scntcncc is mistakcn, latcr photographs show no sign ol a scar. cusscn dclicatcly
omits mcntion ol thc lact that, whcthcr through squcamishncss or incompctcncc, Nictzschc
lailcd to inict thc dcsircd scar on his opponcnt.)
Bonn


Te Cologne Brothel
T
hc othcr important activity ol thc Franconians was chasing girls. cusscn and liza
bcth havc combincd to crcatc a picturc ol Nictzschc as somconc who had nothing to
do with such activity, as having virtually no scx drivc. lizabcth writcs that his lovc ncvcr
cxcccdcd a rathcr modcratc and poctical attachmcnt . . . throughout his lilc hc ncvcr oncc lcll
into thc clutchcs ol a grcat passion or a vulgar lovc,
+
whilc cusscn claims that according
to all that ! know ol Nictzschc ! think that thc words mulierem nunquam attigit (hc ncvcr
touchcd a woman) apply.
:o
8oth thcsc claims arc highly suspcct. lizabcths biography,
rushcd into print altcr Nictzschcs collapsc into insanity at thc cnd ol +888, attcmptcd to
portray his lilc as that ol a Christian saint, and in particular to rcbut thc claim that his
madncss was duc to syphilis, whilc cusscn had no pcrsonal contact with Nictzschc at all
bctwccn +8 and +88.
Nictzschc ccrtainly livcd a lilc that was, in thc main, chastc. 8ut hc also wrotc pocms such
as thc lollowing, which appcars in a scction ol Zarathustra cntitlcd Among thc aughtcrs
ol thc cscrt:
You desert maidens,
t .hose feet I,
For the rst time
European under palm-trees,
m permitted to sit . . .
Beside the desert,
nd in no .ay de.astated:
For I am s.allo.ed do.n
By this smallest oasis:
it simply opened, ya.ning,
Its s.eetest mouth,
Te s.eetest-smelling of all little mouths:
Ten I fell in,
Do.n, straight through among you,
Dearest maidens . . .
Here I no. sit
In this small oasis . . .
Longing for a girls rounded mouth
and so on.
:+
Tat this could havc bccn writtcn by somconc who ncvcr cxpcricnccd vulgar
lust is inconccivablc. Morc concrctcly, thc noscxdrivc thcsis (togcthcr with thc hypothcsis
that hc was gay, a hypothcsis dicult, though admittcdly not impossiblc, to rcconcilc with
thc abovc pocm) is cast into scvcrc doubt by his various admissions to havc visitcd brothcls
in Lcipzig and Naplcs (scc bclow pp. :, :o).
!n any casc, what is not in doubt is that Nictzschc did visit a brothcl in Colognc, hall
an hour up thc Rhinc lrom 8onn. Colognc dazzlcd, lascinatcd, and appallcd smalltown
Nictzschc. !t makcs thc impact ol a world city, hc wrotc lizabcth, an uncnding varicty
ol languagcs and a motlcy ol costumcs |thc city in Tus Spoke Zarathustra is callcd Tc
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Motlcy Cow| unbclicvably many pickpockcts and othcr kinds ol trickstcrs.
::
nc day
in Fcbruary +86, according to cusscns account ol what Nictzschc told him,
hc travcllcd alonc to Colognc, and thcn had himscll takcn round thc local tourist sights by
a scrvant, and nally askcd to bc takcn to a rcstaurant. Tc scrvant, howcvcr, took him to a
housc ol illrcputc. ! lound myscll, Nictzschc told mc thc ncxt day, suddcnly surroundcd
by hall a dozcn apparitions in tinscl and gauzc, looking at mc cxpcctantly. For a short spacc
ol timc ! was spccchlcss. Tcn ! madc instinctivcly lor thc piano as bcing thc only soullul
thing prcscnt. ! struck a lcw chords, which lrccd mc lrom my paralysis and ! cscapcd.
:
Gcncrations ol biographcrs havc takcn this story at lacc valuc, and it is, indccd, likcly that
it accuratcly rcports what Nictzschc told his somcwhat prim lricnd. 8ut obscrvc its intrinsic
implausibility. Takc mc to a Festaurant! sounds nothing likc Takc mc to a Bordell!
although rushing to thc piano has thc ring ol truth to it, suggcsting thc virgin schoolboys
tcrror bclorc thc ultimatc mystcry ol thc ctcrnal lcmininc. Probably hc gavc instructions
to his guidc using somc vaguc tcrm accompanicd by a nudgc and a wink. Nictzschc was,
rcmcmbcr, on his own showing, trying to bc a lastliving studcnt at thc timc. Vhat is
most likcly is that having arrivcd in thc bordcllo with thc intcntion ol bcing rclicvcd ol his
virginity, hc lost his ncrvc. Tomas Mann uscs this incidcnt in his novcl Doctor Faustus,
making his hcro think so much about thc snubnoscd girl who had brushcd his arm that hc
gocs back. Latcr hc wrotc an cssay suggcsting that this is what Nictzschc in lact did.
:
Tis
sccms to mc by no mcans improbablc. nc might cvcn spcculatc that thc pocm about thc
daughtcrs ol thc dcscrt quotcd abovc is a rccollcction ol thc daughtcrs ol thc moral dcscrt
ol Colognc.
avid Strauss and the Critique of Christianity
S
tudcnt lilc, ol coursc, is not just bccr and skittlcs. !t rcquircs a ccrtain amount ol study.
Having cnrollcd as a thcology studcnt, Nictzschc was rcquircd to study somc thcology.
Latcr, hc said his only intcrcst had bccn critiquc ol sourccs, by which hc mcant thc translcr
ol thc tcchniqucs ol tcxtual criticism lrom Grcck philology to thc 8iblc. Primarily what hc
had in mind was his rcading ol avid Strausss Life of Jesus.
First publishcd in +86 in two volumcs undcr thc titlc Te Life of Jesus Critically
Examined, Strausss work causcd a storm ol controvcrsy. (!t had a prolound impact on
Gcorgc liot, causing hcr to abandon hcr laith and, in +86, to translatc it into nglish
undcr hcr rcal namc ol Marian vans.) !n +86 hc brought out a shortcncd vcrsion undcr
thc titlc Te Life of Jesus Examined for the German People, which is thc vcrsion Nictzschc
posscsscd and rcad with avid attcntion.
:
Strausss intcrcst is in thc way Jcsuss lilc had bccn prcscntcd by his disciplcs. Far lrom
bcing accuratc historical chroniclcs, hc maintains, thc gospcls arc cxcrciscs in mythmaking,
partly conscious and partly unconscious, thc purposc ol which is to clcvatc and inspirc. Tc
myths ol thc immaculatc conccption and ol Jcsus dcath and rcsurrcction arc parts ol an
inspirational narrativc. Contrary to common bclicl, nonc ol thc gospcls wcrc cycwitncss
rcports but wcrc composcd many ycars latcr. Tcrc arc, morcovcr, many inconsistcncics
bctwccn thc authors ol thc gospcls and bctwccn thcm and Paul, an aspcct ol Strausss cri
tiquc Nictzschc rccords in his notcbooks lor March, +86.
:6
ccply anticlcrical, Strauss
Bonn


statcs in his prclacc that what wc must rccognisc is that il Christianity ccascs to bc a mir
aclc, thc ccclcsiastics will not longcr bc ablc to pass thcmsclvcs o as thc agcnts ol thc
miraclc thcy likc to scrvc. Christian mctaphysics, in othcr words, is a pricstly condcncc
trick dcsigncd to incrcasc thcir prcstigc and powcr.

Unsurprisingly, givcn thc timc spcnt drinking, thc work Nictzschc produccd in 8onn was
sparsc hc ncvcr actually turncd in a singlc nishcd cssay during thc cntirc ycar. Noncthclcss
hc did producc somc writings on rcligious thcmcs which, though lragmcntary, show how
strongly his thinking was inucnccd by Strauss. Although produccd by a thcology studcnt,
thc standpoint ol thcsc lragmcnts is that, not that ol a bclicvcr, but ol an cxtcrnal, indccd
hostilc, obscrvcr.
nc lragmcnt, lor cxamplc, dcscribcs thc worldvicw ol thc Catholic middlc agcs as
csscntially supcrnaturalistic, hcavcn is locatcd abovc thc scvcn sphcrcs ol thc plancts and
hcll in thc ccntrc ol thc carth. Tc csscncc ol this vicw is, hc says, a dualism bctwccn
spirit and naturc. Protcstant orthodoxy, Nictzschc continucs, took ovcr this worldvicw.
Tc conscqucncc is that lor it, too,
thc carth is a placc ol cxilc, thc body is a prison. Vc must bc llcd with hatc and dis
gust towards lilc. Man cxpcricnccs a tcrriblc urgc to sclldcstruction. Tc carth and all its
conccrns arc thc absolutc oppositc ol all that is hcavcnly.
:
And in anothcr lragmcnt lrom thc samc ycar thc titlc n thc Lilc ol Jcsus makcs it clcar
that hc is pr ccising Strauss hc writcs that
according to thc vicw ol bclicvcrs, God, as thc ground ol lilc and thc prcscrvcr ol world
history, is justicd, indccd rcquircd, to intcrvcnc in its progrcss. Tis vicw dcdiviniscs thc
world . . . !s such a scparation ol God and world rcally capablc ol philosophical justica
tion:
:8
Fragmcnts such as thcsc show that Nictzschcs corts as a thcology studcnt, lar lrom
prcparing him lor thc lilc ol a pricst, wcrc pushing him in quitc thc oppositc dircction. Not
only has hc lost his laith, hc now, undcr Strausss guidancc, bcgins to scc Christianity as
a positivcly pcrnicious phcnomcnon, so that thc loss ol laith no longcr sccms a mattcr ol
rcgrct but thc bcginning, rathcr, ol a ncw, spiritually hcalthicr cxistcncc. Hcrc, thcrclorc,
arc thc bcginnings ol thc critiquc ol Christianity that will appcar in Nictzschcs maturc
philosophy. Christianity, by making thc supcrnatural world thc locus ol all that is holy and
blcsscd, dcdiviniscs thc natural world, dcprivcs it ol thc holincss it had posscsscd in prc
Christian timcs, translorms it, indccd, into a placc ol pain and cxilc. And, lollowing thc
kind ol immancnt rcligiosity Strauss takcs ovcr lromHcgcl, wc also scc thc bcginning ol thc
idca that any God worth worshipping must bc an immanent god, a god who is not abovc
but rathcr is thc world thc panthcistic notion towards which Nictzschcs cngagcmcnt with
H oldcrlins poctry had alrcady providcd an impctus.
Matching Strausss anticlcricalism, thc 8onn lragmcnts also rcvcal thc bcginning ol
Nictzschcs idcntication ol pricsts as cvilmindcd propagators ol a pcrnicious worldvicw.
Tc missionarics to Alrica, lor cxamplc (thosc samc missionarics to whom, as childrcn, hc
and lizabcth had donatcd toys), conlus|ing| thc conccpts ol thcismand morality, prctcnd
that thcrc is an obligation to convcrt thc barbaric hcathcns to thc truc laith. 8ut lacking

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc ability to provc thc cxistcncc ol thcir God, thcy arc rcduccd to thrcats and bribcs. !n
short, Nictzschc concludcs, thc Christian pricsthood sucrs undcr thc samc lanaticism as
all pricsts.
:
Givcn rcmarks such as thcsc, it is clcar that thc idca ol lollowing his lathcr
into thc pricsthood is, by now, dcad as a dodo.

Unsurprisingly, lcttcrs lrom homc during thc 8onn ycar rcvcal incrcasing anxicty about
Nictzschcs spiritual dircction:
All good wishcs lrom your mothcr on your birthday. God alonc knows how ! bcar you in
my hcart. Takc thc Lord God as your lcadcr on your ncw lilc path and lor thc ncw ycar ol
your lilc, il you do hc will blcss you and protcct you so as to continuc thc joy ol your dcar,
blcsscd lathcr and mc and Licschcn.
o
And, rcinlorcing thc lamily prcssurc to rcmain on thc straight and narrow, lizabcth joins
in, cvcn parroting hcr mothcrs phrascology: Happy birthday . . . and now ! writc quitc
simply that my inncrmost praycr to God is that, in this ncw ycar ol your lilc and on
this ncw lilc path, hc will protcct you so that you will rcmain as dcar and good as in thc
past.
+
All to no avail. Rcturning homc lor thc astcr holidays ol +86, lattcr and givcn to talking
in thc boorish manncr ol lratcrnity drinking cvcnings, hc abruptly announccd his dccision
to abandon thcology lor philology, brandishing Strausss book bclorc thc horricd laccs ol
his mothcr and sistcr. And hc rcluscd to accompany his mothcr to Sunday scrvicc and Holy
Communion. According to lizabcth, a stormy sccnc cnsucd which rcduccd Franziska to
tcars and only cndcd whcn Aunt Rosalic thc lamilys thcological cxpcrt cxplaincd sagcly
that in thc lilc ol cvcry grcat thcologian thcrc had bccn momcnts ol doubt and that it was
much bcttcr at such momcnts to avoid all discussion. vcntually Franziska agrccd, and
agrccd, too, that Fritz should ncvcr bc lorccd to do anything against his conscicncc.
:
From
now on, howcvcr, rcligious subjccts bccamc taboo bctwccn mothcr and son. Tough hc
rcmaincd hcr most dcarly bclovcd child lor thc rcst ol his lilc, shc withdrcw into thc castlc
ol hcr laith and hc into thc castlc ol his dcnial. Actually, shc wrotc to hcr brothcr dmund,
! dont think philosophy is a subjcct lor womcn, wc losc thc ground lrom undcr our
lcct.

Mcanwhilc thc conict had thrown lizabcth into a spiritual crisis ol hcr own, a battlc
bctwccn smalltown convcntionality and hcroworship ol hcr brothcr. Tough shc tricd to
makc pcacc bctwccn mothcr and son, shc was always ultimatcly on Fritzs sidc, party to a
sccrct alliancc against parcntal opprcssion. All his lilc shc was thcrc lor Fritz. Shc wor
shippcd a picturc ol him shc had constructcd and, as Nictzschcs wondcrlul SwissGcrman
biographcr, Curt Paul Janz,

commcnts, woc bctidc anyonc including Nietzsche himself

who tricd to disturb it.

J ! pp. +8. Curt Paul Janz, lortysix ycars a viola playcr in thc 8ascl Symphony rchcstra,
bccamc intcrcstcd in Nictzschc via thc lattcrs rclationship with Richard Vagncr. Running to +,8o
closcly packcd pagcs in thrcc volumcs, his biography dcvotcd to Nictzschcs lilc, not his works is
not only comprchcnsivc but lull ol shrcwd human insight. Tough hc is now (:oo) in his nincty
cighth ycar, ! havc protcd lrom an illuminating corrcspondcncc with him during thc writing ol
this book.
Bonn

,
!n May +86 lizabcth wrotc Fritz that shc was going to visit thcir unclc dmund to
try to rcsolvc hcr crisis shc probably chosc dmund bccausc, as wc havc sccn (lootnotc
on p. abovc) hc himscll had bccn through a pcriod ol rcligious doubt and had cmcrgcd
thc othcr sidc, his laith morc or lcss intact. Vith your vicws, shc wrotc Fritz,
which arc actually dcprcssing you havc lound a toowilling studcnt. As Mamma says,
! too havc bccomc ovcrly clcvcr, but sincc ! cant lorgct my lama |conlormist| naturc !
am lull ol conlusion . . . Tis howcvcr is ccrtain: it is much casicr not to bclicvc than thc
oppositc, and thc dicult is likcly to bc thc right coursc to takc . . . Anyway ! rcally rcgrct
your bringing thc unhappy Strauss with you on holiday, and that !vc hcard so much about
him lrom you. For to hcar that it is possiblc to doubt and criticisc what arc (at lcast to
bclicvcrs) thc lolticst things is thc rst stcp towards a ncw bclicl or unbclicl. And whcn
that happcns, it is lor mc as though thc rm protcctivc wall has lallcn, and onc now stands
bclorc a broad, maplcss, conlusing, mistcnshroudcd dcscrt whcrc thcrc is nothing rm,
with only our own poor, miscrablc, and so oltcn lalliblc spirit to guidc us.

Tis clcarly madc an impact on Nictzschc thc dcscrt imagc rccurs throughout his work
to dcscribc thc dcsolation ol Godlcssncss and, lor thc rst and almost last timc in his lilc,
hc trcats lizabcth as dcscrving an intcllcctually scrious rcply:
Tis timc you havc providcd mc with rich matcrial which ! cnjoy vcry much chcwing ovcr
in an intcllcctual scnsc.
!n thc rst placc, howcvcr, ! must rclcr to a passagc in your lcttcr which was writtcn with
as much pastorcolouration as with a lamas hcart. ont worry, dcar Lizbcth. !l your will
is as good and rcsolutc as you say our dcar unclc wont havc too much troublc. Conccrning
your basic principlc, that truth is always to bc lound on thc sidc ol thc morc dicult, !
agrcc in part. Howcvcr, it is dicult to bclicvc that : : docs not cqual . ocs that makc
it thcrclorc trucr:
n thc othcr hand, is it rcally so dicult simply to acccpt as truc cvcrything wc havc
bccn taught, and which has gradually takcn rm root in us, and is thought truc by thc
circlc ol our rclativcs and many good pcoplc, and which, morcovcr, rcally docs comlort and
clcvatc mcn: !s that morc dicult than to vcnturc on ncwpaths, at odds with custom, in thc
insccurity that attcnds indcpcndcncc, cxpcricncing many moodswings and cvcn troublcs
ol conscicncc, oltcn disconsolatc, but always with thc truc, thc bcautilul and thc good as
our goal:
!s thc most important thing to arrivc at that vicwol God, world and rcconciliation which
makcs us lccl most comlortablc: !s not thc truc inquircr totally indicrcnt to what thc rcsult
ol his inquirics might bc: Vhcn wc inquirc, arc wc sccking lor rcst, pcacc, happincss: Not
so, wc scck only truth cvcn though it bc in thc highcst dcgrcc ugly and rcpcllcnt.
Still onc nal qucstion: il wc had bclicvcd lrom our youth onwards that all salvation
issucd lrom somconc othcr than Jcsus, lrom Mohammcd lor cxamplc, is it not ccrtain that
wc should havc cxpcricnccd thc samc blcssings: !t is thc laith that makcs blcsscd, not thc
objcctivc rcality that stands bchind thc laith. ! writc this to you, dcar Lisbcth, simply with
thc vicw ol mccting thc linc ol prool usually adoptcd by rcligious pcoplc, who appcal to
thcir inncr cxpcricnccs to dcmonstratc thc inlallibility ol thcir laith. vcry truc laith is
&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
inlalliblc, it accomplishcs what thc pcrson holding thc laith hopcs to nd in it, but that
docs not ocr thc slightcst support lor a prool ol its objcctivc truth.
Hcrc thc ways ol mcn dividc: il you wish to strivc lor pcacc ol soul and happincss, thcn
bclicvc, il you wish to bc a disciplc ol truth, thcn inquirc.

Two thcmcs which will comc to dominatc Nictzschcs maturc philosophy rcccivc an impor
tant airing hcrc. First, thc posing ol a stark choicc bctwccn oltcn bittcr truth and oltcn happy
illusion and, sccond, Nictzschcs thc lrcc spirits, as hc will latcr say binding himscll
hcroically to thc mast ol truth.
!t is important to rccognisc that lor Nictzschc this is no mcrcly acadcmic choicc. As
hc says to lizabcth, Christian laith rcally docs comlort and clcvatc. Hc apprcciatcs all
too wcll thc sccurity and warmth providcd him by his cxtcndcd, always Christian, lamily.
And as thc musician who bclicvcs that without music lilc would bc an crror, hc continucs
to trcasurc thc musical hcritagc ol Luthcranism, in Junc, +86, as a mcmbcr ol thc six
hundrcd strong 8onn Municipal Choral Socicty, hc sings with incomparablc cnthusiasm
in Handcls !sracl in gypt during thc thrccday Colognc music lcstival.
6
Tough hc
objccts to thc bigotcd Catholicism ol thc Rhincland

and to thc inucncc within thc

univcrsity ol Jcsuits dcdicatcd to cradicating Protcstantism,
8
hc docs so not as an athcist
but out ol idcntication with his Protcstant homcland, an idcntication that lcads him to
bccomc an activc mcmbcr ol thc Gustav Adolphus Socicty, an antiCatholic club lor thc
Protcstant diaspora.

To Aunt Rosalic hc complains that thc local prcachcrs arc all inlcrior
to thosc ol Naumburg and that local lcstivals arc all ocnsivcly Catholic in charactcr.
o
!n 8onn, Nictzschc continucd to bc intcnscly nostalgic lor thc boyhood magic ol Christ
mas. Unablc to aord thc larc homc lor thc Christmas ol +86, hc wrotc to his mothcr and
sistcr,
! do hopc you will havc a Christmas trcc with lights . . . Vc will light a trcc in thc tav
crn but naturally thats only a palc rccction ol how wc cclcbratc at homc, lor thc main
thing, thc lamily and circlc ol rclativcs, is missing . . . o you rcmcmbcr what wondcrlul
Christmascs wc had in Gorcnzcn |whcrc Unclc dmund was pastor|: . . . !t was so lovcly,
thc housc and thc villagc in thc snow, thc cvcning scrvicc, my hcad lull ol mclodics, thc
togcthcrncss . . . and mc in my nightshirt, thc cold, and many mcrry and scrious things. All
togcthcr a dclightlul atmosphcrc. Vhcn ! play my Ncw Ycars vc

it is this that ! hcar

in thc sounds.
+
Emotionally, thcn, Nictzschc rcmaincd a Christian, spccically a Luthcran Protcstant.
And hc rcmaincd dccply dcpcndcnt on thc contcmplativc distancc lrom daily lilc occa
sioncd by thc lcstivals ol his youth.
:
! lovc Ncw Ycars vc and birthdays, hc writcs,
lor thcy allow us hours which admittcdly wc can oltcn crcatc lor oursclvcs, but scldom
do in which thc soul can stand still and rcvicw a phasc ol its own dcvclopmcnt. Cru
cial |c.g., Ncw Ycars| rcsolutions arc born in such momcnts. ! am accustomcd on thcsc
occasions to bring out thc manuscripts and lcttcrs ol past ycars and to makc notcs. For a
lcw hours onc is raiscd abovc timc and almost stcps outsidc oncs own dcvclopmcnt. nc

A Ncw Ycars vc |Eine Syl.esternacht|, a piccc lor piano and violin writtcn in +86 (track + on
thc Vcb sitc lor this book).
Bonn

&:
sccurcs and documcnts thc past and rcccivcs thc couragc and rcsolutcncss to rcsumc trav
clling along oncs path. !ts lovcly whcn thc blcssings and wishcs ol thc rclativcs lall likc a
mild rain on thcsc rcsolutions and dccisions, thc rst sccds ol thc luturc.

Tat his intcllcct tclls him that thc Christian God is mcrc supcrstition is indccd, thcrclorc,
as hc says in thc lcttcr to lizabcth, a dccply ugly truth. For him, as much as lor hcr, thc
ccct ol his intcllcct (or that ol avid Strauss) is to cast him into a dcscrt ol which thcrc
can bc no map. !n quoting to Raimund Granicr (his companion in tccnagc rcbcllion) lrom
8yrons Manfred
But grief should be the instructor of the .ise;
Sorro. is kno.ledge: they .ho kno. the most
Must mourn the deepest oer the fatal truth.
Te tree of kno.ledge is not that of life.

hc is cxprcssing his own dividcd and troublcd spirit, thc conict bctwccn thc vicw lrom
his hcad and thc nccds ol his hcart.
Givcn, thcn, thc cmotional dcsolation it cntails, it is worth asking what it was that
impcllcd Nictzschc to commit himscll, so unconditionally, to truth. nc answcr is that
hc had no option. Having oncc apprchcndcd thc dcvastating impact ol Straussian (not to
mcntion arwinian) scicncc, thcrc could bc no lorgctting what hc had lcarnt. ncc thc
Pandoras box ol knowlcdgc had bccn opcncd thcrc was no shutting thc lid. Yct thc qucstion
rcmains as to what justication Nictzschc gavc himscll lor bccoming a knight ol truth.
As wc sawin thc last chaptcr, Nictzschc rcgards supcrnaturalist rcligious bclicl as bclong
ing to thc childhood ol pcoplcs (p. abovc). So ovcrcoming primitivc supcrstition is a
mattcr ol bccoming an intcllcctual adult. Still, onc might prcss thc qucstion: just what is
so important about bccoming an adult: Zarathustra says that his lundamcntal mcssagc is
bccomc who you arc

, an abbrcviation ol thc Grcck poct Pindars injunction to bccomc

who you arc, having lcarnt what that is, which would ccrtainly havc imprcsscd itscll on
Nictzschcs mind in thc coursc ol his classical studics at Plorta. Lilc, in othcr words, is
about thc rcalization ol potcntial, about growing and maturing into a lully rcalizcd adult
in thc way in which an acorn, givcn thc right conditions, grows and maturcs into an oak.
Still, thc annoyingly pcrsistcnt qucstioncr might dcmand, why should wc do that: Vhat is
so bad about bcing an acorn: Tc only answcr onc can rcadily think ol is that it is part ol
thc intcntion undcrlying divinc crcation that cach thing should rcalisc its potcntial. !t is,
thcrclorc, with good rcason that, in +88, in Te Gay Science, Nictzschc nally asks whcthcr
wc knights ol truth arc not still too pious.
6
Nictzschc ncvcr abandons his commitmcnt to
truth. 8ut a major task ol his maturc philosophy is to nd a nonpious justication lor it.
Ieaving Bonn
8
y Fcbruary +86 Nictzschc was ltyvc talcrs in dcbt (roughly a ycars rcnt lor his
room in thc 8onngassc) and it was clcar, 8onn bcing lar morc cxpcnsivc than othcr
univcrsity towns, that hc could stay thcrc no morc than a ycar.
!n thc philology dcpartmcnt at 8onn, thc two giants, tto Jahn and Fricdrich Ritschl,
had bccomc involvcd in onc ol thosc lcuds (typical ol acadcmia both thcn and now) thc
&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
origin ol which no onc can rcmcmbcr. Tc rcsult was Ritschls acccpting a chair in Lcipzig
(rcsponding to a call, as thc Gcrmans say). 8y May ycarning in any casc to rcturn to thc
Protcstant hcartland (Lcipzig is only sixty kilomctrcs lrom Naumburg) Nictzschc had
dccidcd to lollow him. An addcd inccntivc was that von Gcrsdor had dccidcd to givc up
thc tcdious study ol law at G ottingcn and movc to Lcipzig to study Gcrman litcraturc.
Nictzschcs nal wccks in 8onn wcrc marrcd by rhcumatic pains and splitting hcadachcs,
aggravatcd by torrcntial downpours ol rain and by thc Rhinc \allcys cncloscd, humid cli
matc. Probably, too, thcrc was a psychosomatic clcmcnt: incrcasingly, wc shall scc, tran
sitions in Nictzschcs lilc wcrc accompanicd by attacks ol ill hcalth.
Tc cvcning ol his dcparturc by Rhincstcamcr on August , hc was accompanicd to thc
picr by cusscn and his ncw lricnd and lcllow Franconian Hcrmann Mushackc.

Trcc
wccks latcr hc wrotc to Mushackc lrom Naumburg attcmpting to sum up his timc in thc
Rhincland. 8onn, hc wrotc, had lclt a nasty tastc in thc mouth. For whilc hc hopcd, cvcn
tually, to look back on it as a ncccssary link in his dcvclopmcnt,
at thc momcnt this is not possiblc. !t still sccms to mc that in many rcspccts ! havc culpably
wastcd thc ycar. My timc with thc Fratcrnity sccms to mc, to bc lrank, a laux pas, in
particular thc last summcr scmcstcr. !n doing so ! transgrcsscd my principlc ol dcvoting
no morc timc to things and pcoplc than is ncccssary to lcarning thcm. . . !m annoycd with
myscll . . . ! am by no mcans an unqualicd lan ol Franconia. To bc surc, ! think back on
good comradcship. 8ut ! nd its political judgmcnt minimal, only activc in a lcw hcads.
! nd thc lacc thcy prcscnt to thc world plcbcian and rcpulsivc, and not bcing ablc to
kccp my disapproval to myscll havc madc my rclations with thc othcrs uncasy . . . Vith my
studics ! must also bc lundamcntally dissatiscd, cvcn though much ol thc blamc must bc
ascribcd to thc Fratcrnity, which thwartcd my bcst intcntions. Right now, ! am awarc ol
what wholcsomc rclicl and human clcvation is to bc lound in continuous, urgcnt work . . . !
am ashamcd ol thc work ! did thcrc . . . !ts junk. vcry singlc piccc ol school work ! did
was bcttcr.

Notablc hcrc, altcr a rclativcly dissolutc ycar, is thc rcasscrtion ol thc PlortaProtcstant
workcthic which would ncvcr again dcscrt him. (Vhat do ! carc lor happincss: . . . ! havc
my work, says Nictzschcs altcr cgo, Zarathustra.) Notablc, too, is thc cqually Prussian
Protcstant ncccssity to construc oncs lilc as a narrativc ol sclldcvclopmcnt, a pilgrims
progrcss towards scllpcrlcction. n both counts Nictzschc is ashamcd ol thc 8onn ycar
and on both counts hc puts thc blamc on his association with thc Fratcrnity. !t is no surprisc,
thcrclorc, that, in ctobcr +86, during his rst scmcstcr at Lcipzig, hc postcd a lcttcr ol
rcsignation (without it hc would havc bccn a mcmbcr lor lilc):
! do not ccasc |hc wrotc| to valuc thc idca ol thc Fratcrnity highly. ! will simply conlcss
that to mc its contcmporary manilcstation is somcthing ! am dissatiscd with. !t was hard
lor mc to bcar a lull ycar as a mcmbcr ol Franconia. 8ut ! hcld it to bc my duty to gct to
know it. Now nothing binds mc to it. So ! say larcwcll. May Franconia soon ovcrcomc thc
stagc ol dcvclopmcnt in which it nds itscll at prcscnt.
8

A 8crlincr, Mushackc accompanicd Nictzschc to Lcipzig, whcrc hc rcmaincd, howcvcr, lor only
onc scmcstcr. Hc lought in thc FrancoPrussian war and was awardcd thc !ron Cross. Hc thcn
complctcd his studics in Rostock and bccamc a high school tcachcr likc his lathcr bclorc him.
Nictzschc lost contact with him altcr moving to 8ascl in +86.
4
Ieipzig
Getting Settled
L
v~vixc noxx, Nictzschc rcturncd to Naumburg, whcrc hc spcnt thc rcst ol August,
+86, rccovcring lrom thc ailmcnts that aictcd his last wccks in thc Rhincland.
Tis was lollowcd by two happy wccks staying with thc Mushackc lamily in 8crlin
and sccing thc sights. Hc got on so wcll with Hcrmanns lathcr, duard, that thc lattcr,
in spitc ol thc agc dicrcncc, proposcd thcy should addrcss cach othcr with thc lamiliar
du.
+
And thcn thc two lricnds travcllcd to Lcipzig, whcrc thcy arrivcd at thc 8crlin railway
station on ctobcr +. First ol all, Nictzschc rccalls,
wc wandcrcd about thc city ccntrc quitc aimlcssly, cnjoying thc sight ol thc lolty houscs,
livcly strccts and constant activity. Tcn wc adjourncd lor a littlc rcst about midday to thc
Rcissc Rcstaurant . . . !t was on this occasion that ! rst rcad thc ncwspapcr at midday, which
thcrcaltcr bccamc a rcgular habit. 8ut all wc did that morning was to notc down thc various
advcrtiscmcnts lor rcspcctablc or cvcn clcgant rooms, with bcdroom ctc.
:
Altcr a dcprcssing altcrnoon traipsing up and down smclly staircascs to vicw lar lrom
clcgant rooms, thcy lound thcir way into a sccludcd sidc strcct, thc 8lumcngassc (now
Schcrlstrassc), within casy walking distancc ol thc univcrsity. Hcrc Nictzschc lound a room
at numbcr abovc an antiquarian bookshop owncd by his landlord, Hcrr Rohn, whilc
Mushackc lound lodgings ncxt door. (!n April ol thc lollowing ycar Nictzschc movcd to
liscnstrassc, drivcn out by thc noisc ol childrcn.)
Tc ncxt day thc two ncw arrivals prcscntcd thcmsclvcs lor cnrolmcnt at thc univcrsity
by chancc, cxactly a hundrcd ycars to thc day sincc Gocthcs cnrolmcnt. Nictzschc took this
as a splcndid omcn, though, to thc barcly supprcsscd laughtcr ol thc asscmblcd lrcshmcn,
thc Rcctor dclivcrcd a spccch cxplaining that a gcnius oltcn chooscs cxtraordinary paths
to his goal, so that thcy should in no way takc Gocthcs studcnt lilc as a modcl lor thcir
own.

(Forccd by his lathcr to study law, which hc lound a borc, Gocthc spcnt most ol his
timc at Lcipzig carousing and chasing girls.)

&
&,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc ncxt salicnt cvcnt was Ritschls inaugural public lccturc lollowing his own rcccnt
arrival lrom 8onn:
vcrybody was in a grcat statc ol cxcitcmcnt |Nictzschc rccords| at thc appcarancc ol thc
lamous man whosc bchaviour in thc aair at 8onn had brought his namc into cvcry papcr
and homc. Tc hall was thus packcd . . . Suddcnly Ritschl madc his way into thc hall in
his largc lclt slippcrs, though othcrwisc hc was laultlcssly attircd in cvcning drcss, with a
whitc tic. Hc lookcd with goodhumourcd chccr at thc ncw world bclorc him, and soon
discovcrcd laccs which wcrc not strangc. Vhilc going lrom group to group at thc back ol
thc hall hc suddcnly cricd, Hallo! Tcrc is Hcrr Nictzschc, too! and hc wavcd his hand
glcclully to mc.

About a month altcr hc arrivcd in Lcipzig, thcrc occurrcd thc most important philosoph
ical cncountcr ol Nictzschcs lilc: in his landlords bookshop hc discovcrcd a sccondhand
copy ol Arthur Schopcnhaucrs mastcrpiccc, Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation, bought it,
rcad it covcr to covcr, and was bowlcd ovcr. (Richard Vagncr had had a similar convcrsion
cxpcricncc clcvcn ycars carlicr.) Hc immcdiatcly dcclarcd himscll a Schopcnhaucrian, as
hc would continuc to do lor thc ncxt dccadc. Vhat cxactly hc mcant by this ! shall discuss
in thc ncxt chaptcr.
Happy Times
N
ictzschcs studcnt ycars in Lcipzig wcrc thc happicst ol his lilc. Apart lrom his sistcr,
who rcmarks on thc unmistakably chccrlul tonc ol his Lcipzig rccollcctions,

biog
raphcrs havc misscd thc happincss ol thc Lcipzig ycars. ctcrmincd to prcss thcir subjcct
into thc romantic stcrcotypc ol thc mist loncr cripplcd by ill hcalth, thcy lail to rccognisc
that, though hc ccrtainly cndcd up that way, it is not how hc always was. vcn Nictzschc
himscll, much givcn to prcscnting himscll as a romantic loncr, admits that thc stcrcotypc
docs not t thc Lcipzig ycars. Tc last ycar in Lcipzig, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor in ctobcr
+866,
has bccn vcry dcar to mc. Vhcrcas in 8onn ! had to accommodatc myscll to rulcs and
lorms ! didnt undcrstand, had plcasurcs lorccd on mc that ! couldnt bcar, and livcd a lilc
without work among crudc pcoplc |in thc Franconia lratcrnity| who put mc into a dccp, bad
mood, Lcipzig has uncxpcctcdly rcvcrscd all that. clightlul, dcar lricndships, uncarncd
lavours lrom Ritschl, numcrous coworkcrs among my studcnt collcagucs, good tavcrns,
good conccrts, ctc. Truly thcy all combincd to makc Lcipzig a vcry dcar placc to mc.
6
Lct us rcvicw thc grounds ol Nictzschcs happincss during thc Lcipzig ycars. First, thc
pcriod was a timc ol cxccllcnt hcalth. (Tis was, pcrhaps, as much an ccct as a causc
ol happincss.) Tc tcrriblc hcadachcs, vomiting, gastric troublcs, and insomnia that would
plaguc his latcr ycars madc virtually no appcarancc in Lcipzig. And sccond, always intcnscly
in nccd ol lricnds, Nictzschc had, in thc Lcipzig ycars, a group ol closc lricnds, cithcr on thc
spot or in rcgular contact by lcttcr. Forcmost among thcm was rwin Rohdc (scc Platc +),
Leipzig

&
a giltcd lcllow studcnt ol Ritschl, lollowcd by von Gcrsdor, and, somc distancc bchind,
by cusscn and Mushackc.
Tc lricndship with Rohdc

cmbraccd all aspccts ol thcir livcs. Tcy rcad Schopcnhaucr

togcthcr, took lcssons in riding and in pistol shooting, and in thc summcr ol +86 took
o on a battcryrccharging twowcck walking holiday in thc 8ohcmia lorcst. (uring this
trip thcy locatcd thc villagc ol Klingcnbrunn to which Nictzschc would rcturn, in dramatic
circumstanccs, in +86.) Tis last summcr, Nictzschc wrotc to von Gcrsdor at thc cnd
ol +86, hc and Rohdc did almost cvcrything togcthcr.

A third sourcc ol Nictzschcs happincss was thc lact that, in Ritschl, thc bcstowcr ol
uncarncd lavours, hc had lound thc drcam prolcssor thc oppositc ol thc usual Gcrman
Godprolcssor, to whom onc had (and has) to apply, in writing, a month in advancc, in
ordcr to obtain a tcnminutc intcrvicw. 8rilliant, ccccntric, amusing, obscsscd by his sub
jcct, Ritschl madc himscll abovc all a lathcr to his lavouritc studcnts, committcd to caring
lor all aspccts ol thcir livcs and carccrs. (8chind his back Nictzschc indccd callcd him, acc
tionatcly, Fathcr Ritschl.) And Nictzschc had thc good lortunc to bc his alltimc lavouritc
studcnt.
Nictzschc rst caught Ritschls cyc lor cxccptional talcnt whcn, having writtcn anothcr
cssay on Tcognis (thc obscurc Grcck poct about whom hc had writtcn at Plorta), hc
pluckcd up thc couragc to show it to Ritschl. A lcw days latcr hc was summoncd to a mcct
ing. Saying hc had ncvcr sccn such imprcssivc work lrom a studcnt, Ritschl commissioncd
him to cxpand it lor publication in thc Fheinisches Museum f ur Philologie, thc (still our
ishing) scholarly classics journal ol which hc was thc cditor. From this day on, Nictzschc
rccollccts, an intimacy rapidly dcvclopcd:
! wcnt twicc almost cvcry wcck to scc him at lunchtimc and on cvcry occasion lound him
rcady to indulgc in scrious or lrivolous convcrsation. As a rulc hc sat in his armchair and
had thc Colognc ncwspapcr in lront ol him, which, togcthcr with thc 8onn ncwspapcr, hc
had long bccn accustomcd to rcad. As a rulc, amid thc vast mcdlcy ol papcrs, thcrc stood a
glass ol rcd winc. Vhcn hc was at work hc always uscd a chair which hc had upholstcrcd
himscll . . . !n his talk hc showcd no inhibitions, his angcr with his lricnds, his discontcnt
with cxisting conditions, thc laults ol thc univcrsity, thc ccccntricitics ol thc prolcssors wcrc
all cxprcsscd . . . Hc likcwisc pokcd lun at himscll, at his clcmcntary idca ol managing his
aairs and would tcll, lor instancc, how, lormcrly, hc had bccn in thc habit ol conccaling thc

rwin Rohdc (+88), thc son ol a Hamburg doctor, had also lollowcd Ritschl lrom 8onn to
Lcipzig. Towards thc cnd ol +86 hc movcd to Kicl, whcrc hc complctcd his doctoratc in +86 and,
in +8:, nally obtaincd an assistant prolcssorship. Undcr Nictzschcs inucncc, hc bccamc both
a Schopcnhaucrian and a Vagncrian. Tus, with Nictzschcs turn, in +86, against both Schopcn
haucr and Vagncr, thcir lricndship coolcd dramatically, particularly on Rohdcs sidc. Rohdc mar
ricd in +8 and produccd lour childrcn. Hc hcld prolcssorial chairs at Jcna, T ubingcn, Lcipzig,
and Hcidclbcrg, bccoming onc ol thc grcatcst classical scholars ol thc ninctccnth ccntury. His
book Psyche rcmains, to this day, a standard work on Grcck cults and bclicls about thc soul. !n +886
thcrc occurrcd a nal and unsatislactory mccting bctwccn thc crstwhilc lricnds. Following Nictz
schcs mcntal collapsc, hc was approachcd by lizabcth in +8 to advisc on publication ol thc
manuscript rcmains. His judgmcnt ol thcir quality was unilormly ncgativc and hc adviscd (unsuc
ccsslully) against all lurthcr publication. n this occasion hc saw Nictzschc lor thc last timc, who,
howcvcr, was unablc to rccognisc him.
&&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
moncy hc rcccivcd in notcs ol tcn, twcnty, lty or a hundrcd talcrs in books so as to cnjoy
thc surprisc ol thcir discovcry latcr on . . . His cagcrncss to hclp othcrs was simply splcndid,
and lor this rcason many young philologists, in addition to bcing indcbtcd to him lor thcir
advanccs in scicntic knowlcdgc, also lclt thcmsclvcs bound to him by an intimatc and
pcrsonal dcbt ol gratitudc.
8
Not only was Ritschl thc drcam prolcssor, hc also had a dclightlul wilc. Sophic Ritschl
was lourtccn ycars youngcr than hcr husband, Jcwish,

a sparkling wit and a music lovcr.

As wc shall scc, it was shc who, through hcr lricndship with ttilic 8rockhaus, thc sistcr ol
Richard Vagncr, lacilitatcd Nictzschcs rst mccting with thc grcat man. Nictzschc spcnt
a considcrablc amount ol timc in Sophic Ritschls drawing room. Following thc standard
romantic modcl ol impossiblc lovc (both Rousscaus StPrcux and Gocthcs Vcrthcr wcrc
in lovc with thc wivcs ol cxcmplary mcn), Nictzschc ol coursc lcll in lovc with Sophic, as hc
would soon lall in lovc with Cosima Vagncr. !n a lcttcr to Rohdc, hc calls hcr his intimatc
lricnd and spcaks ol mystcrious lcmininc inucnccs on his lilc.

lizabcth was thus right

in rclcrring to a poctic clcmcnt in Nictzschcs rclations with thc oppositc scx (p. abovc)
cvcn though, as wc havc sccn, shc was complctcly wrong in claiming that only poctry was
involvcd.
A lurthcr important clcmcnt in thc happincss ol thc Lcipzig ycars was thc Philological
Club which, at Ritschls suggcstion, Nictzschc and two lcllow cmigr cs lrom 8onn lound
cd in carly +866, subscqucntly inviting scvcn lurthcr studcnts to join. Tc club mct on a
wcckly basis to hcar lccturcs lrom onc mcmbcr or anothcr, which must oltcn havc bccn ol
a high standard, sincc only thc bcst studcnts had bccn invitcd to join. 8ut it clcarly had a
social as wcll as intcllcctual aspcct, sincc it mct in such placcs as thc cutschc 8icrstubc
(Gcrman Alchousc), thc Lion Tavcrn, or Mahns rcstaurant. As wc saw, in his itcmization
ol thc dclights ol Lcipzig, Nictzschc mcntions numcrous coworkcrs among my studcnt
collcagucs and good tavcrns in thc samc brcath.
!n thc prcvious chaptcr ! mcntioncd Nictzschcs lilclong attcmpt to lormcirclcs ol cxccp
tional pcoplc dcvotcd to clcvatcd, cultural cnds. Tc Germania socicty was thc rst attcmpt,
thc vaguc notion ol rcturning thc Franconia lratcrnity to its noblc roots a sccond, and now
thc Philological Socicty was a third. Tc most important circlc ol his Lcipzig ycars, how
cvcr, was that which hc crcatcd by pcrsuading, cvcn bullying, his lricnds and acquaintanccs
into bccoming, likc himscll, Schopcnhaucrians. As promiscd, thc mcaning and signi
cancc ol bcing a Schopcnhaucrian will bc discusscd in Chaptcr .

!n Lcipzig, thcn, Nictzschc cnjoycd good hcalth, intimatc lricnds, a drcam prolcssor who
providcd thc substitutc lathcr hc always sought, a circlc ol philological collcagucs, and a
circlc ol lcllow Schopcnhaucrians. !n addition to all thcsc gilts ol lortunc, Lcipzig was
also a splcndid placc lor culturc rst ol all, lor music. nc ol thc grcat ccntrcs ol Gcr
man music, Lcipzig had bccn 8achs workplacc in thc cightccnth ccntury and Schumanns
and Mcndclssohns a couplc ol dccadcs bclorc Nictzschcs arrival in thc ninctccnth. !t was

Tough antiantiScmitism is onc ol thc most salicnt aspccts ol Nictzschcs maturc thought, his
corrcspondcncc at this timc, particularly whcn hc was writing homc or to von Gcrsdor, contains
occasional antiScmitic rcmarks ol a routinc, and not vcry dccp charactcr. Hc did, howcvcr, nd it
ocnsivc whcn a lat studcnt sat on a chair ol Sophic Ritschls and dcscribcd it as not vcry koshcr
(KGV +. 6o |+|).
Leipzig

&
also thc birthplacc ol Richard Vagncr. !n addition to ocring a rich conccrt lilc ccntrcd
on thc lamous Gcwandhaus rchcstra, it was also a ccntrc ol usually vigorously polcm
ical thcorising lor and against modcrn music. Foundcd by Schumann in +8, thc Neue
Zeitschrift f ur Musik (to which thc Germania Socicty had subscribcd (p. : abovc)) was
publishcd in Lcipzig and had bccomc dcdicatcd to thc dclcncc ol modcrn, that is to say
Vagncrian, music. !t was in thc Neue Zeitschrift that thc grcat conductor, Hans von 8 ulow,
publishcd somc ol his crccst articlcs in dclcncc ol Tannh auser and othcr Vagncr opcras,
thcrcby arousing countcrblasts lrom anothcr Lcipzig publication, Die Grenzboten, which
thc novclist, Gustav Frcytag, had turncd into a bastion ol antiVagncrian polcmics.
Nictzschc rcgularly attcndcd conccrts, oltcn in thc company ol Karl Franz 8rcndcl,
Schumanns succcssor as cditor ol thc Neue Zeitschrift. Hc also sang in 8ccthovcns Missa
Solemnis, though not taking part in thc actual pcrlormancc on account ol a cold, a pcrlor
mancc which hc dcscribcs as onc ol |his most| wondcrlul musical cxpcricnccs cvcr.
+o
And
thcatrc, too, hc oltcn attcndcd, lancying himscll in lovc with various actrcsscs. To onc
ol thcsc, thc glamorous blond angcl, Hcdwig Raabc, hc scnt owcrs accompanicd by an
cxprcssion ol undying dcvotion.
Nictzschcs timc in Lcipzig was, thcn, lull ol thc lun and sociability onc cxpccts ol studcnt
lilc. l coursc it was not just that. Vhat distinguishcd it lrom lilc in 8onn and providcd it
with thc ncccssary backbonc (a prolcssion is thc backbonc ol a lilc, hc oncc wrotc)
++
was
that hc was also working hard and succcsslully. Tis satiscd his PrussianProtcstant con
scicncc, thc alrcady notcd nccd to scc his lilc as diligcnt and constant scllimprovcmcnt.
Rcligious pcoplc, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor carly in +86,
bclicvc that all thc sorrows and accidcnts which bclall us arc calculatcd with thc prccisc
intcntion ol . . . cnlightcning thcm. Vc lack thc prcsuppositions lor such a laith. !t docs
howcvcr lic in our powcr, to usc cvcry cvcnt, cvcry small and largc accidcnt, lor our improvc
mcnt and procicncy, to dcrivc bcnct lrom thcm. Tc intcntional charactcr ol thc latc ol
thc individual is no lablc il wc undcrstand it as such. !t is up to us to makc purposclul usc
ol latc: lor in thcmsclvcs cvcnts arc cmpty shclls. !t dcpcnds on our disposition: thc worth
that wc attach to an cvcnt is thc worth it has lor us.
+:
(Tis is what, in his maturc philosophy, hc calls projccting a pcrsonal providcncc into oncs
lilc: intcrprcting it so that cvcrything that happcns is lor thc bcst.
+
oing this, wc shall
scc, is thc kcy to willing thc ctcrnal rcturn.)
Te Study of Classics
N
ictzschcs studcnt days wcrc, thcn, happy days. Tis docs not imply, ol coursc, that thcy
wcrc dcvoid ol worrics and dissatislactions. Tc principal dissatislaction (as yct no
biggcr than a mans hand but dcstincd, ovcr thc ncxt dccadc, to assumc major proportions)
was with thc currcnt practicc ol his choscn disciplinc (or scicncc) ol classical philology,
a dissatislaction rcinlorcing, and rcinlorccd by, his growing attachmcnt to philosophy in
gcncral, and to Schopcnhaucr in particular. Tc ncxt gcncration ol philologists, Nictzschc
writcs in his notcbooks, must givc up thc cndlcss chcwing thc cud all too charactcristic ol
thc prcscnt gcncration.
+
Acadcmic ruminants (as hc calls thcm in Zarathustra) arc mcrc
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
parasitcs, cndlcssly chcwing ovcr thc grcat crcativc thoughts ol thc past but crcating noth
ing thcmsclvcs. isciplincs, hc writcs, somctimcs grow scnilc, in which condition thcir
practitioncrs, thosc cmaciatcd bodics with dricd up vcins and withcrcd mouths, scarch out
and, likc vampircs, suck up thc blood ol youngcr and morc ourishing naturcs.
+
Con
tributing to this ccct is thc lragmcntation ol contcmporary philological rcscarch into cvcr
morc minutc arcas ol cxpcrtisc, a proccss that has bccomc so intcnsc that its practitioncrs
havc bccn rcduccd to thc rolc ol asscmblylinc lactory workcrs. Vhat todays scholars lack
is thc synoptic vision, thc largcscalc thinking, which would cnablc thcm to scc not just
thc trccs but also thc lorcst. Futurc philologists must, that is, lcarn to judgc on a largcr scalc
so that thcy can cxchangc thc minutiac ol particular mattcrs lor thc grcat considcrations ol
philosophy.
+6
!l wc ask why philology must dcal in thc univcrsalhuman . . . shapcd by thc moulding
hands ol philosophy,
+
thc answcr onc that will bccomc ccntral to Nictzschcs maturc
philosophy is that history in gcncral and classical philology in particular arc valuclcss
unlcss somc kind ol largc cultural purposc lics on thcir horizon,
+8
unlcss, that is, wc can
gain insights that havc an csscntial inucncc upon oursclvcs.
+
Latcr on, Nictzschc answcrs
thc lundamcntal qucstion, Vhat is thc point ol classical philology: by saying that thc study
ol thc Grccks is justicd to, but only to, thc cxtcnt that it providcs a polishcd mirror in
which wc can vicw oursel.es.
:o
Tc csscncc ol this critiquc ol thc midninctccnthccntury study ol classics is thc dcmand
that any worthwhilc disciplinc must bc cxistcntially rclcvant rclcvant to lilc, to our lilc.
Tc complaint is that no acadcmic study, particularly not thc study ol thc dcad tcxts ol thc
past, can bc an cnd in itscll. Practiccd as such, it bccomcs a vampirc that sucks thc lilc
blood out ol thosc it has scduccd into its prccincts, turns thcm into dcsiccatcd scholars with
bad digcstions, condcmncd to livc usclcss, and so mcaninglcss, livcs.
!t is important to cmphasisc that, at this stagc, Nictzschc has by no mcans givcn up on
classical philology. Hc docs not condcmn thc disciplinc as such but spcaks, rathcr, as a
young Turk, a spokcsman lor thc coming gcncration which dcmands radical rclorm, thc
naturc ol which, wc may assumc, was a hot topic, ovcr a bccr, in thc cvcning discussions ol
thc Philological Socicty. Givcn thcir training and talcnts, hc writcs Rohdc, thcy thcmsclvcs
havc no altcrnativc but to bccomc acadcmics:
Vc havc no othcr way ol bcing usclul to our lcllowmcn. !n thc nal analysis onc cannot livc
just lor oncscll. Lct us |howcvcr| play our part in bringing it about that young philologists
acquirc thc ncccssary sccpticism, arc lrcc lrom pcdantry and lrom thc ovcrcstimation ol
thcir disciplinc, so as to bc truc promotcrs ol humanistic studics.
:+
And, rcccting on what his own luturc pcdagogical practicc should bc, hc writcs,
Tc aim that lics bclorc mc is to bccomc a rcally practical tcachcr and to bc ablc to awakcn
thc ncccssary rccction and scllcxamination in young pcoplc which will cnablc thcm
always to kccp thc why, thc what, and thc how |but particularly thc why| ol thcir dis
ciplinc cvcr bclorc thcir cycs.
::
Noncthclcss, though Nictzschc spcaks as a rclormcr rathcr than an cncmy ol classical
philology, with thc advantagc ol hindsight, onc can scc in this critiquc portcnts ol thc luturc
Leipzig

&,
divorcc bctwccn himscll and thc disciplinc. Givcn, that is, thc cntrcnchcd conscrvatism ol
acadcmic institutions, and givcn that Nictzschc would soon raisc his young Turks hcad
abovc thc parapct with his rst book, Te Birth of Tragedy, it was incvitablc that somconc
his namc was VilamowitzM ollcndor would shoot at it.
!n thc critiquc, onc can scc, too, thc loundations bcing laid ol what would cvcntually
bccomc a brcach (though ncvcr an absolutc onc) bctwccn Nictzschc and his bclovcd tcachcr,
Ritschl. For all his admiration and acction lor him, quitc carly in thcir acquaintancc,
Nictzschc has to admit that Ritschl grcatly ovcrcstimatcd his spccial subjcct and thcrclorc
showcd somc disapproval ol philologists approaching philosophy too closcly
:
ol thcir
rclating thc study ol antiquity to thc grcat cxistcntial thcmcs ol dcath, pain, and mcaning,
prcciscly, wc shall scc, thc ccntral topics ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy.
Anothcr dangcrous clcmcnt in Nictzschcs attachmcnt to Schopcnhaucr lay in thc lattcrs
vitriolic contcmpt lor thc prolcssors ol philosophy. !ndcpcndcntly wcalthy, Schopcnhaucr
scorncd thosc who livcd lrom rathcr than lor philosophy: sincc hc who pays thc pipcr
calls thc tunc, indcpcndcncc ol thought, hc hcld, rcquircs indcpcndcncc ol mcans.
A nal rcscrvation about lilc as a philologist lay in Nictzschcs dcsirc to unily thc artistic
and scholarly sidcs ol his naturc, to writc, as hc wrotc von Gcrsdor in April +86, with
stylc and gracc according to thc Schopcnhaucrian modcl. Hc wishcd to gct away lrom
writing as stiy and dryly, as conncd by thc corsct ol logic, as ! wrotc in, lor cxamplc, my
Tcognis cssay,
:
thc stylc approvcd by thc thcn currcnt morcs ol philology.
For all this, Nictzschc would bc in his scvcnth hcavcn whcn, out ol thc bluc, hc was
ocrcd a prolcssorship in classical philology. Tus, whilc his rcscrvations about his choscn
prolcssion arc important as portcnts ol thc luturc, nonc ol thcm did anything to scriously
darkcn thc happy skics ol Lcipzig.
War and Politics

thcr skics, howcvcr, wcrc gctting vcry dark indccd. 8ismarck was conjuring up thc
thundcrclouds ol war.
!n thc wakc ol Napolcons dclcat at thc battlc ol Vatcrloo in +8+, thc Gcrman Con
lcdcration had bccn cstablishcd, a loosc collcction ol thirtyninc indcpcndcnt Gcrman
spcaking statcs, most ol thcmstill run on quasilcudal lincs, undcr thc lcadcrship ol Austria.
8ismarck, who bccamc primc ministcr ol Prussia in +86:, was convinccd that thc Gcrman
statcs could bc unitcd undcr Prussian lcadcrship only altcr Austria had bccn dclcatcd. (At
thc timc Nictzschc agrccd, quoting to von Gcrsdor Napolcons rcmark that only on thc
rubblc ol Austria can a Gcrman luturc bc built.)
:
Accordingly, whilc cunningly manocuv
ring Austria into thc position ol apparcnt aggrcssor, hc prcparcd lor war.
Tc lormal causc was control ol thc northwcstcrn duchy ol SchlcswigHolstcin. (Tc
8ritish primc ministcr, Lord Palmcrston, claimcd that only thrcc pcoplc had cvcr undcr
stood thc SchlcswigHolstcin qucstion, but that onc was dcad, anothcr in an asylum,
whilc hc himscll had lorgottcn thc answcr.) n Junc +, +866, thc Austrians pcrsuadcd thc
conlcdcratc parliamcnt in Franklurt to mobilisc against Prussia, prccipitating thc lattcrs
dcclaration that thc Conlcdcration no longcr cxistcd. n thc lollowing day, undcr covcr
ol darkncss, Prussian armics invadcd Saxony, Hanovcr, and Hcssc and hostilitics bcgan on
scvcral widcly scattcrcd lronts.
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
For Gcrmans, this civil war a war that, to somc dcgrcc, rangcd thc Protcstant North
against thc Catholic South involvcd somc ol thc samc lratricidal strcsscs as thc ncarly con
tcmporancous Amcrican Civil Var. cusscn, lor instancc, isolatcd in Catholic T ubingcn,
would havc laccd intcrnmcnt as an cncmy alicn had hc bccn callcd up by thc Prussians.
Tough much lcss bloody than thc Amcrican war, thc bittcr lcclings it arouscd havc bccn
handcd down lrom gcncration to gcncration. (8avarians arc still liablc to dcscribc 8crlincrs
as Prussians, lancying thcrcby to dclivcr an insult, whilc thc lattcr protcst that Prussia docs
not cxist.)
!n Saxony, thc nominal rulcr was King Johann !, a scholarpoct who had translatcd antc
into Gcrman. 8ut thc powcr bchind thc thronc was thc antiPrussian Count 8cust onc
ol Nictzschcs b etes noires who had unwiscly allicd his mainly Protcstant country with
Catholic Austria and 8avaria.
As 8ismarck kncw, thc southcrn armics wcrc no match lor thc partly prolcssionalizcd,
highly traincd and motivatcd Prussians, cquippcd with a dcvastating ncw wcapon, thc
rapidring brccchloading cannon, known as thc Zundnagelge.ehr |nccdlcigniting gun|.
Nor wcrc thcy any match lor thc Prussian gcncral sta, lcd by thc brilliant Hclmuth von
Moltkc, who uscd trains to dcploy thc Prussian armics at a spccd ncvcr bclorc sccn in
warlarc. n July , +866, thc Austrians sucrcd a major dclcat at K oniggr atz (Sadowa)
in northcrn 8ohcmia. Tc lollowing ycar, having anncxcd SchlcswigHolstcin, Hanovcr,
Hcssc, Nassau, and thc lormcrly lrcc city ol Franklurt, Prussia crcatcd thc North Gcrman
Fcdcration with thc Prussian King as hcad and 8ismarck as thc powcr bchind thc thronc.
Tis was thc nuclcus ol what, vc ycars latcr, would bccomc thc Gcrman Rcich, with thc
Prussian King as its mpcror and 8ismarck as Chanccllor.
At thc cnd ol Junc, +866, thc ukc ol Mccklcnburgs Prussian soldicrs madc a tri
umphal cntry into Lcipzig without a shot bcing rcd. Tough Saxony avoidcd outright
anncxation and was allowcd, likc 8avaria, to kccp its king, it was now (all ol it) a dc lacto
Prussian vassal. Local rcaction was dividcd. Many houscs cw thc black, gold, and rcd
ag ol Gcrman nationalism, othcrs sportcd thc whitc and grccn ol Saxony. Nictzschc and
his lricnds gathcrcd at Kintschys cocc housc, translormcd ovcrnight into a proPrussian
camp. Mahns rcstaurant, on thc othcr hand, which, lormcrly, hc had oltcn patroniscd,
rcmaincd sullcnly Saxon.
Nictzschc, at this timc an ardcnt supportcr ol both 8ismarck and thc Prussians, was jubi
lant. To his mothcr, a lcw days bclorc thc rcsult ol K oniggr atz bccamc known, hc wrotc,
! am as much a committcd Prussian as lor cxamplc my cousin |Rudoll Schcnkcl| is a
Saxon.
:6
And thcn, altcr hcaring thc rcsult ol K oniggr atz, hc rhapsodiscd to Mushackc
(living in thc Prussian capital, 8crlin):
Vho wouldnt bc proud to bc a Prussian in thcsc timcs. nc has thc lccling that an carth
quakc is making thc carth which onc had thought immovablc unccrtain, as though
history, which had bccn stoppcd lor many ycars, wcrc suddcnly in motion again.
:
Vriting to Pindcr, also in 8crlin, hc rclcrrcd to 8ismarck as this so giltcd and activc min
istcr whom thc Frcnch rightly callcd a rcvolutionary.
:8
And to von Gcrsdor, on activc
scrvicc in thc cld, hc wrotc: For mc, too lrankly its an unusual and quitc ncw plcasurc
to nd myscll lor oncc in agrccmcnt with thc currcnt govcrnmcnt.
:
A littlc latcr hc tclls
him ol thc
Leipzig

:
immcasurablc plcasurc 8ismarck givcs mc. ! rcad his spccchcs |in thc ncwspapcrs, prcsum
ably| as though drinking strong winc ! makc thc tonguc pausc so that it docsnt drink too
last, allowing mc to savour thc plcasurc lor a long timc.
o
To anyonc acquaintcd with thc maturc Nictzschcs loathing ol 8ismarck (thc ccctivc rulcr
ol Gcrmany his cntirc adult lilc), ol Prussia, and ol all lorms ol nationalism, thcsc must
appcar strangc scntimcnts. Tc qucstion ariscs, thcrclorc, as to what it was which, at thc
timc, madc him so passionatcly a Prussian.
nc point, to which ! shall rcturn shortly, is simply that hc likcd war, saw it as an hcroic
boys own advcnturc. Rccall his tin soldicrs, his lascination with thc sicgc ol Scbastopol,
and thc claboratc wargamcs ol his childhood (pp. ++ abovc). 8ut cvcn il hc had not
thought war glamorous, hc would still havc supportcd Prussia bccausc hc agrccd with
8ismarcks war aims with, at lcast, what hc took to bc thosc aims. Nictzschc was, that
is, an cnthusiastic supportcr ol Gcrman unication, thc rcason bcing that hc saw it as thc
only way ol abolishing thc pctty dynastic houscs that rulcd thc multitudc ol Gcrman statcs.
!l thc Gcrman pcoplc bccomc onc, hc wrotc, thcn Hcrr v. 8cust togcthcr with all thc
princcs ol thc middlcsizcd statcs can bc cmbalmcd
+
as rclics ol thc past. And hc sup
portcd thc Prussian warcort bccausc in thc cnd, this Prussian way ol gctting rid ol princcs
is thc most comlortablc lor all conccrncd.
:
Tc rcason hc wantcd to gct rid ol thc princcly rulcrs ol thc pctty Gcrman statcs was
that hc saw thcir quasilcudal absolutism as opprcssivc. At this carly stagc in his lilc, that
is to say, hc rcmaincd truc to thc libcralism which Plorta had sccn as part ol a gcnuinc
humanism. To von Gcrsdor hc wrotc,
All thc political partics |ol Prussia| arc rcally libcrals . . . !t docs no harm that our govcrn
mcnt is callcd conscrvativc sincc lor thc king its a lorm ol disguisc . . . that allows him to
procccd along his lrccthinking way.

And, as wc shall scc (p. 8 bclow), in rccommcnding him lor his rst job, Ritschl, with
whom hc must havc discusscd politics at lcngth, dcscribcs him as supporting Gcrman uni
cation on libcral grounds. At this stagc in his lilc, thcrclorc, Nictzschc (who in his maturity
would bccomc an implacablc opponcnt ol libcralism) rctaincd a commitmcnt to thc libcral
lrccdoms ol spccch, association, rcligion, propcrty owncrship and immunity to arbitrary
arrcst. His gcncrally positivc rclcrcnccs to thc institution ol parliamcnt suggcst

that hc
was also in lavour ol somc kind ol parliamcntary dcmocracy, probably on thc 8ritish modcl
(again a position that would bc rcvcrscd in his maturc thought).
Gctting rid ol pctty princcs was, thcn, thc ground ol Nictzschcs support ol 8ismarcks
war aims. And hc would soon support a war against Francc, bclicving, again with 8ismarck,
that only such a war could crcatc an cmotional commitmcnt to unication ol sucicnt
powcr to bc ccctivc, and that in uropc as a wholc, thc oldcr ordcr will rcmain as long as
Paris rcmains thc ccntrc |ol powcr|.

Tcsc rcmarks show a ccrtain consistcncy bctwccn what, in +866, Nictzschc admircd in
8ismarck and what, in his maturity, hc camc to admirc in Napolcon. Hc saw him, that is
to say, as a good uropcan, a statcsman ol ultimatcly cosmopolitan convictions cngagcd
in a grand politics ol Gcrman and cvcntually uropcan unication. Tis is why hc callcd
8ismarck a rcvolutionary and is what hc was rclcrring to in spcaking, ` a la Hcgcl, ol history
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
as starting again. !n short, hc took 8ismarck to bc, in thc nal analysis, an antinationalist.
Vhcn hc turncd against him it was bccausc thc scalcs had lallcn lrom his cycs. Hc rcaliscd
that thc Machiavcllian 8ismarck had complctcly loolcd him(along with most othcr pcoplc)
and that, lar lrom bcing a good uropcan, hc was, in lact, a dangcrously powcrcrazcd
Prussian nationalist, committcd to nothing savc thc intcrcsts ol thc Prussian Junkcr class
lrom which hc arosc.

Such cnlightcnmcnt, howcvcr, did not occur until wcll into thc +8os. !n +866 Nictzschcs
support lor thc war against Austria was absolutc. !t should also bc rccordcd, howcvcr, that
anothcr sidc ol his naturc was bcginning to at lcast rcgistcr thc appalling human cost ol
8ismarcks policics ol iron and blood. Hcaring ol thc dcath, on thc battlccld ol
K oniggr atz, ol scar Kr amcr, thc kindhcartcd prclcct who had lookcd altcr him at Plorta
(p. : abovc), hc wrotc homc that no numbcr ol Austrian dcaths could compcnsatc lor thc
loss ol this nc pcrson. And in thc samc lcttcr hc rccordcd thc dcath ol thc twin brothcr
ol his landlord on thc samc battlccld, and that von Gcrsdors cldcst brothcr, rnst, had
rcccivcd a scvcrc sabrc wound to thc hcad.
6
!n January, +86, von Gcrsdorwrotc Nictzschc that rnst had nally dicd ol thc wound,
agcd twcntyscvcn:
lor twclvc hours, unconscious, hc lought with dcath . . . thc battlc must havc bccn a tcrriblc
onc, his lacc unrccognisablc, rolling cycs, spasms in all his musclcs, thcn a scrcam, thc
cxpulsion ol air lrom thc lungs, thcn anothcr onc, thcn all was still. Tc lacc was again as
it had bccn, thc cxprcssion noblc and rcposcd as in lilc.

Nictzschc rcplicd by comparing his Aunt Rosalics rcccnt dcath, thc cnd ol a lilc brought
to complctcncss, with this appalling wastc ol young talcnt what such powcrs might havc
achicvcd! Hc concludcd by rclcrring his sucring lricnd to Schopcnhaucrs doctrinc that
sucring is a path to dcnial ol thc will, to thc insight (ol which morc in thc ncxt chaptcr)
that thc cnd ol lilc is somcthing to bc wclcomcd rathcr than rcgrcttcd.
8
Tc war dcaths ol +866 bcgan, thcrclorc, to touch Nictzschc as somcthing morc than
numbcrs in a ncwspapcr. To bc surc, nonc ol this human cost turncd him as yct against
cithcr war or 8ismarck. A charactcristic ol Nictzschcs (in his own languagc) slowwillcd
pcrsonality, is that it took a long timc lor cxpcricnccs to sink in lar cnough to causc him to
changc his mind. 8ut thc dcaths ol +866 rcprcscnt thc bcginning ol a lcdgcr thc dcaths
ol +8+ would crucially add to it that cvcntually madc thc abolition ol war a ccntral goal
ol his thinking.
Military Service
8
ismarcks Prussia was, through and through, a militariscd socicty.

Tc army itscll, rst

ol all, was (likc Plorta) a total institution. Conscripts wcrc isolatcd lrom thc cxtcrnal
world lor thc rst lour to six wccks in ordcr to bc brokcn in. Tcy cntcrcd an alicn and
highly disciplincd world ol arcanc rulcs and had drillcd into thcm thc virtuc ol unqucs
tioning obcdicncc to authority. Tc army workcd on thc bodics ol its conscripts through
physical cxcrcisc and drill (in his military training Nictzschc had to rclcarn horscriding,
Leipzig


lcarning to do it in a morc rcgimcntal manncr), thus changing thcir wholc appcarancc.
Pcoplc wcrc oltcn ablc to idcntily cxsoldicrs by thcir ramrodstraight bcaring and brisk
movcmcnts, in latcr lilc, Nictzschc was oltcn takcn lor a rctircd army occr.
Awarc ol thc ccct thc army had on its conscripts, thc statc uscd it to indoctrinatc its
citizcns, so that it camc to bc known as thc school ol thc nation. Tc mcn wcrc supposcd
not only to bccomc good soldicrs but also to acquirc translcrablc skills such as disciplinc,
clcanlincss, and thc right political attitudc: lovc ol king and lathcrland and obcdicncc
to authority. Such right attitudcs makc lrcqucnt appcaranccs in both von Gcrsdors and
Nictzschcs lcttcrs. !n his valcdiction lor his dcad brothcr, rnst, lor instancc, von Gcrsdor
writcs admiringly that his duty was his will. And Nictzschc talks about pcrsonal, that is,
lathcrlandish |.aterl andisches| intcrcst.
o
Givcn thc stillliving mcmory ol humiliation and occupation by Napolcons armics, thc
ncwly ccctivc army posscsscd cnormous prcstigc within socicty at largc, prcstigc which,
as a conscious cxcrcisc in public rclations, it sought to improvc through carclully chorco
graphcd marchcs and paradcs dcsigncd to display its strcngth and ccicncy. And cvcn
though it had long bccn rcalizcd that bright colours madc casy targcts on thc battlccld,
it was rcluctant to changc into grcy, rccognizing thc attraction ol a spcctacular military
appcarancc. Vhilc ordinary civilians walkcd around in dull, dark suits, thc soldicrs uni
lorms cmphasiscd thcir slim waists, broad shouldcrs, and upright bcaring. Tc sabrc at
thcir sidc addcd thc glamour ol a liccncc to kill. 8oys worc navy unilorms, tin soldicrs
wcrc lavouritc toys, and as with Nictzschc soldicrly thcmcs pcrvadcd childrcns gamcs.
Nictzschc rclcrs to lizabcths lovc ol military unilorms
+
and had himscll photographcd
in lull military rcgalia, plus sabrc (scc Platc 8).
!n such an atmosphcrc, risking lilc and limb lor thc Fathcrland bccamc thc ultimatc
virtuc, not only in ocial rhctoric but also in pcrsonal war mcmoirs:
Tings might bc rough in war |onc soldicr rccallcd| but, ncvcrthclcss, no othcr timc is
markcd by such noblc and truly grand virtucs . . . !t produccs strong cnthusiasm, audacious
couragc, prcparcdncss lor sacricc, a wholly altruistic scnsc ol duty, proud nationalism and
an unshakablc lovc lor king and lathcrland. !n short it produccs mcn.
:
Givcn this social climatc, a climatc that cncouragcd martial rituals such as thc lratcrnity
ducl, many young mcn wantcd to bccomc occrs. Vhilc Prussian licutcnants wcrc rcgardcd
as young gods, as thc historian Fricdrich Mcincckc rccords lrom pcrsonal cxpcricncc, cvcn
noncommissioncd occrs could rcach thc status ol dcmigods.

Nictzschc was lully absorbcd by thc culturc ol his timc and placc. ur situation is simplc,
hc wrotc homc just bclorc thc rcsult ol K oniggr atz bccamc known:
Vhcn a housc is on rc, onc docsnt ask who was rcsponsiblc lor starting it. Rathcr onc
cxtinguishcs it. Prussia is on rc. Now it must bc savcd . . . ! am a committcd Prussian . . . !t
is dishonourablc to sit at homc whcn thc Fathcrland bcgins a war ol lilc and dcath.

!t is thus no surprisc that on two occasions hc attcmptcd to voluntccr lor thc army,

only
to bc rcjcctcd cach timc on account ol his shortsightcdncss.
!n Scptcmbcr +86, howcvcr, with thc thrcat ol rcncwcd warlarc ncvcr lar away, his
numbcr cight glasscs (which, according to lizabcth, wcrc actually lar too wcak) wcrc no
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
longcr dccmcd an objcction and hc was dcclarcd t lor scrvicc. Unablc to join thc guards
in 8crlin, hc cndcd up in Naumburg lor a ycars military scrvicc in thc lcss glamorous
mountcd artillcry. Tis had at lcast thc advantagc that hc could livc at homc and continuc
his philological studics in thc cvcnings. As wcll as an cssay on cmocritus (thc invcntor
ol atomism), hc also had anothcr onc might wcll think incrcdibly tcdious commission
lrom Ritschl to work on, thc complction ol an indcx ol thc Fheinisches Museum. Hc must,
though, havc bccn cncouragcd on hcaring that thc cssay Ritschl had cncouragcd him to
writc on iogcncs Lacrtiuss sourccs had won a major Univcrsity prizc.

Lilc in thc barracks could scarccly havc prcscntcd a starkcr contrast to his comlortablc
lormcr lilc as a studcnt: cndlcss mucking out ol stablcs and grooming ol horscs. Hc had
also, as alrcady mcntioncd, to lcarn to ridc in a ncw, military stylc. And drill, drill, and morc
drill. !l onc drillcd philologists with cqual thoroughncss, hc jokcd to Rohdc, all philological
problcms would bc solvcd in tcn ycars.
6
Vith, howcvcr, his usual dctcrmination to makc
thc bcst ol things (to lovc latc, as his maturc philosophy puts it), Nictzschc judgcd his
changcd cxistcncc a usclul intcrmcdiatc dish sincc, hc asscrtcd (cndorsing Prussian idcol
ogy), thc rigours ol military lilc makc a man ol onc.

And hc was cxtrcmcly proud to bc

accountcd thc bcst ridcr among thc thirty ncw rccruits.
Tcn, in March ol +868, hc misscd his mount and damagcd his chcst on thc pommcl
ol thc saddlc. Tis was no doubt duc to thc myopia that should rcally havc disqualicd
him lrom military scrvicc oncc again. (lizabcth commcnts that shortsightcdncss madc it
hard lor him to mcasurc distanccs, with thc rcsult that hc oltcn straincd an anklc.)
8
Tc
chcst wound bccamc inlcctcd, putting him in bcd lor tcn days, in grcat pain and taking
morphinc cvcry morning. vcntually bits ol bonc bcgan to comc out with thc pus. An
opcration was contcmplatcd, rcsulting in his bcing scnt to a cclcbratcd surgcon in Hallc,
Richard von \olkmann, who in thc cnd dcalt with thc problcm simply by painting thc
wound with iodinc. Nictzschc was out ol military action lor vc months, during which
timc hc was promotcd to lancccorporal, !vc bccomc a Gefreiter |lancccorporal|, oh that
! was a Befreiter |lrccd pcrson|, hc punncd gloomily to Rohdc.

n thc ctobcr +, +868, his twcntylourth birthday, his wish was grantcd: hc was
ocially dcclarcd tcmporarily unt lor military scrvicc. Sincc, howcvcr, hc saw that war
against Francc would happcn sooncr rathcr than latcr, and sincc hc wishcd to participatc as
a commissioncd rathcr than noncommissioncd artillcry occr, hc arrangcd to do anothcr
months scrvicc in thc lollowing spring, during which hc acquircd thc ncccssary knowlcdgc
ol gunhauling.
Return to Ieipzig: Iirst Meeting with Wagner

n bcing dischargcd lrom thc military, Nictzschc immcdiatcly rcturncd to Lcipzig.

Fccling himscll to havc outgrown thc studcnt lilc military lilc had madc a man
ol him hc lookcd lor somcwhcrc morc comlortablc to livc than thc studcnt digs ol thc
past. Tis hc lound by bccoming a paying gucst in onc ol thc ncst houscs in thc city,
Lcssingstrassc ::, thc homc ol Prolcssor Fricdrich 8icdcrmann, a lormcr mcmbcr ol thc
local parliamcnt and cditor ol thc Deutsche llgemeine Zeitung ncwspapcr. Hcrc Nictzschc
Leipzig


arrangcd to cat all his mcals, thank goodncss to gct away lrom thc smcll ol lat and thc
many Jcws that bclongcd to his lormcr rcstaurant cxistcncc, hc wrotc homc.
o
Lilc at thc 8icdcrmanns ccrtainly was comlortablc:
ld 8icdcrmann |hc wrotc Rohdc| is a man truc to his namc |bieder mcans smug,
rcspcctablc, convcntional, conscrvativc, bourgcois|, a good lathcr and husband in sum,
cvcrything onc usually puts in an obituary. His wilc is a Biederfrau |smug ctc. woman|,
which rcally says cvcrything. And so wc pass on to thc two Biederfr aulein |smug, ctc. girls|,
Biederfr aulein ! and Biederfr aulein !!.
+
8icdcrmann arrangcd lor Nictzschc to do thc opcra and somc ol thc book rcvicwing lor
his papcr. And in thc 8icdcrmanns drawingroom hc mct many ol thc lcading politicians,
artists, and actrcsscs ol thc timc. Tus, without rcally trying, hc lound himscll at thc urbanc
hcart ol Lcipzigs cultural and social lilc.

As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc had bccn lascinatcd by thc phcnomcnon ol Richard Vagncr
cvcr sincc Krug had pcrsuadcd Germania to subscribc to thc Neue Zeitschrift f ur Musik and
sincc thc two ol thcm had cxplorcd thc piano rcduction ol Tristan und Isolde togcthcr in
+86: (pp. :8 abovc). Altcr his rcturn to Lcipzig hc madc a dclibcratc attcmpt to gct
to know Vagncrs sistcr, ttilic,
:
wilc ol thc oricntalist Prolcssor Hcrmann 8rockhaus, a
task which was casy to achicvc: rst, bccausc Sophic Ritschl and ttilic wcrc bcst lricnds,
and, sccond, bccausc Nictzschc was lricndly with rnst Vindisch, a lavouritc studcnt ol
8rockhaus who was branching out lrom classical philology into Sanskrit studics.
Tough lascinatcd, Nictzschc was, at thc bcginning ol thc Lcipzig ycars, not yct a com
plctc Vagncritc. !n ctobcr +866 hc wrotc to von Gcrsdor that hc had thc scorc ol Die
!alk ure to which, hc rcports, my rcactions arc vcry mixcd, so that ! cant rcally makc a
judgmcnt about it. Tc grcat bcautics and virtucs arc pcrmcatcd by grcat uglincsscs and lail
ings.

8y ctobcr +868, howcvcr, hc was much morc cnthusiastic. Rclcrring to Tannh auser
and Lohengrin, hc wrotc Rohdc that what particularly acctcd him was thc sphcrc ol lccl
ing, thc cthical air, thc Faustian pcrlumc, cross, dcath and gravc.

A lcw days latcr hc

wrotc him that hc had bccn attcnding conccrts in his capacity as thc Deutsche llgemeines
music critic hc was accustomcd to sit with thrcc othcr music critics, including onc lrom
8rcndcls Neue Zeitschrift, thc lour ol thcm constituting a sharp corncr ol cxpcrtisc and
had bccn complctcly conqucrcd by both thc Prcludc to Tristan and thc ovcrturc to Die
Meistersinger .on N urnberg:
! cannot bring myscll to prcscrvc critical dctachmcnt towards this music. !t scnds a thrill
through cvcry brc, cvcry ncrvc, and so prolongcd a lccling ol ccstasy as that produccd by
thc lastnamcd ovcrturc ! havc not cxpcricnccd lor a vcry long timc.

Tc lollowing Fcbruary hc attcndcd thc rst rcsdcn pcrlormancc ol thc Mastersingers

(it had bccn prcmicrcd in Munich in Junc, +868, with Vagncr sitting ncxt to King Ludwig
ol 8avaria in thc royal box), whcrc hc rcportcd cxpcricncing thc strongcst lccling ol a quitc
suddcn homccoming and ol bcing at homc (heimisch).
6
(Sincc thc opcras rst act starts
with thc music ol his homcland, a Luthcran choralc, Nictzschc had a spccial rcason to lccl
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
heimisch. 8ut his rcaction was, ! think, quitc typical, cvcn among thosc sccptical ol Vagncrs
othcr works. Vhat is immcnscly rcassuring about thc opcra is that thc startlingly ncwmusic
ol Valthcr von Stolzings prizc song, altcr many trials and tribulations, is ultimatcly acccpt
cd by thc mastcrsingcrs guild, thus dcmonstrating thc powcr ol tradition to bcnd without
brcaking, to absorb thc novcl cncrgy ol (in Nictzschcs latcr tcrminology) thc lrcc spirit
whilc yct prcscrving thc intcgrity ol tradition. And prcsiding ovcr thc cntirc work is thc
wisdom ol Hans Sachs, who, though givcn to mclancholy, is, noncthclcss, surcly thc most
rcassuring lathcr gurc in thc wholc ol opcra.)

Vagncr was born in Lcipzig in +8+. !n +8, howcvcr, hc was in rcsdcn, whcrc,
though dircctor ol music at thc King ol Saxonys court, hc hclpcd his Russian anarchist
lricnd Mikhail 8akunin organizc an abortivc workcrs uprising in thc city. As a disciplc
ol Proudhon, who hcld that propcrty is thclt, and ol Fcucrbach, who hcld that no onc
without thc couragc to bc absolutcly ncgativc has thc strcngth to crcatc anything ncw,
Vagncr was involvcd in grcnadc manulacturc and in trying to pcrsuadc thc local militia to
join thc sidc ol thc workcrs. As a rcsult hc was lorccd, altcr thc lailurc ol thc rcvolution,
to cc to Switzcrland, whcrc hc spcnt thc ncxt twclvc ycars in cxilc. !n cccmbcr +8+,
howcvcr, appallcd at thc succcss ol Napolcon !!!s coup d etat, which rcsultcd in thc abolition
ol thc Frcnch parliamcnt, hc abandoncd not only his commitmcnt to his anarchist vcrsion
ol socialism but also political action as such, a rctrcat which, wc shall scc, was ccmcntcd by
his discovcry ol Schopcnhaucrs worlddcnying transccndcntalism thrcc ycars latcr.
Givcn his history (his abandonmcnt ol rcvolutionary politics was not widcly known) and
his rcputation lor an cxotic lovc lilc, thc Vagncr who visitcd his sistcr in Lcipzig in Novcm
bcr +868 was a controvcrsial, cvcn scandalous gurc, a scandal givcn a local dimcnsion by
his suggcstion that thc Lcipzig music conscrvatory should bc movcd to rcsdcn and by his
attack on, among othcrs, thc local hcro, Fclix Mcndclssohn, in Das Judentum in der Musik
| Judaism in Music|.

Unsurprisingly, thcrclorc, his visit to Lcipzig was supposcd to bc

kcpt sccrct, particularly lrom thc local prcss.
To thc lact that Rohdc was sick wc owc a long lcttcr

in which Nictzschc amusingly

dramatiscs his rst mccting with Vagncr. Rcturning to his lodgings lrom a mccting with
Ritschl on thc altcrnoon ol Novcmbcr 6, +868, hc rcports that hc lound a notc lrom his
lricnd Vindisch: !l you would likc to mcct Richard Vagncr, comc to thc Cal c Tcatrc
at . pm. Hc rushcd o to kccp this cloakanddaggcr appointmcnt, whcrc hc was
inlormcd, sotto vocc, that Vagncr was staying with thc 8rockhauscs, lurthcrmorc, that
hc had playcd Valtcrs prizc song lrom thc Mastersingers in thc prcscncc ol Sophic Ritschl
who had said shc alrcady kncw it through hcr husbands studcnt. Joy and amazcmcnt on
Vagncrs part. Hc cxprcsscs a strong dcsirc to mcct mc incognito. Nictzschc and Vindisch
thcn rushcd o to thc 8rockhauscs housc, only to discovcr that Vagncr has gonc out wcar
ing an cnormous hat prcsumably with thc brim wcll down ovcr thc cycs to disguisc his
idcntity. (Sincc Vagncr was cxtrcmcly short (about

) this cannot havc bccn all that

casy.) Allcviating thcir disappointmcnt, howcvcr, thc two young mcn rcccivcd an invitation
to rcturn thc lollowing cvcning, a Sunday.

Tis antiScmitic tract had bccn publishcd in 8rcndcls Neue Zeitschrift f ur Musik in +8o, and had
lcd to a pctition bcing signcd by 8rcndcls prolcssorial collcagucs, many ol whom wcrc Jcwish,
dcmanding his dismissal lrom his position at thc Lcipzig music conscrvatory.
Leipzig


Assuming thc mccting would bc a largc, lormal occasion, Nictzschc always somcthing
ol a dandy was happy that, scrcndipitously, hc had a cvcning suit on ordcr lrom a tailor
and promiscd lor that vcry Sunday. Tc suit was not quitc nishcd whcn hc callcd at thc
shop, but it was promiscd in thrccquartcrs ol an hour. Vhcn hc rcturncd it was still not
nishcd. Finally, at about sixthirty, a littlc old man arrivcd at thc 8icdcrmanns housc
with a packagc and a bill:
! takc it politcly: hc wants cash on dclivcry |which Nictzschc did not havc to hand and
likcly not at all|. Flabbcrgastcd, ! cxplain that ! wantcd no dcalings with him, my tailors
cmploycc, but only with thc tailor himscll, lrom whom ! ordcrcd thc suit. Tc man puts
morc prcssurc on mc, thc timc puts morc prcssurc on mc. ! scizc thc things and bcgin to
put thcm on. Forcc on my sidc vcrsus lorcc on his. !maginc thc sccnc: ! am ghting in my
shirt bccausc ! want to stcp into thc ncw trouscrs.
Tc littlc old man, howcvcr, won thc battlc. Hc wcnt o with thc suit, lcaving Nictzschc
sitting on thc sola in his shirt, swcaring drcadlul rcvcngc against thc tailor, and wondcring
whcthcr his old black jackct was good cnough lor an cvcning with Richard Vagncr. Hc
thcn stormcd out into, as it happcncd, a rainstorm, lcarlul ol bcing latc lor thc appointmcnt,
hoping his old clothcs would do. 8ut as it turncd out thcrc was no lormal gathcring at all,
only thc 8rockhaus lamily, Nictzschc, Vindisch, and Vagncr.
Vhat lollowcd was onc ol Vagncrs bravura pcrlormanccs:
! was introduccd to Richard and spokc somc words ol apprcciation. Hc inquircd vcry prc
ciscly how ! had got to know his music, abuscd tcrribly all thc pcrlormanccs ol his opcras,
cxccpt thc lamous Munich onc |ol Meistersinger|, and madc lun ol thc conductors who
call out to thcir orchcstra in a comlortablc tonc ol voicc, Now gcntlcmcn, somc pas
sion, My dcar lcllows, a bit morc passion. Vagncr likcs vcry much to imitatc thc Lcipzig
acccnt . . . 8clorc and altcr dinncr hc playcd |thc piano| and includcd all thc important scc
tions ol Meistersinger, imitating all thc vocal parts and growing vcry cxubcrant. Hc is a
wondcrlully livcly and animatcd man who spcaks cxtrcmcly last, is vcry witty and makcs
a gathcring ol this privatc sort vcry chccrlul. !n bctwccn timcs, ! had a longish talk with
him about Schopcnhaucr and you can imaginc what joy it was lor mc to hcar him spcak
ol Schopcnhaucr with a quitc indcscribablc warmth, saying how much hc owcd to him
and how hc was thc only philosophcr who undcrstood thc naturc ol music. Tcn hc askcd
how thc prolcssors lclt about him thcsc days and laughcd a lot about . . . thc philosophical
timcscrvcrs |Schopcnhaucrs prolcssors ol philosophy|. Altcrwards hc rcad a portion ol
thc autobiography hc is now writing, an cxtrcmcly amusing sccnc lrom his Lcipzig studcnt
days, which ! still cant think about without laughing . . . At thc cnd ol thc cvcning as wc
two wcrc about to lcavc hc prcsscd my hand vcry warmly and invitcd mc most cordially to
visit him in ordcr to discuss music and philosophy. Hc also commissioncd mc to makc his
sistcr and rclativcs lamiliar with his music which ! solcmnly agrccd to do.
Nictzschc was dazzlcd, complctcly won ovcr. Tc lact that hc rclcrs to Vagncr as
Richard only two days altcr rst mccting him, indicatcs thc instant warmth and con
ncctcdncss hc lclt towards thc man who was cxactly thc agc his lathcr would havc bccn.

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc immcdiatc ccct ol thc cncountcr was thc sctting ol Vagncr alongsidc Schopcnhaucr
as thc guiding hcro ol his lilc. Hc wrotc to Rohdc,
Vagncr whom ! now know lrom his music, his poctry, his writings on acsthctics and, not
lcast, lrom happy pcrsonal acquaintancc with him, is thc most vivid illustration ol what
Schopcnhaucr calls a gcnius, thc similarity in all particulars springs immcdiatcly to thc
cyc. ! wish ! could tcll you all thc dctails ol his lilc which ! mostly know through his
sistcr. How ! wish wc |Nictzschc and Rohdc| could bc togcthcr . . . to allow oursclvcs to bc
swcpt away in this Schopcnhaucrian sca ol sound, in whosc most sccrct brcaking ol thc
wavcs . . . onc cxpcricnccs an astonishing discovcry ol oncscll.
8
Iairy-Tale-Iike and Seven-Ieague-Bootish
A
t thc bcginning ol +86 thc chair ol classical philology at thc Univcrsity ol 8ascl
lcll vacant. Tc dcparting incumbcnt, Adoll Kicssling, wrotc to his lormcr tcachcr,
Ritschl, asking about Nictzschc, whosc work hc had rcad in thc Fheinishes Museum. !n thc
rclcrcncc hc scnt in rcply, Ritschl wrotc that in his thirtyninc ycars ol tcaching hc had ne.er
known a young man who has maturcd so carly. Hc callcd him thc lcadcr ol all thc young
philologists in Lcipzig and prophcsicd that hc would bccomc onc ol thc lorcmost Gcrman
classicists. Kicssling passcd this inlormation on to Prolcssor Vilhclm \ischcr8ilngcr, a
philologist who hcadcd thc city ol 8ascls cducation committcc and thc univcrsity council,
and who thcn approachcd Ritschl lor lurthcr inlormation. !n rcply Ritschl dcscribcd his
star pupil as
without privatc mcans . . . posscssing no particularly political naturc. Tough hc has a gcn
cral sympathy lor Gcrman unication, hc has no sympathy lor Prussianncss as littlc as !
havc, on thc contrary hc has a livcly scnsibility lor lrcc civic and cultural dcvclopmcnt.

(Ritschls rcprcscntation ol Nictzschc as antiPrussian may havc bccn calculatcd to appcal to

Swiss rcpublicanism, may havc bccn Ritschls projcction ol his own politics onto Nictzschc,
or may havc bccn thc rcsult ol Nictzschcs trimming his sails to match his patrons scnsibil
itics. !t is, in any casc, as wc havc sccn, lalsc. His turn against Prussia was still scvcral ycars
down thc track.)
Tc rcsult ol this acadcmic nctworking was that on Fcbruary +:, +86, Nictzschc was
appointcd to thc position. n March : hc was awardcd his doctoratc, without cxamina
tion, on thc basis ol thc work publishcd in thc Fheinisches Museum. Hc ncvcr did a Habil-
itation, thc sccond Ph.. which, in thc Gcrman systcm, is normally thc prcrcquisitc ol any
acadcmic post.
So, at thc agc ol twcntylour, unlikc Rohdc and cusscn, who would havc to wait ycars to
obtain acadcmic positions, Nictzschc suddcnly lound himscll an assistant prolcssor with a
salary ol ,ooo Swiss lranks (about 8oo talcrs or :,o marks) pcr ycar, a comlortablc incomc
lor a singlc man, though inadcquatc to sustain a marricd couplc. !n addition to univcrsity
lccturing, thc position also rcquircd six hours a wcck tcaching at thc local P adagogium, thc
grammar school that had oncc bccn part ol thc Univcrsity. Tc lollowing ycar Nictzschc
Leipzig

,
was promotcd to lull prolcssor. As hc wrotc von Gcrsdor, thcrc was somcthing lairytalc
likc and scvcnlcagucbootish
6o
about thc casc with which, thanks to Ritschl, hc strodc
through or rathcr past thc normal hoops ol an acadcmic carccr.
Nictzschc was so ovcrcomc by his good lortunc that hc spcnt an cntirc altcrnoon walk
ing up and down thc Lcipzig promcnadc humming tuncs lrom Tannh auser appropriatcly,
sincc onc ol thc grcat attractions ol 8ascl was that it was only a stoncs throw lrom Trib
schcn, Vagncrs placc ol cxilc. Tcn hc announccd thc good ncws by pcnning a scrics ol
short notcs on a dozcn visiting cards which hc scnt to lricnds and acquaintanccs, adding,
undcrncath his printcd namc, Prolcssor cxtraord|inary| ol Classical Philology at 8ascl Uni
vcrsity. His mothcr burst into tcars ol bcwildcrcd happincss. Momcntarily hc sccms to
havc bccn ovcrcomc by his own grandcur, scnding a lcttcr tcrminating his lricndship with
cusscn (an cdict latcr rcscindcd) who, hc lclt, had not bccn sucicntly scnsiblc ol thc
honour ol bcing ablc to call a propcr prolcssor his lricnd.
6+
Nictzschcs original plan had bccn to takc timc out altcr complcting his univcrsity stud
ics. Hc had planncd a ycars ovcrscas cxpcricncc with Rohdc in Paris, in ordcr, as hc wrotc
wistlully to Rohdc altcr hc kncw thc trip was o,
to tastc a lilc ol a wandcrcr, . . . to bc an onlookcr not a playcr. ! saw thc two ol us with
scrious cycs and smiling lips striding through thc Paris crowds, a couplc ol philosophical
ancurs,
sightsccrs with a particular intcrcst in thc grcat muscums and librarics ol Paris.
6:
Sincc,
howcvcr, thc Nictzschcs wcrc gcnuincly poor his mothcr had almost nothing to livc on
savc hcr mcagrc widows pcnsion this had always bccn, as Rohdc pointcd out, a pipc
drcam.
6
Nictzschcs nal days bclorc lcaving lor 8ascl wcrc a littlc mclancholy. Apart lrom
larcwclling thc drcam ol Paris, hc had also to larcwcll his youth. To von Gcrsdor hc wrotc
lrom Naumburg on ++ April,
Timc is up, this is my last cvcning in thc homcland, tomorrow !m o into thc widc world,
into an ncw and unlamiliar prolcssion, into thc hcavy and opprcssivc atmosphcrc ol duty
and work. Again ! must say larcwcll: thc goldcn timc ol lrcc, unconstraincd activity, thc
carclrccncss ol |living in| thc prcscnt, ol cnjoying art and thc world as a discngagcd, or at
lcast only mildly cngagcd, obscrvcr this timc is now past and bcyond rccovcry. Now thc
strict goddcss ol daily duty rulcs . . . ! must now myscll bccomc a philistinc . . . nc pays a
pricc lor occ and status thc only qucstion is whcthcr thc bonds arc ol iron or thrcad . . . A
hcrd man may Zcus and all thc muscs protcct mc lrom that. ! havc indccd movcd ncarcr
to bclonging to thc spccics cog in thc machinc |Fachmensch|.
6
Tc job ocr was, ol coursc, onc Nictzschc could not rclusc. Tcsc scntimcnts arc nonc
thclcss gcnuinc. Vhat lics at thcir root is partly thc Schopcnhaucrian pcrspcctivc on thc
lilc ol a prolcssor, but morc spccically Nictzschcs incrcascd attraction towards philosophy
and conscqucntly away lrom philology. !n his last months in Lcipzig hc had cvcn startcd to
makc notcs lor a contcmplatcd doctoral thcsis in philosophy on thc conccpt ol tclcology
sincc Kant.
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Noncthclcss hc put a bravc lacc on things and on April + lclt his homc town and his
youth bchind him. From Naumburg hc travcllcd in lcisurcly stagcs via 8onn and Colognc,
arriving in 8ascl on April +, +86. Tc univcrsity rcquircd him to givc up his Prussian
nationality so that thcy would not losc him to military scrvicc, but sincc hc had not yct
acquircd Swiss nationality, hc bccamc, in thc languagc ol Swiss burcaucratcsc, heimatslos
|homclcss|. And sincc hc ncvcr actually took out Swiss nationality, homclcssncss a major
thcmcs in his poctry bccamc his ocial status lor thc rcst ol his lilc. His latcr dcscription
ol himscll as a uropcan was, in lact, thc litcral truth.
5
Schopenhauer

xv b~v, towards thc middlc ol Novcmbcr, +86, shortly altcr arriving in Lcipzig,
Nictzschc succumbcd, in spitc ol his straitcncd studcnt mcans, to a suddcn
impulsc:
! camc across this book in old Rohns sccondhand bookshop, and taking it up vcry gingcrly
! turncd ovcr its pagcs. ! know not what dcmon whispcrcd to mc: Takc this book homc
with you. At all cvcnts, contrary to my habit ol not bcing hasty in thc purchasc ol books,
! took it homc. 8ack in my room ! thrcw myscll into thc corncr ol thc sola with my booty,
and bcgan to allow that cncrgctic and gloomy gcnius to work upon my mind. !n this book,
in which cvcry linc cricd out rcnunciation, dcnial and rcsignation, ! saw a mirror in which
! cspicd thc wholc world, lilc, and my own mind dcpictcd in lrightlul grandcur.
+
Tc gloomy gcnius was Schopcnhaucr and thc book Te !orld as !ill and Fepresenta-
tion. (Sincc it had bccn publishcd in Lcipzig but sold cxtrcmcly badly, numcrous copics
wcrc probably still to bc lound in local sccondhand bookshops.) As notcd in thc prcvious
chaptcr, Nictzschc immcdiatcly bccamc a Schopcnhaucrian. Vhat, wc must now ask, did
that cntail:
Te World as Will and Representation
A
v:niv scnovvxn~ivv (+88+86o) had privatc mcans, which hc cultivatcd astutcly.
Hc had inhcritcd lrom his lathcr, who (bclorc jumping to his dcath lrom thc attic ol
his housc) had bccn a succcsslul Hamburg busincssman. Schopcnhaucr scorncd thc pro
lcssors ol philosophy, partly out ol snobbishncss towards pcoplc who had to work lor a
living, but mainly, as alrcady notcd, on thc ground that indcpcndcncc ol mcans is a prc
condition ol indcpcndcncc ol thought. (Hc was basically right about ninctccnthccntury
Gcrman univcrsitics. Sincc thcy wcrc almost always lundcd by kings and princcs, thc
lcgitimacy ol whosc rulc rcstcd mainly on thc claim that thcy had bccn appointcd to it

:
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
by God thc doctrinc ol thc divinc right ol kings philosophcrs such as Kant and Hcgcl
lound thc outright dcnial ol Gods cxistcncc a virtual impossibility.) Accordingly, Schopcn
haucr ncvcr hcld a paid univcrsity post, living, in thc lclicitous Gcrman phrasc, as a freier
Schriftsteller, a lrcc writcr or, as nglish says, a lrcclancc. Tc last twcntyscvcn ycars ol
his lilc hc livcd alonc in Franklurt. !n his study hc had, on thc wall, a portrait ol Kant,
on his dcsk, a statuc ol thc 8uddha, and, at his lcct, a poodlc. Hc lovcd opcra, prclcrrcd
animals to humans, and playing thc utc. His vicws on womcn arc unprintablc.
Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation, rst publishcd in +8+8 but cxtcnsivcly rcviscd and
doublcd in sizc in +8, was Schopcnhaucrs only major work ol systcmatic philosophy.
:
!t
is dividcd into lour books.
!n thc rst book, lollowing his admircd (though at timcs criticiscd) prcdcccssor,
!mmanucl Kant, Schopcnhaucr asscrts that, as its rst scntcncc puts it, Tc world is my
rcprcscntation. Spacc and timc, substantiality (thingncss) and causal conncctcdncss, that
is to say, arc not out thcrc, indcpcndcnt ol us. Rathcr, thcy arc thc lorms and catcgorics
which thc human mind imposcs on cvcrything that arrivcs in consciousncss in thc samc
way in which, lor cxamplc, grccn sunglasscs imposc grccnncss on cvcrything sccn through
thcm, or a wordproccssing programmc with thc lont sct to Ncw Roman imposcs Ncw
Romanncss on cvcrything that appcars on thc computcr scrccn. Naturc, that is to say, thc
world ol both cvcryday cxpcricncc and natural scicncc, is our own crcation, a world ol mcrc
appcaranccs or phcnomcna. !n thc last analysis it is a ction, ultimatcly, as Schopcnhaucr
puts it, a drcam.

Tis, in philosophical jargon, is Schopcnhaucrs Kantinspircd idcalism

(a conlusing tcrm, bcttcr thought ol in conncxion with idca than with idcal.)
8cyond thc drcam, on thc othcr sidc ol thc vcil crcatcd by our minds, is thc rcal world, in
Kants languagc, thc thing in itscll . Following his anity with !ndian thought, Schopcn
haucr oltcn spcaks ol that which is intcrposcd bctwccn us and thc thing in itscll as thc vcil
ol Maya.
Vhat is this rcal world likc: Kants to Schopcnhaucr and ncarly all his contcmporarics
intcnscly lrustrating answcr is: wc can ncvcr know. Sincc wc can ncvcr stcp outsidc our own
minds, wc can ncvcr stcp outsidc thc lorm thcy imposc on our cxpcricncc. And so, sincc
wc can ncvcr havc vcillrcc cxpcricncc, sincc wc scc at bcst only through a glass, darkly,
wc havc to rcconcilc oursclvcs to thc lact that ultimatc rcality lics lorcvcr bcyond thc rcach
ol human cognition.

!n thc sccond book ol thc mastcrwork in, at lcast, thc carlicr cdition Schopcnhaucr
appcars to rcjcct Kants lrustrating conclusion. !l wc attcnd, rst, to our own bodics, and il
wc look inwards rathcr than outwards, hc suggcsts, wc nd a kind ol cxpcricncc that is vcil
lrcc. And what wc nd in this cxpcricncc is, in a word, will. Tat which prcscnts itscll to
outcr pcrccption as bodily action prcscnts itscll, in introspcction, as will (lccling, cmotion,
dcsirc, and dccision). Tis providcs thc vital cluc to thc naturc ol rcality in gcncral. Tat
which, lrom thc outcr pcrspcctivc, appcars as a physical body is, Schopcnhaucr announccs,
in its inncr rcality, will. So thc Kantian problcm is solvcd. Takc away thc vcils and what is
lclt, as thc thing in itscll, is will:
Vhat Kant opposcd as thing in itself to mcrc appearance, this thing in itself, this substratum
ol all phcnomcna and thcrclorc ol thc wholc ol naturc, is nothing but what wc knowdircctly
and intimatcly and nd within oursclvcs as the .ill.

Schopenhauer


Tough a major philosophical brcakthrough, in anothcr rcspcct, Schopcnhaucr thinks,
this is not a happy discovcry. For thc lact that thc csscncc ol cvcrything is will mcans
that thc csscncc ol lilc is sucring. Tis is thc pcssimism lor which Schopcnhaucr is
lamous. Lilc contains many pains and lcw plcasurcs, its ovcrall and ovcrwhclmingly
dominant charactcr is sucring. For this conclusion hc prcscnts a numbcr ol convcrging
argumcnts.
Survcying thc animal world, wc scc that thc will thc will to livc ol onc crcaturc has
no option but to hunt and kill anothcr. Rcd in tooth and claw, naturc is a placc whcrc only
thc t and murdcrous survivc (Schopcnhaucr anticipatcs important aspccts ol arwinism
by somc lorty ycars). Hcncc lcar, pain, and dcath arc by no mcans accidcntal mallunctions
ol a gcncrally bcncvolcnt naturc but bclong, rathcr, to its csscncc.
Turning to thc human world, wc nd thc will to bc cqually a cursc. Schopcnhaucr givcs
scvcral rcasons lor this. nc argumcnt points out that thc viciously compctitivc lilc ol
nonhuman animals is mcrcly amclioratcd, not rcmovcd, by human civilization. Tough
wc do not oltcn kill cach othcr, thc pursuit ol onc individuals dcsircs typically and know
ingly harms thosc ol anothcr. As thc ancicnts kncw, Homo homini lupus, man is a woll
to man.

Tc most intriguing ol Schopcnhaucrs argumcnts lor pcssimism, howcvcr ! shall call

it thc strcss or borcdom argumcnt argucs that cvcn il wc wcrc ne.er causcd to sucr
by othcr human bcings, sucring would still constitutc thc ovcrwhclming charactcr ol our
livcs. 8ricy, thc argumcnt runs as lollows. Tc will that is thc csscncc ol humanity as
ol cvcrything clsc is cithcr satiscd or not. !l my will is not satiscd thcn ! sucr. !l, lor
cxamplc, ! will lood or scx but nonc is availablc, thcn ! sucr thc pain ol hungcr or ol scxual
lrustration. 8ut il, on thc othcr hand, ! achicvc what ! will, thcn vcry soon ! cxpcricncc an
cvcn worsc lorm ol sucring borcdom. !l ! achicvc scx, Schopcnhaucr thinks (though
hc ncvcr marricd hc was known to actrcsscs), thcn almost immcdiatcly ! sucr postcoital
tristesse: vcryonc who is in lovc will cxpcricncc an cxtraordinary disillusionmcnt altcr thc
plcasurc hc nally attains.
6
!l (to think Schopcnhaucrs argumcnt in tcrms ol contcmpor
ary consumcrism) ! lust altcr a shiny ncw Mcrccdcs sports car and nally acquirc onc, !
may cxpcricncc a couplc ol wccks ol shallow plcasurc. Altcr that, howcvcr, it slumps into
thc invisibility ol bcing just thc car. Hcncc, Schopcnhaucr concludcs, lilc swings likc a
pcndulum bctwccn thc two polcs ol sucring lack and borcdom.

Having diagnoscd thc sickncss ol thc world in gcncral, and ol thc human condition in
particular, in thc rst two books, Te !orld as !ill s third book turns to thc qucstion ol
curc, to avcnucs ol cscapc lrom thc sucring that is lilc.
!n thc acsthctic contcmplation ol art or naturc, Schopcnhaucr obscrvcs, thc will is, lor a
momcnt, silcnccd. !n routinc, cvcryday cxpcricncc cvcrything is pcrccivcd in tcrms ol our
practical intcrcsts, in rclation to thc will. Tc hillsidc shows up as a nicc piccc ol rcal cstatc
ripc lor dcvclopmcnt, or as a valuablc bauxitc dcposit rcady lor mining. !n its acsthctic con
tcmplation, on thc othcr hand, pcrccption bccomcs a tcrm Schopcnhaucr takcs ovcr lrom
Kant disintcrcstcd (not to bc conluscd with unintcrcstcd). Absorbcd, lor a momcnt,
in acsthctic contcmplation ol thc hillsidc (thc brcathtaking sight, pcrhaps, ol C czanncs
Mont Saintc\ictoirc dissolving into thc mystcrious bluc ol thc Mcditcrrancan sky), wc
arc, as wc indccd say, takcn out ol oursclvcs: wc bccomc oblivious to our individual sclvcs
and so to our wills. For a momcnt wc bccomc thc purc, willlcss, . . . timclcss subjcct
8
ol
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
disintcrcstcd pcrccption. And whcn this happcns wc achicvc a bricl cscapc lrom thc anxicty
and pain that is inscparablc lrom all willing. For a bricl momcnt Schopcnhaucr sings hcrc
a kind ol hymn to art wc cxpcricncc
thc pcacc always sought but always cscaping us on thc . . . path ol willing . . . thc painlcss
statc, prizcd by picurus as thc highcst good and as thc statc ol thc gods, lor that momcnt
wc arc dclivcrcd lrom thc miscrablc prcssurc ol thc will. Vc cclcbratc thc Sabbath ol thc
pcnal scrvitudc ol willing, thc whccl ol !xion stands still.

Tc csscncc ol almost all thc arts, thcn, is that thcy givcs us a puricd, willlrcc pcrccp
tion ol thc world thc .isible world, ol coursc, thc world ol appcarancc. Music, howcvcr,
is dicrcnt sincc, quitc cvidcntly, Schopcnhaucr obscrvcs, it docs not rcprcscnt thc vis
iblc world. (Rcprcscntations ol birdsong and battlcsccncs hc rcgards as trivialisations ol
music.) Tis lcavcs two options. Tc rst is to adopt what wc might call thc lormalist
vicw, thc vicw that music rcprcscnts nothing, but plcascs simply as a harmonious pattcrn
ol mcaninglcss sounds in thc way in which abstract painting plcascs as a harmonious pat
tcrn ol mcaninglcss colours. Tis was thc opinion ol Lcibniz who, Schopcnhaucr rcports,
dcscribcd music as An unconscious cxcrcisc in arithmctic in which thc mind docs not know
it is counting.
+o
Tc sccond is to adopt what wc might call thc dccp rcprcscntation vicw,
thc vicwthat music does rcprcscnt, not thc world ol appcarancc but rathcr thc thing in itscll.
Schopcnhaucr rcjccts thc lormalist vicw on thc grounds that it cannot cxplain thc prolound
signicancc wc ascribc to music and concludcs that, uniquc among thc arts, music givcs us
vcillrcc acccss to rcality in itscll. Tis makcs music thc highcst ol thc arts, an unconscious
cxcrcisc |not in arithmctic but rathcr| in mctaphysics in which thc mind docs not know it
is philosophising.
,++
Tc lourth and nal book ol Te !orld as !ill bcgins with an account ol moral virtuc.
Sincc thc only will, thc only locus ol scnsitivity to pain and plcasurc, with which wc arc
dircctly acquaintcd is our own, sincc only our own pain and plcasurc is rcal to us, mostly,
says Schopcnhaucr, wc arc cgoists. ur own intcrcsts count lor cvcrything, thosc ol othcrs
not at all, sincc, cxpcricntially, our own arc thc only intcrcsts that exist. 8ut actually, bascd as
it is on thc assumcd rcality ol a world ol individuals, cgoismis an cxprcssion ol mctaphysical
dclusion. Schopcnhaucr argucs lor this as lollows. Spacc and timc, as Kant has taught us,
cxist only in thc apparcnt world. 8ut individuality dcpcnds on spacc and timc: onc can
only discriminatc things as distinct objccts il thcy occupy dicrcnt parts ol spacc, or, il thcy
occupy thc samc spacc, do so at dicrcnt timcs. !t lollows that thc thing in itscll must bc
bcyond individuality, bc, in lact, an undicrcntiatcd unity, nc.
!n contrast to thc sclsh cgoist, thc virtuous pcrson is somconc who has insight into this
mctaphysical truth. !ntuitivcly, shc undcrstands thc ultimatcly illusory charactcr ol division
and dicrcncc (Schopcnhaucr thinks that womcn arc gcncrally bcttcr at this than mcn
his onc nicc rcmark about womcn.) Unconsciously shc rcaliscs thc wisdom containcd in
thc lormula ol thc Upanishads, tat t.am asi (this art thou). So shc takcs thc othcrs pain
as hcr own. \irtuc is thus simply altruism, thc csscncc ol which is idcntication with

Altcr discovcring Schopcnhaucr, Richard Vagncr adoptcd thc dccp rcprcscntation vicw. His
opponcnt, thc \icnncsc music critic and scllappointcd 8rahms protagonist duard Hanslick,
dclcndcd thc lormalist vicw. Formalism vcrsus dccp rcprcscntation dominatcd latcninctccnth
ccntury musical polcmics.
Schopenhauer


othcrs. Schopcnhaucrs word lor such idcntication is sympathy. 8ut sincc lilc is sucring,
sincc thcrc arc lcw joys and many sorrows with which to idcntily, it is, morc spccically,
compassion.
Tcrc arc dicrcnt dcgrccs ol insight into thc ncncss ol all lilc, but thc highcst dcgrcc
bclongs to thc Christlikc saint who takcs as his own thc sucrings ol thc cntirc world.
Vhcn, howcvcr, altruism rcachcs a pitch such as this, a prolound translormation, a radical
gcstalt switch, occurs. For thc saint suddcnly rcaliscs that altruism is futile, that corts to
allcviatc thc sucring ol othcrs, thc works ol lovc, at bcst only changc thc lorm ol sucr
ing (lrom strcss to borcdom or vicc vcrsa), but can ncvcr diminish its quantity. !l , writcs
Schopcnhaucr,
wc comparc lilc to a circular path ol rcdhot coals having a lcw cool placcs, a path wc havc
to run ovcr inccssantly, thcn thc man cnsnarcd in dclusion |i.c., thc cgoist| is comlortcd by
thc cool placc on which hc is just now standing or which hc sccs ncar him and scts out to
run ovcr thc path.
Tc saint, by contrast, having complctcly sccn through thc illusion ol individuality,
sccs himscll at all placcs simultancously and withdraws . . . !n othcr words, it is no longcr
cnough lor him to lovc othcrs as himscll and to do as much lor thcm as lor himscll.
+:
Vith, that is, thc intuitivc rcalisation that lilc as such is, was, and always will bc, sucring
comcs a rcvulsion, a rcjcction ol thc will and thc world which Schopcnhaucr calls dcnial ol
thc will. Ultimatc insight cxprcsscs itscll as a transition lrom virtuc to asccticism.
+
Asccticism rcprcscnts a kind ol salvation lrom this world ol pain: as thc Stoics saw, il
willing is thc sourcc ol sucring, thcn thc rcduction ol willing is a rcduction ol sucring.
8ut Stoicism, lacking a transccndcnt cnd,
+
is not truc salvation: that comcs only with
dcath. Vith dcath this drcam morc cxactly, nightmarc ol lilc comcs to an cnd. As to
what rcplaccs it wc cannot say. Sincc languagc and conccptual thought arc conncd to thc
world ol appcarancc, that which is bcyond thc drcam is, to us, nothing.

Yct wc havc only

to attcnd to thc bcatitudc ol thc mystics, to
that occanlikc calmncss ol thc spirit, that dccp tranquillity, that unshakablc condcncc
and scrcnity whosc mcrc rccction in thc countcnancc as dcpictcd by Raphacl and Cor
rcggio, is a complctc and ccrtain gospcl . . . |in ordcr to| banish thc dark imprcssion ol that
nothingncss, which, as thc nal goal, hovcrs bchind all virtuc and holincss and which wc
lcar |in Francis 8acons borrowcd similc| as childrcn lcar thc dark.
+
Attcntion to thc tcstimony ol thc mystics, in othcr words, tcstimony which is brought to
us and vouchcd lor with thc stamp ol truth by art,
+6
cstablishcs that thc nothingtous is

How, thc rcadcr may lccl inclincd to protcst, can thc rcality bcyond thc drcam ol lilc bc nothing
intclligiblc to us whcn Schopcnhaucr has just got through rcvcaling to us his grcat discovcry that
rcality in itscll is will: Tis qucstion will bc addrcsscd shortly.
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
a hea.enly nothing, a rcalm ol bliss. Vhat thosc lcw spirits who havc had dircct cncountcrs
with thc transccndcnt know is not only that thc Ultimatc is nc but also that it is a di.ine
nc. Panthcistic consciousncss, writcs Schopcnhaucr, is csscntial to all mysticism, as
cxcmplicd by Mcistcr ckhardts spiritual daughtcr who crics out altcr hcr cpiphany, Sir,
rcjoicc with mc, ! havc bccomc God.
+
Nietzsches Conversion
T
hus, in bricl, thc cxtraordinary doctrinc that, virtually ovcrnight, convcrtcd Nictzschc
into a Schopcnhaucrian. 8ut just what was it about Schopcnhaucrs philosophy, wc
nccd now to ask, which had such a prolound ccct:
Nictzschc was by no mcans alonc in lalling undcr Schopcnhaucrs spcll. n thc contrary,
altcr a lilctimc ol obscurity, hc had, within a dccadc ol his dcath in +86o, bccomc, as Nictz
schc latcr notcs,
+8
thc most cclcbratcd ninctccnthccntury Gcrman philosophcr. Nictzschc
is, thcrclorc, somcthing ol a rcprcscntativc gurc: in asking what it was about Schopcn
haucrs philosophy that appcalcd to him, wc arc also asking what it was that appcalcd to
considcrablc numbcrs ol cducatcd pcoplc in thc sccond hall ol thc ninctccnth and cvcn in
thc twcnticth ccntury.
Albcrt Camus bcgins Te Myth of Sisyphus with thc lamous asscrtion that thcrc is but
onc truly scrious philosophical problcm and that is suicidc. Judging whcthcr lilc is or is
not worth living amounts to answcring thc lundamcntal qucstion ol philosophy. Vith this
raising ol thc qucstion conccrning thc valuc (and incvitably, too, thc mcaning) ol lilc, a
ncw kind ol philosophy is born: xistcntialism, a philosophy that, rathcr than puzzling
ovcr abstrusc mattcrs ol thcory intcrcsting (indccd intclligiblc) only to a narrow cliquc ol
prolcssionals, attcnds to thc dccp, worrying, and vcry dicult qucstions that lurk in thc con
sciousncss ol cvcry human cxistcncc. Tc pcrson, howcvcr, who rst put Camuss qucstion
on thc tablc (and also, as it wcrc, prcscntcd thc casc lor thc prosccution) was Schopcn
haucr. !n this scnsc ol thc tcrm, thcrclorc, hc was thc rst xistcntialist, thc rst philos
ophcr (sincc antiquity) to takc philosophy out ol librarics and lccturc halls and into pcoplcs
livcs.
And hc did so in prosc ol mastcrly clarity, clcgancc, wit, and incandcsccnt lury (dircctcd
mainly against Hcgcls chcap optimism and brainrotting obscurity), and with a capacity
lor thc concrctc, tclling cxamplc that is worth a thousand windy words. Schopcnhaucr not
only spcaks to us as opposcd to a narrowcliquc ol dcsiccatcd scholars, hc also spcaks in a way
wc can casily undcrstand. (Nictzschcs critiquc ol thc thcncurrcnt practicc ol philology,
lct us rccall, objcctcd prcciscly to its dcsiccatcd, introvcrtcd prolcssionalism and lack ol
cxistcntial rclcvancc.) Tc qucstion rcmains, howcvcr, as to what it was about spccically,
thc content ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy that sccmcd to Nictzschc and his circlc to bc ol
such vital importancc.
Nictzschcs studcnt ycars wcrc, ! havc cmphasiscd, happy ycars, thc happicst ol his cntirc
lilc. Yct somcthing was missing. Tough hc had cntcrcd thc univcrsity ol 8onn with thc
lormal intcntion ol studying lor thc pricsthood, wc know that cvcn bclorc lcaving Plorta,
hc had, in lact, lost his laith. Christian mctaphysics (thcological astronomy hc latcr calls
it),
+
God, hcavcn, and thc immortal soul had bccn rcndcrcd unbclicvablc by thc natural
Schopenhauer


and human scicnccs ol modcrnity. Latcr on, in Te Gay Science, hc rccords, in a strongly
autobiographical way, thc agonising loss ol a spiritual homcland that rcsults lrom thc dcath
ol God. Vhcrc is God: hc crics:
!ll tcll you! !e ha.e killed him you and !! Vc |wc modcrn thinkcrs| arc all his murdcrcrs.
8ut . . . what wcrc wc doing whcn wc |wc Copcrnicans| unchaincd this carth lrom its sun:
Vhcrc is it moving to now: whcrc arc wc moving to: Away lrom all suns: Arc wc not
continually lalling: And backwards, sidcwards, lorwards in all dircctions: !s thcrc still an
up and a down:
:o
Vhat had Nictzschc lost in losing thc laith ol his lamily: Vhat was it thc rcligion ol his
childhood had providc him with: !n csscncc, thrcc things: an account ol how onc should
livc, thc cthics ol Christian lovc, an antidotc to lcar ol dcath, thc doctrinc ol thc immor
tality ol thc soul, and an account ol thc mcaning ol lilc as salvation, thc attainmcnt,
through virtuc, ol ctcrnal, hcavcnly bliss. Tc loss ol this lramcwork lor living is what
Te Gay Science idcntics as thc dircctionlcss charactcr ol postChristian cxistcncc. Such a
lramcwork, howcvcr, is prcciscly what hc bclicvcd hc had rcdiscovcrcd in Schopcnhaucrs
philosophy. Hcncc thc ccstasy ol his rst rcsponsc. Tc young man who cntcrcd Rohns
bookshop was, hc tclls us, dcvoid ol lundamcntal principlcs. 8ut what hc rcdiscovcrcd in
Schopcnhaucr thc languagc is cxplicitly rcligious was, hc tclls us, sickncss and rccovcry,
banishmcnt and rclugc, hcll and hcavcn.
:+
Vhat hc discovcrcd in Schopcnhaucr was, hc
bclicvcd, a rccasting ol thc csscncc ol thc Christianity ol his childhood in a lorm t lor
adults.
Schopcnhaucr himscll took his philosophy to havc this charactcr.
::
And onc can scc
why, sincc Christianity (thc Luthcranism ol Nictzschcs childhood, at lcast) agrccs with
him on thc lollowing lundamcntal doctrincs. First, that this world is a valc ol tcars, a placc
ol sin and sucring. Sccond, that onc should lovc oncs ncighbour as oncscll, that lovc,
compassion lor sucring, is thc propcr cthical stancc towards othcrs. Tird, that dcath is
not to bc lcarcd, sincc it is mcrcly a transition to anothcr rcalm ol bcing. And lourth, that
oncs postmortcm cxistcncc is thc goal and mcaning ol lilc sincc (lor thc virtuous, at lcast)
it is a rcalm ol ctcrnal bliss.
!n a word, thcn, Nictzschcs discovcry ol Schopcnhaucr had thc charactcr ol a convcr
sion, almost bornagain, cxpcricncc: it was thc rcdiscovcry ol rcligion, a rccasting ol thc
old rcligion in a ncw lorm.
Tis cxplains thc rcligious colour ol his rcsponsc to rcading Te !orld as !ill. Almost
immcdiatcly hc bcgan to spcak ol Schopcnhaucr as my mastcr, a kind ol high pricst whosc
disciplc hc was. And hc bcgan to practisc bodily pcnanccs such as allowing himscll only
lour hours slccp a night, lollowing Schopcnhaucrs rccommcndcd path through asccticism
to salvation.
:
Hc bccamc, morcovcr, an cvangclist lor thc ncw laith, bcgan, as hc put
it, to makc propaganda on |Schopcnhaucrs| bchall and lcad various pcoplc by thc nosc
to him.
:
8cing a corcligionist bccamc a virtual prccondition ol lricndship with Nictz
schc. vcr his lricndship with Rohdc, hc wrotc, thc gcnius ol . . . Schopcnhaucr ol coursc
prcsidcs,
:
as it did ovcr thc lricndships with Mushackc and von Gcrsdor. nly cusscn
provcd rcsistant to thc ncw laith, lorcing Nictzschc ccctivcly to thrcatcn to brcak o thc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lricndship il hc did not scc thc light.
:6,
And ovcr thc latclul luturc lricndship with Vagncr
Schopcnhaucr would prcsidc as wcll.
Nictzschc rccords that cvcry lortnight hc, von Gcrsdor, and Mushackc mct with
thc Naumburg pastor Fricdrich Vcnkcl, an incxhaustiblc rcscarchcr and protagonist lor
Schopcnhaucrs tcaching,
:
in Cal c Kintschy, in ordcr to schopcnhaucrianizc.
:8
Vithin
thc nctwork ol Schopcnhaucrdisciplcs, both in Lcipzig and in othcr parts ol Gcrmany,
thc mastcr was clcvatcd to an almost Christlikc status: on onc occasion that involvcd thc
drinking ol winc Nictzschc comparcs thc gathcring ol lricnds ol Schopcnhaucr to a gath
cring ol thc rst Christians.
:
As with any group ol dcvotccs, thc disciplcs bccamc dcspcratc to obtain a visual imagc
ol thcir guru. vcntually von Gcrsdor trackcd down thc owncr ol a portrait by Julcs Lun
tcnsch utz (scc Platc ) bclonging to a lormcr acquaintancc ol Schopcnhaucr. 8rcathlcssly,
hc rcports that thc owncr ol thc icon
took us to his study and hcrc ! saw thc hcavcnly picturc ol our mastcr, bclorc which onc
could stand lor hours, in ordcr to look into his clcar cycs. A godlikc brow that appcars
to risc to innity, lramcd by bcautilul whitc hair undcr whitc cycbrows likc thosc ol thc
lympian Zcus, two cycs ol clarity and dcpth lrom which onc cannot tcar oncscll away,
oncc onc has bccomc accustomcd to thc gazc which at rst sccms to dazzlc onc. Tc mouth
is broad but has thc lricndly, mild cxprcssion ol inncr pcacc, though onc cannot miss his
capacity lor cascadcs ol bittcr, satirical scorn,
o
and so rhapsodically on. Nictzschc rcplics, cqually brcathlcssly, that hc has passcd this prc
cious dcscription on to two othcr disciplcs ol our mastcr, namcly Rohdc . . . and Vcnkcl.
+
Abovc all what appcalcd to Nictzschc was Schopcnhaucrs doctrinc ol salvation.
cscribing his stancc to Christianity in +866, hc writcs,
!l Christianity mcans laith in an historical cvcnt and an historical pcrson ! havc nothing to
do with this Christianity. 8ut il it mcans a nccd lor salvation thcn ! valuc it highly . . . h,
il only all philosophcrs wcrc disciplcs ol Schopcnhaucr.
And hc conlcsscs to still cxpcricncing thc mctaphysical nccd which hc holds to bc univcrsal
to all human bcings.
:
Mctaphysical nccd rclcrs to thc titlc ol thc chaptcr ol Te !orld as !ill n Mans
Nccd lor Mctaphysics

which contains Schopcnhaucrs principal discussion ol rcligion.

Human bcings arc uniquc, hc argucs, in living in thc consciousncss ol mortality. nly
thcy livc in thc light ol thc nothing |das Nichts| which thcy must onc day bccomc and
which (particularly in a postChristian agc) thcy suspcct to bc an absolutc or cmpty
nothing.

Fcar ol dcath is innatc and univcrsal, simply thc obvcrsc ol our biologically
programmcd will to livc. Assurancc ol thc nonnality ol dcath is thc truc hcart ol any grcat

Tcrc is irony in this, sincc, whcn hc cvcntually did convcrt, unlikc Nictzschc, who would bccomc an
apostatc, cusscn rcmaincd laithlul lor lilc, lounding thc Schopcnhaucr Socicty in Franklurt and
bccoming thc rst cditor ol its Jahrbuch |Ycarbook| (to which thc prcscnt author has contributcd a
numbcr ol cssays).
Schopenhauer

,
rcligion: no rcligion has cvcr achicvcd thc status ol a world rcligion without a doc
trinc ol immortality.
And providing an antidotc to lcar ol dcath, providing a consolation lor its incvitability,
is also, Schopcnhaucr holds, thc principal task ol philosophy, which is why Socratcs dcncd
philosophy as a prcparation lor dcath.

Tis bccomcs cvcn morc truc in thc modcrn world:

sincc, lor cducatcd pcoplc, Christian mctaphysics is no longcr bclicvablc, only in philosophy,
il anywhcrc, is any kind ol consolation to bc lound.
As ! havc alrcady suggcstcd, Schopcnhaucrs doctrinc ol salvation, indccd his wholc
philosophy, is rcally an intcrprctation ol dcath. !ts loundation is idcalism. According to
Schopcnhaucrs idcalism, dcath is simply thc tcrmination ol thc drcam ol lilc. A drcam,
howcvcr, dcmands a drcamcr, a drcamcr who must stand outsidc thc drcam. !t lollows
lrom idcalism, thcrclorc, that our rcal scll is complctcly untouchcd by dcath. Tis is why
Schopcnhaucr says that idcalism is thc most complctc answcr
6
to thc qucstion ol immor
tality, proving, as it docs, thc indcstructibility ol our inncr |truc| naturc by dcath.

Most
ol thc timc, ol coursc, wc usc thc cquivocal word !
8
to rclcr to our cvcryday, cmbodicd,
cmpirical scll, and that docs indccd tcrminatc with dcath. Mctaphysical insight, howcvcr,
lcads us to scc that thc truc rclcrcnt ol thc ! is thc transccndcnt scll, thc scll that lics
bcyond timc, and so bcyond both birth and dcath.
Tis, thcn, is thc hcart ol what Nictzschc takcs ovcr lrom Schopcnhaucr. His mctaphys
ical nccd to know thc nonnality ol dcath, no longcr ablc to bc satiscd by Christianity,
nds a ncw satislaction in thc implications ol Schopcnhaucrian idcalism.
Te Impact of Kant and Lange
A
bout ninc months altcr discovcring Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschc bccamc cngrosscd in
anothcr book: Fricdrich Langcs History of Materialism and Critique of Its Signicance
for the Present. Tis work, which hc rcad whcn it rst appcarcd in +866, providcd him with
somcthing ol a grasp ol Kants philosophy, a grasp hc incrcascd during latc +86 and carly
+868 by rcading Kants Critique of Judgment and Kuno Fischcrs rcccntly appcarcd two
volumc study ol Kant.

Langcs book is dividcd into two parts. Tc rst contains a history ol matcrialism lrom
thc ancicnt Grccks to Kant, thc sccond a critical discussion ol matcrialism lrom Kant to
thc midninctccnth ccntury.
Langc rcprcscntcd thc bcginning ol NcoKantianism, an abandonmcnt ol thc mcta
physical cxccsscs ol Gcrman !dcalists such as Fichtc and Hcgcl and a rcturn to Kants
cpistcmological modcsty. !mprcsscd by thc advancc ol natural scicncc in thc ninctccnth
ccntury, hc was at thc samc timc likc Kant intcnscly worricd by it. Morc cxactly, hc
was worricd, not by scicncc as such, an cstimablc and vital cntcrprisc, but rathcr by scicncc
turncd into mctaphysics thc mctaphysical thcsis ol matcrialism, thc thcsis that ultimatc
rcality consists ol mattcr in motion and nothing clsc. Likc Kant, who said that thc aim ol
his Critique of Pure Feason was to scvcr at thc root thc triplc cvils ol matcrialism, latalism
and athcism,
o
hc was intcnscly disturbcd by thc cxistcntial implications ol this doctrinc,
its thrcat to rcligion and morality.
Langcs solution is a rcturn to Kants idcalism togcthcr with his doctrinc ol thc unknow
ability ol thc thing in itscll. Scicncc can and must cxplorc thc world ol matcrial naturc, but
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ultimatcly that is mcrcly a phcnomcnal or apparcnt world. !t lollows that, with rcspcct to
knowlcdgc ol ultimatc rcality, propcrly undcrstood, scicncc has nothing to say.
Langcs original contribution to thc Kantian position is to show that mctaphysical
matcrialism is scllundcrmining in that it itself lcads to thc conclusion that it can spcak
only ol an apparcnt world: lully thought out, thc consistcnt, matcrialistic vicw. . . changcs
around . . . into a consistcnt, idcalistic vicw.
+
Tus scicncc itscll, in particular thc physiology
ol pcrccption, shows that our consciousncss ol, lor cxamplc, colours, is not consciousncss
ol somcthing out thcrc in thc world but is mcrcly thc brains subjcctivc rcsponsc to light
wavcs impinging on thc rctina. Scicncc itscll holds that thc noisy, colourlul, tasty, smclly
cntitics ol human cxpcricncc arc simply our own invcntion. 8ut il that is so thcn, cqually,
thc cntitics it itscll postulatcs, thc human brain, rctinas, light wavcs and thc likc, must
bc human invcntions too. Scicncc thus dcmonstratcs its own ignorancc ol ultimatc rcality.
Spacc, lor cxamplc, Langc claims, might, in rcality, havc lour rathcr than thrcc dimcnsions
without that making any dicrcncc to thc charactcr ol our cxpcricncc.
:
Tc moral, thcn,
is that by quitc propcrly showing that thc mind constructs its world, scicncc limits its own
compctcncc to thc world ol appcaranccs. To human bcings, laymcn and scicntists alikc,
ultimatc rcality is an inconccivablc ordcr ol things.

Nictzschc writcs to von Gcrsdor rccommcnding Langc as thc bcst account ol thc
matcrialist movcmcnt ol our timcs, ol natural scicncc and its arwinian thcorics. Yct in
lact, hc continucs, it contains much morc than that, ocring innitcly morc than its titlc
promiscs.

!t docs so sincc, lar lrom bcing himscll a matcrialist, Langc is actually, Nictz
schc corrcctly obscrvcs, a highly cnlightcncd Kantian.

Langcs own position, Nictzschc continucs (hcrc hc is actually quoting Langcs own scll
summary
6
without making it clcar that that is what hc is doing), can bc summariscd in thc
lollowing thrcc scntcnccs:
(+) Tc scnsiblc world is thc product ol our own laculty ol organization.
(:) ur visiblc (bodily) organs arc, likc all othcr parts ol thc world ol appcarancc, only
picturcs ol an unknown objcct.
() Vhat our laculty ol organization |thc scll in itscll| rcally is, thcrclorc, is just as
unknown as thc rcal outcr objcct |thc thing in itscll|. !n cach casc wc cxpcricncc
only thcir products.
So, Nictzschc concludcs in his own words, thc truc csscncc ol things, thc thing in itscll,
is . . . unknown to us.

Criticising Schopenhauer
S
omctimc in latc +86 or carly +868, about a ycar altcr pcnning thc abovc synopsis,
Nictzschc applics Langcs cnlightcncd Kantianism to Schopcnhaucrs philosophy in
an cxtcndcd critiquc ol thc lattcr. Tc locus ol thc critiquc is Schopcnhaucrs claim, madc
morc than thirty timcs in 8ook !! ol thc rst cdition ol Te !orld as !ill, to havc crackcd
thc problcm ol thc naturc ol thc thing in itscll, to havc discovcrcd it to bc will.
Schopenhauer

,:
Tc attcmpt to cxplain thc world according to a singlc lactor, Nictzschc writcs in his
notcbooks, is a lailurc:
Tc qucstion all mctaphysicians ycarn to answcr . . . as to whcthcr naturc can nally bc
lathomcd, is answcrcd by Schopcnhaucr with a dcnitc Ycs . . . Tc solution to thc last
and most important riddlc ol thc world is . . . thc groundlcss, knowlcdgclcss will . . . 8ut
this is a dubious discovcry. Tc rst objcction . . . is that thc conccpt ol a thing in itscll is
mcrcly a hiddcn catcgory. !n thc placc ol thc Kantian X hc placcs thc will, but only with thc
hclp ol a poctic intuition, lor thc attcmptcd logical prool can satisly ncithcr Schopcnhaucr
nor us. !n Schopcnhaucrs lavour, . . . thcrc can bc a thing in itscll though only in thc scnsc
that cvcrything that can bc thought up by a philosophical hcad is possiblc in thc domain
ol thc transccndcnt. And this possiblc thing in itscll can bc thc will but . . . that is a mcrc
gucss . . . Tc world will not t as comlortably into his systcm as Schopcnhaucr had hopcd
in thc intoxication ol rst discovcry. !n his old agc hc complaincd that thc most dicult
problcms ol philosophy arc not solvcd cvcn by his own philosophy, by which hc mcant
thc qucstion ol thc limits ol individuation . . . His systcm is pcrmcatcd by contradictions.
Schopcnhaucr says that, as thing in itscll, thc will, is lrcc ol all thc lorms ol its appcar
ancc . . . !t is, hc says, ncvcr an objcct, sincc cvcrything that is an objcct is mcrc appcar
ancc . . . 8ut hc dcmands that what is ncvcr an objcct can bc objcctivcly thought . . . hc dcc
oratcs it with prcdicatcs, likc bright clothcs, drawn lrom thc world ol appcaranccs . . . thus
thc |rcal, Kantian| conccpt thing in itscll is quictly abandoncd and anothcr sccrctly
substitutcd.
8
!n a word, thcn, Langcs ccntral impact on Nictzschc is to makc him rcjcct what appcars
to bc thc most ccntral and distinctivc ol claim ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy, its idcntica
tion ol ultimatc rcality as will. Vhat is puzzling, howcvcr, is that this rcjcction diminishcs
Nictzschcs dcdication to thc mastcr not a jot. n thc contrary, it incrcascs it: You will
scc that lrom Langcs strict, critical standpoint , hc concludcs his lcttcr to von Gcrsdor,
our Schopcnhaucr rcmains to us, indccd bccomcs cvcn morc to us.

And that his spcll

did indccd rcmain and incrcasc is provcd by, as wc shall scc, thc intcnscly Schopcnhaucrian
charactcr not only ol thc lricndship with Vagncr but also ol Nictzschcs rst book, Te Birth
of Tragedy, which grcw out ol it. 8ut how on carth could it havc happcncd that thc rcading
ol Langc and conscqucnt critiquc ol Schopcnhaucr intcnsicd rathcr than diminishcd his
dcvotion to thc mastcr:
Reconstructing Schopenhauer
N
ictzschcs obscrvation that Te !orld as !ill is pcrmcatcd by contradictions is cntircly
just. Tc most lundamcntal contradiction is thc lollowing.
Schopcnhaucrs doctrinc ol salvation, as wc havc notcd, is rcally thc provision ol a con
solation lor dcath. !ts loundation lics in thc cvidcnt conscqucncc ol idcalism that thc truc
scll, thc drcamcr ol thc drcam ol lilc, is untouchcd by dcath. Tc qucstion, though, is
whcthcr this doctrinc is rcally consoling at all. For il thc claim that thc thing in itscll is
thc will is truc, thc claim rcpcatcd many timcs in 8ook !!, thcn thc rcal scll has to be thc
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
will, thc onc and only ultimatcly rcal cntity. 8ut, Schopcnhaucr holds, thc will is both thc
bcarcr
o
ol all thc worlds pains, past, prcscnt and luturc, and also thcir source: as thc only
rcality, it has to bc thc sourcc ol cvcrything and is thcrclorc rcsponsiblc lor thc lact that lilc
is sucring, lor thc lact that thc world is thc .orst ol all possiblc worlds,
+
posscssing as
it docs thc charactcr ol a conccntration camp. Tc world will is, thcrclorc, lundamcntally
e.il: at bottom, Schopcnhaucr says, naturc is not divinc but dcmonic, dcvilish.
:
Tcrc is
thus an ctcrnal justicc in thc world, an cxact balancc bctwccn thc wickcdncss ol its csscncc
and thc wrctchcdncss ol its latc.

8ut il that is what our truc scll is thcn, lar lromrccciving consolation in thc lacc ol dcath,
to rcalisc thc charactcr ol oncs truc scll is to dcsccnd into a rcalm ol cosmic sclldisgust.
Acccptancc ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy thcn bccomcs a dcsccnt into a tcrriblc kind ol
madncss. Lilc is sucring and so not worth living. 8ut suicidc is not worth contcmplating
cithcr, sincc dcath mcrcly translorms pcrsonal into cosmic sucring which onc thoroughly
dcscrvcs on account ol bcing lundamcntally cvil. So oncs choicc is bctwccn hcll and hcll.
!n short, il thc will is thc thing in itscll thcn thcrc can bc no doctrinc ol salvation in
Schopcnhaucrs philosophy.
8ut, ol coursc, thcrc is such a doctrinc. Tc mystics, wc havc sccn (pp. 86 abovc),
know about it, know that thc rcality bcyond thc drcam is divinc, thc objcct ol ccstatic,
panthcistic consciousncss. So Nictzschc is absolutcly right: at thc hcart ol Te !orld as
!ill is a crippling contradiction, a contradiction bctwccn thc conclusion ol 8ook !! and thc
conclusion ol 8ook !\. At thc cnd ol 8ook !! rcality is at bottom dcmonic. At thc cnd ol
8ook !\ it is at bottom divinc. nly thc lact that scvcral hundrcd pagcs scparatc thc two
conclusions makcs it possiblc to miss this contradiction.
Nictzschc, as wc saw, rcports that in old agc Schopcnhaucr admittcd that his philosophy
had not solvcd thc most dicult problcms ol philosophy (p. + abovc). Tis is corrcct.
Vhat Nictzschc is rclcrring to is thc lact that in thc latcr, cxpandcd, +8 cdition ol thc
mastcrwork, Schopcnhaucr bcgins to scvcrcly qualily thc carlicr, bald asscrtion, madc in
thc intoxication ol youth, that thc will is thc thing in itscll: hc now bcgins to inscrt into
thc works ncw, sccond volumc rcmarks likc thc qucstion ol what that will which manilcsts
itscll in thc world and as thc world is ultimatcly and absolutcly in itscll . . . can ncvcr bc
answcrcd.

8ut givcn thc avidity with which Nictzschc and his lcllow disciplcs pounccd
upon any scrap ol inlormation thcy could discovcr about thc mastcr, thcy may also havc
known ol a lcttcr Schopcnhaucr wrotc to his litcrary cxccutor, Julius Fraucnst adt, cight
ycars bclorc his dcath, in which hc says that his philosophy sccks to dcscribc thc thing
in itscll only in rclation to |i.c., as| appcarancc. Vhat thc thing in itscll is apart lrom
that rclation Schopcnhaucr continucs, hc docs not say bccausc ! do not know what it
is.

Tc ccct ol this is to withdraw will to thc appcarancc sidc ol thc appcarancc/rcality

dichotomy. Tough will providcs a dccper account ol thc world than its dcscription in
tcrms ol matcrial bodics, thc world it dcscribcs rcmains in thc rcalm ol appcarancc. Vill
is, thcn, as onc might looscly put it, a dcscription ol pcnultimatc rathcr than ol ultimatc
rcality. !n thc nal analysis, thc will as will bclongs to thc drcam.
!n thc cnd, thcn, Schopcnhaucr rcarms Kants position that thc thing in itscll is, to
philosophy at lcast, unknowablc. And this rcsolvcs thc contradiction in his thinking, makcs
gcnuinc room lor thc doctrinc ol salvation. (!t is, pcrhaps, not without signicancc that hc
did this towards thc cnd ol his lilc, at a timc, that is, whcn hc himscll would havc bccn in
incrcasing nccd ol consolation in thc lacc ol dcath.) And it is this position which, undcr
Schopenhauer

,
Langcs inucncc, Nictzschc cndorscd happily cndorscd, sincc it allowcd him to nd in
Schopcnhaucr, altcr all, what hc could no longcr nd in Christianity, thc satislaction ol his
mctaphysical nccd lor comlort in thc lacc ol dcath.

l coursc, to say, with Kant, Langc, with thc oldcr Schopcnhaucr and with Nictzschc,
that thc rcality standing bchind thc world ol appcarancc transccnds thc limits ol rational,
philosophical thought and knowlcdgc cuts two ways. n thc onc hand, it disqualics thc
claim to know ultimatc rcality to bc thc dcmonic will. qually, howcvcr, it disqualics thc
claim to know that it is divinc. !l rcality in itscll is simply terra incognita thcn it can no morc
bc known to bc divinc than it can bc known to bc dcmonic, and thc doctrinc ol salvation
gcts no purchasc. Tc qucstion rcmains, thcrclorc, as to why Nictzschc should say that
Langcs strict, critical standpoint actually intcnsics his dcvotion to Schopcnhaucr (p. +
abovc).
!n trying to nd an answcr to this qucstion,
6
a good startingpoint is Kant, and in
particular his lamous rcmark that thc task ol thc Critique of Pure Feason is to dcny |rational|
kno.ledge in ordcr to makc room lor |rcligious| faith.

Rcturning to thc oldcr (and wiscr) Schopcnhaucr, wc scc him, whilc agrccing with Kant
in dcnying rational knowlcdgc ol thc transccndcnt, ocring, in a positivc asscssmcnt ol
thc knowlcdgcclaims ol mysticism, somcthing morc than mcrc laith that transccndcncc
is salvation. Philosophy, hc says, bcing csscntially rationalism, runs up against its lim
its, as against thc walls ol a prison,
8
whcn it trics to discuss thc transccndcnt. !t can
point to a domain ol illuminism or highcr consciousncss but cannot sct cvcn onc loot
thcrcon.

Hcncc, his own philosophy, hc says, at its highcst point, is lorccd to assumc
a ncgativc charactcr. !t can spcak ol what is abandoncd in dcnial ol thc will but not ol
what is gaincd. Vhcrc philosophy comcs to an cnd, howcvcr, mysticism procccds posi
tivcly.
6o
And whcn wc rccct that all mystics, cvcn though thcy comc lrom widcly dicr
cnt agcs and culturcs, rcport (according to Schopcnhaucr) thc samc cxpcricncc, thc mcrging
ol oncscll with thc divinc, wc can rcasonably concludc that whatcvcr it is thcy scc is both
wondcrlul and rcal.
6+
Tis conclusion, as wc saw, is rcinlorccd, according to Schopcnhaucr,
by grcat arts stamp ol truth:
6:
to scc thc pcacc that is highcr than all rcason, that occanlikc
calmncss ol thc spirit, that dccp tranquillity, that unshakcablc condcncc and scrcnity, as
dcpictcd by Raphacl or Corrcggio, is to rcccivc a complctc and ccrtain gospcl: only knowl
cdgc rcmains, thc will has vanishcd.
6
Tc colon in this last rcmark (cquivalcnt to sincc) indicatcs that in ordcr to validatc mys
tical bcatitudc, Schopcnhaucr is appcaling to thc doctrinc ol acsthctic vcracity cxpoundcd
in Te !orld as !ill s third book: sincc it is thc will practical intcrcst which manip
ulatcs and distorts pcrccption, it lollows that whcn wc cscapc thc will as do authcntic
mystics wc bccomc a clcar mirror ol rcality, complctcly objcctivc.
6
n a mind that
is purc rcccptivity, rcality imprcsscs itscll just as, in itscll, it is. Tis is thc doctrinc lol
lowcd by thc youthlul Nictzschc in his attcmpt to validatc thc rcality ol Schopcnhaucrian
salvation. Commcnting on his rcading ol Langc, hc writcs to von Gcrsdor that thc con
scqucncc ol ultimatc rcalitys inacccssibility to thc rational mind is that art is lrcc. Vhat hc
mcans is that intimations ol thc transccndcnt in art arc lrcc ol thc possibility ol asscssmcnt,
and so ol contradiction, by rcason: Vho, hc asks rhctorically, altcr assimilating Langcs
Kantianism, would scck to rclutc a work ol 8ccthovcn or to nd an crror in Raphacls
Madonna:
6
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Undcr what ! call intimations ol thc transccndcnt, Nictzschc has in mind, rst and
lorcmost, ! think, what onc (or at lcast hc) grasps through music. Schubcrts lamous +8+
hymn To Music rcads in part, h blcsscd art, in how many grcy hours,/ Vhcn lilcs
crcc orbit cncompasscs mc,/ Hast thou . . . transportcd mc to a bcttcr world. Tis kind
ol salvation through music, wc havc sccn on scvcral occasions, was Nictzschcs rcpcatcd
cxpcricncc ol thc blcsscd art. At lourtccn, thc Hallclujah Chorus madc him lccl part ol
thc joylul singing ol angcls, on whosc billows ol sound Jcsus asccndcd to hcavcn lcading
him to dccidc that that thc solc, valid purposc ol music is to lcad us upwards (p. abovc).
vcn altcr thc loss ol his Christian laith, thc link rcmains bctwccn music and thc divinc:
thc communication ol thc dacmonic, that is to say, a dim intimation ol thc divinc . . . a
lccling lrom out ol which hcavcn suddcnly shincs lorth is thc ccct ol grcat music (p. 8
abovc). (nc might think hcrc ol thc nalc ol Gustav Mahlcrs Fesurrection Symphony.)
Nictzschcs cxpcricncc and conccption ol music, as ! havc rcmarkcd, was, and up until thc
cnd ol his sanity rcmaincd, lundamcntally rcligious.
Tc qucstion, though, that nccds to bc askcd about this doctrinc ol salvation through
music, or through art in gcncral, is whcthcr Nictzschc takcs himscll to bc adopting a Kan
tian or a Schopcnhaucrian position. !l hc is lollowing Kant, acsthctic intimations ol tran
sccndcnt salvation can only havc thc status ol laith, can only providc subjcctivc convic
tion with rcspcct to thc objcctivcly unknowablc. !l hc lollows Schopcnhaucr, on thc othcr
hand, acsthctic, and abovc all musical, intimations arc accordcd thc status ol (nonrational)
knowlcdgc ol thc transccndcnt.
Two lactors support thc vicw that, in lact, thc youthlul Nictzschc lollows Schopcnhaucr
rathcr than Kant. Tc rst is a lcttcr ol ctobcr +868 to Paul cusscn in which hc says
that thc lattcrs call lor a critiquc ol |Schopcnhaucrs| systcm is, hc supposcs, acccptablc il
it mcans pointing out thc various lailcd prools and cascs ol tactical clumsincss it contains
hc had, altcr all, produccd his own Schopcnhaucrcritiquc a ycar carlicr. 8ut, hc continucs,
such a critiquc is cntircly unacccptablc il it mcans criticism ol Schopcnhaucrs worldvicw.
Tc lattcr is bcyond criticism sincc (hc is hcrc implicitly accusing thc oltcnpatronizcd
cusscn

ol spiritual dcnscncss) it is
somcthing onc cithcr grasps or docs not. Athird standpoint is inconccivablc. Somconc who
docs not smcll a rosc cannot truly criticisc it. And il hc docs smcll it thcn a la bonheur!
Altcr that hc loscs thc dcsirc to criticisc.
66
Vhat hc must bc rclcrring to hcrc, undcr thc rubric worldvicw is thc ultimatc goal and nal
point ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy, thc happincss |bonheur|crcating doctrinc ol tran
sccndcnt salvation. !t is this, togcthcr with our mctaphysical nccd lor it, that is bcyond
criticism. And what hc sccms to bc doing is sctting up intimations ol thc transccndcnt
through art or through philosophy considcrcd, as hc now thinks it should bc, as a lorm
ol art
6
as analogucs ol thc inlormation providcd by thc physical scnscs, in othcr words
as modcs ol seeing.

!n his mcmoirs cusscn notcs thc unmistakablc lact that Nictzschcs tcndcncy always to corrcct
mc, to schoolmastcr mc and somctimcs rcally to tormcnt mc, . . . will bc clcar lrom our ongoing
corrcspondcncc altcr thc 8onn ycar ( J ! p. +6+). Nictzschc ncvcr grantcd cusscn thc intcllcctual
cquality hc accordcd, lor instancc, Rohdc or von Gcrsdor.
Schopenhauer

,
A sccond rcason lor taking Nictzschc to bc trcating art as a modc ol transccndcnt cog
nition is thc charactcr ol thc scllcriticism that lollows, a dccadc latcr, altcr his turn to
positivism and against thc SchopcnhaucrVagncr worldvicw. Pcoplc sucring lrom rcli
gious altcrpains, hc says in Human, ll-Too-Human, spcak (with Schopcnhaucr) ol thc
complctc and ccrtain gospcl in thc glancc ol Raphacls Madonna.
68
r at a ccrtain point
in thc last movcmcnt ol 8ccthovcns Ninth Symphony such a pcrson is liablc to lccl hc
is hovcring abovc thc carth in a domc ol stars with thc drcam ol immortality in his hcart:
all thc stars sccm to ittcr around him and thc carth sccms to sink lurthcr and lurthcr
away.
6
8cautilul though this is, Nictzschc is by now bcnt on dcbunking such dcication
ol art as indulgcd in by both Schopcnhaucr and his own lormcr scll. Vc havc, hc says, pro
lound lcclings which sccm to takc us dccp into thc intcrior, closc to thc hcart ol naturc.
8ut such lcclings, hc thcn adds, in a passagc ol insightlul sclldcconstruction,
arc prolound only insolar as whcn thcy occur ccrtain complcx groups ol thoughts which wc
call prolound arc, scarccly pcrccptibly, rcgularly arouscd with thcm, a lccling is prolound
bccausc wc rcgard thc thoughts that accompany it as prolound. 8ut a prolound thought
can noncthclcss bc vcry distant lrom thc truth . . . !l onc dcducts lrom thc prolound lccling
thc clcmcnt ol thought . . . what rcmains is thc strong lccling, and this has nothing to do
with knowlcdgc.
o
Tat this is selfcriticism, that thc paradigm victim ol rcligious altcrpains is his own
lormcr scll, is madc cxplicit in Ecce Homo. !n Human, ll-Too-Human, hc writcs, choos
ing his words carclully, ! libcratcd myscll lrom that in my naturc .hich did not belong to
me.
+
cconstructing thc thought that music takcs onc to thc hcart ol things is ovcrcom
ing somcthing that hc oncc bclicvcd and so lics in his nature, though it is now a part ol
that naturc hc rcjccts and bclicvcs hc has ovcrcomc. Such a rcjcction, howcvcr, lay lar in
thc luturc. !n +868 Nictzschc posscsscd both a rcligious dcvotion to Schopcnhaucr that
rcduccd to insignicancc his various criticisms ol thc mastcr and a conviction that grcat
music providcs us with gcnuinc knowlcdgc ol nal salvation. Sincc Richard Vagncr was
cqually bcsottcd with both Schopcnhaucr and thc idca ol salvation through music, thc two
wcrc thus latcd to thc immcdiatc bonding that occurrcd in thc drawingroom ol ttolic
8rockhaus.
v~v: :wo
The Reluctant
Professor
6
Basel
Basel in +8yo
N
iv:zscnv ~vvivvb at 8ascls ccntral railway station on April +, +86, to takc
up his ncw position at thc univcrsity. Tc city that grcctcd him was in thc slow,
and somcwhat rcluctant, proccss ol opcning itscll up to thc modcrn world by
dcmolishing its mcdicval wall. !n +8 a ncw gatc had bccn cut into thc wall to allow a
railway conncxion to Strasbourg Switzcrlands rst railway linc. 8ut it was closcd at night
so that, as thc city council put it, lrcc ol thc juddcr ol trains, thc citizcns could continuc to
slccp thc slccp ol thc just. Furthcr gatcs wcrc cut ovcr thc ncxt twcnty ycars to allow morc
rail conncxions, but thcy rcmaincd closcd at night and wcrc manncd by policc during thc
day. !n +868, howcvcr, ovcr thc protcsts ol small busincssmcn who lcarcd that an opcn city
would ruin thcir busincss, thc dcmolition ol thc cntirc wall bcgan, until only thrcc ol thc
mcdicval gatchouscs rcmaincd, prcscrvcd as mcmorials.
Vith o,ooo as opposcd to Lcipzigs +oo,ooo inhabitants, 8ascl must havc struck Nictz
schc as a small town, which would havc plcascd himgivcn his prclcrcncc lor small, mcdicval
towns ovcr largc, modcrn citics. And cvcn though 8ascl was in thc proccss ol modcrnising,
thc mcdicval town was still vcry much in cvidcncc. lizabcth rcports:
My brothcr always cxprcsscd his dclight at having known good old 8ascl, hc dcclarcd that
by this mcans hc had bccn aordcd a dccpcr insight into thc Middlc Agcs. Tc wholc
community at 8ascl, with its dccply rootcd customs and usagcs, was particularly plcasing
to us Prussians . . . 8ascls magniccnt ancicnt houscs . . . its staunchly unitcd lamilics who
all paradcd to church on thc bcst ol tcrms on Sundays, its old scrvants who workcd in thc
samc lamily lrom onc gcncration to anothcr, thc old lashioncd way in which its inhabitants
grcctcd onc anothcr in thcir lowGcrman dialcct all this struck us as bclonging to an agc
long sincc buricd in oblivion.
+
Nictzschc spcnt his rst wccks in thc lairly horriblc Spalcntorwcg : ncar thc Spalcntor,
thc largcst ol thc rcmaining gatchouscs. Tc lodgings wcrc, howcvcr, compcnsatcd

,,
:cc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lor by thc quality ol thc lood at thc ccntral station, which was (as SwissGcrman lood
rcmains to this day) likc Gcrman lood, only bcttcr.
:
Altcr tcn wccks hc thanklully movcd
to pcrmancnt lodgings in thc ncarby Sch utzcngrabcn (dclcnsivc trcnch). Numbcr (today
numbcr ) was a lourstorcy tcrracc housc at thc thcn cdgc ol thc town, closc to clds and
gardcns, and with an opcn vicw across thc Rhinc to Gcrmany and thc 8lack Forcst bcyond,
yct at thc samc timc only ltccn minutcs walk lrom thc univcrsity.
Tough to thc nglish, 8ascl would havc sccmcd vcry Gcrman, to Nictzschc, who had
ncvcr bclorc bccn outsidc Gcrmany, it would havc sccmcd vcry lorcign. Vhat hc would
chicy havc noticcd, in contrast to Prussia, was thc abscncc ol thc scllasscrtivc statc. Tcrc
was no king thc rcctor ol thc univcrsity was clcctcd by thc prolcssors rathcr than bcing
a royal appointmcnt no aristocracy, and no cult ol thc military. Military paradcs, such a
lcaturc ol Prussian lilc, wcrc unknown. And in contrast to Gcrmany, thcrc was no national
ccclcsiastical hicrarchy to which local clcrgy wcrc subordinatc.
Tc city council ol what was, in ccct, a citystatc was run by mcmbcrs ol thc old 8ascl
lamilics. Nictzschc wrotc to Ritschl shortly altcr arriving that hcrc onc can bc curcd ol
rcpublicanism,

making thc point that rulc by thc haut bourgcoisic is likcly to bc no morc
dcmocratic than rulc by royalty. 8ascls old patrician lamilics dcrivcd thcir wcalth lrom
manulacturing. 8ut thcy wcrc also highly culturcd: both Nictzschcs hcad ol dcpartmcnt,
Vilhclm \ischcr, and his hcro, thc grcat historian Jacob 8urckhardt, camc lrom such lam
ilics. And thcy wcrc gcnuincly conccrncd to maintain a high lcvcl ol culturc in thc citizcnry
at largc, somcthing Nictzschc grcatly rcspcctcd:
! amquitc wcll awarc ol what kind ol placc this is . . . a city which cndcavours to promotc thc
culturc and cducation ol its citizcns in a manncr so lavish as to bc quitc out ol proportion to
its sizc. !t thus rcprcscnts a comparison that is a shamclul rcbukc to much largcr citics . . . so
much morc is done lor thcsc things hcrc than clscwhcrc.

!n gcncral, Nictzschcs 8ascl cxhibitcd a tight intcrconncction ol political, cconomic, and

intcllcctual lcadcrship that must somctimcs havc callcd to mind thc idcal citystatc ol Platos
Fepublic.
Sincc 8ascls patrician lamilics wcrc dctcrmincd to avoid cultural provinciality, to kccp
thcir city at thc lorclront ol uropcan cultural and intcllcctual lilc, thcir locus was thc
univcrsity. !ts lunction was to bc not just an institutc lor tcchnical training but also, as
thc city council put it, thc hcarth ol thc culturalspiritual |geistige| cnlivcnmcnt ol thc
citizcnry. !ts singlc building was situatcd a short walk lrom thc rcdsandstonc cathcdral on
thc Rhcinsprung (Rhinclcap), a stccp strcct lcading down to thc old woodcn bridgc (with
a chapcl in thc middlc) which at thc timc was 8ascls only mcans ol crossing thc +oomctrc
widc Rhinc. Foundcd in +6o, thc univcrsity, in +8o, had lallcn on hard timcs. Tis was duc
partly to a dcclinc in thc pricc ol silk ribbon, thc mainstay ol thc 8ascl cconomy, partly to thc
divcrsion ol twothirds ol thc incomc ol thc Canton ol 8ascl to its rural rcgions, and partly
to thc lact that thc ncw univcrsitics in Zurich and 8crn wcrc making it dicult to attract
studcnts: in Nictzschcs timc, thc total numbcr ncvcr rcachcd :oo. cdicatcd supportcrs,
howcvcr, kcpt thc univcrsity going. A \oluntary Acadcmic Association was loundcd with
thc aim ol raising moncy to rcstorc thc univcrsity to its lormcr glory and, by mcans ol thc
rcgular ocring ol public lccturcs, to root its wcllbcing in civic pridc. As wc shall scc, a
numbcr ol Nictzschcs rst scriously philosophical cssays wcrc givcn as public lccturcs undcr
Basel

:c:
thc Associations auspiccs. Tis dctcrmination to prcscrvc a tight bond bctwccn town and
gown was thc origin ol thc rcquircmcnt, uniquc to 8ascl, that univcrsity prolcssors should
tcach thc highcr classcs in thc P adcgogium, thc local grammar school. !n Nictzschcs casc
this almost doublcd his tcaching load.
University Iife
!
n thc bcginning, Nictzschc acctcd to dcspisc lilc in 8ascl. Particularly in lcttcrs to
Sophic Ritschl, hc dcscribcs Swiss womcn as boring, Swiss chccsc as incdiblc, Swiss
culturc as provincial, and Swiss patriotism as somcthing which, likc Swiss chccsc, comcs
lrom shccp and looks just as jaundiccd. vcn Jacob 8urckhardt, whom hc would comc to
rcvcrc morc than any othcr living pcrson, hc prcscntcd as living a low kind ol cxistcncc,
drinking bccr night altcr night with borcs in thc pub.

!t nccds to bc rcmcmbcrcd, howcvcr Sophic Ritschl bcing his impossiblc lovc that as
wcll as cxprcssing gcnuinc homcsickncss, thcsc rcmarks wcrc mainly intcndcd as an indircct
way ol saying hc misscd hcr. Soon, in lact, Nictzschc bccamc proud to dcsignatc himscll a
lrcc Swiss. Hc had lcgitimatc complaints about 8ascl: thc lact that his salary, bcing paid
six months in arrcars, lclt him pcnnilcss lor his rst hallycar, thc lact that cvcn whcn it
arrivcd Swiss priccs bcing highcr than anticipatcd hc lound it dicult to aord holidays,
and thc lact ol his cnormous tcaching load. 8ut that hc rcmaincd in 8ascl lor a dccadc, thc
longcst scttlcd pcriod in his cntirc lilc, and in +8 turncd down thc ocr ol a chair back
in Gcrmany, in Grcilswald, spcaks importantly ol his ovcrall commitmcnt to thc placc.

n May :8, +86, Nictzschc gavc his inaugural univcrsity lccturc, Homcr and Classical
Philology, a lccturc in which hc rcpcatcd thc critiquc hc had bccn dcvcloping in Lcipzig
ol thc currcnt statc ol classics. Propcrly practiscd, hc asscrtcd, philology should bc a mix
turc ol scicncc and art with all its activity cmbcddcd in a philosophical worldvicw so that
individual, isolatcd dctails cvaporatc as things that can bc cast away, lcaving only thc wholc,
thc cohcrcnt a prcvicw ol just what hc would sct out to providc in Te Birth of Tragedy.
Tough hc suspcctcd that Lcipzig had bccn scandalizcd whcn word ol thc lccturc ltcrcd
back, it was wcll attcndcd and wcll rcccivcd in 8ascl. A lortnight altcr thc lccturc hc wrotc
homc that thc pcoplc hcrc wcrc convinccd ol a good many things . . . and ! now scc clcarly
that my position hcrc has bccn rcndcrcd sccurc by mcans ol it.
6
Nictzschc hcld classcs lrom scvcn to cight oclock cvcry wcckday morning, with a total
ol cight studcntcontact hours a wcck. !n addition, hc taught six hours a wcck at thc
P adcgogium. !n his rst lcw scmcstcrs, his univcrsity lccturcs covcrcd thc history ol Grcck
litcraturc and prcSocratic philosophy, Grcck and Roman rhctoric, ancicnt Grcck rcligion,
Platos lilc and tcachings, Acschyluss Libation Bearers, Sophoclcss Oedipus the King, and
Hcsiods !orks and Days. At thc P adcgogium hc taught Platos pology, Phaedo, Phaedrus,
Symposium, Fepublic, and Protagoras, sclcctcd books lrom Homcrs Iliad, Acschyluss Pro-
metheus Bound, and Sophoclcss Electra. n top ol tcaching dutics, hc had univcrsity council,
laculty, and library committcc mcctings to attcnd, and whilc his clcction as dcan ol human
itics in +8 tcstics to thc rcspcct in which hc was hcld by his collcagucs, it must havc
incrcascd this cnormous workload still lurthcr. n top ol all this, hc lrcqucntly took ovcr
thc classcs ol indisposcd collcagucs and gavc numcrous public lccturcs in ordcr to raisc thc
:c:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
public prolc ol thc univcrsity. And, ol coursc, his Prussian conscicncc madc it impossiblc
lor him to put lcss than a hundrcdandltypcrccnt cort into cvcry class hc taught. !t
is littlc wondcr that altcr only onc ycars scrvicc hc was promotcd to lull prolcssor at thc
agc ol twcntyvc.
As a tcachcr Nictzschc was both cxciting and dcmanding. Hc trcatcd his sixth lormpupils
as il thcy wcrc alrcady univcrsity studcnts, dcmanding a grcat dcal ol indcpcndcnt rcscarch.
Tc bcst ol thcm hc passcd on to his alma matcr in Lcipzig. Hc also lormcd a social bond
with thcm, putting on vccoursc dinncrs at thc cnds ol thc scmcstcrs.

Nictzschc was onc

ol thosc tcachcrs with an instinctivc and cortlcss command ol disciplinc. !n a skctch lor
Ecce Homo (only part ol which appcars in thc work itscll ), hc rccalls that
at bottom ! bclong among thosc involuntary cducators who ncithcr nccd nor posscss pcd
agogical principlcs. Tc solc lact that in scvcn ycars ol tcaching thc scnior class at thc 8ascl
P adcgogium ! did not havc occasion to mctc out a singlc punishmcnt, along with thc lact
that, as ! was latcr assurcd, cvcn thc lazicst pupils workcd hard whcn thcy wcrc in my classcs,
givcs somc indication ol this. Aclcvcr littlc stratagcmlrommy tcaching days rcmains in my
mcmory: whcncvcr a pupil lailcd to rccitc adcquatcly thc topic ol thc prcvious class, pub
licly ! always blamcd myscll ! said lor cxamplc, that cvcryonc had a right to dcmand ol mc
lurthcr clucidation and commcntary il what ! had said was too cursory or vaguc. A tcachcr
has an obligation to makc himscll acccssiblc to e.ery lcvcl ol intclligcncc . . . !vc bccn told
that this littlc stratagcm was morc ccctivc than any sort ol scolding. !n my dcalings with
my grammar school pupils and univcrsity studcnts ! ncvcr had any rcal diculty.
8
Somc ol Nictzschcs claims in Ecce Homo arc, wc shall scc, morc than a littlc lancilul. 8ut
that this is not onc ol thcm is conrmcd by studcnts rccollcctions. nc P adcgogium stu
dcnt, lor instancc, rccalls that not onc ol our schoolboy tricks passcd unnoticcd by him,
and rcports an occasion whcn
onc ol us (now discharging his dutics as a highly rcspcctcd principal ol a training collcgc)
who had not prcparcd his work wcll, was callcd upon shortly bclorc thc cnd ol thc lcsson
to construc a ccrtain scntcncc. Standing up, and with an apparcnt cagcrncss lor thc task hc
rccitcd thc Grcck tcxt which hc had to construc, as slowly as hc could until thc bcll rang.
Vith a vicw to making assurancc doubly surc, hc rcad onc morc scntcncc, thcn cond
cntly stoppcd. Nictzschc did not movc. ur schoolboys brow grcw wct with pcrspiration.
Prolcssor, hc stammcrcd, havc you not pcrhaps ovcrlookcd thc bcll that has just rung:
Nictzschc lookcd straight at him lor a momcnt, and thcn, without moving a musclc, cor
rcctcd him by saying: You mcan to say, ! did not hear it, and thcn lclt thc room. n thc
lollowing day hc bcgan his lcsson by turning to thc samc pupil and saying smartly, Now
sir, you construc.

!n sum, Nictzschc was onc ol thosc rarc tcachcrs ablc to inspirc and shapc an cntirc lilc, a
truc cducator in, as wc shall scc, his own rich scnsc ol thc word.
nc ol his studcnts rccalls not only Nictzschcs quality as a tcachcr hc trcatcd us morc
as comradcs than as thc mischicvous wild urchins that wc actually wcrc but also his
appcarancc: Physically hc was ol a dclicatc and rcncd build, with a rathcr lcmininc way
about him, in stark contrast to his martial moustachc, which sccmcd to ovcrcompcnsatc
Basel

:c
lor thc rcst ol his lcaturcs.
+o
Nictzschcs appcarancc cxcitcd lrcqucnt commcnt bccausc ol
an cvidcnt attcntion to it amounting, almost, to dandyism. !n accordancc with thc stylc
ol thc day (thc oppositc ol todays dcathcvading cult ol youth) hc took grcat pains, as
lizabcth rccords, to sclcct only thosc stylcs and matcrials which would givc him an cl
dcrly appcarancc, hc absolutcly rcpudiatcd anything in thc way ol a youthlul or smart cut,
and hc approvcd only ol thosc clothcs, lashions and hats which wcrc patroniscd by cl
dcrly mcn.
++
Tc lamous moustachc, ol coursc, alrcady ol sizcablc proportions, addcd to
thc cldcrly ccct.
Colleagues and Iriends
F
or thc most part, Nictzschcs collcagucs at thc univcrsity showcd him an amiabil
ity unusual in acadcmia. uring his rst ycar, indccd, hc complaincd ol bcing ovcr
whclmcd by dinncr invitations. Tc collcagucs who wcrc most important to him wcrc
Vilhclm\ischcr8ilngcr, Johann Jacob 8acholcn, Ludwig R utimcycr, and, most import
ant ol all, Jacob 8urckhardt.
\ischcr8ilngcr was a major lorcc in univcrsity administration. A classicist himscll, hc
had rcloundcd thc classics dcpartmcnt in +86+. Always sympathctic to Nictzschc it was
hc, as wc saw, who arrangcd his appointmcnt hc did his bcst to smooth his prot cg cs
path throughout thc dccadc in 8ascl. 8acholcn, likc \ischcr8ilngcr a mcmbcr ol onc ol
8ascls patrician lamilics, was a mavcrick cthnologist intcrcstcd in thc communal origins
ol carly humanity. Likc Nictzschc, hc rcjcctcd thc dryasdust, spcculationshy, dctail
obscsscd scicntic study ol thc past. His lundamcntally Christian outlook prcvcntcd a
dccp intimacy bctwccn himscll and Nictzschc, though thc lattcr was prcdictably attractcd
to his wilc, who was thirty ycars youngcr than hcr husband but only onc ycar youngcr than
Nictzschc. R utimcycr was a prolcssor ol anatomy and zoology who nourishcd thc scicntic
sidc ol Nictzschcs naturc by, in particular, introducing him to critiqucs ol arwins thcory
ol cvolution.
Burckhardt
V
ith Jacob 8urckhardt (+8+8) Nictzschc dcvclopcd much closcr and longcr
lasting rclations than with thc othcr thrcc. 8orn into onc ol thc most patrician
ol 8ascl lamilics, hc was ol thc samc gcncration as Vagncr and Nictzschcs lathcr. Likc
Nictzschc hc was multitalcntcd, a giltcd poct, artist, playwright (lor puppct thcatrcs), and
musician. Nictzschc camc to worship him, not only as a towcring intcllcct but also as a
grcat tcachcr and grcat human bcing. As hc was going mad in January, +88, hc wrotc to
8urckhardt: you (Sie) arc you (du) arc our grcat, grcatcst tcachcr.
+:
Tc switch lrom thc
lormal to thc lamiliar you, hcrc, is rcvcaling: losing touch with rcality, Nictzschc claimcd
an intimacy which, though hc ycarncd lor and somctimcs claimcd to bc approaching it,
+
hc
ncvcr truly posscsscd.
Tc rcason lay not mcrcly in thc dicrcncc in agc and tastc 8urckhardt always dislikcd
thc Vagncr phcnomcnon, with which Nictzschc was bccoming cvcr morc cnamourcd but
also in 8urckhardts lragilc, rctiring, asocial pcrsonality. Tough a charismatic tcachcr, hc
:c,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
was a dcprcssivc who lcarcd his own collapsc into tcrminal dcspair. Anotc lromthc summcr
ol +8 thosc who arc rcprcsscd out ol dcspcration, likc Jacob 8urckhardt
+
shows that
Nictzschc had, in lact, somc grasp ol this. 8urckhardt, ol coursc, undcrstood Nictzschcs
intcllcctual brilliancc and apprcciatcd him as a trcmcndous assct to thc univcrsity. ltcn hc
cngagcd in intcnsc, cxtcndcd convcrsations with thc young philologist. 8ut lricndship, as
opposcd to collcgiality, hc ncvcr grantcd Nictzschc or anyonc much.
8urckhardt is bcst known lor Te Culture of the Fenaissance inItaly, a work which cxcrciscd
a prolound inucncc on Nictzschcs maturc thought. !t appcarcd in +86o and has ncvcr gonc
out ol print. !t was this work, morc than any othcr, which cstablishcd thc conccpt ol thc
!talian lourtccnth and ltccnth ccnturics as a dccisivc rupturc with thc mcdicval past that
constitutcd thc birth ol modcrnity. Tc work cmphasiscs thc !talian Rcnaissancc as thc
rst cmcrgcncc ol powcrlul, scllconscious individualism, which hc saw as a Januslaccd
phcnomcnon: on thc onc hand, it produccd an outbrcak ol lcrocious scnsuality, violcncc,
and warlarc, on thc othcr, thc art ol Raphacl, Lconardo, and Michclangclo. (Givcn thc
Swiss conncction, 8urckhardts account ol thc Rcnaissancc is probably thc morc or lcss
rcmotc origin ol thc lamous lincs,
!taly lor thirty ycars undcr thc 8orgias had warlarc, tcrror, murdcr, bloodshcd, but produccd
Michclangclo, da \inci, and thc Rcnaissancc. And Switzcrland had brothcrly lovc and vc
hundrcd ycars ol dcmocracy and pcacc. And what did thcy producc: Tc cuckoo clock.)

Overbeck
N
ictzschc dcspcratcly misscd his lricnd Rohdc, who, during thc rst 8ascl ycar, was on
an cxtcndcd tour ol !taly. Hc writcs to him with a loving acction that might raisc a
lcw modcrn cycbrows:
Tink ol staying a timc with mc on your rcturn trip |lrom !taly|: it might bc thc last chancc
lor a long timc. ! miss you quitc unspcakably . . . !ts a quitc ncw lccling to havc no onc on
thc spot with whom onc can spcak ol thc bcst and thc worst in lilc . . . my lricndship . . . is
rcally bccoming somcwhat pathological: ! bcg you likc a sick man: comc to 8ascl.
+
8ut sincc hc also writcs to his prudish mothcr in thc samc vcin ! wish my lricnd Rohdc
wcrc hcrc its troublcsomc to havc to nd an intimatc lricnd again
+6
it is cvidcnt hc had
nothing to hidc. !n +8+ hc applicd lor a chair in philosophy partly to align his prolcssion
with whcrc hc lound his hcart incrcasingly to bc, but, cvcn morc prcssingly, to gct Rohdc
to 8ascl as his succcssor to thc chair ol philology. (As wc shall scc, thc application camc to
nothing.)
!n April +8o, howcvcr, again as a rcsult ol thc rccruitmcnt corts ol \ischcr
8ilngcr a young thcologian joincd thc univcrsity who did a grcat dcal to allcviatc Nictz
schcs dcsirc lor a soul brothcr. Franz vcrbcck (scc Platc +o) camc to sharc numbcr

Tc lincs arc lromthc + movic Te Tird Man and wcrc invcntcd cithcr by GrahamGrccnc, who
adaptcd thc script lrom his own novcl, or by rson Vcllcs, who spokc thc lincs in thc charactcr ol
Harry Limc. Tc dircctor was Carol Rccd.
Basel

:c
Sch uzgrabcn. Tc two ol thcm christcncd thcir housc thc Gifth utte (poison cottagc) altcr a
tavcrn with thc lorbidding namc ol Das Gifth uttli

(poison cottagc in Swiss dialcct), about

thc hallway point ol thc short walk lromhomc to univcrsity. vcrbcck and Nictzschc wcrc
to dinc togcthcr virtually cvcry cvcning lor thc ncxt vc ycars.
vcrbcck was scvcn ycars oldcr than Nictzschc. Tough Gcrman, his lathcr had bccomc
a naturalizcd 8riton, and as a young man Franz carricd a 8ritish passport. His mothcr was
Frcnch and hc himscll grcw up in St. Pctcrsburg. Hc spokc nglish, Frcnch, and Russian
at homc, and rst lcarnt Gcrman whcn hc arrivcd in Gcrmany to attcnd school in rcsdcn
at thc agc ol clcvcn. vcrbccks inaugural lccturc was titlcd n thc rigin and Right ol
a Purcly Historical Approach to thc Ncw Tcstamcnt. Having lost his laith (without it
bcing thc trauma it was lor Nictzschc), hc approachcd thc 8iblc not as a bclicvcr but as
a philologist studying an historical documcnt. !n +8 hc opcnly dcclarcd that hc and his
wilc no longcr rcgardcd thcmsclvcs as bclonging to thc Christian church to thc dclight ol
Nictzschc, who glcclully dcclarcd that Somc day our housc |thc poison cottagc| will bc onc
ol illrcputc.
+
Tough vcrbccks apostasy prccludcd him lrom cvcr gaining a position in
a Gcrman univcrsity hc rcmaincd in 8ascl thc rcst ol his prolcssional lilc that no onc
tricd to sack him tcstics to thc tolcrancc ol thc 8ascl cldcrs.
vcrbcck bccamc thc onc lricnd who rcmaincd laithlul to Nictzschc his cntirc lilc. Hc
was also thc onc lricnd with whomNictzschc ncvcr quarrcllcd: ur lricndship was without
shadows, vcrbcck rccordcd. Nictzschc wrotc in turn,
vcrbcck is thc most scrious, candid, pcrsonally lovablc, and lcast complicatcd pcrson and
rcscarchcr that onc could wish lor as a lricnd. At thc samc timc hc has that radical quality
! nccd to havc in all thc pcoplc with whom ! associatc.
+8
!n +8, at thc lowcst point in his hcalth, Nictzschc would conlcss that vcrbccks loyalty
and lricndship had savcd his lilc: !n thc midst ol lilc ! was surroundcd by my good
vcrbcck othcrwisc that othcr companion would havc pcrhaps havc riscn up to grcct mc:
Mors.
+
Tcn ycars latcr, as wc shall scc, vcrbcck litcrally savcd Nictzschcs lilc.
Isle of the Blessed
!
n spitc ol his diligcncc in discharging his dutics, Nictzschc was ncvcr comlortablc insidc
thc skin ol a univcrsity prolcssor. !n thc rst placc, thcrc wcrc thc rcscrvations about
classical philology and thc incrcasing vulncrability to thc scductions ol philosophy hc had
brought with him lrom Lcipzig. 8ut cvcn il hc had bccn succcsslul in his application lor
thc chair ol philosophy, hc would still havc lclt uncomlortablc. For what rcally bothcrcd
him was thc rcprcssion ol individuality, thc ncccssity to conlorm to thc cxpcctations placcd
on a prolcssor, to bccomc a cog in thc acadcmic machinc. ! havc bccomc, hc wrotc Sophic
Ritschl in sclldisgust, thc modcl ol thc Gcrman prolcssor, covcrcd in (chalk) dust, an
cducatcd molc.
:o
To Rohdc hc wrotc in carly +8o that hc doubtcd hc could cvcr bc a
propcr philologist and cnvicd his lricnd roaming through !taly, lrcc as a dcscrt animal.

Possibly thc namc dcrivcd lrom an ancicnt jokc about thc quality ol thc bccr, possibly thcrc had
oncc bccn an arscnic minc on thc spot.
:c&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
(Rohdc, on thc othcr hand, almost ccrtainly cnvicd Nictzschcs acadcmic succcss and
nancial sccurity.) Tc hcavicst burdcn, Nictzschc continucs, is always having to rcprcscnt
to pcoplc thc rolc ol thc tcachcr, thc philologist, and that ! havc to provc myscll as such
to cvcryonc ! mcct. Tis noblc prolcssion, hc continucs, has somcthing aggrcssivc about
it,
:+
aggrcssivc towards thc cxprcssion ol lrcc individuality.
!n lact, howcvcr, Nictzschc was ablc on a rcgular basis to cscapc thc lilc ol an cducatcd
molc. Hc discovcrcd a rclugc bcyond pricc
::
in a placc callcd Tribschcn, about thrcc hours
away by (invariably punctual) train.
Tribschcn is a lakcsidc promontory twcnty minutcs walk along thc lakc lrom thc ccntrc
ol Luccrnc. (Tolstoy could not stand Luccrnc bccausc, thcn as now, it was ovcrrun by tour
ists, in thc ninctccnth ccntury usually nglish.) !t was hcrc that, with moncy supplicd by
King Ludwig ol 8avaria, Vagncr had rcntcd a largc, squarc, lourstorcy, carly ninctccnth
ccntury housc (scc Platc ++), which hc had a Paris intcrior dcsigncr dccoratc in a rococo
stylc. Tis, as lizabcth tactlully puts it, lor a sobcrly Swiss housc, was somcwhat lavish in
thc usc ol pink satin and littlc cupids.
:
Situatcd on a knoll abovc thc lakc and surroundcd
by trccllcd parkland grazcd by cows and shccp, it commandcd a spcctacular vicw across
thc watcrs ol Lakc Luccrnc: to thc cast, visiblc lrom thc windows ol thc drawing room,
wcrc thc summits ol thc :ooomctrc Rigi and thc thrcc knucklcs ol thc 8 urgcnstock, whilc
to thc southwcst lay thc oltcn cloudwrcathcd Pilatus. ( J. M. V. Turncrs many paintings ol
both thc Rigi and thc Pilatus had hclpcd makc Luccrnc a lavouritc dcstination lor nglish
tourists in scarch ol thc romantic.)
Vagncr, cxilcd lrom Gcrmany, had movcd to Switzcrland in +8 and to Tribschcn in
+866. 8y +8o hc was at thc hcight ol his musical powcrs, having complctcd thc rst two
opcras ol thc Fing cyclc, Das Fheingold and Die !alk ure, as wcll as Mastersingers and Tristan
und Isolde, and was hard at work on Siegfried, thc third part ol thc Fing. Hc was happicr
in Tribschcn than hc had bccn anywhcrc clsc. And thc samc was truc ol Nictzschc. At thc
cnd ol his lilc, looking back through thc pain and rccrimination ol a brokcn lricndship,
Nictzschc rcmcmbcrcd Tribschcn as a distant islc ol thc blcsscd.
:
(Tough, to bc prosaic,
it is morc likc a pcninsula.)
Living with Vagncr in Tribschcn was thc Frau 8aronin Cosima von 8 ulow(scc Platc +:).
8orn in +8 (thc samc ycar as vcrbcck), shc was twcntylour ycars youngcr than
Richard and only scvcn ycars oldcr than Nictzschc. Tc illcgitimatc daughtcr ol thc grcat
pianistcomposcr Franz Liszt and thc lormidablc, but matcrnally ncgligcnt, Countcss
Maric dAgoult, shc was thc cstrangcd wilc ol Liszts lavouritc pupil and Vagncrs con
ductor, Hans von 8 ulow.

Also living at Tribschcn wcrc Cosimas lour daughtcrs, anicla,

8landinc, !soldc, and va, thc lormcr two lathcrcd by von 8 ulow, thc lattcr two by Vagncr.
!t says a grcat dcal lor thc tolcrancc ol thc largcly Catholic Luccrncrs that thcy allowcd this
scandalously bohcmian couplc to livc in thcir midst.
!n addition to thc Vagncr8 ulow compositc lamily, thc cxtcndcd houschold containcd
a govcrncss, a nursc, vc scrvants, two dogs, scvcral cats, a pcacocks and a pcahcn (who
obviously squabblcd a lot, sincc thcy wcrc callcd Votan and Fricka), a horsc giltcd by
King Ludwig, callcd Granc (othcrwisc, 8runhildcs stccd in thc Ridc ol thc \alkyrcs), and

\on 8 ulow conductcd thc rst pcrlormanccs ol Tristan in +86 and ol Te Mastersingers in +868.
!n +8, in 8oston, hc conductcd thc world prcmicrc ol Tchaikovskys rst piano conccrto. Tough
Cosima lclt him lor Vagncr in +868, hc ncvcr sccmcd to bcar a grudgc, continuing to champion
Vagncrs music, as wcll as 8rahmss, until thc cnd ol his carccr.
Basel

:c
numcrous cows, chickcns, and shccp. Prcsumably to harmonisc with thc rococo dccor ol thc
housc, Vagncr lrcqucntly drcsscd up in his lamous scvcntccnthccntury Flcmish paintcrs
outt black vclvct coat, black satin brccchcs, black silk stockings, a largc, black oppy hat
pullcd down likc a bcrct ovcr onc car, and a satin cravat ticd in a largc bow ovcr his lacc and
lincn shirt. !n gcncral thc houschold constitutcd, as Cosima puts it, thc usual conlusion ol
gcniuscrcating, childrcnconlusion, pcoplc rclaxing noisily, animalidolatry, ctc.
:
Nictzschc had bccn in 8ascl only a month whcn hc dccidcd to takc up thc invitation
to visit Vagncr had issucd in Lcipzig. n Saturday, May +, +86, intcrrupting a paddlc
stcamcr trip round thc lakc, hc alightcd at thc Tribschcn picr and arrivcd unannounccd at
thc Vagncrs villa. Hc stood irrcsolutc outsidc thc housc lor somc timc listcning to thc
insistcnt rcpctition ol a plaintivc chord on thc piano it latcr provcd to bc lrom thc third
act ol Siegfried, on which Vagncr was working. Hc cvcntually pluckcd up couragc to knock
on thc door, only to bc told that thc mastcr was working and could bc intcrruptcd by no
onc, not cvcn Cosima. Hc was howcvcr, invitcd to rcturn lor dinncr two days latcr on
Vhit Monday.
:6
Tis sccond visit must havc bccn a grcat succcss, sincc thc young prolcssor
was thcn invitcd to rcturn lor thc cclcbration ol Vagncrs ltysixth birthday on May ::.
Tcaching commitmcnts madc this impossiblc, but Nictzschc was back at Tribschcn lor
thc wcckcnd ol Junc , and was thus prcscnt whcn Cosima gavc birth to thc Vagncrs
rst and only son, Sicglricd, on thc sixth (an cvcnt lcgitimiscd post lacto whcn Richard
and Cosima nally marricd in August +8o). From thcn on hc had an opcn invitation to
visit whcncvcr hc wishcd, and in thc thrcc ycars bctwccn his rst visit and thc Vagncrs
dcparturc lor 8ayrcuth in thc spring ol +8: did so on twcntythrcc occasions. Hc was
givcn his own bcdroom, oltcn put in chargc ol thc childrcn, trcatcd, in ccct, as lamily.
(n onc occasion Vagncr askcd him il hc would bc Sicglricds guardian should anything
happcn to him.) Nictzschc, too, lclt himscll a mcmbcr ol thc lamily, rclcrring collcctivcly
to himscll and thc cntirc Vagncr mcnagcric as wc Tribschcncrs.
:
As wcll as bcing prcscnt lor Sicglricds birth, Nictzschc was also prcscnt on Christmas
ay +8o lor thc cclcbration ol Cosimas and ol coursc anothcrs birthday. (Cosima
had bccn born during thc night ol cccmbcr :.) About hallpast scvcn in thc morn
ing, ltccn musicians, togcthcr with thc cxtcndcd lamily that includcd Nictzschc, gathcrcd
quictly on thc stairwcll ol thc housc. Vhat happcncd thcn Cosima rccordcd in hcr diary:
As ! awokc, a swclling sound camc to my car, cvcr loudcr. ! could no longcr imaginc it a
drcam, it was music sounding, and what music! As it soundcd out Richard camc into thc
room with thc vc childrcn and gavc mc thc scorc ol thc symphonic birthday grccting. !
was in tcars but so was thc cntirc houschold.
:8
Tc music that rcccivcd its rst pcrlormancc Nictzschc had also attcndcd thc drcss
rchcarsal hcld in sccrct in Luccrnc thc prcvious day was known within thc lamily as thc
Tribschcn or Stairwcll !dyll and to thc world as thc Sicglricd !dyll. uring thc morn
ing, Christmas prcscnts wcrc cxchangcd. Nictzschc rcccivcd a spccial copy ol Vagncrs
8ccthovcn cssay, and a splcndid cdition ol thc complctc works ol Montaignc, ol whom
hc was known to bc a lan. !n rcturn hc gavc Richard what hc had askcd lor, a print ol
urcrs Knight, cath and thc cvil, and Cosima a copy ol his Tc rigin ol Tragic
Tought, a prcparatory cssay lor Te Birth of Tragedy. !n thc altcrnoon thcrc was anothcr
privatc conccrt: rst a rcpcat ol thc Sicglricd !dyll, thcn a 8ccthovcn scptct, and nally
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc Sicglricd !dyll oncc again, altcr which thc musicians wcrc rclcascd to travcl homc to
Zurich.

Nictzschc accordcd Vagncr thc samc quasircligious rcvcrcncc hc accordcd Schopcnhaucr.

Shortly altcr his rst visit to Tribschcn hc wrotc Vagncr,
Tc bcst and most clcvatcd momcnts ol my lilc arc bound to your namc, and ! know only
onc othcr man, and that is your spiritual brothcr, Arthur Schopcnhaucr, lor whom ! havc
a similar rcvcrcncc yca, cvcn morc as religione quadam. . . At a timc whcn thc masscs
stand and lrcczc in cold log it is a grcat privilcgc to bc ablc to warm oncscll at thc light ol
gcnius.
:
Tc lcttcr is signcd by your trucst and most dcvotcd disciplc and admircr. Trcc months
latcr hc wrotc to von Gcrsdor,
! havc lound a man who rcvcals to mc as no othcr thc imagc ol what Schopcnhaucr calls
thc gcnius and who is quitc posscsscd by that |Schopcnhaucrs| wondcrlully intcnsc philos
ophy. Hc is nonc othcr than Richard Vagncr, about whom you should bclicvc nonc ol thc
judgmcnts to bc lound in thc prcss, thc writings ol musical scholars, ctc. No one knows him
and is capablc ol judging him bccausc all thc world stands on a dicrcnt looting to him
and is not at homc in his atmosphcrc. Tcrc dwclls in him such uncompromising idcalism,
such dccp and accting humanity, such cxaltcd scriousncss ol purposc that whcn ! am ncar
him ! lccl as il ! am ncar thc divinc.
o
At thc cnd ol May +8o, Rohdc, who had not sccn his lricnd lor ncarly thrcc ycars, visitcd
8ascl and was ol coursc takcn to Tribschcn. Altcr thc visit Nictzschc wrotc Cosima,
Rohdc conlcsscd to mc that hc had cxpcricnccd |in Tribschcn| thc high point ol his ltccn
month journcy into thc bluc: hc cxpcricnccd wondcr and rcvcrcncc lor thc total cxistcncc
thcrc which was pcrmcatcd by somcthing rcligious. ! undcrstand how thc Athcnians could
havc crcctcd altars to Acschylus and Sophoclcs, and how thcy gavc Sophoclcs thc hcroic
namc cxion |rcccivcr ol thc gods| sincc hc had takcn thc gods into his homc as gucsts.
Tc prcscncc ol thc gods in thc housc ol thc gcnius is what awakcns thc rcligious atmo
sphcrc ! havc rcportcd.
+
Soon altcr rst visiting Tribschcn hc bcgan to addrcss Vagncr as mastcr and to scc his
own carccr as taking sccond placc to thc composcrs: on morc than onc occasion hc ocrcd
to takc lcavc lrom, cvcn to abandon, his own carccr in ordcr to dcdicatc himscll lull timc to
thc amazingly ambitious projcct ol building an opcra housc in 8ayrcuth customdcsigncd
lor thc solc purposc ol pcrlorming Vagncrs opcras. Tat Vagncr ncvcr showcd any intcrcst
in taking up thcsc ocrs was duc to thc lact that, sincc Vagncr thought ol his musicdramas
as thc rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy, Nictzschc was most usc to him as a rcspcctcd prolcssor ol
Grcck who could ccrtily that thcy wcrc indccd such a rcbirth.
Givcn this conccption ol himscll as a satcllitc orbiting thc Vagncrian sun, it is littlc
wondcr that Nictzschc dcvclopcd a chatty and intimatc rclation with his lcllow satcllitc,
Basel

:c,
Cosima, who was, in any casc, ncarly his own agc. (Tc chat somctimcs took on an anti
Scmitic avour with Nictzschc rcsponding in kind to Cosimas violcnt antiScmitism.) Tc
intimacy lcd to Nictzschcs usual habit ol dcvcloping an impossiblc lovc, onc hc would carry
with him lor thc rcst ol his lilc. As hc was going mad hc bcgan to rclcr to Cosima as his truc
lovc, Ariadnc, and to himscll as ionysus, and to suggcst that hcr rclations with Vagncr
wcrc in thc naturc ol adultcry.
!n Te Gay Science Nictzschc outlincs his conccption ol gcndcr rclations. Vomcn, hc
says, nd truc satislaction, cxcrcisc a surplus ol strcngth and plcasurc, in bccoming thc
lunction ol a man.
:
(Sincc hc had adoptcd just this lcmininc rolc in rclation to Vag
ncr hc was in a way, pcrhaps unconsciously, spcaking lrom pcrsonal cxpcricncc.) Tcy do
this, hc continucs, by, lor cxamplc, bccoming a mans sociability. Tis pcrlcctly dcscribcs
and was probably bascd on obscrvation ol Cosimas rclations with Vagncr. For cvcry lct
tcr Vagncr writcs Nictzschc shc writcs tcn, and whcrcas Vagncrs arc usually short, cvcn
tclcgrammatic, hcrs, to hcr car, car Prolcssor Nictzschc, oltcn run on lor vc or six
pagcs. And sincc Nictzschc had also adoptcd thc rolc ol a lunction shc had no compunc
tion in sctting him numcrous tasks. Hc was commissioncd, lor cxamplc, to track down a
lost picturc ol an unclc ol Richards, and was oltcn scnt on shopping cxpcditions in 8ascl
lor things unobtainablc in Luccrnc, lor itcms such as silk undcrwcar lor Richard and pup
pcts and a puppct thcatrc lor thc childrcn. According to lizabcth, howcvcr, in spitc ol
his massivc workload at thc univcrsity, Nictzschc undcrtook thcsc tasks willingly and with
closc attcntion to dctail. rawing on his own childhood cxpcrtisc in thc rcalm ol puppct
thcatrc, hc complaincd to a shopkccpcr that a puppct dcvil was not black cnough and a king
not sucicntly rcalistic. n top ol thcsc commissions, Vagncr chimcd in by dclcgating to
Nictzschc thc dogsbody task ol ovcrsccing thc printing ol My Life, thc autobiography hc
had writtcn at thc rcqucst ol King Ludwig.
Vhat did thc Vagncrs think ol thcir young prolcssor: Clcarly thcy had no doubts about
his intcllcctual brilliancc, and in thcir long, thrccsidcd cvcning discussions ol culturc, art,
and philosophy, thcy dclcrrcd to him absolutcly on all mattcrs Grcck which Vagncr
could rcad hardly at all. And thcy rcally did cnjoy, as wcll as nding it usclul, having him
as a mcmbcr ol thc lamily.
n thc othcr hand, thcy did not think much ol somcthing closc to Nictzschcs hcart and
scllconccption, his musical compositions. !nvitcd to spcnd Christmas ol +8+ oncc again
at Tribschcn, Nictzschc dcclincd, ostcnsibly bccausc hc nccdcd to work on his lccturc scrics,
Te Future of our Educational Institutions. Tc rcal rcason, howcvcr, was that, attcmpting to
match thc spirit ol Vagncrs birthday gilt ol thc Siegfried Idyll thc ycar bclorc, hc had lclt
undcr thc Christmas trcc thc scorc ol his Mcmorics ol a Ncw Ycars vc, a lourhandcd
piano work (that cxpands on thc thcmc ol thc carlicr A Ncw Ycars vc, track + on thc
Vcb sitc lor this book). Cosima and Nictzschc had oltcn playcd togcthcr, but in his abscncc,
Hans Richtcr

took his placc at thc piano. Vhilc thcy wcrc playing, a scrvant rcmarkcd
that it didnt sound vcry good, upon which, nding hcr own thoughts articulatcd, Cosima

Richtcr conductcd thc rst complctc pcrlormancc ol thc Fing at 8ayrcuth in +86, and latcr bccamc
conductor ol thc Hall c rchcstra and thcn thc London Symphony rchcstra in ngland, to which
hc brought a hithcrto unknown thoroughncss ol prcparation. !n his latcr ycars hc bccamc a kccn
promotcr ol thc music ol dward lgar. As a conductor hc was monumcntal rathcr than mcrcurial
in approach, locusing on thc ovcrall structurc rathcr than thc cxprcssivc dctail ol major works, a
stylc, as wc shall scc, that Nictzschc camc strongly to cndorsc.
::c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
brokc down in a t ol gigglcs. Vagncr lclt thc room not, as thcy had at rst assumcd, in
angcr, but rathcr to control his own gigglcs.

(!n Nictzschcs dclcncc, howcvcr, it should

bc mcntioncd that ncithcr Liszt nor Richard Strauss thought him too bad as a composcr.)
Te Ind of an Idyll
T
ribschcn was thc placc whcrc Nictzschc lclt morc at homc than anywhcrc clsc in his
cntirc lilc. !n thc largcspiritcd, warm, lunny, awcd, ovcrowing, and ovcrwhclming
gcnius that was Richard Vagncr, hc lound a lathcr whom hc could worship. As wc shall
scc in thc ncxt chaptcr, Vagncr was an intcllcctual lathcr to Nictzschc, cxcrting a prolound
inucncc ovcr Te Birth of Tragedy. 8ut hc was also pcrsonally and cmotionally a lathcr,
pcrsuading him, lor cxamplc, to givc up thc vcgctarianism which, lollowing von Gcrsdor,
hc had lor a short timc adoptcd. !n Cosima Nictzschc lound a mothcr, lantasy lovcr, con
dant, and lricnd whom hc could look up to as an idcal ol womanhood. (Litcrally look up:
bcakynoscd Cosima towcrcd ovcr thc scvcrcly vcrtically challcngcd Vagncr photographs
ol thc pair (such as Platc +:) rcquircd hcr to sit and shc towcrcd ovcr thc mildly vcrti
cally challcngcd Nictzschc.) And in thc Vagncrs collcctivcly hc lound an adoptcd lamily
that brcathcd thc air ol high uropcan culturc and was, unlikc his own, lrcc ol thc stiing
constraints ol pctit bourgcois morality: as hc put it in a lcttcr, !n Vagncrs villa . . . at thc
loot ol thc Pilatus in a magic lakcandmountain solitudc, wc livc togcthcr in thc most
cxciting convcrsations, in thc most lovcly lamily circlc, quitc rcmovcd lrom thc usual social
trivialitics.

Vhat madc thc convcrsation cxciting was thc scnsc ol Tribschcn as a world
historical pivot, thc scnsc ol thc 8ayrcuth projcct as a ncw bcginning lor Gcrmany, lor
uropcan culturc, and pcrhaps lor humanity as a wholc. lizabcth, who visitcd Tribschcn
in July +8o and again in thc spring ol +8+, has lclt a rccord ol thc atmosphcrc:
! can still rcmcmbcr thc last cvcning ! spcnt thcrc. Tc sun was just sctting but thc moon
alrcady stood lull and bright ovcr thc luminous snowclds ol Mount Titlis.

And, as thc
light ol thc sun gradually wancd and surrcndcrcd thc carth to thc pallid glow ol thc moon,
and thc lakc and thc picturcsqucly shapcd mountains grcw cvcr morc dclicatc, morc diaph
anous, . . . our animatcd convcrsation gradually subsidcd, and wc all sank into drcamy
silcncc. Vc lour (rcally vc) wcrc wandcring along thc socallcd F auber.eg |robbcrs path|
closc to thc lakc. !n lront walkcd Frau Cosima and my brothcr thc lormcr drcsscd in
a pink cashmcrc gown with broad rcvcrs ol rcal lacc which rcachcd down to thc hcm ol
thc garmcnt, on hcr arm thcrc hung a largc Tuscan hat trimmcd with a crown ol pink
roscs, and bchind hcr paccd a dignicd, hcavy and gigantic coalblack Ncwloundland dog,
Russ. Tcn lollowcd Vagncr and myscll Vagncr bcing attircd in a Flcmish paintcrs
costumc . . . ! can still rcmcmbcr quitc vividly how thc shalts ol light coming through thc
trccs caught cach ol us in turn, as wc walkcd silcntly along, looking out across thc silvcry
lakc. Vc listcncd to thc solt murmur as thc diminutivc brcakcrs lappcd against thc bank.

8ut thc cnchantcd mood was not to last. Fromabout thc middlc ol +8o Vagncr bcgan to
spcak ol thc nccd to movc to 8ayrcuth. Faccd with thc collapsc ol his idcal world, Nictzschc

,o:o mctrcs high, about o minutcs by (modcrn) train south ol Luccrnc.

Basel

:::
wrotc to Cosima on Junc + that il thcy movcd, hc would likc to takc scvcral ycars lcavc
lrom thc univcrsity and movc to 8ayrcuth himscll, whcrc hc would dcvotc himscll cntircly
to Vagncrs projcct.
6
Two days latcr, hc spraincd an anklc and was laid up in bcd lor
two wccks sickncss bcing, as Curt Janz obscrvcs,

his usual rcsponsc to psychological

trauma.
Vagncr nally abandoncd Tribschcn on May ::, +8:. Vhcn Nictzschc arrivcd on thc
twcntylth only Cosima, thc childrcn, and thc scrvants rcmaincd. Cosima was as sad at
lcaving thcir islc ol thc blcsscd as hc was, so hc tricd to chccr hcr up by playing thc piano.
To Rohdc hc wrotc: Tribschcn is no morc. ! was thcrc lor a lcw days mclancholy days
and walking as il among ruins.
8
And to von Gcrsdor,
Last Saturday wc bid a sad and dccply moving larcwcll to Tribschcn. Tribschcn has now
ccascd: wc wandcrcd around as il among shccr rubblc, thc lccling ol sadncss was cvcry
whcrc, in thc air, in thc clouds. Tc dog wouldnt cat. !l onc addrcsscd thcm onc lound thc
scrvantlamilics constantly sobbing. Vc packcd up thc manuscripts, lcttcrs and books oh
it was so miscrablc! Tcsc thrcc ycars ! havc spcnt ncar to Tribschcn, which ! havc visitcd
: timcs what thcy mcan to mc! Vithout thcm what would ! havc bccn! ! am happy that
! havc at lcast cngravcd in stonc thc world ol Tribschcn in my book |Te Birth of Tragedy|.

Tc Vagncrs dcparturc lclt Nictzschc bcrclt. At thc cnd ol his lilc, dcspitc thc hundrcds
ol polcmical pagcs hc had by this timc writtcn against thc grcat sorccrcr, Tribschcn still
rcmains, in Ecce Homo, an cnchantcd drcam:
Tat which has rclrcshcd mc by lar thc most proloundly and cordially |was| . . . without a
doubt my intimatc association with Richard Vagncr. ! ocr all my othcr human rclation
ships chcap, but at no pricc would ! rclinquish lrom my lilc thc Tribschcn days, thosc days
ol mutual condcnccs, ol chccrlulncss, ol sublimc incidcnts ol prolound momcnts . . . !
do not know what othcrs may havc cxpcricnccd with Vagncr: ovcr our sky no cloud cvcr
passcd.
o
Nictzschc ncvcr took to 8ayrcuth. Tough Vagncrs grand housc thcrc was callcd
!ahnfried roughly, placc ol pcacclul cscapc lrom thc worlds crazy dclusions (scc Platc
+) Nictzschc lound it alltoocrazy. Tough hc soldicrcd on in Vagncrs causc lor anothcr
lour ycars with incrcasing dcgrccs ol doubt and incrcasing momcnts ol lriction with thc
mastcr thc old, sublimc intimacy was ncvcr rccapturcd. !t is hard to rcsist thc conclu
sion that, cmotionally, Nictzschc cxpcricnccd thc movc lrom Tribschcn to 8ayrcuth as a
bctrayal, as his sccond abandonmcnt by a lathcr. Rcturning on a hiking trip to thc Rigi
in +8, hc rcvisitcd Tribschcn scvcral timcs. ! misscd much, much, hc wrotc Rohdc,
complctcly disinhcritcd .
+
!l thc Vagncrs had rcmaincd in Tribschcn, Human, ll-Too-
Human, Te !agner Case, and Nietzsche contra !agner, not to mcntion thc rcst ol Nictzschcs
maturc philosophy, might ncvcr havc bccn writtcn.
7
Richard Wagner and the Birth of
Te Birth of Tragedy
F
ov :nvvv ycars, wc saw in thc prcvious chaptcr, Nictzschc was rcgardcd by all con
ccrncd as a mcmbcr ol thc Tribschcn houschold. Along with cmotional warmth and
sublimc music, Tribschcn also providcd him with an intcnscly stimulating philo
sophical cnvironmcnt, prcsidcd ovcr by thc spirit ol Arthur Schopcnhaucr. To his wondcr
lully dccp philosophy
+
Vagncr and Nictzschc wcrc, as wc havc sccn, cqually dcvotcd. Nictz
schc scnt his cssays and lccturcs to thc Vagncrs lor discussion and scrutiny and thankcd
Vagncr lor thc many purcly scicntic problcms that rcsolvcd thcmsclvcs through thcir
discussions.
:
And Vagncr scnt Nictzschc thc complctcd 8ccthovcn cssay, to which thc
lattcr rcplicd, ! can makc clcar to you how much thcrc is lor mc thcrc by way ol lcarn
ing your philosophy ol music that is, the philosophy ol music in an cssay ! wrotc this
summcr cntitlcd Tc ionysian Vorldvicw

a prcliminary airing ol thc ccntral thcmcs

ol Nictzschcs rst book. As notcd, Cosima was no mcrc onlookcr but rathcr an activc
contributor to thc intcllcctual lilc ol Tribschcn. A woman ol considcrablc cducation and
pcrspicacity, shc rcgularly bombardcd Nictzschc with salvocs ol oltcn scarching qucstions
about his philosophical work. !n dcdicating his Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten Books to hcr
in +8:, hc wrotc, in dccply lclt rcspcct and as an answcr to qucstions raiscd both by lcttcr
and in convcrsation.

Tc product ol this cmotional and intcllcctual intimacy was Te Birth of Tragedy. Tc

Prclacc dcdicatcs thc work to Vagncr, dcscribing it as thc continuation ol a convcrsation
with him, a convcrsation hc could havc had with no othcr pcrson. Vhat madc this convcr
sation possiblc was thc lact that as wcll as bcing a composcr, conductor, and poct ol gcnius,
Vagncr was also a scrious intcllcctual with a dcvclopcd and distinctivc worldvicw. Nictz
schc scholars and cnthusiasts havc almost univcrsally sought to dcny Nictzschcs dcbt to
this vicw,

on account ol its undoubtcdly unplcasant clcmcnts: antiScmitism and, latcr on,

Gcrman chauvinism. Tcrc is, howcvcr, no gctting away lromit: to rcally undcrstand Nictz
schcs book, onc nccds to undcrstand thc 8ayrcuth horizon,
6
as his notcbooks dcscribc it,
within which it was dcvclopcd, thc Vagncrian spcctaclcs, in thc words ol a contcmporary
rcvicwcr,

through which it vicws thc world.

:::

Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
Te Wagnerian Worldview
V
agncrs philosophical thinking locuscs on lour intcrconncctcd topics: socicty, poli
tics, art, and rcligion. ! shall bcgin with socicty, with Vagncrs Kulturkritik, his
critiquc ol thc cultural condition ol Vcstcrn modcrnity. Tc critiquc locuscs on two things:
on Christianity and on thc cccts ol industrialization and burcaucratisation.
Vagncr was awarc that, lor most cducatcd pcoplc ol his timc, Christianity no longcr
compcllcd bclicl. Noncthclcss, hc argucs, it has lclt bchind a pcrnicious lcgacy. Vhcrcas
thc Grccks conccivcd happincss to bc thc normal human condition, thc Christian world
vicw condcmns us to lilc in a loathsomc dungcon.
8
Christianity tcachcs us to dcspisc all
things carthly whilc contradicting itscll by simultancously prcaching univcrsal brothcrly
lovc.

Not that this was Jcsus doing. Tc Galilcan carpcntcr himscll was a kind ol rcvolu
tionary socialist, a man ol thc working classcs who rcally did practicc thc univcrsal lovc hc
prcachcd. Not hc but rathcr thc Roman Church (this will bccomc a kcy thcmc in Nictz
schcs latcr work) invcntcd thc othcrworldly mctaphysics that lcads to contcmpt lor this
world.
+o
!n gcncral, thcn, Christianity has bccn a dcstructivc lorcc that has lclt us a lcgacy
ol scllcontcmpt.
And it has, morcovcr, prcparcd thc way lor thc inhuman charactcr ol modcrn cconomic
lilc. !l man is a worthlcss bcing, thcn thcrc is no rcason not to trcat him, as modcrn indus
trialiscd socicty docs, as mcrc stcampowcr lor its machincry.
++
!n modcrn socicty, that is
to say, work has bccomc nothing but wcarying, dchumanizing toil. Mcn havc bccn turncd
into slavcs ol thc machinc, havc, indccd, bccomc machincs thcmsclvcs.
+:
Tis has had a tcrriblc ccct on human wcllbcing. Sincc thc masscs arc traincd to bc
nothing but machincparts, and arc in any casc cxhaustcd by work, thcy arc capablc ol
nothing but chcap, mindlcss plcasurcs in thc momcnts ol lcisurc allowcd thcm. 8ut sincc
chcap consumcrism produccs cvcr diminishing rcturns, boredom bccomcs thc salicnt mood
ol modcrnity. !n thc consumcr socicty pcoplc arc borcd to dcath by plcasurc.
+
Part ol
Vagncrs antiScmitism consists in sccing Jcws as particularly productivc ol, and givcn to,
consumcrism, though in his latcr writings hc points thc ngcr at thc Frcnch: that which is
cngulng modcrnity is Frcnch matcrialism.
Tc dccay ol modcrn socicty has had a particularly dclctcrious ccct on art. Tc mcchan
ical rcproduction ol artworks and conscqucnt dcmocratization ol tastc mcans that cvcn thc
mcancst among us can put thc noblcst typcs ol art on his mantclpiccc
+
which numbs our
ability to rcvcrcncc grcat art. Casual lamiliarity, in othcr words, brccds contcmpt. Vhcn
it comcs to music and thc thcatrc, all thc workwcary audicncc wants and is capablc ol
is distraction and cntcrtainmcnt. Tc rcsult is that modcrnity is no longcr capablc ol thc
Gesamtkunst.erk, thc collcctivc artwork, that was thc glory ol Grcccc. Rathcr than bcing
gathcrcd togcthcr, as in Grcck tragcdy, with cach artlormplaying a vital rolc in thc total art
work, thc arts arc now csscntially scparatc, with cach catcring to a particular nichcdcmand
lor plcasurc. Tus opcra, and in particular Frcnch and !talian opcra, pandcrs to an audicncc
intcrcstcd only in music music lor casy listcning. Tc plots arc a jokc, onc talks through
thc longucurs bctwccn thc big arias, and whcn thcy nally arrivc onc dcmands six cncorcs
dcstroying, ol coursc, any possibility ol dramatic continuity and rcducing thc occasion to a
chaos ol trivial scnsations.
+
Turning to thc litcrary aspcct ol modcrn lilc, Vagncr obscrvcs that wc livc in a papcr
culturc. Vc sucr lrom lcxicomania, lrom (in my own rathcr than Vagncrs languagc)
::,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
inlormation ovcrload. Tis mcans that thc charactcr ol our agc is csscntially critical, crit
ical in a way that stics crcativity. vcrwhclmcd by cultural history, wc succumb to thc
scnsc that its all bccn donc bclorc and arc rcduccd to rccombining past artistic stylcs.
+6
(Vc
might rclcr to this as Vagncrs anticipation ol postmodcrn nihilism.)
Vagncrs nal major criticism ol modcrnity conccrns social atomisation. Vhcrcas, in
thc past, wc wcrc bound togcthcr by thc lcllowship ol a common purposc hc thinks,
hcrc, ol thc world cclcbratcd in thc Mastersingers, thc world ol artists and craltsmcn work
ing togcthcr to producc thc mcdicval cathcdral modcrn socicty is a socicty ol absolutc
cgoism. vcryonc pursucs his own, sclsh goals, thc only cohcsivc lorcc bcing thc statc.
8ut thc modcrn, burcaucratic rcd tapc statc is worsc than uncontaincd cgoism. Aidcd
by rcligious dogma and thc prcss, it says to individuals, so shall you think and no othcr,
mindcontrols thcm into robotic instrumcnts ol its pcrnicious, militaristic aims.

So much lor diagnosis ol our parlous condition, what now ol rcmcdy: Tc kcy is Grcccc
and abovc all Grcck tragcdy. Not, Vagncr hastcns to add, that wc should scck a slavish
rcstoration ol thc Grcck through a shamGrcck modc ol art (thc \ictorian bank disguiscd
as a Grcck tcmplc). !nsolar as wc admirc thc Grcck, wc should rccrcatc it as a contcmpo
rary rcality rathcr than as a lossiliscd rclic ol thc past. And by no mcans should wc admirc
cvcrything Hcllcnic in particular, not thc dishonourablc slavc yokc on which Grcck cco
nomic lilc was bascd. Prcciscly thc main goal should bc to rcplacc thc quasislavcry, thc uni
vcrsal journcymanhood, with its sickly moncy soul ol modcrn socicty, with a strong and
lrcc manhood.
+
Noncthclcss, says Vagncr, it is thc Athcnian thcatrc which providcs thc
typical modcl ol that idcal rclation, drcamt ol by mc, bctwccn thcatrc and public.
+8
How
so: Vhat, lor Vagncr, was Grcck tragcdy, and what distinguishcd it lrom thc sick thcatrc
ol thc prcscnt agc:

First ol all, Grcck tragcdy was not cntcrtainmcnt. !t occurrcd
on nonc but spccial, sacrcd lcast days, whcrc thc tastc lor art was couplcd with thc cclcbra
tion ol a rcligious ritc, in which thc most illustrious mcmbcrs ol thc statc thcmsclvcs took
part as pocts and pcrlormcrs, to appcar likc pricsts bclorc thc asscmblcd populacc ol cld
and city, a populacc llcd with such high cxpcctations lrom thc sublimity ol thc artwork
to bc sct bclorc it, that a Sophoclcs, an Acschylus, could sct bclorc thc !olk (pcoplc) thc
dccpcstmcaning ol all pocms, assurcd ol thcir undcrstanding.
+
Sccond, it was a collcctivc |Gesamt| artwork |kunst.erk|. !t collcctcd, or gathcrcd, in
two scnscs. First and most obviously, it collcctcd all thc arts, in particular words and music,
togcthcr into a singlc artwork. (Tough thc music is lost, lcading us to think ol Acschylus or
Sophoclcs as purcly litcrary works, to think this way, Nictzschc rcmarks in his notcbooks,
is likc thinking ol Tannh auser as just words.)
:o
Sccond, it collcctcd thc wholc community
togcthcr and so crcatcd and prcscrvcd it as community. !n contrast to lragmcntcd modcrn
ity, in Grcccc
all division . . . all scattcring ol lorccs conccntratcd on this one point . . . all division ol clc
mcnts into scparatc channcls must nccds havc bccn as hurtlul to this unique and noblc
artwork as to thc likclormcd statc itscll, and thus it could only maturc but ncvcr changc
its naturc. Tus art was conscrvativc . . .
:+
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
Noticc that collcction in thc rst scnsc is takcn to rcquirc collcction in thc sccond scnsc,
that thc artwork can only gathcr thc community il it also gathcrs thc arts. !l it lails to
gathcr thc arts, thcn thc audicncc lragmcnts into nichc audicnccs lor thc individual arts.
Fragmcntation ol thc arts, Vagncr bclicvcs, cntails lragmcntation ol thc community a
thcsis that rcccivcs somc support lrom thc way in which, in contcmporary socicty, dicrcnt
kinds ol music opcratc as badgcs idcntilying dicrcnt, mutually cxclusivc subculturcs.
How docs thc Gesamtkunst.erk gathcr crcatc and conscrvc community: (Noticc that,
givcn that Grcck tragcdy is thc modcl ol thc idcal rclation bctwccn thcatrc and public,
in dcscribing thc Grcck artwork Vagncr is simultancously dcsigning thc artwork ol thc
luturc, thc modcl ol what his own music dramas arc intcndcd to bc.) Fcllowship and com
munity that cxtcnd bcyond thc mcrcly biological lcllowship ol common anccstry, writcs
Vagncr, can only ourish whcrc rcligion and myth ourish. Tc Hcllcnic raccs
solcmnizcd thc joint mcmorial cclcbration ol thcir common dcsccnt |and so bccamc Greeks|
in thcir rcligious lcasts, that is, in thc glorication and adoration ol thc god or hcro in
whosc bcing thcy lclt thcmsclvcs includcd as onc common wholc . . . thcy matcrializcd
thcir national traditions in thcir art, and most dircctly in thc lullycdgcd work ol art,
thc tragcdy.
::
Tragcdy, in othcr words, was a rcligious act, an act in which thc national tradition thc
cthos ol a pcoplc, thcir conccption ol thc propcr way to livc was articulatcd in thc lorm ol
myth. !ndccd, continucs Vagncr, as thc ritcs ol thc tcmplc dcsccndcd into soullcss convcn
tion (mirrorcd by thc dcclinc ol thc Church in thc ninctccnth ccntury), thc amphithcatrc
bccamc the placc whcrc thc csscncc ol rcligion, rcligiosocial convcntion, rcccivcd its artic
ulation.
:
Tc pcrlcct work ol art that was Grcck tragcdy bccamc
thc abstract and cpitomc ol all that was cxprcssiblc in thc Grccian naturc. !t was thc nation
itscll in intimatc conncxion with its own history that stood mirrorcd in its artwork, that
communcd with itscll and, within thc span ol a lcw hours, lcastcd its cycs with its own
noblcst csscncc.
:
!t was ablc to do this bccausc its contcnt was myth, myth bcing a clarication and con
dcnsation ol thc vicwincommon ol thc csscncc ol things, a vicw ol naturc . . . mcn and
morals.
:
!n myths, that is to say (bc thcy Grcck myths or thc Norscdcrivcd myths ol
Vagncrs own musicdramas), arc incorporatcd thc csscntial laws ol what is and what ought
to bc: mcn should know thcy arc not gods witncss thc latc ol cdipus and that powcr
corrupts witncss thc dcvastation wrought by Votans qucst lor thc ring ol thc Nibclung.
Grcck tragcdy, in othcr words, was csscntially didactic (a quality that 8rccht, who, likc thc
Grccks, uscd both masks and music, attcmptcd to rccapturc).
Sincc it is thc csscncc ol thc !olk |pcoplc| itscll that comcs to prcscncc in thc artwork,
in a ccrtain scnsc it, rathcr than any individual, is thc crcator ol thc artwork. Tc indi
vidual playwright is mcrcly thc clarilying articulator ol communal cthos. Tc communal
artwork ourishcd just so long as it was inspircd by thc spirit ol thc !olk . . . that is, a com-
munal spirit. Vhcn acsthctic cgoism raiscd its hcad in lourthccntury Grcccc thc pcoplcs
artwork ccascd.
:6
::&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Community or !olk, as Vagncr conccivcs it, is what wc might call a unicultural socicty,
a socicty in which, whatcvcr lowcrlcvcl varictics ol lilcstylc thcrc may bc, cvcryonc agrccs
on a lundamcntal conccption ol thc good lilc on lundamcntal valucs indcpcndcnt ol
thosc valucs bcing cnlorccd by thc statc. !t nccds to bc askcd, thcrclorc, why wc should
valuc thc unicultural socicty. (Sincc this conccption is thc dircct oppositc ol thc twcnticth
ccnturys idcology ol multiculturalism, which now nds itscll in such scrious dicultics,
Vagncrs thoughts about community havc considcrablc contcmporary rclcvancc.)
A !olk, writcs Vagncr, consists ol all thosc who lccl a common and collcctivc want.
Authcntic mcmbcrs arc thosc who rccognisc thcir individual want as a collcctivc want, or
nd it bascd thcrcon. Vithin a !olk, collcctivc nccd providcs a basis, thc only basis, lor
ncccssary action. !n othcr words, it givcs lilc a goal and mcaning. Vhcrc thcrc is no ncccs
sary action thcrc is only capricc. All that rcmains, in othcr words, is thc pursuit ol wants
that arc not only cgoistic but also articial, and thcrclorc mcaninglcss thc statc ol mod
crn socicty. Tc communal artwork ol thc luturc, says Vagncr, will rcawakcn holy ncccssity
so that lilc will rcacquirc mcaning.
:
Morc spccically, .ork will bccomc mcaninglul again
and thus satislying. !n n Statc and Rcligion, Vagncr cxplains that hc partcd company
with thc socialism ol his youth whcn hc rcaliscd that socialist politicians just wantcd to
rcarrangc thc world ol toil, whcrcas lor him thc point was to abolish toil, to rclorm work
practiccs so that, as with mcdicval husbandry, thcy would oncc morc constitutc a bcautilul
lilc, a lilc in harmony with naturc and thc scasons, punctuatcd by lrcqucnt rccrcations and
lcstivitics
:8
(thc lilc, to makc thc point oncc again, that is cclcbratcd in thc Mastersingers).
Morcovcr, sincc ncccssary action addrcsscs collcctivc want, it will abolish classcs though
not dicrcnccs. vcryonc, according to his or hcr own station, will work towards thc com
munal goal. 8y bccoming mcmbcrs ol a tcam (or, onc should pcrhaps say, choir), alicnation
bctwccn onc human bcing and anothcr will bc ovcrcomc.

Ccntral to thc abovc thinking, vcry clcarly, is thc notion ol !olk. Tc !olk crcatcs and is
conscrvcd by thc artwork, thc individual nds mcaning and community within thc !olk.
Tis raiscs thc qucstion ol whcrc Vagncr stands on thc issuc ol nationalism vcrsus intcr
nationalism, localism vcrsus cosmopolitanism.
Vagncr obscrvcs that whilc thc Roman mpirc abolishcd thc rcality ol !olk, and Mcdi
cval Christianity, by rccognising only Christian man, abolishcd thc vcry conccpt, hc wishcs
to rcvivc thc conccpt and rcinvigoratc thc rcality.
:
Yct this is thc socialist strain in his
thinking thc importancc ol a ourishing !olk is not to cxcludc conccrn lor univcrsal
humanity. Vhcrcas
thc Grccian artwork cmbraccs thc spirit ol a lair and noblc nation, thc artwork ol thc luturc
must cmbracc thc spirit ol a lrcc mankind, dclivcrcd lrom cvcry shacklc ol hampcring
nationality: its racial imprint must bc no morc than an cmbcllishmcnt, thc individual charm
ol manilold divcrsity, not a hampcring barricr . . . Vc must lovc all mcn bclorc wc can rightly
lovc oursclvcs.
,o

vcn, onc might ask rhctorically, thc Jcws: Tcorctically, at lcast, wc must. !n thc inlamous n
Judaism in Music, Vagncr at lcast has thc gracc to placc thc blamc lor thc status ol thc Jcws as
malign outsidcrs on Christianitys rclusal to assimilatc thcm. Logically spcaking, thc solution to thc
Jcwish qucstion is thus assimilation (VM pp. +). Vhat makcs such paranoia so dangcrous,
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
Vagncrs cosmopolitanism rcvcals itscll, too, in thc insistcncc that thc contcnt ol myth is
both incxhaustiblc and truc lor all timcs and culturcs, thc only task ol thc poct bcing to
cxpound it in a particular way to a particular audicncc.
+
!n n Statc and Rcligion hc
rathcr surprisingly attacks patriotism as a harmlul dclusion |!ahn|.

!t is harmlul bccausc
it is simply an cnlargcd cgoism which, lanncd by thc prcss, is rcsponsiblc lor thc statc ol
pcrmancnt actual or incipicnt warlarc in which thc modcrn world cxists. (Patriotism,
in othcr words, is thc last rclugc ol dcmagogic scoundrcls.) From this hc concludcs thc
ncccssity ol monarchy, with thc kings job bcing to stand abovc national politics, to bc
conccrncd lor human intcrcsts lar abovc mcrc patriotism.
:
How can Vagncr consistcntly bc both a nationalist and an intcrnationalist: Tc rcmarks
conccrning thc charm ol divcrsity and incxhaustibility ol univcrsal myth suggcst a syn
thcsis bctwccn multiculturalismand uniculturalism multiplicity in unity

as Nictzschc
latcr puts it somcwhat in thc way in which thc mcdicval cathcdral cncompasscd a host ol
rcgionally, tcmporally, and stylistically divcrsc manilcstations, or a singlc languagc cncom
passcs a host ol rcgional dialccts. r wc might think ol a 8ccthovcn symphony with
its inhcrcnt possibility ol yiclding innitcly divcrsc, but cqually valid, intcrprctations
as a modcl on which to undcrstand thc idca ol univcrsal myth as susccptiblc to indc
nitcly many dicrcnt intcrprctations within thc dicrcnt, as it wcrc, dialccts ol dicrcnt
culturcs.
!n latcr lilc Vagncrs nationalism took a dicrcnt and much lcss palatablc lorm. As
Nictzschc put it in +888, cxplaining his turn against Vagncr, thc middlcagcd Vagncr
lost thc cosmopolitan tastc ol his youth, bccoming instcad reichsdeutsch, a 8ismarckian jin
goist.

Yct still, at lcast in thcory, thc oldcr Vagncr sought to rcconcilc his position with
ultimatcly intcrnational conccrns, writing, thrcc ycars bclorc thc outbrcak ol thc Franco
Prussian war, that
to cxtricatc oursclvcs lrom thc tyranny ol |Franccs| matcrialistic civilization . . . is prcciscly
thc mission ol Gcrmany, bccausc Gcrmany ol all contincntal countrics, alonc posscsscs thc
nccdlul qualitics and lorccs ol mind and spirit to bring about a noblcr culturc.

Gcrman inwardncss must, that is, bc cxtcndcd by lorcc ol arms il ncccssary to savc lrom
itscll a civilization dominatcd by Frcnch dccadcncc. (Tc pcrniciousncss ol this appcal to
a Godgivcn Gcrman mission is rcvcalcd by thc lact that prcciscly thc samc appcal to a
uniquc national mission was uscd by rightwing intcllcctuals to justily Gcrmany cntry into
thc First Vorld Var and by rightwing, Gcrmanphilosophyinspircd intcllcctuals to justily
thc youngcr 8ushs invasion ol !raq.)
howcvcr, is that, oncc Jcws arc cast in thc rolc ol a lth column in thc midst ol thc !olk, climination
prcscnts itscll as a rcady altcrnativc to assimilation.

!ahn is a word Vagncr uscs with grcat lrcqucncy. !t is hard to translatc Ashton llis wiscly lcavcs
it untranslatcd bccausc hc distinguishcs both harmlul and bcnccial lorms ol !ahn (rcligion is a
bcnccial lorm) in somcwhat thc way in which Plato, in thc Phaedrus, distinguishcs good and bad
lorms ol madncss. (ivinc madncss, lor Plato, is thc inspiration csscntial to both grcat poctry and
truc lovc.) !n itscll, it sccms to mc, !ahn, as Vagncr uscs it, is a ncutral tcrm mcaning somcthing
likc sct ol bclicls that cxcccd any possiblc cvidcncc wc could havc lor thcir truth. Nictzschcs
notcbooks ol thc Tribschcn pcriod arc lull ol this usc ol !ahn, lor which Illusion is uscd as a
lrcqucnt synonym that is similarly ambiguous. Latcr on hc will usc crror in a similar way.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Te Artwork of the Future
!
n Vagncrs vicw, wc havc sccn, modcrnity is sick. Tc hcart ol his rcmcdy lics in thc rcs
toration ol thc collcctivc artwork, thc modcl lor which is providcd by Grcck tragcdy. 8ut
what cxactly will this rcdccming artwork bc likc, this artwork ol thc luturc, an artwork, that
is to say, which prcsagcs th|c| lilc ol thc luturc and longs to bc containcd thcrcin:
6
Vhat,
in othcr words, is thc thcorctical tcmplatc which Vagncr thc artist this most thcory
drivcn ol all grcat composcrs trics to rcalisc:
!t will bc, wc know, a work that collccts in thc doublc scnsc ol gathcring thc individual
arts into a singlc work and ol gathcring thc community into a clarilying armation ol itscll.
8ut what about thc intcrnal structurc ol thc work: Vhat cxactly is thc rclationship bctwccn
thc constitucnt clcmcnts, bctwccn, in particular, thc principal playcrs, music and words:
Tcrc is no univocal answcr to this qucstion, sincc thc answcr givcn by thc latcr Vagncr is
quitc dicrcnt lrom that givcn in his youth. ! shall prcscnt, rst, Vagncrs carly account and
thcn his rcviscd account, a rcvision that cxcmplics thc lamiliar parabola lcading lrom thc
idcalism ol youth to thc rcsignation ol agc but which was also crucially shapcd by Vagncrs
discovcry ol Schopcnhaucr.

Tc youngcr Vagncr cmphasiscs, rst ol all, thc nccd to rcstorc organic unity to thc art
work. Vhat must bc ovcrcomc is thc chaos ol disconncctcd bits that is Franco!talian
opcra. (Nictzschcs +888 dcscription ol Vagncr as a giltcd miniaturist who lackcd thc
capacity to construct gcnuincly unicd wholcs

is thus a particularly dcadly insult.) Tcrc

must bc no ritorncllos, no scllglorilying musical intcrludcs, no big arias, that disrupt
thc dramatic continuity ol thc work.
8
Vhat is rcquircd bctwccn poct and musician is not
compctition but rathcr thc spirit ol community. Tcy should bc likc two travcllcrs, onc
ol whom (thc poct) dcscribcs thc land, thc othcr thc sca, but who thcn visit cach othcrs
tcrritory and bccomc onc.

Tcy arc to collaboratc in thc lollowing way. Vhcn words losc

clcvation (whcn, lor cxamplc, thcy mcrcly cxpcditc thc plot) thc orchcstra comcs to thc
lorc, convcying a lccling ol lorcboding or rcmcmbrancc which undcrlics thc drama onc
might think hcrc ol lm music. 8ut whcrc spccch asccnds thc hcights ol poctic passion,
thc orchcstra rcccdcs into thc background.
o
Tough this carly account ol thc rclation bctwccn music and words sounds vcry cgali
tarian, it is actually not so at all. For Vagncr makcs clcar that thc rcal thrcat to thc unity
ol thc artwork comcs lrom musical capricc, lrom thc composcrs pandcring to thc dcsirc ol
lazy listcncrs lor casy mclody Ncssun orma, nc Finc ay, and so lorth thc aria
dcsigncd to rcccivc six cncorcs. Ultimatcly, thc dominant clcmcnt in thc work must bc thc
words: passagcs in which thc orchcstra comcs to promincncc arc ncvcr to bc dctcrmincd by
the caprice of the musician, as a randomtricking out ol sound, but only by the poets aim.
+
And
this, in lact, is thc natural rclation bctwccn music and words, a rclation rcccting thc origin
ol music in passionatc spccch: Song is just talk arouscd to thc highcst passion: music is thc
spccch ol passion.
:
Vagncr is not vcry cxplicit as to just why music must bc ultimatcly subordinatc to words.
Tc ground cannot bc that only words can producc unity, sincc thcrc obviously cxists musical
as wcll as dramatic unity, thc unity posscsscd by absolutc (purcly instrumcntal) music whcn
it is good music. !t is, howcvcr, prctty obvious why words must bc thc dominant clcmcnt ol
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::,
thc collcctivc artwork. !l its lunction is to gathcr thc community in a clarilying armation
ol its lundamcntal cthos, thcn thc most crucial dcmand on thc artwork is that it should
articulate that ethos. And that is somcthing only words can do. As Martin Hcidcggcr puts
it in thc rst volumc ol his monumcntal Nictzschcstudy, a solidly groundcd and articu
latcd position in thc midst ol bcings is thc kind ol thing only grcat poctry and thought
can crcatc.

!l wc arc to rcncw our sharcd undcrstanding ol thc good lilc thcn, in tcrms
ol Vagncrs mctaphor, land has to takc prcccdcncc ovcr sca, lor onc cannot takc oncs
bcarings whcn onc is, as wc indccd put it, all at sca.
Te Impact of Schopenhauer
T
hc philosophical works that rouscd Nictzschc to ccstasy during thc Tribschcn pcriod
wcrc thc magniccnt

8ccthovcn cssay ol +8o 8ccthovcn was important to Vag

ncr bccausc hc rcgardcd himscll as, in Cosimas words, 8ccthovcns only son

and n
Statc and Rcligion ol +86. Tc lattcr, Nictzschc wrotc von Gcrsdor, alluding to thc
lact that thc cssay takcs thc lorm ol a lcttcr to Vagncrs patron, Ludwig !! ol 8avaria,
is a grcat and dccp cssay in which hc cxplains to his young lricnd, thc littlc king ol 8avaria,
his inncr stancc towards statc and rcligion. Ncvcr has a king bccn spokcn to in a morc
worthy or philosophical manncr,

! was complctcly clcvatcd and at thc samc timc shakcn

by its idcalism.
6
Tcsc works wcrc, howcvcr, writtcn undcr thc inucncc ol Schopcnhaucrs !orld as !ill
and Fepresentation, which Vagncr discovcrcd in +8 and immcdiatcly rcrcad lour timcs.
As Nictzschc obscrvcs to von Gcrsdor, n Statc and Rcligion sccms at cvcry point to
spring lrom thc gcnius ol Schopcnhaucr.

Vhat did Schopcnhaucr mcan to Vagncr: Vhat ccct did his Te !orld as !ill producc
on thc composcr: !t produccd, or at lcast powcrlully rcinlorccd, a scachangc in, on thc
onc hand, his vicws on socicty, politics, and rcdcmption, and on thc othcr, his vicws on
thc propcr naturc and signicancc ol music. As wc shall scc, thcsc Uturns arc intimatcly
conncctcd.
Spcaking with particular rclcrcncc to Tristan und Isolde, thc rst ol his opcras to bc
cntircly crcatcd altcr his discovcry ol Schopcnhaucr, Vagncr wrotc Franz Liszt in cccm
bcr, +8, that Schopcnhaucrs philosophy camc to him likc a gilt lrom hcavcn. !ts chicl
idca, hc cxplains,
thc nal ncgation ol thc dcsirc lor lilc, is tcrribly scrious, but it shows thc only salvation
possiblc. To mc ol coursc that thought was not ncw, and it can indccd bc conccivcd by no
onc in whom it did not prccxist, but this philosophcr was thc rst to placc it clcarly bclorc
mc . . . longing lor dcath, lor absolutc unconsciousncss, total noncxistcncc . . . |l |rccdom
lrom all drcams is our only nal salvation.
8

Tc compctition is providcd by Platos attcmpt to pcrsuadc thc Tyrant ol Syracusc to govcrn accord
ing to thc principlcs ol his Fepublic.
::c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
And in Tristan itscll thc starcrosscd lovcrs sing at lcngth ol thcir longing lor oblivion:
In the surging s.ell,
In the ringing sound,
In the .orld-breath
In the .a.es of the ll
To dro.n,
To sink do.n
Unconscious
Supreme bliss
arc !soldcs nal words as shc sinks as il transgurcd onto Tristans lilclcss body, thcrcby
bringing both hcr carthly lilc and thc opcra to a closc.
As Vagncr says in thc lcttcr to Liszt, thc thought that thc solution to thc problcm ol
lilc lics in its ncgation prccxistcd in his mind bclorc hc lound it articulatcd by thc grcat
pcssimist. Vriting, in n Statc and Rcligion, to Ludwig, who had askcd him (apprchcn
sivcly, onc assumcs) il hc still hcld thc rcvolutionary doctrincs ol his youth, Vagncr says
that having discovcrcd socialism to aim, not at ovcrcoming, but simply at rcorganizing thc
dchumanizcd workplacc ol industrial modcrnity, hc dccidcd, as it wcrc, that my kingdom
is not ol this world , and that worldimprovcrs ol whatcvcr kind wcrc in lact victims ol
a lundamcntal crror, and dcmandcd lrom thc world itscll a thing it cannot givc.

Vhat
this mcans lor thc king, his scllappointcd tutor continucs, is that hc must bccomc a kind
ol rcligious rolc modcl, a saintlikc gurc cmbodying thc naturc ol truc rcligion. Rccog
nising thc irrcmcdiablc unblcsscdncss ol human bcing, thc inncrmost kcrncl ol rcligion
is, continucs Vagncr,
dcnial ol thc world that is, rccognition ol thc world as a ccting and drcamlikc statc ol
mind rcposing mcrcly on illusion and strugglc lor rcdcmption lrom it, prcparcd lor by
rcnunciation, attaincd by laith.
o
Rcdcmption lrom, thc 8ccthovcn cssay adds, thc !ahn ol individuality and thc hcll
ol |an| cxistcncc llcd with tcrriblc discord. Vagncr concludcs, with Schopcnhaucr, that
rcdcmption consists in transccnding thc illusion ol plurality, in rccognising that truc rcality
is an indissolublc unity, an undicrcntiatcd ncncss which abolishcs thc vcry possibility
ol discord.
+
Rcligion, that is, points us to a scll and worldtransccndcncc in which wc
cxpcricncc thc inncr happincss ol thc saint, surc in thc knowlcdgc ol his othcrworldly
rcdcmption, or thc happincss ol thc martyr thc king, Vagncr writcs prophctically to
Ludwig, is a tragic gurc. Tis tclls us thc task ol grcat that is to say, rcligious art. !ts
task, Vagncr continucs (abovc all onc thinks, hcrc, ol Tristan)
is to lilt us up abovc lilc and show it as itscll a gamc ol play: a gamc that, takc it nccr so
tcrriblc and carncst an appcarancc, yct is hcrc again shown to us as a mcrc !ahn picturc,
so that in this way it comlorts us and walts us lrom thc common truth ol our distrcss.
:
Trcc things arc going on hcrc. First, thc armation ol Schopcnhaucrian pcssimism: lilc
is sucring, rcmcdial human cndcavour can changc its lorm but ncvcr its quantity and is
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

:::
thcrclorc lutilc. So thc optimism that is prcsupposcd by schcmcs ol worldimprovcmcnt
such as thc socialism ol Vagncrs youth is bascd on dclusion. Morc gcncrally, politics is
dclusion, !ahn: moving lrom Tribschcn to 8ayrcuth, as wc saw, Vagncr inscribcd abovc
thc lront door ol thc ncw housc, hcrc whcrc my dclusions havc lound pcacc, ! namc this
housc !ahnfried (dclusionpcacc) (scc Platc +).
Sccond, thc passagc no longcr arms socialist matcrialism but rathcr Schopcnhaucrian
idcalism: naturc, thc cvcryday world, is but a drcam and so lilc is nothing but a
gamc.

Tis is what makcs thc third clcmcnt in Vagncrs latcr philosophy possiblc, an
armation ol thc possibility ol salvation lrom this world ol pain, salvation through tran
sccndcncc to anothcr world.

Salvation, Vagncr holds, will rcdccm us lrom thc cursc

ol appcaranccs, lrom discord and pain. l coursc wc cannot providc a rational prool that
thcrc is a rcdcmptivc othcr world. Rcligious othcrworldlincss is in that scnsc !ahn, too, a
mattcr ol laith rathcr than rcason. 8ut it is hcaling rathcr than discascd !ahn.

8ut how can wc acccss this laith: How can wc acquirc thc phcnomcnological cxpcricncc
ol thc rcality ol this world bcyond plurality and so bcyond pain: Tc kcy is music, music
undcrstood in thc light ol Schopcnhaucrs rcvclation ol its truc naturc.

As wc saw (p. 8 abovc) Schopcnhaucr hcld that whilc, along with languagc and con
ccptual thought, all thc othcr arts dcal with thc visiblc world ol appcarancc, music, in a
nonconccptual manncr, discloscs to us thc naturc ol ultimatc rcality, thc thing in itscll . !n
thc 8ccthovcn cssay, Vagncr says that it was Schopcnhaucr who rst propcrly dcncd thc
position ol music in rclation to thc othcr arts, indicating thcrcby his acccptancc ol this high,
mctaphysical claim lor music. 8cing a layman, Vagncr continucs, Schopcnhaucr could not
propcrly dcmonstratc his claim, but attcntion to 8ccthovcns musical dcvclopmcnt lrom his
bcginning as a showy and rclativcly supcrcial piano virtuoso to thc prolound unworldlincss
lor which hc is rcmcmbcrcd shows that Schopcnhaucr was right.
6
Failing to rccognisc Schopcnhaucrs grcat discovcry ol thc uniqucncss ol music, Vagncr
writcs, somc pcoplc (lorcmost in his mind, hcrc, is thc musical lormalist duard Hanslick)
havc applicd thc critcria ol thc plastic arts quitc inappropriatcly to music, judging it in
tcrms ol thc bcautilul, our plcasurc in bcautilul lorms.

Tis was thc position lrom which

8ccthovcn, lollowing thc tradition ol Haydn and Mozart, startcd. !n his maturity, howcvcr,
hc showcd us that thc propcr catcgory lor asscssing thc grcatncss ol grcat music is not thc
bcautilul but rathcr the sublime. Vhcn grcat music cngrosscs us, shc transports us to thc
highcst ccstasy (extase) ol consciousncss ol our innitudc. Tc highcst music is, thcrclorc,
rcligious in charactcr. !n communicating a holy, that is, rcdcmptivc, statc, it is rcligion
purgcd ol dogmatic ctions.
8
Tis is thc charactcr ol 8ccthovcns grcat music. !t spcaks thc highcst wisdom in a lan
guagc not undcrstood by thc rcason ol this most unrccctivc ol gcniuscs. As thc dcalncss ol
which hc ncvcr complaincd ovcrtook him hc bccamc, as it wcrc, thc blind sccr. (According
to Grcck mythology, Tircsias was struck blind by Hcra, acquiring thcrcby thc gilt ol sccond
sight.) His wisdom brings us thc highcst comlort. Vho, Vagncr asks rhctorically, on
listcning to thc Pastoral Symphony, has lailcd to hcar thc rcdccmcrs words today thou shalt
bc with mc in paradisc:

8ccthovcn givcs us an immcdiatc cxpcricncc |ol rcdcmption| ol

Ccrtainly Valt isncy hcars thcsc words, his classic Fantasia allowing a day in thc lilc ol Arcadia
to grow out ol 8ccthovcns music.
:::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
transparcnt comprchcnsibility. His rcnowncd chccrlulncss is thc worldcrcating 8rahma
laughing at himscll. 8ccthovcns Pastoral

and Scvcnth symphonics dclivcr us lrom all

carthly guilt so that thc altcrccct, whcn wc rcturn to thc cvcryday world ol scmblanccs,
is thc lccling ol having lorlcitcd paradisc.
6o
Tis clcvation ol music to thc status ol rcligion conrms, ol coursc, Schopcnhaucrs claim
that music is supcrior to all thc othcr arts. !n particular, it is supcrior to poctry. Poctry,
Vagncr now writcs, must always bc subordinatc to music. Schillcrs words in 8ccthovcns
Choral Symphony arc, as words, unimportant it is signicant that, in thc nal movcmcnt,
thc mclody to which thcy arc sct prcccdcs thcm as purcly instrumcntal music. At most thcy
hclp intcnsily thc mood that bclongs to thc music. And in thc Missa Solemnis thc voiccs
(aidcd, ol coursc, by thc lact that thcy sing in Latin) lunction as purc, musical sounds.
Vagncr hcrc cchocs Schopcnhaucr rcmark that sincc thc supcrciality ol words can but bc a
distraction lromthc dccp mctaphysical signicancc ol music, thc mass is supcrior to opcra
supcrior bccausc, through constant rcpctition, its words havc bccomc a mcrc sollcggio,
mcaninglrcc sounds.
6+
Vagncrs rcvcrsal ol his carlicr thcory ol thc rclativc signicancc ol music and words
is mirrorcd in his postSchopcnhaucrian compositions. Tc discovcry ol Te !orld as !ill
took placc in thc middlc ol his writing thc Fing cyclc (thc librctto lor thc wholc work had
bccn complctcd much carlicr) and camc to havc a prolound impact on thc charactcr ol thc
work. Vhcrcas in thc carlicr part ol thc Fing spccically, Das Fheingold and thc rst act ol
Die !alk ure thc music is strictly subordinatc to thc drama, in thc postSchopcnhaucrian
part ol thc cyclc thc orchcstra bccomcs morc and morc dominant. !n thc sccond and third
acts ol Die !alk ure and in Siegfried and G otterd ammerung thcrc arc long passagcs in which
thc words comc closc to bcing purc, Schopcnhaucrian sollcggio. !n Tristan thc drama is
so slow and thc music so long that thc work somctimcs rclcrrcd to as thc opcra without
action. Nictzschc suggcsts that it can, in lact, bc cxpcricnccd as a purcly instrumcntal work,
a vast symphony,
6:
whilc my own cxpcricncc ol ( Jamcs Lcvincs vcrsion ol ) Vagncrs last
opcra, Parsifal, is ol a singlc, vcandahallhourlong adagio movcmcnt. !t may bc this
approximation ol thc latcr works to absolutc
6
music had hc livcd Vagncr planncd to
writc only symphonics, altcr Parsifal that lcads Nictzschc to suggcst in his notcbooks that
thc tcrm musicdrama is actually a bad onc.
6
Not only is music morc important than words, it actually again Vagncr dircctly rcvcrscs
his carlicr position givcs risc to thcm: thc music ol a grcat artwork contains thc drama
in itscll .
6
Vhat lics bchind this idca, ! bclicvc, is Schopcnhaucrs analysis ol cmotion
into a distinct phcnomcnological lccling plus an cmotional objcct, togcthcr with thc (in
my judgmcnt, corrcct) idca that music allows onc to cxpcricncc thc univcrsal inncr naturc
ol an cmotion divorccd lrom its objcct.
66
So, lor cxamplc, a rcal cxpcricncc ol sadncss
consists in thc lccling ol sadncss plus thc objcct or occasion ol thc cmotion thc dcath
ol oncs grandmothcr, pcrhaps. Vhat sad, purcly instrumcntal, music givcs us, howcvcr,
is objcctlcss sadncss, it givcs us thc cxpcricncc ol sadncss but without ocring anything
to bc sad about. Tis, Schopcnhaucr says, makcs it possiblc to supply a piccc ol absolutc
music with an ocial or unocial tcxt, which stands to univcrsal lccling in thc rclation ol
an cxamplc.
6
Hcncc, lor cxamplc, thc Pastoral symphony and thc Moonlight sonata,
ncithcr ol which titlcs was supplicd by 8ccthovcn. (Tc tcxt may, ol coursc, bc visual, as in
Valt isncys Fantasia.)
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
All grcat art, claims Vagncr, is in lact crcatcd out ol, il not litcral music, at lcast thc
spirit ol music: Grcck culturc was so crcatcd, as was thc art ol thc !talian Rcnaissancc.
,68

!n summary, thcn, Vagncrs postSchopcnhaucrian thought contains two lundamcntal
rcvcrsals ol carlicr positions. First, anarchistsocialist optimism is rcplaccd by pcssimism
about thc human condition, with thc rcsult that salvation is to happcn no longcr in a luturc
statc ol this world but in, rathcr, another world. Salvation, as onc might put it, is no longcr
rcdcmption of thc world but rathcr rcdcmption from thc world. And sccond, instcad ol
music bcing thc scrvant ol words and drama, it now assumcs priority ovcr thc words which
thrcatcn to bccomc, indccd, cntircly lunctionlcss in thc artwork. Tcsc changcs arc ol coursc
conncctcd. For il, as in thc carly thcory, thc point is to improvc thc world, to rcvivc com
munity through thc communitycollccting artwork, thcn, cvidcntly, thc artwork has to bc
about the .orld. !n othcr words, cthoscxpounding myth, which only words can articulatc,
bccomcs thc crucial clcmcnt in thc artwork. n thc othcr hand, il, as in thc latcr thcory,
onc has abandoncd worldimprovcmcnt as lutilc, thcn what onc wants lrom a rcdcmp
tivc artwork is somcthing which allows onc to transcend the .orld. Sincc, on Schopcnhaucrs
account, this is prcciscly what grcat music docs, music bccomcs thc crucial clcmcnt in thc
artwork.
Unlortunatcly lor thc clarity ol his position, Vagncr ncvcr clcarly announccs thc aban
donmcnt ol his carly philosophy ol lilc and art lor this ncw, and diamctrically opposcd
onc. Hc ncvcr clcarly statcs that hc has givcn up on thc idcal ol thc artwork as an agcnt ol
social rcdcmption, ncvcr clcarly statcs that, according to his latcr thought, rcdcmption has
bccomc a purcly indi.idual notion. vcn a rcadcr as acutc as Martin Hcidcggcr misscd this
point. Hcidcggcr writcs that what Vagncr wantcd was that thc artwork should bc a ccl
cbration ol national community . . . should bc the rcligion ol thc pcoplc. 8ut, hc continucs,
Vagncrs attcmpt had to lail. For hc madc music, and, in particular, a kind ol music that
launchcs us into shccr indctcrminacy, total dissolution, shccr lccling prccmincnt, whcrcas
(to rcpcat thc quotation) only grcat poctry and thought in short, words (assistcd, pcr
haps, by action) can crcatc a solidly groundcd and articulatcd position in thc midst ol
bcings.
6
Tis misscs thc point, sincc by thc timc Vagncr camc to allow dissolving or, in
his own languagc, scaollccling music to dominatc his works, hc had, in rcality, givcn up
on thc national community, togcthcr with all things worldly.
8ut Hcidcggcr can bc cxcuscd, sincc Vagncr himscll ncvcr propcrly rcsolvcd thc incon
sistcncy bctwccn his carlicr and latcr positions. !n thc 8ccthovcn cssay, writtcn sixtccn
ycars altcr his Schopcnhaucrian turn, hc still spcaks ol thc rcdcmption of modcrn civil
ization
o
as a task lor thc Gcrman spirit,
+
and in n Statc and Rcligion, mixcd in
with thc idca ol thc king as a rolc modcl ol thc rcligious turn to othcrworldlincss, is
thc idca, prcscrvcd unmodicd lrom thc socialism ol thc +8os, ol thc king as thc pro
tcctor ol thc dcprivcd classcs and ol univcrsal human intcrcsts as such thc bcst pro
tcctor bccausc hc is abovc thc clash ol powcrlul vcstcd intcrcsts, thc naturc ol daytoday
politics.
:
Morcovcr, Vagncr continucs to cclcbratc thc crcation ol national community

Tc lull titlc ol Nictzschcs book is Te Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music. Spirit ol music
indicatcd thc dcpth ol thc works dcbt to Vagncr sincc it was coincd in thc lattcrs Beetho.en cssay
which had prcccdcd it into print by two ycars.
::,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
through art in Mastersingers, anothcr wholly postSchopcnhaucrian work. And thc wholc
8ayrcuth projcct that was thc obscssion ol thc last dccadcs ol his lilc was an attcmpt to
crcatc, as hc cxplaincd on thc occasion ol thc laying ol thc loundation stonc in +8:, a
Gcrman national thcatrc.

Nictzschcs rst attcmpt to havc Te Birth appcar in print consistcd in a lcttcr to thc Lcipzig
publishcr Vilhclm ngclmann. (Tc attcmpt was unsucccsslul, thc book cvcntually nd
ing a homc with rnst Fritzsch, thc Lcipzig publishcr ol many ol Vagncrs own thco
rctical writings.) Tc lcttcr says that although thc work has somcthing ncw to ocr Grcck
philology (what Nictzschc was supposed to bc doing as a prolcssor ol Grcck) its rcal task
is to clucidatc thc strangc puzzlc |or riddlc F atsel| ol our timcs, Richard Vagncr in his
rclation to Grcck tragcdy. Hc gocs on to say that thc work bcars on issucs rcccntly aircd
by duard Hanslick (Vagncrs opponcnt) and should thcrclorc bc ol considcrablc intcrcst
to thc musical world and to thc thinking public in gcncral.

Vc nccd not, ! think, takc

rcal task too scriously. Troughout his lilc Vagncr continucd to bc a hot topic, so that
Nictzschcs books, as hc kncw, always lound a publishcr morc casily whcn hc could strcss a
Vagncrian conncxion. Noncthclcss thc lcttcr docs, ! think, indicatc that at lcast one impor
tant clcmcnt in Te Birth will bc thc rcsolution ol somc puzzlc conccrning Vagncrs rcla
tion to Grcck tragcdy.
!t is by now, ! think, plain as a pikcsta what it is that constitutcs thc puzzlc in qucs
tion: it is thc apparcnt contradiction bctwccn Vagncrs prc and postSchopcnhaucrian
conccptions ol thc artwork. Tis, as wc shall scc, is idcnticd in Te !agner Case ol +888
as thc lundamcntal rcvcrsal in both Vagncrs thcory and his practicc.

r pcrhaps, givcn
Vagncrs rctcntion ol many ol his carlicr idcas in his latcr thought, onc should spcak not
diachronically about carly and latc Vagncr but rathcr synchronically about a split pcr
sonality, about thc contradiction bctwccn thc socialist Vagncr and thc Schopcnhaucrian
Vagncr. Vhat wc can cxpcct, thcrclorc, is that, inter alia, Te Birth, to which ! now turn,
will providc a rcsolution ol this apparcnt contradiction.
Te Wisdom of Silenus
T
he Birth of Tragedy was writtcn, ! havc cmphasiscd, undcr thc inucncc ol Richard
Vagncr. 8ut it was also writtcn undcr thc cqually powcrlul inucncc ol, as Nictzschc
calls him, Vagncrs brothcr in spirit,
6
Arthur Schopcnhaucr. Vhilc dcdicatcd to Vagncr,
thc work is also writtcn, as hc puts it at onc placc, in |Schopcnhaucrs| spirit and to his
honour.

Tis lattcr allcgiancc cntails two crucial commitmcnts. First, in company with
(thc latcr) Vagncr, Te Birth subscribcs to Schopcnhaucrs idcalism: thc cvcryday world, thc
world ol, in Schopcnhaucrs phrasc, thc principium indi.iduationis, thc world ol individu
ality and plurality, ol things, is mcrc appcarancc, ultimatcly, as wc saw, just a drcam. And
sccond, again with Vagncr, it subscribcs to Schopcnhaucrs pcssimism. Lilc, ultimatcly, is
not worth living, sincc its dominant charactcr is sucring.
!nucnccd by Vagncr, ! think, Nictzschc connccts pcssimism with individuality in a
morc cxplicit manncr than docs Schopcnhaucr. !ndividuality, hc writcs, thc cursc ol
individuality, is thc primal causc ol all sucring.
8
Sucring is thus a structural lcaturc ol
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
lilc as a human individual. As individuals, wc arc rst ol all condcmncd to dcath in contra
diction to thc human csscncc, which is, in Schopcnhaucrs phrasc, thc will to livc. Nictz
schc calls this thc absurdity, thc tragic yct comic charactcr ol human cxistcncc:

whatcvcr
bubblc ol a lilc wc blow up will incvitably bc puncturcd by timc and dcath. And sccond, as
individuals sharing thc world with a plurality ol othcr individuals, wc arc condcmncd in
part lor arwins kind ol rcasons to disharmony, to conict, and pain. Pain and absurdity
add up to what Nictzschc calls thc nauscous charactcr ol cxistcncc.
8o
Albcrt Camus said, to rcpcat, that thc only scrious problcm ol philosophy is thc qucs
tion ol suicidc, thc qucstion ol whcthcr or not lilc is worth living. NictzschcanVagncrian
Schopcnhaucrian pcssimismholds that it is not. Noncthclcss, Nictzschc would say, Camuss
cquation is a mislcading onc sincc, lor us, suicidc is not an option. Tc nonrational but incs
capablc (biologically programmcd) will to livc thc abhorrcncc ol dcath as thc summum
malum mcans that (with only thc vcry occasional, biologically mallunctioning cxccption)
wc will choosc cxistcncc at any pricc ovcr noncxistcncc.
8+
Vc havc no option but to livc.
Tis translorms thc problcm. Tc rclcvant qucstion is not whcthcr or not lilc is worth living
but rathcr, givcn that wc must livc, how to makc it bcarablc, how to makc thc bcst ol a bad
job. Tis is whcrc Grcccc, and in particular Grcck art, bccomcs rclcvant.
Tc Grccks, Nictzschc suggcsts, wcrc rcally Schopcnhaucrians. Tcir cxquisitc scnsi
tivity to thc tcrrors and horrors ol human lilc is capturcd in thcir myths, in thc latc ol
cdipus, thc wiscst man on carth condcmncd unknowingly to murdcr his lathcr and slccp
with his mothcr, ol Promcthcus, condcmncd on account ol his lovc ol man to havc an caglc
lccd on his livcr through all ctcrnity, but most dircctly in thc wisdom ol Silcnus. Capturcd
by King Midas and lorccd to divulgc his wisdom, thc companion ol ionysus dcclarcs with
a scornlul cacklc,
whocvcr is man can ncvcr achicvc thc most tobcdcsircd, can havc no part ol thc bcst.
For mankind, lor man and womcn, collcctivcly and scparatcly, thc most prclcrablc would
bc ncvcr to havc bccn born. Tc ncxt bcst, howcvcr having bccn born would bc to dic
soon.
8:
!n spitc ol such knowlcdgc, howcvcr, thc Grccks survivcd and thrivcd: though massivcly
outnumbcrcd, thcy dclcatcd ariuss Pcrsians and, en passant, as it wcrc, crcatcd Vcstcrn
civilization and brought it to a grcatncss ncvcr sincc matchcd.
How did thcy managc this: How did thcy managc to conqucr thc nauscous charactcr ol
lilc: Trough, Nictzschc asscrts, thcir art. Tis is whcrc thcy bccomc rclcvant to us: alrcady
in Lcipzig, as wc havc sccn, rcjccting thc blinkcrcd prolcssionalism that trcatcd philology
as an cnd in itscll, Nictzschc had adoptcd thc vicw that thc only scrious point ol studying
history, and in particular ancicnt history, is to usc it as a polishcd mirror in which to vicw
oursclvcs.
8
Vc want to lcarn about Grcck art bccausc, through a rcbirth ol thc Grcck
artwork, wc can hopc to ovcrcomc our own nausca.
Nictzschc analyscs Grcck art in tcrms ol a cclcbratcd duality which, as notcd, was prob
ably inspircd by thc lavouritc poct ol his schooldays, Fricdrich H oldcrlin (scc p. : abovc):
thc duality bctwccn thc Apollonian and thc ionysian. Hc distinguishcs two principal
typcs ol Grcck art, thc Apollonian art ol, abovc all, Homcr, and thc ionysian art ol Grcck
tragcdy, ol Acschylus and Sophoclcs. ! shall discuss thcsc in turn.
::&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Homers Art

nc ol thc conlusing things about Te Birth is that it uscs Apollonian in two scnscs.
!n thc rst it just mcans thc cvcryday world, thc world govcrncd by Schopcnhaucrs
principium indi.iduationis. Sincc Apollo is thc god ol thc boundarydrawing that crcatcs
individuality (as wcll as justicc),
8
thc cvcryday world is Apollonian simply in virtuc ol
bcing a world ol individual things. !n tcrms ol thc capacitics ol thc human mind which
gcncratc that world, thc Apollonian is thc domain ol thc conccptual, thc linguistic, thc
rational (ol thc lclt hcmisphcrc, in tcrms ol popular ncurology).
!n thc sccond scnsc, Apollonian rclcrs to this world raiscd to a statc ol glory in Homcric
art, its pcrlcction, apothcosis, transguration.
8
Vhcrcas Christian art crccts a non and
indccd antihuman idcal nonc ol us can havc a virgin birth or cscapc scxual lust Apol
lonian art, in its portrait ol gods and hcrocs, docs cxactly thc oppositc. !t dcics cvcrything
|human|, whcthcr good or cvil.
86
!t was a radiant portrait ol themsel.es thc Grccks construc
tcd in Apollonian art, thc idcal imagc ol thcir own cxistcncc. Tus, concludcs Nictzschc
making cxplicit that Homcric art is a rcligion, a rcligion ol lilc not ol duty or asccticism
8

do thc gods justily thc lilc ol man by living it thcmsclvcs thc only satislying thcodicy!
!n this way thc Grccks ol thc cighth ccntury ovcrcamc . . . or at any ratc vcilcd thc tcrrors
and horrors ol cxistcncc, scduccd thcmsclvcs into continucd cxistcncc. xistcncc undcr
thc bright sunshinc ol such gods is rcgardcd as dcsirablc in itscll .
88
Vhat cxactly is thc charactcr ol this transguration ol human lilc: Frcqucntly Nictzschc
spcaks ol illusions and lics,
8
conjuring up thc idca ol lalsication, ol scntimcntalisation,
a vicw ol lilc with thc unplcasant bits covcrcd ovcr. !n lact, though, this cannot bc his vicw,
rst bccausc Homcrs storics arc .ar storics, packcd with dangcr, dcath, and dcstruction,
and sccond bccausc, as hc cxplicitly says, in Homcr all things whcthcr good or e.il arc
dcicd.
o
So concealing thc tcrrors and horrors ol lilc cannot bc thc intcndcd account ol
transguration.
Nictzschc spcaks ol Apollonian art as translorm|ing| thc most tcrriblc things by joy
in mcrc appcarancc and rcdcmption through mcrc appcarancc.
+
And hc spcaks ol thc
Apollonian artist as onc who unlikc thc scicntist, who always wants to uncovcr, to gct
to thc bottom ol things cling|s| with rapt gazc on what rcmains cvcn altcr such uncov
cring.
:
vcn altcr thc uncovcring ol unplcasant truth, thc Apollonian artist takcs dclight
in thc bcautilul, dclight in bcautilul lorms.

Tis suggcsts that thc art ol thc Homcric cpic and thc corrcsponding attitudc to lilc
is a mattcr ol, not climination, but rathcr locus. !t suggcsts an attitudc in which onc is
inclincd to dcscribc lilc as tcrriblc but magniccnt. !n Ucccllos Battle of San Fomano,
lor cxamplc, thc ground is littcrcd with bodics and body parts. 8ut what capturcs oncs
attcntion is thc magniccncc ol thc horscs, thc athlcticism ol thc combatants, thc shccn
on thc armour and thc proud uttcr ol thc pcnnants strcaming in thc brcczc. (Tis is an
appositc comparison sincc Nictzschc comparcs human cxistcncc to that ol soldicrs in an
oil painting ol a battlc sccnc.)

Vcrc onc to look lor a modcrn instancc ol Apollonian art,

what might comc to mind is thc Vcstcrn: dcath and dcstruction arc all about, but what onc
locuscs on is thc cool couragc and thc shccr stylc ol its hcrocs. n a morc dcbascd lcvcl, thc
samc phcnomcnon is cxhibitcd by thc womcns magazinc. Tcrriblc things drunkcnncss,
discasc, divorcc, and dcath happcn to its gods and goddcsscs (minor royals, lm stars,
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
rock musicians, and lootball playcrs), but through it all thc glamour rcmains, thcir stardom
shincs on.

Tc Apollonian outlook on lilc in thc Prclacc to Te Gay Science Nictzschc calls it bcing
supcrcial out of profundity rcquircs a strongly cxtcrnal approach to both othcrs and
oursclvcs. !t rcquircs that dcath bc, as it is in thc Vcstcrn, bloodlcss and painlcss. !t rcquircs
a kind ol inncr anacsthcsia. Tis, ! think, is why Nictzschc associatcs it with illusion: it
rcprcscnts, as it wcrc, a thrccdimcnsional objcct as twodimcnsional. Tough thcrc is no
ccnsorship ol facts thcrc is ccnsorship ccnsorship ol perspecti.es. Subjcctivity, thc inncr
pcrspcctivc, how it lccls to bc on thc inside ol loss, injury and mortality, is not allowcd to bc
shown. 8ut thc Grccks kne. about thc insidc ol things. Tcy had an cxquisitc scnsitivity
to thc tcrror and horror ol cxistcncc. Tis is why Nictzschc calls thc Apollonian attitudc
(in an cntircly nonjudgmcntal way) a lic. !t is a lorm ol sclldcccption.
Tis makc thc Apollonian outlook sccma somcwhat lragilc prophylactic

against nihil
ism, against nausca and dcspair. Tc pain ol things has a way ol lorcing itscll on onc,
no mattcr how supcrcially onc livcs. nc thinks, pcrhaps, ol thc tragic imprisonmcnt,
dccay, and dcath ol thc brilliant scar Vildc, Nictzschcs contcmporary and in many ways
somconc who attcmptcd to pcrsonily thc Apollonian stancc. r onc thinks ol thc impossi
bility ol maintaining such a stancc in thc lacc ol thc dcath ol oncs child. r ol oncs own
dcath. r, in Nictzschcs casc, approaching madncss.
!t is on account ol this lragility, ! think, that, whilc thc Apollonian solution to nausca and
nihilism rcccivcs honourablc mcntion, Nictzschcs prclcrcncc is lor thc ionysian solution
that is cmbodicd in Grcck tragcdy, a solution which hc dcscribcs as thc morc prolound
6
ol
thc two. Vith Grcck tragcdy, hc says, art attains thc highcst goal . . . ol all art,

is, that is
to say, ol thc highcst scrvicc to lilc.
8
Greek Tragedy
N
ictzschcs kcy tcrm lor thc Apollonian is drcam. Tis word docs triplc duty, indicat
ing, rst, that Apollonian consciousncss dcals in imagcs, sccond, that its world ol thc
principium indi.iduation is mctaphysically idcal, a mere drcam, and, third, that in Apollo
nian art this world has bccn raiscd to a statc ol bcauty. !t scrvcs thc last lunction bccausc,
lor Nictzschc, thc csscncc ol thc classical idcal ol bcauty is cconomy ol csscntial lorm
and bccausc in our drcams . . . all lorms spcak to us, nothing is supcruous or unncccs
sary.

!rrclcvant dctails such as thc liccnccplatc numbcr ol thc articulatcd truck bcaring
down on us arc simply omittcd by thc artistry ol drcams.
n thc surlacc, thc tragic art ol thc lth ccntury is no dicrcnt in kind lromthc Homcric
art ol thc cighth. Tc samc cast ol gods and hcrocs appcar in both. Vhat is dicrcnt,
howcvcr, is that bcncath thc bcautilul surlacc ol thc Apollonian drcam
+oo
common to both,
tragcdy posscsscs a ionysian dcpth unknown to Homcr.
Vhcrcas drcam stands lor thc Apollonian, Nictzschcs word lor thc ionysian is Fausch:
intoxication (ionysus, 8acchus, is ol coursc thc god ol winc) or, bcttcr, ccstasy, a standing
out ol oncscll |ex-stasis|, out ol cvcryday consciousncss.
+o+
!n Schopcnhaucrian tcrms, thc
ionysian statc is onc in which onc ovcrcomcs thc principium indi.iduationis, thc illusion
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol individuality and plurality, to rcalisc, intuitivcly, oncs idcntity with thc onc truc bcing
which cvcrything is. !n ionysian ccstasy, prcscrvcd in thc mcdicval carnivals ol St. John
and St, \itus,
+o:
in 8ccthovcns jubilant dc to Joy (and still, to somc dcgrcc, in thc
modcrn rock conccrt and lootball stadium),
not only is thc bond bctwccn human bcings rcncwcd . . . but naturc, alicnatcd, inimical,
or subjugatcd, cclcbratcs oncc morc hcr lcstival ol rcconciliation with hcr lost son, man
kind. Frccly thc carth ocrs up hcr gilts, and thc bcasts ol prcy lrom mountain and dcscrt
approach in pcacc. Tc chariot ol ionysus is ladcn with owcrs and wrcaths, bcncath
its yokc stridc panthcr and tigcr . . . Now all thc rigid, hostilc barricrs which |Apollonian|
ncccssity, capricc or impudcnt lashion
+o
havc cstablishcd bctwccn man and man brcak
asundcr. Now, hcaring this gospcl ol univcrsal harmony, cach pcrson lccls himscll to bc not
simply unitcd, rcconcilcd or mcrgcd with his ncighbour, but quitc litcrally onc with him, as
il |in Schopcnhaucrs languagc| thc vcil ol Maya had bccn torn apart, so that mcrc shrcds
ol it uttcr bclorc thc mystcrious primordial unity. Singing and dancing, man cxprcsscs his
scnsc ol bclonging to a highcr community, has lorgottcn how to walk and talk . . .
+o
!n tcrms ol thc capacitics ol thc human mind, thc ionysian is that which transccnds con
ccpts, which cannot propcrly bc articulatcd in languagc. And in acsthctic tcrms it is music,
morc cxactly dithyrambic music, music which, likc Vagncrs, dissolvcs cvcrything into a
sca ol lccling. !n thc tcrminology Vagncr uscs, ionysian music is sublimc rathcr than
bcautilul (p. +:+ abovc). !t is music which abolishcs thc illusion ol division and absorbs us
into thc unitary hcart ol bcing.
Tc origin ol Grcck tragcdy, Nictzschc argucs, lay in thc ionysian lcstival,

in thc dithy
rambic chanting ol hymns in honour ol ionysus. Latcr on, actors and action wcrc addcd
to thc chanting thc music gavc birth to thc drama and still latcr a lormal division camc
into bcing bctwccn chorus and audicncc. Yct thc spcctators, in thc grcat pcriod ol Grcck
tragcdy, carrying with thcm thc mcmory that, originally, cvcryonc was part ol a unitary
congrcgation ol worshippcrs, still lclt thcmsclvcs to bc part ol thc chorus: Tc audicncc
ol Attic tragcdy idcnticd itscll with thc chorus on thc orchestra |thc scmicircular arca
in lront ol thc stagc|, so that thcrc was lundamcntally no opposition bctwccn public and
chorus, thc wholc |was| just onc sublimc chorus.
+o
Tis idcntication cnablcs Nictzschc to givc an account ol thc tragic ccct, ol thc sccm
ing paradox ol our dcriving satislaction lrom witncssing thc dcstruction ol gurcs who, in
most ways, rcprcscnt what is ncst and wiscst among us. As mcmbcrs ol thc Grcck audicncc
wc partially cmpathisc with thc hcro in his incxorablc march to dcstruction. 8ut bccausc
our primary idcntication is with thc chorus, wc nd oursclvcs transportcd by its hypnotic
singing into thc ionysian statc. !n this condition wc cxpcricncc, says Nictzschc, a mcta
physical comlort lor thc nauscous charactcr ol human cxistcncc. Tis happcns bccausc thc
world ol individuals bccomcs unrcal lor us,
+o6
a gamc ol play in Vagncrs languagc (p. +:o
abovc): individuals, including our own normal sclvcs, bccomc likc soldicrs in a painting ol

Tis, prcsumably, is Te Births contribution to Grcck philology, which thc lcttcr to ngclmann
(p. +: abovc) claims it makcs. !t is an important and gcnuinc contribution still widcly acccptcd by
classical scholars.
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::,
a battlc sccnc.
+o
!nstcad ol idcntilying with anything in thc world ol appcaranccs, lor a
bricl momcnt, wc bccomc
thc primordial bcing itscll and wc lccl its unboundcd grccd and lust lor bcing: thc strugglc,
thc agony, thc dcstruction ol appcaranccs, all this now sccms to us to bc ncccssary givcn thc
uncountablc cxccss ol lorms ol cxistcncc thrusting and pushing thcmsclvcs into lilc, givcn
thc cxubcrant lcrtility ol thc worldwill
+o8
that wc arc. Tis is thc only pcrspcctivc lrom which wc can justily thc nauscous in lilc: only
as acsthctic phcnomcna only, that is, lrom outside thc world ol human individuality
do cxistcncc and thc world appcar justicd. nly lrom this pcrspcctivc can wc apprchcnd
thc ugly and disharmonious (which lrom thc insidc rcndcr human cxistcncc unbcarably
nauscous) as nothing morc than parts ol an artistic gamc which thc primal unity plays
with itscll.
+o
Tis, thcn, is thc solacc brought by thc grcat artwork. For a bricl momcnt ! ovcrcomc
prosaic, cvcryday rcalism and rcalisc thc truth ol Schopcnhaucrian idcalism. Tc absurd
and nauscous charactcr ol lilc and thc world, ! rcalisc, is not my problcm sincc dcath and
pain only cxist in thc cpic movic in which ! am no longcr a participant. Rathcr givcn
my idcntity with thc worldbuilding lorcc that thc dark Hcraclitus comparcd to a child
building sandcastlcs and thcn knocking thcm ovcr again
++o
! am its solc author and spcc
tator.
+++
Pain and dcath, ! scc, arc not just parts but rathcr necessary parts ol thc worldmovic
sincc (as Margarct Atwood oncc ruclully obscrvcd) thcrc is no narrativc without conict,
no cncompassing ol thc ncw without dcstruction ol thc old.

Nictzschc obscrvcs that thc ionysian statc is accompanicd by a dwindling ol thc polit
ical instinct, by indicrcncc, cvcn hostility, towards thc statc and thc scnsc ol homc
land.
++:
Tis is why, unlcss it is modicd and controllcd in somc way, thc ccstatic
brooding ol ionysianism lcads a pcoplc . . . along thc |Schopcnhaucrian| road to !ndian
8uddhism, cngcndcrs apathy towards worldly aairs and a 8uddhistic longing lor noth
ingncss.
++
Statc and homcland, that is to say, arc Apollonian cntitics: thc statc rcquircs
structurc and hicrarchy, homcland rcquircd thc drawing ol a boundary bctwccn homc and
abroad, bctwccn whcrc ! bclong and whcrc thc othcr bcgins. So il ! havc asccndcd to
thc highcr community which comcs lrom thc abolition ol all dicrcncc and division, !
will nd thc idca ol rcturn to thc world ol individuation individuation bcing, rccall, thc
primal causc ol all sucring nauscating:
As soon as cvcryday rcality rccntcrs consciousncss it is lound to bc nauscous: an ascctic,
willdcnying mood is thc product ol this condition. Tc ionysian is sct against thc mcan
ncss and commonncss |ol thc cvcryday| as a highcr ordcr. Tc Grcck now wants absolutc
cscapc lrom this world ol guilt and latc.
++
. . . !n thc consciousncss that comcs with thc
awaking lrom intoxication, hc sccs cvcrywhcrc thc horror or absurdity ol human cxistcncc,
it nauscatcs him. Now hc undcrstands thc wisdom ol thc lorcst god,
++
thc wisdom, that is, ol ionysuss intimatc companion, Silcnus.
Tis, ol coursc, is also thc wisdom ol thc latcr Vagncr, thc Vagncr who arms that
my kingdom is not ol this world and longs lor dcath, lor absolutc unconsciousncss, total
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
noncxistcncc (p. ++ abovc). And it is thc potcntial ccct ol Vagncrs latcr musicdramas:
no onc, writcs Nictzschc, could listcn to thc nal act ol Vagncrs dithyrambic Tristan as
absolutc music, purcly as a vast symphonic movcmcnt, without suocating as thcir soul
attcmptcd convulsivcly to sprcad its wings.
++6
(Tc allusion is to Platos Phaedrus, to thc
souls rcgrowing its wings in prcparation lor its upward ight lrom carthly cxilc to its truc
homcland on thc rim ol thc hcavcns.)
8ut ol coursc Tristan is not (quitc) purc music and ncithcr was Grcck tragcdy. Tcy both
contain words and action, thc Apollonian clcmcnt. Tis, says Nictzschc, shiclds us lrom
thc lull lorcc ol thc ionysian ccct, rcstorcs thc almost shattcrcd individual with thc
hcaling balm ol illusion. Vc arc subjcctcd to thc noblc dcccption that thc tragcdy is a
purcly Apollonian aair, that it conccrns nothing but thc latc ol an individual in thc only
world thcrc is, thc world ol individuals. vcn thc playwright succumbs to thc dcccption,
lails to grasp thc dccp mcaning ol his own work. Tc rcsult is that wc rcturn, rubbing our
cycs, to cvcryday lilc strangcly comlortcd yct rclicvcd ol thc burdcn ol undcrstanding thc
naturc ol thc comlort. Rclicvcd ol thc burdcn ol ionysian insight, wc arc ablc, oncc morc,
to act.
++
Tis is thc truc and prolound mcaning ol Hamlcts paralysis: his insight is that
knowlcdgc kills action, action rcquircs . . . thc vcil ol |Apollonian| illusion.
++8
And, in thc
cnd, this illusion is thc parting gilt ol thc grcat artwork, whcthcr it bc Grcck tragcdy or thc
Vagncrian musicdrama. Likc a lairy godmothcr, Lcthc draws a vcil ol lorgctlulncss ovcr
our momcnt ol worldncgating, rcdcmptivc insight. Vc can carry on, notwithstanding.
Te Role of Myth
T
hus lar, Nictzschcs analysis appcars to lcavc only a rathcr attcnuatcd rolc to thc
Apollonian clcmcnt in Grcck tragcdy: its solc task sccms to bc to act as a vcil ol illu
sion that cnablcs us to rccovcr lrom ionysian insight. !n thc closing pagcs ol Te Birth,
howcvcr, Nictzschc scts out to corrcct this imprcssion.
Vhcrcas thc music constitutcd thc ionysian clcmcnt in Grcck tragcdy, thc hcart ol
thc Apollonian clcmcnt is thc poctic tcxt, thc words. Spccically, it is thc mythic con
tcnt ol thc work, thc rcligious contcnt Sophoclcs, Nictzschc cmphasiscs, was a rcligious
writcr.
++
Closcly cchoing Vagncrs talk ol myth as a condcnsation that is truc lor all
agcs and culturcs (p. ++ abovc), Nictzschc says that thc mythic gurcs ol Grcck tragcdy
arc contractcd imagcs which abbrcviatc appcaranccs. Hc adds that thcy arc human types
rathcr than individuals (thc ccct ol thc actors masks), which cndows thcm with univcrsal
signicancc.
+:o
Vhat is thc importancc ol rcligious myth: Again rcpcating Vagncr almost vcrbatim,
Nictzschc says that only a mythic horizon unics a culturc. nly myth providcs it with a
sccurc and sacrcd placc ol origin. Tc imagcs ol myth, hc continucs,
must bc thc unnoticcd but cvcrprcscnt dacmonic guardians undcr whosc tutclagc young
souls grow up and by whosc signs thc grown man intcrprcts his lilc and his strugglcs, cvcn
thc statc knows ol no morc powcrlul unwrittcn laws than thc mythical lundamcnt which
guarantccs its conncction with rcligion and its cmcrgcncc lrom out ol mythic rcprcscnta
tions.
Art and !olk |pcoplc|, myth and morality, hc concludcs, arc ncccssarily . . . cntwincd. A
pcoplc is only propcrly a pcoplc il it can imposc a mythic, ctcrnal vicw on its cxpcricncc.
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

::
Ncithcr a pcoplc nor an individual human bcing can thrivc without thcrc bcing gods ol thc
hcarth to constitutc its mythical homcland.
+:+
!n a word, thcn, thc mythic contcnt ol tragcdy articulatcs, in allcgorical lorm, thc cthos
ol a community. !n doing so it is a collcctivc artwork in thc doublc scnsc ol bcing a lcs
tivc rcunication ol thc |individual| Grcck arts
+::
and in thc scnsc ol gathcring thc com
munity, and thcrcby crcating and prcscrving it as community. Vhcrcas thc mystcry plays
ol mcdicval Gcrmany had thc lunction ol allowing thc individual to separate himscll lrom
thc community in privatc mcditation, thc Grccks vicwcd thc ancicnt tragcdics in ordcr to
collcct |sich sammeln| thcmsclvcs.
+:
Solution to the Riddle of Wagners Relation to the Greeks
V
c arc now in a position to rcturn to Nictzschcs claim in thc lcttcr to ngclmann
(p. +: abovc) that Te Birth providcs a rcsolution ol thc riddlc ol Vagncrs rcla
tion to Grcck tragcdy. Tc cnigma was, lct us rccall, thc apparcnt contradiction bctwccn
Vagncrs carly or socialist conccption ol thc grcat artwork and his latcr or Schopcn
haucrian conccption. According to thc rst, worldimproving, conccption, thc point ol
thc work is to nd a this-.orldly salvation ol humanity through thc rccstablishmcnt ol
(socialistanarchist) community and hcncc ol mcaning in thc livcs ol individuals. And
according to this conccption, too, thc words in Nictzschcs tcrminology, thc Apollonian
clcmcnt in thc artwork havc to bc thc dominant clcmcnt. Tc work, as wc might put it,
has to bc a musicdrama. According to thc sccond, worldrcjccting conccption, howcvcr,
thcrc is no hopc ol thisworldly rcdcmption, so that thc only lunction ol thc artwork is
to intimatc thc cxistcncc ol an other-.orldly rcdcmption. According to this conccption it
is thc musical ionysian clcmcnt in thc artwork that has to bc dominant, thc words,
indccd, thrcatcn to drop out altogcthcr as at bcst irrclcvant and at worsc a distraction. Tc
work has to bc a musicdrama.
nc would think that thc only possiblc rcsolution ol thc Vagncrian contradiction would
bc to abandon cithcr thc carly, Apollonian, or thc latcr, ionysian, thcory ol thc artwork.
Howcvcr, it now bccomcs clcar that Nictzschcs intcllcctually stunning solution to thc
sccming contradiction is to show how thc artwork can bc both Apollonian and ionysian:
how it can both comlort thc individual in thc lacc ol thc nauscous charactcr ol human
cxistcncc and promotc thc ourishing ol community by gathcring it in a cclcbration and
armation ol its lundamcntal undcrstanding ol how human cxistcncc is and ought to bc.
Tough thc mctaphysical comlort brought by ionysian insight brings with it thc threat
ol 8uddhistic ncgation ol thc will, ol Hamlctlikc paralysis, thc noblc dcccption workcd
by Apollonian illusion blocks that path to nihilism and allows thc artwork to carry out
its worldarming work ol communal gathcring. And as lor thc qucstion ol prcccdcncc
bctwccn words and music (thc topic ol an cntirc opcra, Richard Strausss Capriccio) thc
answcr is that ncithcr is supcrior to thc othcr. Sincc words and music pcrlorm dicrcnt,
but cqually vital tasks, thcrc is gcnuinc cquality bctwccn Apollo and ionysus, a gcnuincly
lratcrnal union.
+:
Tis is an intcllcctual tour dc lorcc, a sorting out ol Vagncrs contradictory position lor
which thc lccund but muddlcd composcr ought to havc bccn proloundly gratclul.
+:
nc
can imaginc an cnlightcncd Vagncr rcplying to rcqucsts lor a statcmcnt ol what hc rcally
thought about Grcck tragcdy with ! dont know: ask Nictzschc what ! think. (As a mattcr
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol lact Vagncr did say prcciscly this on rcading thc sccond ol thc Untimely Meditations
ol +8: ! am proud and dclightcd to announcc, hc wrotc Nictzschc, that ! nccd to say
nothing morc and can lcavc all lurthcr discussion to you.)
+:6
Socrates and the Death of Tragedy

cccntrically, Nictzschc thinks, with Vagncr, that Grcck tragcdy dicd in thc hands ol
uripidcs. vcn morc ccccntrically, hc thinks that thc cmincncc grisc bchind this mur
dcrous act was Socratcs. sscntially, uripidcs did two things. First, by putting thc spcc
tator on thc stagc, in othcr words, by turning tragcdy into a rcprcscntation ol cvcryday lilc,
hc killcd thc univcrsal archctypcs that raiscd it to thc lcvcl ol myth. And sccond, hc killcd
thc chorus. !nucnccd by Socratcss vicw that rcason |is| thc root ol all cnjoymcnt and
crcation, hc was pcrturbcd by thc puzzling dcpth, thc comcts tail ol signicancc, trailcd
altcr thcm by thc charactcrs ol his prcdcccssors, Acschylus and Sophoclcs. Sincc it was thc
mystcrious, dithyrambic chanting ol thc chorus that was thc sourcc ol this incomprchcn
siblc mcaning, hc climinatcd thc chorus. Tis was donc in thc spirit ol acsthctic Socratism,
thc conviction that to bc bcautilul is to bc rational.
+:
Socratism as such Nictzschc idcntics with rcasons joy in unvciling, in gctting bcncath
thc surlacc ol things to uncovcr thcir hiddcn mcchanism. Socratic man (also Alcxandrian
man and thcorctical man) is onc who, likc thc historical Socratcs, has thc impcrturbablc
bclicl that thought, lollowing thc thrcad ol causality, rcachcs down into thc dccpcst abysscs
ol bcing, and that it is capablc, not simply ol undcrstanding cxistcncc, but cvcn ol correcting
it.
+:8
Socratismis, in othcr words, thc laith that scicncc togcthcr with its ospring, tcchnol
ogy, has thc capacity to solvc cvcry human problcm. Tis makcs it an optimistic doctrinc
that bclicvcs in thc possibility ol carthly happincss lor all.
+:
!t is thus not dicult to scc
why, lrom thc Socratic point ol vicw, ionysian tragcdy had to go. !t undcrmincs laith in
rcason, thc kcy to human happincss.
Nictzschc makcs two claims about Socratism. First that it is false, an illusion. Tanks
to thc cxtraordinary couragc and wisdom ol Kant and Schopcnhaucr, thanks in othcr
words to mctaphysical idcalisms conncmcnt ol causality to thc drcamworld ol appcar
anccs, wc know that ultimatc rcality is not acccssiblc to, and hcncc not corrcctiblc by, sci
cncc.
+o
Socratismis thus a lorm ol hubris on account ol which a Socratic culturc is liablc to
catastrophic and totally unanticipatcd traumas as thc childgod smashcs onc ol its sand
castlcs (scc p. +: abovc). Nictzschcs sccond claim is that Socratism is thc way wc, thc
postnlightcnmcnt Vcst, arc now. (So wc might think ol /++ or ol global warming as
just such a trauma.) Modern man is Socratic man. To thcsc claims Nictzschc adds a third:
Socratic culturc is degenerate culturc. How so:
What Is Wrong with Te Way We Are Now?
N
ictzschc idcntics two things as wrong with modcrn culturc. First, through thc domin
ion ol scicntistic matcrialism and thc conscqucnt loss ol thc ionysian, wc havc lost
that mctaphysical comlort which savcd us lrom bccoming rigid with lcar in thc lacc ol
thc horrors ol individual cxistcncc, in thc lacc, abovc all, ol our incvitablc dcstruction,
Fichard !agner and the Birth of Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy

:
dcath.
++
!n !agner in Bayreuth Nictzschc writcs that thc individual must bc lrccd lrom
thc tcrriblc anxicty which dcath and timc cvokc.
+:
Tis, howcvcr, our postChristian, post
mctaphysical culturc cannot do lor us. !t lollows that a Socratic culturc must bc hauntcd by
anxicty, cvasion, and ultimatcly tcrror, in thc lacc ol dcath.
Tc sccond thing wrong with our Socratic culturc, according to Nictzschc, is that wc
havc lost myth. Modcrn man is mythlcss man.
+
Tc rcason has to do with thc rolc ol art
in modcrnity.
Myth, wc know, whcthcr in Homcric or tragic art, bclongs to thc Apollonian. Tc ccntral
ccct ol Apollonian art is, wc havc sccn, to transgurc, to glorily, to pcrlcct. 8y using
thc tcchniqucs ol thc tradc highlighting thc attractivc, pushing thc notsoattractivc into
shadc or solt locus, and so lorth it raiscs its gurcs lrom thc mundanc to thc glorious.
!t makcs thcm shine,
+
thcrcby cndowing thcm with charismatic authority. Tcy bccomc
hcrocs, gurcs wc cstccm and hcncc scck to cmulatc.
+
Tcy bccomc, in a crudc and not
cntircly accuratc nutshcll, rolc modcls.
!t would bc loolish to dcny that things shinc in modcrnity. ur culturc is lull ol shiny
things, ol gods and hcrocs: Princcss i (as immortal as any ol thc lympians), Madonna,
thc 8cckhams, thc winncr ol thc latcst scar or rcality T\ show, and so on. All ol thcm arc
madc to shinc by Apollonian art (othcrwisc known as thc mcdia). Tc problcm, in lact, is
that too many things shinc in modcrnity, and that thcir shinc rubs o too soon.
Tis is anticipatcd with grcat prcscicncc by Nictzschc. nly by myth, hc writcs, can all
thc cncrgics ol lantasy and Apollonian drcam bc savcd lrom aimlcss mcandcring.
+6
Aim
lcss mcandcring sccms to mc prcciscly to capturc thc cklc ickcr ol cclcbrity thc Apollo
nian drcam ol thc prcscnt agc. And what this mcans, lor Nictzschc, is that thc Apollonian
art ol Vcstcrn modcrnity is dcvoid ol mythic contcnt.
Tc important thing to noticc hcrc is that, lor Nictzschc, myth mcans somcthing likc
unicd, comprchcnsivc, and consistcnt myth. For him a myth is somcthing that can con
stitutc thc unity |Einsein| ol !olk and culturc, somcthing that can constitutc thc noblc corc
ol |a| . . . pcoplcs charactcr |!olkscharakter|, somcthing that could count as, lor cxamplc, the
Gcrman myth.
+,
So, lor cxamplc, thc cntirc panoply ol Grcck gods and hcrocs consti
tutcs a single myth, thc cntirc rangc ol Christian divinitics and saints anothcr. Myth lor
Nictzschc mcans, in short, just what it mcans lor Vagncr a vicwin common ol thc csscncc
ol things which constitutcs thc nation itscll (p. ++ abovc). From this point ol vicw thc
problcm with modcrnity is that all wc havc is an incohcrcnt and constantly changing chaos
ol mythfragments, a pandcmonium ol myths . . . thrown into a disordcrly hcap.
+8
Vc livc,
as Zarathustra will put it, in a motlcy town.
Vhat is wrong with thc mythlcss motlcyncss ol modcrnity: !n pointing to thc spc
cic symptoms ol this, Nictzschc dcvclops a cultural criticism which is dccply indcbtcd to
Vagncrs and which pcrsists with rcmarkablc consistcncy throughout his carccr.
Tc rst symptom is loss ol unity. Sincc thc unity ol a community, ol a pcoplc, can only
cxist whcn individuals arc gathcrcd into thc matcrnal womb ol a unicd myth, thcrc is, in
modcrnity, no community, no homcland. !nstcad, all wc havc is a wildcrncss ol thought,

Sounding much likc Sachs at thc vcry cnd ol Mastersingers, Nictzschc calls, in thc closing pagcs ol
Te Birth, lor a rebirth of German myth (8T :, Nictzschcs cmphasis.) As soon as hc had rccovcrcd
lrom his inlatuation with Vagncr, such nationalist scntimcnts disappcar lrom his thought
bccomc, indccd, anathcma to it. Vhat ncvcr disappcars, howcvcr, wc shall scc, is his commitmcnt
to thc vital importancc ol communal myth, supra-national communal myth.
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
morals, and action, a homclcss wandcring about.
+
Modcrn socicty has bccomc thc atom
izcd world ol, in Vagncrs phrasc, absolutc cgoism, with thc only unity bcing thc articial
and opprcssivc onc ol thc statc. As a conscqucncc, communally and so individually, lilc
bccomcs mcaninglcss.
Tc sccond symptomis a grccdy scramblc to grab a placc at thc tablc ol othcrs, thc scarch
lor mcaning in thc supcrmarkct ol lorcign rcligions and culturcs.
+o
nc might think hcrc
not only ol thc thriving astcrnguru busincss but also ol socallcd postmodcrn architcc
turc, thc raiding ol past and alicn stylcs as an cxprcssion ol thc hollowcdout cmptincss ol
our own culturc, which, Nictzschc points out, is not rcally post modcrnity at all.
Tc nal symptom is modcrnitys lcvcrish agitation. Tc loss ol thc ctcrnal, mythical
pcrspcctivc on things, thc loss ol a mcaning ol lilc, lcads to an cnormous growth in worldli
ncss, a lrivolous dcication ol thc prcscnt . . . ol thc hcrc and now.
++
Tis is what modcrn
Gcrman sociologists call thc Erlebnisgesellschaft thc socicty drivcn by thc lrcnzicd qucst
lor cxpcricnccs, chcap thrills, lor scx, drugs, rock and roll and cxtrcmc sports. !t is thc
socicty dcscribcd by Vagncr as borcd to dcath by plcasurc. Vithout a communal cthos
to givc aspiration and mcaning to oncs lilc, thc only way ol kccping borcdom at bay is thc
lrcnzicd scarch lor chcap thrills. Vhat Nictzschc and Vagncr both havc in mind, ! think, is
Schopcnhaucrs strcssorborcdom obscrvation (p. 8 abovc). Vithout thc (hcalthy) strcss
providcd by an idcntitydcning idcal, onc can only try to prcscrvc oncscll lrom borcdom
through thc cvcrdiminishing rcturns ol cvcr morc cxotic thrills.

!n Te Birth of Tragedy, Nictzschc calls lor thc living ol Grcck history in rcvcrsc.
+:
So
what hc calls lor is somcthing that will play, in modcrn lilc, thc rolc that was playcd by thc
tragic lcstival in thc livcs ol our radiant lcadcrs, thc Grccks, at thc highcst point ol thcir
culturc.
+
Vith Vagncr, thcrclorc, what hc calls lor is thc rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy in thc
artwork ol thc luturc. Tc ovcrridingly ccntral mcssagc ol Te Birth its raison d ctrc is
thus thc call lor thc birth ol thc 8ayrcuth Fcstival.
8
War and Aftermath
T
nv vvvv~v~:ioxs lor Te Birth of Tragedy wcrc intcrruptcd by an cvcnt on thc
worldstagc which produccd prolound and pcrmancnt cccts on Nictzschcs think
ing. Hallway through writing a lcttcr bcgun on July +6, +8o, tclling Rohdc what a
good imprcssion hc had madc on thc Vagncrs during his May visit to Tribschcn, hc hcard
thc ncws:
Hcrc is a lcarlul thundcrclap: thc FrancoGcrman war has bccn dcclarcd and our wholc
thrcadbarc culturc is toppling ovcr with thc tcrriblc dcmon at its throat . . . Vc may alrcady
bc at thc bcginning ol thc cnd. Vhat a wastcland! Vc will nccd monastcrics oncc again.
And wc will bc thc rst brothcrs. Your truc Swiss.
+
Tis rcvcals somcthing ol Nictzschcs initially conluscd and ambiguous rcsponsc to thc
July + dcclaration ol war. n thc onc hand hc is horricd that uropcan culturc has lailcd
to prcvcnt thc outbrcak ol war, that it is lapsing into barbarism. 8ut onc thc othcr, alrcady
pcrcciving uropc to bc a culturc in nccd ol rcgcncration, hc sccs thc possibility ol cclls ol
rcgcncration monastcrics growing up on thc wastcland lclt by thc pcrhaps clcansing
rc ol war. (Tc monastcry or somctimcs colony lor lrcc spirits will soon bccomc a
major thcmc.) Tat hc signs thc lcttcr Your truc Swiss suggcsts that, taking advantagc ol
Swiss ncutrality, hc plans to sit thc wholc thing out. At virtually thc samc timc, howcvcr, hc
wrotc to his mothcr, Rcally, !m dcprcsscd about bcing a Swiss. !ts about our culturc! And
lor that no sacricc is too grcat! Tis damncd Frcnch tigcr.
:
And a couplc ol days latcr hc
wrotc Sophic Ritschl that hc lclt ashamcd ol having to rcmain inactivc whcn thc timc had
nally arrivcd lor which his military training had prcparcd him.

At rst, Nictzschc madc no movc to involvc himscll in thc war. !nstcad hc took liza
bcth, who was staying in 8ascl, lor hcr rst visit to Tribschcn, and thcn, on July o, to thc
Madcrancrtal, a wildly romantic vallcy +,oo mctrcs abovc sca lcvcl, whcrc thcy staycd at
thc hotcl Alpcnklub. Hcrc hc wrotc Tc ionysian Vorldvicw

(thc work in which thc

Apollonian/ionysian duality rst comcs to promincncc in his analysis ol Grcck tragcdy).
Staying in thc samc hotcl was a Hamburg landscapc paintcr, Adoll Moscngcl, whom thcy

:
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
had alrcady mct cn routc. !ntcnsc convcrsations with Moscngcl, as wcll as ncws ol Gcrman
victorics though with hcavy losscs at Vcisscnburg and V orth, galvaniscd Nictzschc
into cmcrging lrom thc shcltcr ol Swiss ncutrality. n August 8 hc wrotc to his hcad ol
dcpartmcnt, Vilhclm \ischcr, rcqucsting lcavc lrom thc univcrsity in ordcr to lull his
German duty to thc Prussian lathcrland cithcr as a soldicr or as a mcdical ordcrly.

Hc communicatcd his intcntions to Cosima. !n spitc ol hcr Frcnch conncxions shc was
rclatcd through hcr mothcr, Maric dAgoult, to thc Frcnch war ministcr both thc Vagncrs
wcrc passionatc supportcrs ol thc Gcrman causc. Tcy thought, noncthclcss, that pcoplc
ol culturc and intcllcct had bcttcr things to do than to gct shot. Cosima tricd to dissuadc
Nictzschc lrom activc scrvicc, suggcsting that, in thc wcllorganizcd mcdical scrvicc, his
amatcurish corts would bc morc ol a hindrancc than a hclp, and that hc could bcttcr
contributc to thc war cort by scnding a hundrcd cigarcttcs to thc lront.
!n thc cvcnt, thc univcrsity grantcd Nictzschc lcavc ol abscncc but, in vicw ol Swiss
ncutrality, only to act as a mcdical ordcrly. Accordingly, accompanicd by Moscngcl and
lizabcth (who was having troublc gctting back to Gcrmany, most trains having bccn
rcquisitioncd as troop transports), hc madc thc tortuous journcy lromthc Madcrancrtal, via
Lindau on Lakc Constancc, to rlangcn, in 8avaria, whcrc hc arrivcd on August +. ur
ing thc journcy, as lizabcth rcports, thcy had bccn in high spirits and had sung jolly songs,
but sccing thc woundcd all around thcm on thcir arrival, bccamc ashamcd ol thcir prcvious
childish lrivolity.
6
!n rlangcn Nictzschc undcrwcnt training to bccomc a mcdical ordcrly
in thc Felddiakonie |Ficld Scrvicc|, a lorcrunncr ol thc Rcd Cross.
Te Iranco-Prussian War
T
hc ocial dcclaration ol war camc lrom thc Frcnch parliamcnt acting on thc instruc
tions ol thc mpcror Napolcon !!! (thc ncphcwol Napolcon 8onapartc, whomNictz
schc had so admircd as a schoolboy (pp. 8 abovc)). Tough thc lormal causc was thc
possiblc acccssion ol a Gcrman candidatc to thc Spanish thronc, thc outbrcak ol war had
to a largc dcgrcc bccn cnginccrcd by 8ismarck. Playing on Frcnch lcar ol rising Prussian
powcr and on Napolcons vanity, hc saw thc war as thc ncccssary mcans ol pcrsuading thc
southcrn Gcrman statcs to join thc North Gcrman Fcdcration in what, at thc conclusion
ol thc war in +8+, bccamc a unitcd Gcrmany, thc Sccond

Gcrman Rcich.
Tough thc war lastcd a barc six months, it was a bloodbath, in many ways a drcss
rchcarsal lor thc horrors ol thc First Vorld Var. n top ol a largc but unknown numbcr
ol civilian casualtics, thcrc wcrc somcthing approaching hall a million military casualtics
dcad or woundcd thrccquartcrs ol thc dcaths, +6,ooo, bcing on thc Frcnch sidc. Tc
Frcnch dcploycd, lor thc rst timc, a machinc gun, thc mitraillesuse, but lar morc dcadly
was thc ncw brccchloading ric, thc chassepot, with twicc thc rangc ol thc Gcrman nccdlc
gun. Tc Gcrmans, on thc othcr hand, had ncw, brccchloading artillcry constructcd out ol
stccl, dccisivcly supcrior to thc Frcnch artillcry. vcn morc importantly, thc Prussians had
compulsory military scrvicc and a population hardcncd into a militarizcd, nationalistic,
and Francophobic wholc by thc Var ol Libcration (lrom Napolcons occupying army) ol

Tc Holy Roman mpirc (which, lamously, was ncithcr holy, nor Roman, nor an cmpirc) was thc
rst. Tc third, ol coursc, was Hitlcr.
!ar and ftermath

:
+8++, which rcgardcd dying lor thc lathcrland in battlc as a glorious act. Anothcr vital
advantagc was thc cxistcncc ol thc rst pcrmancnt gcncral sta dcvotcd to lulltimc plan
ning lor possiblc and actual warlarc, and in FicldMarshall Hclmuth von Moltkc a military
stratcgist ol gcnius. As hc had against thc Austrians vc ycars carlicr, von Moltkc uscd thc
railways to dcploy troops with a spccd that bcmuscd thc Frcnch.
Vinning a scrics ol battlcs, though oltcn at a scvcrc cost Visscnburg, Spichcrcn,
V orth, MarslaTour, Gravclottc, Mctz thc Gcrmans advanccd through Alsacc and
dccp into Francc, until nally Napolcon surrcndcrcd at Scdan, togcthcr with +o,ooo mcn,
on Scptcmbcr :, +8o. Tc Gcrmans thcn advanccd on Paris, which thcy bcsicgcd lrom
Scptcmbcr + until nally it lcll on January :8, +8+. An armisticc was signcd on that
day, Vilhclm ! ol Prussia having bccn proclaimcd mpcror ol a unitcd Gcrmany tcn days
carlicr. Tis was lollowcd by a pcacc trcaty signcd at \crsaillcs on Fcbruary :8 which, how
cvcr, thc Paris workcrs and homc guard rcluscd to acccpt, scizing control ol thc capital on
March +8 and sctting up thc Paris Communc. Vith tacit Prussian approval, thc Frcnch
army rcconqucrcd Paris and cxccutcd tcns ol thousands ol workcrs and rcvolutionarics in
thc 8loody Vcck ol May :+:8. Tc war rcsultcd in thc ccding ol AlsaccLorrainc to
Gcrmany, lurthcr luclling thc FrancoGcrman bittcrncss that would cxplodc, lortythrcc
ycars latcr, into thc First Vorld Var.
Nietzsches War
N
ictzschcs mcdical training in rlangcn lastcd tcn days. vcry morning thc trainccs
wcrc taught how to drcss and bandagc wounds, practicing largcly on woundcd mcn
rcturncd lrom thc lront. bviously prcsscd lor timc but nding it ncccssary to rccord his
part in world history, Nictzschc kcpt a lragmcntary diary lor thc pcriod:
Today, Saturday |August :o, +8o| . . . wc just chlorolormcd a Frcnchman lor a plastcr
olParis cast (thc hand is shattcrcd, undcr thc anacsthctic hc callcd out Mon Dieu mon
Dieu je .ien |My God, ! am coming|). 8clorc that a girl ol clcvcn, to savc hcr lcg lrom
amputation. A lcw days carlicr in a housc, a boy with a hugc hcad wound, chlorolormcd,
vcry dicult. Ycstcrday a Prussian dicd in thc hospital, shot in thc lung, today a sccond.
A Prussian, Licbig, in a good statc, hcalthy appctitc, a good nights slccp, but littlc hopc,
armbonc shattcrcd, not possiblc to do a cast.

Lcaving lor thc lront at V orth on August :, Nictzschc, as lizabcth rccords (in hcr char
actcristically saccharinc manncr), was put in chargc ol a mcdical unit as wcll as bcing
cntrustcd with largc sums ol moncy and a wholc host ol pcrsonal mcssagcs, and thus hc had
to nd his way across thc battlcclds lrom |cld| hospital to hospital and lrom ambulancc
to ambulancc, in ordcr to comlort thc woundcd and thc dying, and to takc thc last words
ol larcwcll and rcmcmbrancc lrom dying lips.
8
n August :8 hc wrotc his mothcr that with this lcttcr comcs a mcmory ol thc lcarlully
dcvastatcd battlccld |ol V orth| covcrcd cvcrywhcrc with indcscribably sad human body
parts and stinking corpscs.

:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
n Scptcmbcr : Nictzschc and Moscngcl, who had bccn togcthcr all this timc, wcrc put
on a hospital train in ArssurMoscllc to accompany thc woundcd to hospital in Karlsruhc.
Sincc thc wcathcr was atrocious thc wagons had to bc kcpt shut thc cntirc journcy. Nictzschc
dcscribcd thc journcy in a lcttcr to Vagncr:
with thcsc thrcc days and thrcc nights
+o
in thc midst ol scriously woundcd mcn, wc rcachcd
thc uttcrmost limits ol our cxcrtions. ! had a ghastly cattlctruck in which lay six scvcrcly
woundcd mcn, and ! was thc only pcrson thcrc to givc thcm thcir lood, to bandagc thcir
wounds and to scc to thcm gcncrally. |To von Gcrsdor hc adds thc dctail that hc had to
attcnd to thcir human nccds.
++
| All ol thcm had brokcn boncs, many had lour wounds,
and in addition ! obscrvcd that two had hospital gangrcnc. Tat ! was ablc to cndurc this
discascriddcn air, and could cvcn slccp and cat, now sccms to mc quitc miraculous.
+:
Tough hc cndurcd thc journcy, hc did not cmcrgc unscathcd. 8y thc timc thc train arrivcd
in Karlsruhc, hc was lccling vcry ill. Vith diculty hc carricd on to rlangcn, whcrc hc
was conncd to bcd. A doctor diagnoscd scvcrc dyscntcry, togcthcr with diphthcria, both
ol which Nictzschc had obscrvcd in thc cattlctruck.
+
Moscngcl, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor,
has thc task ol looking altcr mc. And that was no mcan task, givcn thc charactcr ol thc
discascs. Altcr ! had bccn trcatcd lor scvcral days with opium and tannic acid |cncmas|
and silvcr nitratc thc dangcr passcd. Altcr a wcck ! was allowcd to travcl to Naumburg,
but !m still not propcrly rccovcrcd. n top ol all this thc atmosphcrc ol thc cxpcricncc has
surroundcd mc with a gloomy log lor a long timc ! had a plaintivc ringing in thc cars that
wouldnt stop.
+
Anothcr ccct ol his war scrvicc was that, sincc thc training in rlangcn had givcn him
an clcmcntary knowlcdgc ol drugs, Nictzschc now lclt himscll qualicd to scllprcscribc
which hc did lor thc rcst ol his lilc with, almost ccrtainly, largcly dclctcrious rcsults.
Nictzschc rcmaincd in bcd in thc Hotcl Vallsch (Vhalc) in rlangcn until mid
Scptcmbcr, altcr which hc spcnt a month rccupcrating in his mothcrs housc in Naum
burg, whcrc thc abovc lcttcr was writtcn. n ctobcr :+ hc sct o to rcturn to work in
8ascl, arriving, lrozcn, lor an ovcrnight stop in Franklurt on thc twcntysccond. n thc
twcntythird hc arrivcd in 8ascl, having strugglcd with nausca thc cntirc journcy.
+
Te Aftermath
T
hough morc or lcss rccovcrcd physically, Nictzschcs war cxpcricnccs, cvcn though thcy
lastcd barcly a month, togcthcr with his anxictics lor von Gcrsdor (who rcmaincd at
thc lront until thc bittcr cnd) and thc knowlcdgc that sixtccn ol his Plorta contcmporarics
had bccn killcd in battlc,
+6
lclt him psychologically damagcd. To \ischcr hc wrotc that hc
was burying himscll in philological work to try to cscapc thc tcrriblc imagcs cngravcd in
his mcmory, but still sucrcd lromncrvous troublc and suddcn wcakncss.
+
And lizabcth
rcports that cvcn scvcral ycars latcr, whcn Rohdc (a nonparticipant) complaincd hc had
hcard vcry littlc ol Nictzschcs war cxpcricnccs, my brothcr cjaculatcd painlully: ! cannot
!ar and ftermath

:,
spcak ol such things, it is impossiblc, onc must cndcavour to banish such mcmorics lrom
oncs mind.
+8
Tcrc can bc littlc doubt that thcsc symptoms thc rccurrcncc ol ashback
imagcs long altcr thc cvcnt dcscribc what would now bc diagnoscd as posttraumatic
strcss disordcr.
Tc ccct ol this condition was to producc in Nictzschc a translormation not unlikc that
cxpcricnccd by thc First Vorld Var pocts on both sidcs. As wc saw, Nictzschc had bccn,
throughout his carly manhood, a passionatc Prussian cagcr to scrvc thc Fathcrland on thc
battlccld and il ncccssary dic lor it. Sincc boyhood, morcovcr, war ol any sort had bccn, lor
him as lor Prussian childrcn in gcncral, a glamorous activity, radiant with (in thc languagc
ol Te Birth of Tragedy) Apollonian splcndour. As lizabcth rccords, hc wcnt o to war in
high good spirits. 8ut thc unglamorous rcality ol stinking body parts (a rcality to which hc
was, in lact, morc cxposcd than had hc scrvcd with thc rclativc rcmotcncss ol an artillcry
occr), and thc dcaths ol his schoollcllows, barcly out ol thcir tccns, strippcd away thc
Apollonian glamour by cxposing him in thc most dircct way possiblc to thc tcrrors and
horrors ol lilc. (Tcrc is, onc may suspcct, a biographical basis to Te Births awarcncss ol
thc lragility ol thc Apollonian lic.)
To bc surc, Nictzschc did not bccomc, ovcrnight, a pacist. !n Scptcmbcr +8 hc was
still capablc ol writing Vagncr that thc onc good thing is thc Gcrman soldicr.
+
As with
most cxpcricnccs, it took Nictzschc a long timc to digcst his war cxpcricnccs, lor thcir lull
cccts to bccomc manilcst. Noncthclcss, thc posttraumatic strcss hc sucrcd in +8o is, in
my judgmcnt, thc dccisivc cvcnt which produccd two lundamcntal changcs in his thought.
Tc rst is an intcnsc locus on thc problcm ol human violcncc that comcs to thc lorc lor thc
rst timc in his postwar writings. And thc sccond is a ncwly critical locus on 8ismarcks
Prussia, thc truc instigator ol thc war.
Violence
N
ictzschc grcw up in a timc ol continual actual or immancnt war. His rst rcsponsc
to thc outbrcak ol thc FrancoPrussian war, as wc havc sccn, was to scc it as a lailurc
ol culturc: thc collapsc ol a thrcadbarc culturc, thc wintcr slccp ol culturc.
:o
Tis makcs
it clcar that whatcvcr cxactly culturc is, il somcthing is to bc worthy ol thc namc it must
contain somc tcchniquc lor dcaling with thc problcm ol violcncc.
As in thc casc ol almost cvcry othcr human problcm, Nictzschc turns to antiquity, and in
particular thc Grccks, lor a solution. Tough hc touchcs upon it in Te Birth of Tragedy, thc
most sustaincd considcration ol thc problcm ol violcncc in his carly philosophy is Homcrs
Compctition,
:+
onc ol thc Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten Books prcscntcd to Cosima as a
birthday prcscnt on Christmas, +8:. Tough ncvcr publishcd, this is an important work in
which scvcral ol thc kcy thcmcs ol his maturc philosophy bccomc visiblc lor thc rst timc.
Tc humanc, that which clcvatcs humanity abovc thc animals, rcachcd its highcst dcvcl
opmcnt in thc Grccks. Yct at thc samc timc, Nictzschc writcs, thc Grccks had, at thc root
ol thcir naturc, a wanton cruclty, a tigcrlikc plcasurc in dcstruction: Alcxandcrs and
Achillcss habit ol trailing thc bodics ol dclcatcd cncmics bchind thcir chariots is a casc in
point. (Hc is writing, hcrc, in conscious opposition to thc cightccnthccntury portrait ol
thc Grccks as serenely and eortlessly humanc.)
:,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc Grccks, as wc know, arc thc polishcd mirror (pp. 68, +: abovc) in which wc can
vicw oursclvcs. !l thc most humanc ol all spccics ol humanity wcrc not lrcc ol thc dis
position to violcncc, no spccics is. Tc disposition to cruclty, aggrcssion, violcncc (latcr,
Nictzschc will spcak ol thc will to powcr) is innatc to human bcings, hardwircd into
our constitutions. Tcrc can bc, thcrclorc, no qucstion ol eliminating thc disposition to
violcncc. Tc only possibility is that culturc can somchow contain or redirect it. Tis is a
lundamcntal and vcry dicult insight on Nictzschcs part, rcquiring a radical brcak with
traditional uropcan morality. Sincc thc Christian idcal ol sclcss lovc, thc injunction that
onc ought to lovc cvcn oncs cncmics, prcsupposcs that onc can lovc cvcn oncs cncmics,
that in principlc, violcncc can bc climinatcd lrom thc human psychc, Nictzschcs insight
into its incliminability is only acccssiblc to somconc who has abandoncd thc psychological
prcsuppositions ol Christian morality.
Givcn thc rccognition ol thc incliminability ol violcncc, Nictzschc continucs, thc ancicnt
world cxhibitcd thrcc rcsponscs. Tc rst was to dcspair ol human naturc, as did thc lollow
crs ol thc rphic cult: cxposurc to a world ol combat and cruclty lcd to nausca at cxistcncc,
to thc vicwthat a lilc rootcd in such an impulsc was not worth living.
::
Tc sccond rcsponsc
was to givc thc impulsc lrcc rcin. Tis is what charactcriscd thc barbarian world, in which
thc statutcs ol civiliscd lilc wcrc rcgularly swcpt away by thc witchcs brcw ol scnsuality
and cruclty.
:
Tc third rcsponsc was that ol thc Grccks. Tc rst important lact about thcm is that
thcy acknowlcdgcd thc impulsc . . . to combat and thc plcasurc ol victory.
:
Tcir moral
judgmcnts, that is, had a dicrcnt colouration lrom ours: thcrc was nothing sinlul about
aggrcssion and cruclty, no willul contravcntion ol Gods laws, it was just there, a brutc lact
about thc way things arc. n thc othcr hand, thcy rccogniscd that nakcd aggrcssion was
harmlul, though not sinlul, it is, in Nictzschcs latcr languagc, stupid. And so thcir task
was to nd lor it a nondcstructivc, indccd positivcly productivc, lorm ol cxprcssion. Tcir
grcatncss was that thcy succccdcd: thcy lcarnt to purily thc will to violcncc, to translorm
thc tcrriblc into thc noblc, thc damaging into thc usclul.
:
Tcy did this by lcarning how
to spiritualisc violcncc,
:6
how to nd lor it a surrogatc lorm ol cxprcssion. !n thc languagc
Frcud uscd to dcscribc a notion hc almost ccrtainly took ovcr (without acknowlcdgmcnt)
lrom Nictzschc, thcy lcarnt to sublimatc violcncc.
nc ol thc ways in which thcy did this was through art. Hcncc thcir plcasurc in Homcrs
vicious war storics and latcr on in Grcck tragcdy. Vhcrcas thc ionysian lcstivals ol thc
barbarians turncd into orgics ol scx and violcncc that oltcn includcd human sacricc, in
thc ionysian lcstival ol thc Grccks, thc tragic lcstival, thcy killcd thcir hcrocs not in lilc
but, as Nictzschc would latcr put it, in cgy.
:
A morc productivc way in which thcy
sublimatcd violcncc, howcvcr, was through compctition.
!n acknowlcdging human lilc as csscntially combat and victory, thc Grccks acknowl
cdgcd it as thc domain ol thc goddcss ris, thc goddcss ol cnvy, troublc and strilc. Tc
Grcck conccpt ol cnvy was, howcvcr, quitc unlikc ours. For thcy acknowlcdgcd, in lact,
t.o goddcsscs a bad ris but also a good onc. 8ad ris crcatcd war (shc startcd thc
Trojan Var by throwing hcr goldcn applc, an objcct ol univcrsal lust, among thc gucsts at
thc wcdding ol Pclcus and Tctis) but, as wc lcarn lrom Hcsiods !orks and Days, Zcus also
crcatcd good ris in ordcr to drivc mcn to work and prospcrity. Tc dicrcncc bctwccn thc
two is that whilc thc dominancc ol bad ris lcads to thc strugglc to thc dcath, good ris
lcads to compctition: as Hcsiod puts it, shc
!ar and ftermath

:,:
drivcs cvcn thc unskillcd man to work: and il somconc who lacks propcrty sccs somconc
clsc who is rich, hc likcwisc hurrics o to sow and plant. . . . vcn pottcrs harbour grudgcs
against pottcrs, carpcntcrs against carpcntcrs, bcggars cnvy bcggars and minstrcls cnvy min
strcls.
As Hcsiod indicatcs, compctition, agon, dominatcd Grcck lilc, Grcck culturc was csscn
tially agonistic and was prizcd as such. ducation was agonistic: striving lor prccmincncc,
sclshncss in modcrn languagc, Nictzschc suggcsts, was cncouragcd as contributing to thc
good ol thc community as a wholc. Tc grcat playwrights ol thc lth ccntury compctcd
with cach othcr, thcy cvcn, Aristotlc rccords with amazcmcnt, compctcd with thc dcad,
abovc all with Homcr. Plato invcntcd thc dialogucs in ordcr to dcmonstratc that hc could
outdo thc Sophists in dialcctical combat. And ol coursc, thc Grccks compctcd with cach
othcr at thc lympic gamcs. Sublimatcd aggrcssion was thus what crcatcd and lucllcd thc
culturc ol thc Grccks.
Tc cnduring lcsson Nictzschc draws lrom his rccctions on thc Grccks is not mcrcly
that it is impossiblc to climinatc thc crucl and violcnt lrom human naturc but also that onc
should not .ish to do so, sincc mans . . . tcrriblc potcntialitics which arc rcgardcd as inhuman
arc . . . in lact thc lruitlul soil lrom which alonc cvcrything humanc, in lcclings, dccds, and
works can grow lorth.
:8
Tc noblc and humanc, Nictzschc will cmphasisc in his maturc
philosophy, is not somcthing injcctcd into thc natural ordcr by a supcrnatural agcncy, but
is, rathcr, a rcdircction by culturc ol thc blond bcast in us. Vc nccd to conscrvc our cvil
potcntialitics lor thc sakc ol thc good.
Prussia
A
ltcr his rcturn lrom FrancoPrussian battlccld, Nictzschcs lcttcrs bcgin to cvincc
scntimcnts in stark contrast to thc passionatc Prussianism ol his youth. Hc bcgins to
havc scrious doubts as to whcthcr Prussias cmcrgcncc as thc prccmincnt powcr in contin
cntal uropc is good cithcr lor Prussia or lor uropc. Lct us hopc, hc writcs von Gcrsdor
in Novcmbcr +8o,
that wc dont havc to pay too dcarly lor thc trcmcndous national succcss |in thc war| in an
arca whcrc, in my vicw, no loss at all can bc sustaincd. !n condcncc: ! hold thc Prussia ol
today to bc a highly dangcrous powcr lor culturc. Somctimc in thc luturc ! shall publicly
cxposc thc naturc ol thc cducational systcm.
Vc must, hc adds, bc philosophcrs cnough not to bc carricd away by thc gcncral cuphoria
ol victory.
:
Tc lollowing month hc dcscribcs thc culturc or as hc prclcrs to call it,
barbarism ol 8ismarcks Prussia as thc cncmy that grows now on thc bloody ground ol
this war. And hc adds that ur battlc stands bclorc us . . . thc bullct that will kill us will
not comc lrom guns and cannons. Tc situation must bc rcdccmcd, hc continucs, by a
ncw spirit in thc scicntic and cthical cducation |Erziehung| ol our nation that is to bc
promotcd by a ncw lorcc in classical studics.
o
To undcrstand what hc takcs to bc wrong with 8ismarcks Gcrmany, what hc mcans by a
ncw spirit in scicntic and cthical cducation and how hc cnvisagcs such a spirit rcdccming
:,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Gcrman culturc lrom its quasibarbaric condition, wc nccd to turn to thc scrics ol public
lccturcs on cducation, dclivcrcd bctwccn January and March +8:, in which hc carricd out
his thrcat to cxposc thc naturc ol thc Prussian cducational systcm.
On the Future of Our Educational Institutions
N
ictzschc dclivcrcd his lccturcs on cducation undcr thc auspiccs ol thc \oluntary Aca
dcmic Association, thc association lormcd, as wc saw, to root thc univcrsity in civic
pridc, cngcndcr productivc intcraction bctwccn town and gown, and allcviatc thc univcr
sitys pcrpctual shortagc ol lunds.
Tc discussion bcgins with a critiquc ol currcnt trcnds in Prussian cducation, which
widcns into a critiquc ol Prussian socicty at largc. !ts locus is thc gymnasium, thc high,
sccondary, or grammar school. Nictzschcs critiquc is conductcd lrom an csscntially con
scrvativc point ol vicw. His gcncral vicw is that Gcrman cducation was sct on thc right path
in thc wondcrlul, dccply thoughtlul, cxciting timcs ol thc Rclormation and carricd lurthcr
along that path in thc timc ol Schillcr and Gocthc,
+
but that in modcrn Prussia, a drcadlul
pcrvcrsion ol this noblc modcl has takcn placc. (Sincc, as wc saw, Nictzschcs own school
was a Rclormation loundation and was groundcd in thc Vcimar classicism ol Gocthc and
Schillcr, Plorta appcars to bc lunctioning, hcrc, as thc gold standard.)
To undcrstand why Nictzschc takcs thc latcninctccnth ccntury Prussian gymnasium
to bc thc pcrvcrsion ol a noblc idcal, onc nccds to undcrstand that Gcrman cducation
has traditionally dividcd sccondary schools into thc Rcalschulc, dcvotcd to training pcoplc
dcstincd lor thc tradcs and prolcssions, and thc Gymnasium, dcvotcd to thc cducation ol
a small, acadcmically giltcd clitc. To gct thc point ol Nictzschcs critiquc, onc nccds to
think ol a traditional gymnasium as morc likc a modcrn libcral arts collcgc than an Anglo
Saxon high school. Tc tcachcrs did rcscarch, and, as wc saw in thc casc ol Plorta, oltcn
movcd back and lorth bctwccn gymnasium and univcrsity. Tc studcnts usually rcmaincd
at thc gymnasium until thcir ninctccnth or cvcn, as in Nictzschcs casc, twcnticth ycar,
and, by thc timc thcy complctcd thc schoollcaving cxamination, wcrc, in lact, rcady to
bcgin graduatc study. Tat thc gymnasium was so much likc thc modcrn univcrsity givcs
Nictzschcs critiquc a somctimcs startling application to thc lattcr.

Nictzschc idcntics two dcvcloping trcnds in Prussias ncwly ccntralizcd cducational systcm
as ruinous: a broadcning ol cducation and a corrcsponding wcakcning.
:
ducation, hc
says, has bccomc dcmocratiscd, has bccomc cducation lor thc broad masscs.

Tc con
scqucncc is an cvcrwidcning gap bctwccn thc dcmand lor tcachcrs and thc supply ol thosc
with gcnuinc ability and vocation. Tis has thc wcakcning ccct ol lowcring thc gcncral
lcvcl ol cducation: dumbing down damagcs thc gcnuincly giltcd among both tcachcrs and
studcnts. Sincc likc dclights in likc,

mcdiocrc tcachcrs appoint lurthcr mcdiocrc tcachcrs

and cvcrincrcasing mcdiocrity bccomcs thc charactcr ol thc institution. Tis is nc lor thc
mcdiocrc. Finding a ccrtain harmonious proportion bctwccn thcir abilitics and thc spirit
ol thc institution, thcsc mcdiocrc timcscrvcrs lccl thcmsclvcs justicd.

Tc tcachcr ol
gcnuinc ability, on thc othcr hand, lccls incrcasingly alicnatcd, whilc thc studcnt ol ability
nds thc institution to havc lcss and lcss to ocr.
As to thc causc ol this ruinous condition, Nictzschc rclcrs in part to a prcvailing cthic
in thc population at largc, thc cconomic dogma that dcmands as much knowlcdgc and
!ar and ftermath

:,
cducation as possiblc conscqucntly as much production and dcmand as possiblc con
scqucntly as much happincss as possiblc. (Tc knowlcdgc cconomy!) Tis rcduction ol thc
good lilc to happincss and happincss to moncy makcs thc production ol currcnt human
bcings thosc with uptodatc skills that lcad to thc acquisition ol wcalth both thc goal
ol, and thc motivc lor sccking, cducation.
6
Morc cmphatically, howcvcr, Nictzschc highlights thc Prussian statc as a causc ol thc
currcnt condition ol cducation. His rccctions on Prussia hc takcs to havc a morc than
parochial signicancc sincc, on account ol its military powcr, Prussia is bcing incrcasingly
admircd and imitatcd by othcr statcs.

Prussia, hc says, has bccomc, in thc jargon ol thc agc, a culturcstatc |Kulturstaat|.
8
!t
has takcn upon itscll thc tasks ol nancing, dctcrmining thc contcnt, and cxamining thc
cndproduct ol cducation and hcncc thc task ol dctcrmining thc culturc ol socicty in
gcncral.

n thc mass ol its pcoplc it makcs thc dcmand: 8c awakc, bc conscious! 8c

clcvcr.
o
Tc mcans it cmploys to crcatc mass cducation arc to makc gymnasium (and, in
most cascs, univcrsity) cducation thc prcrcquisitc lor admission to good positions in thc
army and thc civil scrvicc. Tis has thc ccct that thc gymnasium comcs to bc sccn as
nothing but a rung on thc laddcr ol honour to socially prcstigious cmploymcnt.
+
A morc subtlc mcans is thc usc ol Hcgclian philosophy as propaganda particularly
in thc schools thcmsclvcs. Sincc Hcgcl glorics thc statc as (according to Nictzschc) thc
absolutcly complctc cthical organism, it lollows that thc mcaning ol lilc lics in scrvicc to,
in sacricc pcrhaps thc ultimatc sacricc lor thc statc. From this it lollows that thc task
ol cducation is lor cach ol us to nd out thc placc and position whcrc hc can bc ol most
usclul scrvicc to thc statc.
:
Tc statcs aim is simplc: to achicvc omnipotcncc, in othcr words, total powcr in rclation
to othcr statcs, global dominion. So thc schools, with thc Hcgclian statc culturc propag
atcd within thcm, bccomc thc parallcl ol that othcr Prussian innovation, univcrsal military
scrvicc.

Vhat Nictzschc is working towards, hcrc, ! think, is thc conccpt ol thc total soci
cty discusscd in Chaptcr (pp. : abovc): morc spccically that ol thc totally mobilizcd
socicty articulatcd hall a ccntury latcr by Nictzschcs admircr rnst J ungcr a socicty which
is totalitarian in thc scnsc that all aspccts ol social lilc arc drawn into, and govcrncd by, thc
aimol thc statc, which is, csscntially, conqucst and cxpansion through thc cxcrcisc ol powcr.

Nictzschc sccs thc Prussian statc as pcrsonilying thc spirit ol thc ncw, rolling agc, thc
mcchanizcd agc ol dizzying hastc.
,
Tc mcchanization ol cducation is an aspcct ol thc
mcchanization ol lilc in gcncral. Nictzschcs critiquc ol cducation is addrcsscd to thosc lcw
human bcings who, likc himscll, lccl out ol stcp with thc rolling agc, thosc who still do not
lccl an idolatrous plcasurc in bcing crushcd by its whccls.

!t is addrcsscd to thosc who arc

prcparcd to work towards an altcrnativc modcl ol highcr cducation and thcrcby a rcvival ol
socicty in gcncral. Tis modcl is ocrcd, not as a radical brcak with thc past, but rathcr as
a rccovcry ol thc noblc csscncc ol thc traditional Gcrman conccption ol thc gymnasium.
According to Nictzschcs modcl, thc mission ol thc gymnasium is not cducation towards
bccoming a usclul lunctionary ol thc statc, but rathcr cducation |Erziehung| towards cul
turc |Bildung|.
6
(Sincc Nictzschc idcntics truc cducation with this lattcr, rcgarding thc

Rolling ol coursc rclcrs to thc railways, still a tcchnological marvcl in thc +8os. To gct a scnsc
ol thcir radical impact on human lilc, it is worth noting that thc proportional incrcasc ol spccd ol
travcl thcy rcprcscntcd was grcatcr than that introduccd by cithcr thc automobilc or thc acroplanc.
:,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lormcr as mcrc instruction or training, his thcsis can bc cxprcsscd as a tautology: thc
propcr aim ol cducation is cducation.)
Nictzschcs usc ol Bildung is not casy to grasp. Tc cluc is to rcalisc how hcavily indcbtcd
it is to Schopcnhaucrs account ol thc acsthctic statc as an cscapc lromthc will into disintcr
cstcdncss (pp. 8 abovc). First ol all, says Nictzschc, cducation to culturc, truc cducation,
has nothing to do with thc strugglc lor cxistcncc, nothing to do with mcrc brcadwinning:
truc cducation disdains polluting itscll with thc nccding and dcsiring individual. !t aims
rathcr to producc clcvation to what Schopcnhaucr calls thc point ol vicw ol thc purc, will
lcss . . . timclcss subjcct ol knowlcdgc (p. 8 abovc). To this cnd cducation should bc carclul
to prcscrvc thc adolcsccnts natural anity with naturc, sincc in
rccognis|ing| himscll again as il in countlcss dispcrscd rccctions and miragcs in thc col
ourlul whirl ol changing appcaranccs . . . hc will unconsciously havc a lccling lor thc mcta
physical oncncss ol all things in thc grcat likcncss ol naturc, and at thc samc timc calm
himscll in its ctcrnal pcrsistcncc and ncccssity.

Communing with naturc libcratcs onc lrom thc cgoistic

8
will and clcvatcs onc to thc
ctcrnal point ol vicw that bclongs to Te Births primal unity, an clcvation which has a
calming ccct sincc it allows onc to rcalisc that, as thc primal unity, onc is bcyond timc,
changc, and dcath. 8ut it also raiscs onc to a condition ol knowlcdgc sincc, clcvatcd abovc
thc ux ol lashionablc opinion, onc is lrcc to bccomc thc clcar mirror ol thc ctcrnal and
unchanging csscncc ol things.

Tc capacity lor prolongcd habitation ol this statc is what Schopcnhaucr calls

gcnius.
o
And so, too, docs Nictzschc. !n his dcscription ol how thc cducation ol gcnius
is to procccd, howcvcr, thc notion acquircs various unSchopcnhaucrian lcaturcs.
Tc aimol cducation towards Bildung, Nictzschc tclls his audicncc, is that ol prcpar|ing|
thc birth ol thc gcnius and thc bcgctting ol his work.
+
Tc locus ol such cducation is
thc study ol Gcrman languagc and litcraturc but, cvcn morc importantly, that ol classical
antiquity, to which thc Gcrman csscncc stands in a bond which, though crucial, is lull
ol sccrcts and dicult to grasp.
:
Tc studcnt must bccomc lamiliar with thc mountain
pcaks ol thc truc Gcrman spirit, mcn ol authcntic gcnius such as Gocthc and Vinkcl
mann, and through thcsc high pricsts ol classical cducation bccomc intimatc with Grcck
antiquity itscll, thc right and solc homc ol cducation.

ducation, that is, must rcstorc

us to our Grcck homcland. Tc Hcllcnic, innitcly distant and cncloscd with diamond
ramparts,

must bccomc thc placc ol pilgrimagc lor thc bcst and most giltcd human
bcings.

Vhat makcs this unSchopcnhaucrian is that whcrcas Schopcnhaucr discusscs gcnius

only in thc contcxt ol art, what Nictzschc is contcmplating hcrc is vcry clcarly moral
dcvclopmcnt as hc calls it in thc lcttcr to von Gcrsdor, an cthical cducation (p. ++
abovc). Nictzschcs aim, that is to say, is that thc rclormcd gymnasium will producc a small
troop
6
who will combat thc barbarity ol thc prcscnt by bccoming thc instigators and
avant gardc ol a rcgcncration ol culturc in gcncral. 8ut to do that, to instigatc a socictywidc
commitmcnt to thc GcrmanoGrcck contcnt ol thc authcntic Gcrman spirit, thc alumni
ol thc gymnasium must thcmsclvcs burn with a consuming longing lor thc Grcck,

a
longing to rcalisc thc moral cxccllcnccs ol thc Grccks in thcir own livcs. Tis mcans that
thc study ol antiquity hcrc Nictzschc rcturns to his longharbourcd plans lor a rclorm
!ar and ftermath

:,
ol classical philology is not a mcrcly scicntic cxcrcisc, but is, rathcr, thc acquiring ol
rcvcrcncc lor thc cxcmplary gurcs on whom wc arc to modcl our livcs. As hc puts it in his
notcbooks, Tc Hcllcnic has lor us |in thc truc gymnasium| that status which thc saints
havc lor Catholics.
8
!n thc truc gymnasium thc Grccks bccomc thc polishcd mirror in
which to vicw oursclvcs not so much as wc are but rathcr as wc aspire to bc.

8ut how cxactly arc thcsc pathndcrs to carry out thcir task ol social rcgcncration: ncc
brought to maturity, what, actually, is thc task ol gcnius: Vhat cxactly, indccd, givcn that
it is not simply a carbon copy ol Schopcnhaucrs conccption, is Nictzschcs conccption ol
gcnius:
!ncscapably conncctcd to thc idca ol gcnius is thc notion ol crcation, origi
nation, originality: thc Grcck origin ol thc word, gignesthai, is conncctcd to thc idca ol giv
ing birth. !n thc cightccnth ccntury thc originality ol gcnius was conccivcd as that which
cscapcs capturc by traditional rulcs. As Kant puts it, gcnius is somcthing lor which no
dcnitc rulc can bc givcn . . . which cannot bc lcarnt by a rulc.

Tcrc arc, howcvcr, two dicrcnt conccptions ol originality and ol thc kind ol rulcs in
qucstion. nc is originality ol expression, thc othcr originality ol content. Alcxandcr Popc
cmphasiscd thc rst, spcaking ol thc works ol gcnius as what olt was thought but nccr
so wcll cxprcsscd. Schopcnhaucr, on thc othcr hand, cmphasiscd thc lattcr. Vhcrcas, hc
says, thc pcrson cndowcd with talcnt thinks morc rapidly and accuratcly than do thc rcst,
thc gcnius, pcrccivcs a dicrcnt world lrom thc onc thcy scc, talcnt is likc thc marksman
who hits a targct which othcrs cannot rcach, gcnius is likc thc marksman who hits a tar
gct . . . othcrs cannot cvcn scc.
6o
Nictzschcs crucial dcparturc lrom Schopcnhaucrs notion
ol gcnius is, it sccms to mc, that at this stagc ol his carccr, at lcast, hc thinks ol thc originality
ol gcnius in tcrms ol cxprcssion rathcr than contcnt.
!n accordancc with thc aristocratic naturc ol thc spirit, thc natural ordcr ol rank, Nictz
schc tclls his audicncc, thc propcr ordcr ol socicty is thc mastcry ol grcat individuals, thc
scrvitudc ol thc mass . . . undcr thc sccptrc ol gcnius.
6+
Tough this is cvidcntly inspircd
by Platos pyramidal Fepublic thc mass ol craltsmcn at thc bottom, thc military and civil
scrvicc in thc middlc, and thc philosophcr king at thc top what Nictzschc is talking about
hcrc is not, in lact, thc statc, but rathcr civil socicty thc !olk |pcoplc|, as hc calls it ol
which thc statc ought to bc thc scrvant. Vhat is important to him is not that thc gcnius
should assumc political lcadcrship ol thc statc but rathcr that hc should providc spiritual
lcadcrship in thc cmpirc ol thc intcllcct,
6:
cultural lcadcrship in thc rcalm ol civil socicty.
8ut just how is this spiritual lcadcrship to opcratc: Nictzschc says (rcpcating Vagncrs
thcsis ol thc !olk as thc truc crcator ol art (p. ++6 abovc)), that thc
highcst and noblcst cultural lorccs . . . burst lorth out ol thc unconsciousncss ol thc pcoplc,
|and| . . . havc thcir mothcrly vocation in thc bcgctting ol gcnius and thcn in thc propcr
cducation and cultivation ol thc samc.
6
Tc gcnius to whom thc pcoplc givc birth has, thcn, thc task hcrc wc comc to thc express-
i.e conccption ol thc originality ol gcnius ol allowing to stcp into appcarancc, to risc
lorth, thc highcst dcstiny ol a pcoplc . . . in an ctcrnal work, thcrcby anchoring its pcoplc in
thc ctcrnal, and rcdccming it lrom thc changing sphcrc ol thc momcntary,
6
lrom thc ux
ol lad and lashion. Tc gcnius, that is to say, is to bring about what can indccd bc callcd an
:,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
cducation ol thc pcoplc. Tis, howcvcr, is somcthing which cannot bc achicvcd dircctly, it
cannot bc achicvcd by, lor cxamplc, thc introduction ol univcrsal compulsory cducation by
thc statc. Rathcr,
thc authcntic, dccpcr rcgions in which thc grcat masscs gcncrally mcct with culturc, rcgions
whcrc thc !olk nourishcs its rcligious instincts, whcrc it lurthcr pocticiscs in its mythical
imagcs, whcrc it kccps up its laith in its customary morality, its right, thc soil ol its homc
land, its languagc,
6
can only bc rcachcd through thc work ol gcnius, thc task ol which is to articulatc that
customary morality, spiritual homcland in othcr words, to allow thc highcst dcstiny ol
a pcoplc to risc lorth.
Vhat is clcar lrom this is that wc arc back with Grcck tragcdy, with thc collcctivc art
work that collccts thc !olk in clarilying armation ol its lundamcntal cthos. Vhat is clcar
in othcr words, is that thc paradigms ol gcnius arc Sophoclcs and Acschylus and Richard
Vagncr. Tc ultimatc rcason, thcn, that cducation to culturc is important is that only by
giving birth to, and nurturing, thc gcnius and his works can a community rccall itscll lrom
a lallcn and barbarous condition to thosc ctcrnal, but innitcly distant, valucs which
makc it thc community that it is. nly, to spcak spccically to Gcrmans, through thc cul
tivation ol gcnius in thc classicslocusscd gymnasium can wc bc rcstorcd to our Grcck
homcland.

! should likc to cnd with thrcc commcnts on this pcrhaps not cntircly convincing
argumcnt.

Tc rst consists in noting that Nictzschcs call lor a rcturn to an cducation

towards Bildung is, in csscncc, thc call lor a rcturn to thc conccption ol thc humanistic gym
nasium workcd out in thc carly ninctccnth ccntury by thc cclcbratcd gcographcr, linguist,
diplomat and cducationalist Alcxandcr von Humboldt whom Nictzschc ncvcr mcntions.
Tc dicrcncc, howcvcr, is that whcrcas, lor Humboldt, Bildung was an cnd in itscll, thc
csscncc ol bccoming a nc human bcing, lor Nictzschc it is, additionally and ultimatcly
morc importantly, a mattcr ol social utility, ol producing a ourishing community through
spiritual lcadcrship. As hc puts it in his notcbooks, Tc ctcrnal task ol Bildung |is| thc
organization ol an intcllcctual castc that is indcpcndcnt ol church and statc,
66
such that
cvcry mcmbcr ol this castc will livc and act in thc noblcst strivings ol its !olk or ol man
kind . . . in ordcr to lrcc his pcoplc lrom crookcd paths, with his picturc ol thc idcal bclorc
his cycs.
6
As wc shall scc, this idca ol thc rcsponsibility ol thc cxccptional pcrson to his
community, his rcsponsibility to bccomc, in onc way or anothcr, a spiritual lcadcr ol thc
pcoplc stays with Nictzschc until thc cnd ol his carccr.
A sccond and rclatcd commcnt consists in drawing attcntion to thc csscntial Prussian
ncss ol Nictzschcs rclorm plans. According to thc Hcgclian philosophy that Nictzschc
rcjccts, thc propcr, mcaninglul lilc lor thc individual consists in commitmcnt and scrvicc
in accordancc with oncs abilitics to thc ultimatc cthical organism, thc statc. Yct hc
himscll thinks in cqually organic tcrms. His idcal socicty, is that is to say, thc orchcstra,

A critical qucstioncr might wondcr why thcrc is such an cxclusivc link bctwccn thc Gcrman and
thc Grcck, why thc JudcoChristian lails to rcccivc a mcntion, and why only artworks count as
works ol gcnius.
!ar and ftermath

:,
an orchcstra dircctcd by a conductor ol gcnius so that cvcry movcmcnt ol cvcry individual
is harmoniously and lrccly coordinatcd with that ol cvcry othcr individual.
68
!t is in
mcmbcrship ol, and scrvicc to, an orchcstral socicty that thc individual nds a mcaning
lul lilc. Nictzschcs objcction to thc Hcgclian, 8ismarckian, statc is, thcn, in no way an
armation ol thc libcraldcmocratic notion ol thc primacy ol thc individual, ol thc idca
that thc lunction ol thc statc is to crcatc a spacc in which individuals livc thcir own atomic
livcs, uncoordinatcd with thc livcs ol othcrs. Rathcr, his objcction is simply that thc truc
cthical organism is not thc statc but rathcr thc pcoplc and its culturc. Tc statc should not,
hc says, bc thc bordcr guard, rcgulator, or ovcrsccr ol thc pcoplc and its culturc. Rathcr, it
should bc thc robust, muscular comradc, rcady lor battlc, and a companion on thc way, who
givcs thc admircd, noblcr . . . lricnd salc conduct through thc harsh rcalitics.
6
8ismarcks
Prussian Kulturstaat has, thcn, got things prcciscly thc wrong way round. Rathcr than thc
culturc ol civil socicty bcing controllcd by, and subordinatc to, thc aims ol thc statc, thc
statc should bc subordinatc to, an cxprcssion ol, thc cthos ol civil socicty. And this mcans
that thc gcnius, thc articulator ol thc authcntic naturc ol civil socicty and thcrcby its spir
itual lcadcr, is ultimatcly thc supcrior ol thc lcadcr ol thc statc. Vhcn Martin Hcidcggcr
cxplaincd that hc joincd thc Nazi party in ordcr den F uhrer zu f uhren, to lcad thc lcadcr, hc
was in lact tuning in to a long Gcrman tradition conccrning thc rclation bctwccn politics
and culturc, bctwccn thc statc and thc lilc ol thc spirit, to which Nictzschc was an carlicr
subscribcr.
Anal commcnt consists in calling attcntion to thc continuity bctwccn Educational Insti-
tutions and Te Birth of Tragedy. Tc lattcr work calls lor thc rcbirth ol thc collcctivc art
work, thc lormcr addrcsscs thc qucstion ol what wc should do to promotc thc birth ol such a
work. Tough at rst glancc Educational Institutions looks to havc movcd on to quitc dicr
cnt tcrritory, thc worldvicw to which it subscribcs is, in lact, idcntical with thc Vagncrian
worldvicw subscribcd to by Te Birth.
9
Anal Philology
N
iv:zscnv vv:ivxvb to 8ascl lrom his war scrvicc at thc cnd ol ctobcr, +8o,
in timc to bcgin tcaching lor thc wintcr tcrm. Hc was sucring, as wc saw, not
only lrom thc altcrcccts ol dyscntcry but also lrom posttraumatic strcss. To
thc lormcr hc attributcd continuing digcstivc problcms and stomach achcs, to thc lattcr
wc can probably attributc thc insomnia, cxhaustion, and dcprcssion which aictcd him lor
thc ncxt six months. n top ol cvcrything clsc, hc was sucring lrom hacmorrhoids. Tc
rcsumption ol lccturing convinccd him that thc tcnsion bctwccn prolcssion and calling,
philology and philosophy, was only making his hcalth worsc. Tis movcd him to writc to
Rohdc that hc planncd soon to cxit thc univcrsity complctcly in ordcr to crcatc a ncwGrcck
acadcmy allicd to thc 8ayrcuth causc.
+
8y thc cnd ol thc ycar, howcvcr, hc had anothcr idca:
hc would apply lor thc rcccntly vacatcd chair ol philosophy, with Rohdc taking ovcr his old
position in philology.
8y Fcbruary +8+ Nictzschcs hcalth was so bad hc was lorccd to takc sick lcavc and
rctrcat, with lizabcth in attcndancc, to thc Hotcl du Parc in Lugarno lor six wccks rccu
pcration. n rcturning to 8ascl hc lound that his application lor thc philosophy chair had
bccn rcjcctcd. Hc claimcd to havc bccn victimiscd on account ol his Schopcnhaucrian allc
gianccs but thc rcjcction was, in lact, lully justicd, sincc hc lackcd not only training in
philosophical mcthod but also a gap hc ncvcr llcd a basic knowlcdgc ol thc history
ol thc subjcct. Apart lrom thc Fhetoric, hc kncw nonc ol Aristotlcs major works, kncw
nothing ol thc mcdicval scholastics, thc contincntal rationalists or thc 8ritish cmpiricists.
And though hc did rcad Kants Critique of Judgment, hc almost ccrtainly kncw thc Critique
of Pure Feason only lrom sccondary sourccs. (!n thc hallpagc summary ol thc history ol
Vcstcrn philosophy in T.ilight of the Idols callcd How thc Truc Vorld 8ccamc a Fablc,
it is notablc that no philosophcr inhabiting thc twomillcnnia gap bctwccn Plato and Kant
rcccivcs a mcntion.) Nictzschc would, thcrclorc, havc bccn quitc incapablc ol mccting thc
tcaching nccds ol a small dcpartmcnt.
8y Scptcmbcr +8+, howcvcr, hc sccms to havc rccovcrcd lrom his dcprcssion and lrom
thc disappointmcnt ol his rcjcctcd application: 8ascl is grcat, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor,
my lricnds likc 8ascl and 8ascl likcs my lricnds.
:
Tis was thc mood in which, at thc
:,

nal Philology

:,,
bcginning ol +8:, hc rcccivcd thc ocr ol a chair at thc Univcrsity ol Grcilswald, situatcd
on thc 8altic coast in northcast Gcrmany. Hc quickly rcjcctcd it, in spitc ol Grcilswalds
proximity to Kicl, whcrc Rohdc had scttlcd as Pri.atdozent, an unpaid lccturcr. 8ut hc also,
with somc cmbarrassmcnt, rcjcctcd thc torchlight proccssion thc 8ascl studcnts proposcd in
honour ol what thcy took to bc his loyalty to thcir city. Hc rcjcctcd thc proccssion bccausc
thc studcnts and thc univcrsity, too, which incrcascd his salary had to somc dcgrcc
mispcrccivcd his motivcs.
To his mothcr hc cxplaincd that onc should not bc looking lor a ncw kind ol happi
ncss whcn onc alrcady had, as hc had in 8ascl, good lricnds and a good rcputation. 8ut hc
addcd that thc rcal ground ol his rcjccting thc ocr was his lack ol ambition lor an acadcmic
carccr.

Tis was a diplomatic undcrstatcmcnt, sincc hc was again cntcrtaining thc idca ol
abandoning acadcmia and its sccurc incomc complctcly, a stcp hc kncw would appal his
mothcr. His latcst lantasy was that thc still chairlcss Rohdc would succccd him in 8ascl,
lcaving him lrcc to work lulltimc lor thc Vagncr causc. His idca was to bccomc a pcri
patctic lccturcr visiting thc various Vagncr socictics that had sprung up all ovcr Gcrmany,
with thc aim ol raising thc moncy lor thc complction ol thc 8ayrcuth opcra housc. (Tat hc
would only bc prcaching to thc convcrtcd, and that a cashstrappcd projcct would hardly bc
hclpcd by having to pay him a salary, is symptomatic ol Nictzschcs always tcnuous grasp
ol nancial rcality.) Vagncr, as alrcady notcd, rcjcctcd thc ocr, but Nictzschc was still
drcaming about thc doublc coup in April ol +8:.

Tc lact is that Nictzschc was grippcd by ris good ris. Hc wantcd to go to war
war on bchall ol Vagncrian rcgcncration and against thc vandalizcd culturc ol modcrnity.
Te Birth of Tragedy had cxplaincd thc urgcncy ol thc war, now hc wantcd to put his lilc
bchind his words. Tc dcsirc lor cultural warlarc is quitc cxplicit. Rcsponding to thc now
dcmobilizcd von Gcrsdors armation ol his commitmcnt to thc Vagncrian causc, hc
writcs in Novcmbcr +8+,
!ts as though you arc still a soldicr and now strivc to provc your military disposition in thc
cld ol philosophy and art. And thats right: particularly in thcsc timcs, it is only as ghtcrs
wc havc a right to cxist, only as thc advanccd guard ol a coming agc ol whosc outlincs wc
havc, in our bcst momcnts, a dim intimation.

And thcn a couplc ol months latcr,

Vhatcvcr you do, always rcmcmbcr that wc two arc callcd to ght and work in thc vanguard
ol a cultural movcmcnt in which pcrhaps in thc ncxt gcncration, pcrhaps latcr thc
grcat mass will takc part. Tis shall bc our pridc, this shall sticn our sincws. And ! havc,
incidcntally, thc bclicl that wc arc born, not to bc happy, but rathcr to do our duty: and wc
will rcgard oursclvcs as blcsscd il wc know whcrc our duty lics.
6
And Rohdc, too, hc rcgards as a lcllow warrior, addrcssing him, on various occasions, as
his comradc in arms.
Tc ycar +8: bcgan with thc appcarancc ol Te Birth of Tragedy, Nictzschcs war
manilcsto,

on January :. From thcn on, Nictzschc organizcd his lilc as a military cam
paign. Having, as hc wrotc Rohdc, concludcd an alliancc with Vagncr,
8
hc subordinatcd
cvcrything to his battlc plan. 8ctwccn January and March hc dclivcrcd thc alrcadydiscusscd
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lccturcs, On the Future of our Educational Institutions, which cvcn thc Vagncrs lound ovcr
donc in thcir stridcnt tonc. !n March hc was invitcd on a trip to Grcccc by thc son ol Fclix
Mcndclssohn. And though hc was awcd and dclightcd by thc conncxion with thc rcvcrcd
composcr who had bccn thc locus ol musical lilc in Lcipzig and a lricnd ol Gustav Krugs
lathcr, hc noncthclcss dcclincd thc invitation lor lcar ol running aloul ol Vagncrs anti
Scmitism. (!t is notablc that thc thoughtlcss antiScmitic rhctoric that somctimcs mars his
carly lcttcrs incrcascs markcdly during thc Tribschcn pcriod.)
!n thc samc month Nictzschc insistcd on Rohdcs prcscncc at thc lcstival cclcbrating thc
laying ol thc loundation stonc ol thc 8ayrcuth opcra housc, thc Fcstival thcatrc |Fcstspicl
haus| (scc Platc +), on May ::, +8:: thc two Vagncrian prolcssors, hc wrotc (thc
prcvious month Rohdc had nally obtaincd a junior prolcssorship in Kicl), must not bc
abscnt.

Tcy both duly attcndcd along with, among othcrs, Gustav Krug, thc lricnd who
had rst inlcctcd Nictzschc with thc Vagncr bug, and thc starrycycd and dctcrmincdly
idcalistic Vagncrian Malwida von Mcyscnbug (scc Platc +6), who would soon bcgin to
play an important rolc in Nictzschcs lilc. Tough thc loundation stonc was laid in pouring
rain thc Grccn Hill abovc thc town must havc bccn a sca ol mud thcrc was a mag
niccnt pcrlormancc ol 8ccthovcns Ninth Symphony in thc Margravcs rococo thcatrc in
thc town with a chorus ol thrcc hundrcd singcrs lor thc last movcmcnt. Cosima notcd in
hcr diary that thc cvcning was quitc magniccnt and (in thc spirit ol Schopcnhaucr) that
cvcryonc lclt lrcc ol thc burdcn ol mortal cxistcncc. Rohdc rcturncd to Kicl lccling that
hc had just said goodbyc to his truc homc, and that it was, morc than cvcr, his duty to add
his wcakcr strcngth to his lricnd and lcllow warrior in this battlc lor thc highcst good.
Rohdes Higher Advertising
P
rcdictably, thc Vagncrians grcctcd thc appcarancc ol Te Birth of Tragedy (publishcd, as
wc know, by Vagncrs own publishcr, Fritzsch) with high cnthusiasm. Tcrc wcrc lcttcrs
ol warm apprcciation lrom Vagncr himscll, lrom Liszt, and lrom Hans von 8 ulow. 8ut as
lar as thc rcst ol thc world was conccrncd, and, in particular, as lar as thc philological world
was conccrncd (thc work did, altcr all, makc important historical claims about both thc
birth and thc dcath ol Grcck tragcdy), it was grcctcd by an ominous silcncc. Nictzschc had,
howcvcr, brought Te Birth into thc orbit ol his military planning prior to its appcarancc.
Anticipating that thc philologists would do thcir bcst to ignorc it, hc had suggcstcd to
Rohdc at thc cnd ol thc prcvious ycar that hc should pcrsonally takc thc philologists in
hand, pcrhaps in thc lorm ol a lcttcr to thc cditor ol thc Fheinisches Museum or in a|n opcn|
lcttcr to mc. !n bricl, what !m in nccd ol is highcr advcrtising.
+o
Rhodc complicd with
an cxtcndcd rcvicw ol Te Birth. Rcjcctcd by thc Literarisches Zentralblatt, it appcarcd, in a
rcviscd lorm, in thc lcss scholarly, but strongly proVagncr Norddeutsche llgemeine Zeitung,
8crlins lcading daily ncwspapcr, whcrc it could not but crcatc a stir. Rohdc had hopcd his
rcvicw would appcar bclorc thc loundationstonc lcstival, but in thc cvcnt it appcarcd lour
days latcr, on May :6.
Rohdcs rcvicw was an act ol gcnuinc couragc. ccupying only a junior position in
thc acadcmic hicrarchy, hc riskcd irrcparablc harm to his rcputation and carccr through
alicnation ol thc philological cstablishmcnt. (Fortunatcly thc damagc turncd out to bc
only tcmporary.) !n thc rcvicw, Rohdc idcntics Nictzschc as, likc himscll, a disciplc ol
nal Philology

::
Schopcnhaucr and as a prophct ol thc ncw music. Schopcnhaucr, hc argucs, is signi
cant as thc pcrson who nally ovcrcamc Christian mctaphysics, Vagncr as thc pcrson who
ovcrcamc thc classical tradition in art. From this ncw, modcrn standpoint, Nictzschc, hc
suggcsts, ocrs a radically ncwintcrprctation ol thc Grccks in which thc prcvious scicntic,
valuclrcc conccption ol philological mcthod plays a much rcduccd rolc. Sidcstcpping thc
issuc ol whcthcr or not onc should bc cntitlcd to cxpcct a scicntic work lrom a prolcssor
ol philology, Rohdc calls Nictzschcs approach a philosophicalartistic modc ol obscrva
tion that providcs a much nccdcd corrcctivc to Hcgclian, scicntic optimism. Socratism,
thc ovcrvaluing ol rcason and scicncc, hc continucs, dcstroycd Grcck mythology and con
stitutcs our grcatcst dangcr in thc prcscnt agc, lor how can a sovcrcign logic which, in
its chccrlul scllcondcncc, must rcgard thc rcsolving ol all worldriddlcs as in principlc
attainablc, havc any placc lclt lor art savc that ol a charming divcrsion lor thosc hours whcn
wc arc cxhaustcd by thc work ol abstract thought: Scicncc had indccd madc grcat progrcss,
so it is no wondcr that it is gradually dcclaring all rcgions ol thc carth and thc human mind
to bc its posscssion. 8ut such arrogancc is dcadly. Humanity has an csscntial nccd lor myth.
Tc old myths arc indccd dcad. 8ut Rohdc concludcs on an optimistic notc in noblc
art thcrc still livcs thc ability, in mythical rcrccction, to placc thc hiddcn lcaturcs ol thc
grcat worldgoddcss |Gaia, prcsumably| bclorc thc cnchantcd cyc.
++
Wilamowitzs Counterblast
T
hough Cosima would havc prclcrrcd Rohdcs rcvicw to havc bccn morc acccssiblc to
thc gcncral public, Nictzschc thought it tcrric. Fricnd, lricnd, what an achicvcmcnt!
hc cnthuscd thc ncxt day, cnding his tcstostcroncllcd lcttcr with ght, ght, ght! ! nccd
war.
+:
And hc askcd Fritzsch to makc lty copics, and had him scnd a copy to his hcad ol
dcpartmcnt, \ischcr without inlorming thc lattcr that its author, Prol. Rohdc in Kicl,
was his bcst lricnd! Four days latcr, howcvcr, a quitc dicrcnt vicwol Te Birth appcarcd in a
pamphlct lull ol vicious invcctivc cntitlcd Philology ol thc Futurc a Rcjoindcr a pun on
Vagncrs music ol thc luturc. Tc author was onc Ulrich von VilamowitzM ollcndor,
r. phil.
Vilamowitz who cvcntually bccamc, and rcmains, a giant ol classical studics and, in
latcr lilc, rcgrcttcd his pamphlct was also a Plorta alumnus. Nictzschc, though hc was lour
ycars oldcr, kncw him slightly. (rdmann von VilamowitzM ollcndor, Ulrichs grcat
grandncphcw ironically, thc custodian ol thc collcction ol Nictzschcs pcrsonal library
in thc Anna Amalia Library in Vcimar glcclully claimcd to mc in convcrsation that
his grcatgrandunclcs animus towards Nictzschc bcgan at school whcrc Nictzschc, thcn a
prclcct, had rcportcd him lor smoking, and had bccn cxaccrbatcd whcn his marks in thc
schoollcaving cxam lailcd quitc to match up to Nictzschcs stcllar pcrlormancc.) Vilam
owitz, who had yct to nd an acadcmic position, was a young, aggrcssivc, and giltcd man
on thc makc. Vhcthcr or not it cntcrcd into his conscious calculations, it was obviously in
his intcrcst to prcscnt himscll as thc champion ol thc cstablishmcnt vicws in thc world ol
Grcck philology.
Vilamowitz bcgins his rcvicw by saying (with an unmistakablc snccr) that with
Nictzschc thc mctaphysician, thc |Vagncrian| apostlc, and ionysian prophct hc will
havc nothing to do. 8ut sincc thc author ol Te Birth is also a prolcssor ol classical
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
philology Nictzschc prcscnts himscll as Full Prolcssor ol Classical Philology at thc Uni
vcrsity ol 8ascl on thc titlc pagc it is incumbcnt on him to satisly at lcast minimal pro
lcssional standards. 8ut hc docs not do so. His worldshaking ncw intcrprctations ol thc
tcxts ol Archilochus, uripidcs, ct al. arc products ol ignorancc and a lack ol intcllcctual
intcgrity. Nictzschc lacks thc scicntic objcctivity to undcrstand thc Grcck tcxts in rclation
to thcir historical situation, and givcs thcm ridiculous intcrprctations in ordcr to producc
VagncrianSchopcnhaucrian propaganda. Hc is ignorant ol Vinkclmanns

authoritativc
work, ol thc archacological cvidcncc, and is wildly wrong in thc assigning ol datcs. (Hc
rclcrs, hcrc, to Nictzschcs bad rcsults in mathcmatics in his schoollcaving cxam, which
supports thc idca ol an animus bcgun at Plorta.) As an cxamplc ol Nictzschcs scicntic
incompctcncc or dishoncsty Vilamowitz mcntions his lailurc to discuss Acschyluss
Lycurgcan trilogy, in which rphcus lcd thc lollowcrs ol Apollo in a clash with thc dcvotccs
ol ionysus, a (lragmcntary) tcxt which, hc suggcsts, makcs thc idca ol an Apollonian
ionysian brothcrhood ridiculous. Nictzschc also lails to mcntion thc lact that thc Hip-
polytus ol uripidcs contains an attack on Socratcs which makcs thc idca that thc lattcr
inspircd thc lormcr absurd. Vilamowitz cnds his diatribc by saying that Nictzschcs
rcligious gospcl ! am happy to ignorc. My wcapons do not touch it. Admittcdly ! am no
mystic, no tragic man . . . to mc that will always bc a drunkcn drcam. . . nc thing how
cvcr ! dcmand, that Hcrr Nictzschc practiccs what hc prcachcs, grasps thc thyrsos |a sta
wound round with vincs that symbolizcs ionysus| . . . and rcsigns thc chair lrom which
hc is supposcd to bc tcaching scicncc, hc must gathcr his tigcrs and panthcrs

to his kncc,
or whatcvcr, but no longcr scck to tcach Gcrmanys philological youth who must lcarn to
study in ascctic sclldcnial.
,+
Alienation of Ritschl
V
ilamowitzs pamphlct was not, obviously, thc rcsponsc to Te Birth Nictzschc had
hopcd lor. Much morc painlul, howcvcr, was thc rcaction ol his old tcachcr, mcntor,
and lricnd, Fricdrich Ritschl.
Altcr thc book appcarcd, Nictzschc waitcd with batcd brcath lor, abovc all, Ritschls
rcaction. 8ut nonc camc. vcntually, on January o, +8:, hc wrotc Ritschl that hc was
astonishcd not to havc hcard lrom him, thc book bcing a manilcsto to which silcncc was
not a pcrmittcd rcsponsc, lcast ol all lrom his rcvcrcd tcachcr. Tc book, hc addcd, was
lull ol hopc lor our scicncc ol antiquity, lor thc Gcrman csscncc, cvcn il a numbcr ol indi
viduals will havc to go undcr . . . Tc practical conscqucncc ol my vicws |i.c., thc introduc
tion ol a ncw way ol doing philology| . . . youll bc ablc to gucss, partially, whcn ! say that
hcrc |in 8ascl| !m dclivcring public lccturcs n thc Futurc ol ur ducational !nstitu
tions.
+

Johann Joachim Vinckclmann (++68), thc art historian who bcgan thc obscssion with Grcccc
that dominatcd Gcrman intcllcctual lilc at lcast until thc midtwcnticth ccntury.

Te Births cvocation ol ionysian ccstasy has ionysus approaching in a owcrstrcwn chariot

drawn by a tigcr and a panthcr (scc p. +:8 abovc).

Tc last scntcncc is probably intcndcd to bring to mind thc chargc ol corrupting thc citys youth
brought against Socratcs by thc Athcnian court, a chargc which lcd to his cnlorccd suicidc.
nal Philology

:
Forccd to do so, Ritschl nally rcactcd in midFcbruary. At sixtyvc, hc said, hc was too
old to propcrly cxplorc ncw spiritual worlds. And hc lackcd thc background in Schopcn
haucr to judgc that aspcct ol thc work which did not dctcr him lrom rcmarking (` a propos
Schopcnhaucrian salvation) that wc can as littlc ovcrcomc individuality as thc individual
lcavcs and blossoms ol an individual plant can rcturn to thcir roots. Noncthclcss, hc con
tinucd, il hc was compcllcd to commcnt hc wantcd to makc thc point that you can hardly
cxpcct an Alcxandrian |i.c. Socratic typc| and scholar such as himscll to condcmn
knowlcdgc and allow thc powcr to libcratc and translorm thc world to bc lound only in
art. And, as an old pcdagoguc, hc rcally had to wondcr whcthcr Nictzschcs plans lor a
rclormcd cducation would not, in lact, lcad to a juvcnilc scorn lor scicncc without gaining
thcrcby an incrcascd lccling lor art, thus opcning thc door to not poctry but rathcr gcncral
dilcttantism.
+
Tcrc was too much acction bctwccn Nictzschc and Ritschl lor cithcr to allow thc
straincd rclationship to brcak cntircly. Tcir corrcspondcncc continucd, Nictzschc plcascd
Ritschl by rcturning to philological work hc produccd a suitably scicntic articlc cntitlcd
Tc Florcntinc Trcatisc Conccrning Homcr and Hcsiod which appcarcd in Ritschls
Fheinisches Museum in Fcbruary, +8 and hc continucd to scnd good studcnts to Lcipzig.
Noncthclcss, a brcach had opcncd up that ncvcr propcrly hcalcd, and Ritschl rcmaincd
always dclcnsivc about his prolcssion. !n July, whilc agrccing that Vilamowitzs pamphlct
itscll lailcd to satisly scicntic standards, hc asscrtcd that ! can ncvcr agrcc with you that
only art and philosophy can tcach mankind. For mc history docs so too, in particular thc
philological branch ol thc samc.
+6
And that hc was still angry with Nictzschc in Fcbruary
ol thc lollowing ycar is clcar lrom a lcttcr to \ischcr:
8ut our Nictzschc ycs, thats rcally a sad story . . . !t is rcmarkablc how in that singlc man
two souls livc sidc by sidc. n thc onc hand thc most rigorous mcthodology ol schoolcd,
scicntic rcscarch . . . on thc othcr, this lantasticcxaggcratcd, ovcrly clcvcr rcaching into
thc incomprchcnsiblc, VagncrianSchopcnhaucrianartmysticismrhapsodizing! Vhat
annoys mc most is his impicty against his truc mothcr who has sucklcd him at hcr brcast:
philology.
+
Wagners Intervention
T
wclvc days altcr thc appcarancc ol Vilamowitzs pamphlct, Vagncr raiscd thc tcmpcr
aturc still lurthcr by publishing an opcn lcttcr to his cstccmcd lricnd Fricdrich Nictz
schc. !t appcarcd on Junc :, +8:, in thc samc proVagncrian ncwspapcr, thc Norddeutsche
llgemeine Zeitung, that had publishcd Rohdcs rcvicw. mphasising that thc Vilamowitz
pamphlct is by a mcrc r. phil. i.c., that it is thc work ol a joblcss upstart attacking a lull
prolcssor hc rcports that, as a schoolboy, his initial passion lor philology had bccn killcd by
thc dryas(chalk)dust approach to philology cxcmplicd by Vilamowitzs smallmindcd
logicchopping. And thcn hc raiscs thc kcy qucstion: what is thc usc ol classical philol
ogy: Sincc Vilamowitz cmphasiscs its scicntic charactcr, onc would supposc, hc says,
that it would bc lound usclul by thc othcr human scicnccs. Yct thcologians, jurists, physi
cians ct cctcra cxhibit no intcrcst at all in philology as currcntly practiscd. Hcncc philolo
gists must instruct cach othcr, prcsumably with thc solc objcct ol turning out philologists,
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
i.c. highschool tcachcrs and univcrsity prolcssors who will thcn bakc a lrcsh batch ol
highschool tcachcrs and univcrsity prolcssors ad innitum. As currcntly practiscd, in othcr
words, philology is a hcrmctically closcd circlc which scrvcs only itscll and contributcs noth
ing at all to thc community that pays its hclty salarics. Vhat wc nccd, thcrclorc, is a ncw
kind ol philologist, onc who will makc thc disciplinc rclcvant to nonphilologists Vag
ncr is hcrc acccpting and cndorsing thc implication ol Vilamowitzs titlc that Nictzschc is
conccrncd to cstablish a ncwkind ol Philology ol thc Futurc. Vhat wc nccd is a philologist
who spcaks to us and not to his collcagucs and who transluscs lilc into thc purcly philolog
ical prolcssion lrom thosc lountains ol human knowlcdgc which havc waitcd hithcrto in
vain lor lcrtilising by philology.
+8
As usual, Vagncr bludgcons his way to thc hcart ol thc mattcr. (vcry timc Vagncr
insults somconc hc raiscs a dccp problcm, Nictzschc rcmarks in his notcbooks.)
+
8ut in
thc prolcssion it only incrcascd Nictzschcs bad odour. Hcrmann Uscncr, Ritschls succcssor
in 8onn, callcd Te Birth shccr nonscnsc and, donning thc black cap as it wcrc, pronounccd
that scicntically, Nictzschc is dcad. As indccd hc was. Philology studcnts wcrc adviscd to
avoid 8ascl, and lor thc wintcr scmcstcr ol +8: Nictzschc had a total ol two studcnts,
ncithcr ol whom was a philology major. At a timc whcn 8urckhardt was attracting an audi
cncc ol ltythrcc lor Grcck cultural history, and Nictzschcs lricnd, Hcinrich Romundt
an unpaid junior lccturcr twcnty lor his philosophy coursc, Nictzschcs tcaching was csscn
tially conncd to thc grammar school.
Von B ulow and the Manfred Meditation
U
nsurprisingly, givcn thc Vilamowitz lracas, Nictzschc lcll ill with stomach and bowcl
problcms in Junc. 8ut, though distrcsscd at thc damagc to his univcrsity, hc was soon
ablc to cxhibit a ccrtain amount ol gracc undcr rc. Tough insisting that Vilamowitz must
bc slaughtcrcd and providing Rohdc with thc ammunition to do so, hc camc to vicw thc
wholc aair with slightly indulgcnt humour, suggcsting that thc chccky lad had probably
bccn cggcd on by cstablishmcnt gurcs:
:o
writing to Krug, hc askcd him whcthcr hc had
sccn thc rcccnt pamphlct by a rathcr good pun Vilamohncwitz |Villiamwithout
wit|.
:+
!n July, howcvcr, hc rcccivcd a lurthcr blow. ncouragcd by Hans von 8 ulows cnthusi
astic rcsponsc to Te Birth thcy had mct thc prcvious May at thc laying ol thc 8ayrcuth
loundation stonc Nictzschc scnt him his Manlrcd Mcditation a piano work (composcd
in April, +8:), which trics to imitatc thc Zukunftsmusik stylc ol Tristan (track + on thc
Vcb sitc lor this book). \on 8 ulow, lamously tactlcss (hc oncc told thc tcnor hc was con
ducting as thc Knight ol thc Swan in Vagncrs Lohengrin that hc was thc Knight ol thc
Swinc), pullcd no punchcs. Tc piccc, hc wrotc Nictzschc, was
thc most cxtrcmc piccc ol lantastic cxtravagancc, thc lcast uplilting and most antimusical
sct ol marks on manuscriptpapcr ! havc comc across in a long timc. Frcqucntly ! had to
ask myscll: is thc wholc thing a jokc, pcrhaps you intcndcd a parody ol thc socallcd music
ol thc luturc:
::
Rcsponding to this blow, Nictzschc again displaycd gracc undcr rc. Hc thankcd von 8 ulow
lor his lrankncss, admittcd his poor musical tastc and that hc did not propcrly undcrstand
nal Philology

:
thc syntax ol music, and assurcd him that ! will ccrtainly ncvcr lorgct your advicc. ! say, as
childrcn do whcn thcy havc donc somcthing stupid, ! promisc ! wont do it again .
:
And,
truc to his word, thc Manlrcd Mcditation markcd almost thc cnd ol his attcmpts at musical
composition.
Nictzschc scholars gcncrally takc thc vicw that von 8 ulows judgmcnt rcprcscntcd noth
ing morc than thc obvious truth about Nictzschcs talcnts as a composcr. 8ut this ignorcs
thc lact that Liszt was happy to play his Mcmorics ol a Ncw Ycars vc (scc p. +o abovc)
in 8ayrcuth, latcr on in +8:, and, whcn told ol von 8 ulows judgmcnt, commcntcd, with
a sad shakc ol thc hcad, that it was way ovcr thc top |sehr desperat|.
:
And indccd it sccms
possiblc that morc than musical objcctivity may havc bccn bchind von 8 ulows judgmcnt.
For thc lact is that hc himscll had tricd to bc a composcr ol Zukunftsmusik and had lailcd
dismally. Tis indccd, may havc bccn onc ol thc rcasons Cosima lclt himlor Vagncr. Vant
ing, rathcr likc Alma Mahlcr, to bc always at thc sidc ol crcativc gcnius, and sccing that
von 8 ulow had no original talcnt as a composcr, it is suggcstcd, shc jumpcd ship.
:
Nictzschc, to vcnturc my own opinion, was not a bad composcr. And hc was, ol coursc, a
tcrric pianist. 8ut hc had two lailings. First, hc lackcd command ol largcscalc structurc.
(nc might, indccd, say thc samc ol his philosophical writings: that thc structurclcss, aph
oristic stylc ol many ol his maturc works stcmmcd morc lrom ncccssity than lrom virtuc.)
Ncarly all ol his musical compositions last lcss than vc minutcs, and whcn hc attcmpts
a longcr work hc is unablc to providc it with gcnuinc unity. Tc Ncw Ycars vc music,
lor cxamplc (track + on thc Vcb sitc lor this book), altcr a lovcly opcning, dcgcncratcs
into vaguc mcandcrings. His sccond lailing was that hc was ncvcr ablc to nd an original
voicc. vcrything hc wrotc sounds likc somconc clsc: Schumann or Liszt on a bad day, lor
cxamplc. Sincc imitation is thc timchonourcd mcthod ol lcarning, anothcr way ol saying
this is that, as a composcr, Nictzschc ncvcr dcvclopcd bcyond thc studcnt stagc.
Retreat to the Mountains
8
rcaking through thc storm clouds ol mid+8: wcrc two rays ol sunlight. First, Nictz
schcs lricnd lrom Lcipzig days, Hcinrich Romundt, a philosophcr who was writing a
doctoral thcsis on Kants Critique of Pure Feason, nally agrccd to movc to 8ascl. Sccond,
on Junc :8, togcthcr with von Gcrsdor, hc travcllcd to Munich to attcnd his rst pcrlor
mancc ol Tristan (a dccadc altcr hc and Krug had rst studicd thc scorc). Nictzschc was so
ovcrcomc by thc cxpcricncc (as onc is) that, cvcn a wcck latcr, hc wrotc Rohdc that about
Tristan ! cannot spcak.
:6
nly on July : could hc conlcss that it is thc most trcmcndous,
thc purcst and thc most uncxpcctcd thing ! know. nc swims in sublimity and happincss.
:
8ut onc Tristan docs not makc a summcr. So at thc cnd ol Scptcmbcr Nictzschc sct o
lor thc mountains to lick his wounds. !ntcnding to travcl all thc way to !taly, hc arrivcd
by postcoach at thc tiny villagc ol Spl ugcn, sct in a vallcy, vc thousand lcct abovc sca
lcvcl, ncar thc Swiss!talian bordcr. !t was as il ! had ncvcr known Switzcrland . . . this is
my naturc hc wrotc ol thc coach ridc along thc dramatic \ia Mala. His lcttcr to his mothcr
continucs,
As wc approachcd Spl ugcn ! was ovcrcomc by thc dcsirc to rcmain hcrc. ! lound a good
hotcl, with a quitc simplc littlc room. 8ut it has a balcony with thc most bcautilul vicw.
Tis high alpinc vallcy . . . is just what ! want. Tcrc arc purc, strong gusts ol air, hills and
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
bouldcrs ol all shapcs, and, surrounding cvcrything, mighty snowcovcrcd mountains. 8ut
what plcascs mc most arc thc splcndid highroads ovcr which ! walk lor hours . . . At noon
whcn thc postcoach arrivcs ! cat with strangcrs. ! dont nccd to spcak, nobody knows
mc . . . !n my littlc room ! work with lrcsh vigour . . . on my currcnt main thcmc, Tc luturc
ol our ducational !nstitutions. |At this stagc hc intcndcd turning thc lccturcs into a
book.| . . . Now ! know a corncr ol thc carth whcrc ! can livc powcrlully and with lrcsh
activity, but cntircly lrcc ol company. Human bcings, hcrc, arc likc shadowpicturcs.
:8
!n thc cnd, Nictzschc camc to scttlc on anothcr, cvcn highcr, vallcy in thc samc south
cast corncr ol Switzcrland, thc ngardinc. 8ut alrcady wc scc thc cmcrgcncc ol what will
bccomc an cvcr morc promincnt thcmc: Nictzschcs nccd to bc alonc with his thoughts.
Anal-Compulsive Philology
!
n midctobcr, Nictzschc rcturncd to 8ascl in timc to catch Rohdcs countcrattack on
Vilamowitz, which appcarcd on ctobcr +, +8: (Nictzschcs twcntycighth birth
day). csccnding to Vilamowitzs lcvcl ol invcctivc, il not lowcr, Rohdcs pamphlct at
lortycight pagcs a third longcr than Vilamowitzs was cntitlcd fterphilologie. As wcll as
mcaning pscudo, fter also mcans anus. A lrcc but lclicitous translation ol his titlc might
bc AnalCompulsivc Philology.
:
!n thc pamphlct, Rohdc trics to hoist Vilamowitz with his own pctard, pointing to
misquotations in ordcr to suggcst that hc lails to livc up to his own scicntic standards.
Hc continucs by noting that though Vilamowitz takcs thc part ol Socratic man who,
according to Te Birth, is thc mythdcstroying opponcnt ol an artistic culturc, hc has,
in rcality, as much to do with Socratcs whom Nictzschc rcspccts as wcll as criticising
as an apc with Hcrculcs. Rohdc cnds by suggcsting that thc joblcss Vilamowitzs call
lor Nictzschc to stcp down lrom his chair causcs onc to smilc at thc ingcnuousncss with
which thc actual motivc ol thc dcnunciatory zcal ol this ambitious doctor ol philology
stands rcvcalcd.
o
Ixistential Philology
V
hat was all this sound and lury rcally about: Tc curious lact is that whilc all parti
cipants in thc lracas including Nictzschc agrcc that thc issuc is, as Vilamowitzs
titlc puts it, thc luturc ol philology, philology is ncvcr mcntioncd in Te Birth. So what is
at issuc is not so much what is said in thc book but rathcr what it exemplies and implies.
As hc had alrcady dcmandcd ol philology in his Lcipzig days, in Te Birth Nictzschc
assimilatcs, and ultimatcly subordinatcs, his discussion ol thc Grccks to thc grcat con
sidcrations ol philosophy (scc p. 68 abovc). 8ccausc hc conccivcd thc philosophcr as thc
physician ol culturc,
+
ol our culturc, it lollows, as hc puts it in thc notcs lor thc unn
ishcd Vc Philologists, that thc task ol thc philologist is that ol undcrstanding his o.n age
bcttcr by mcans ol thc classical world.
:
Vhat, thcn, Te Birth cxcmplics, and implicitly
holds up as a modcl lor thc luturc ol thc disciplinc, is what wc might call cxistcntial phi
lology. Rohdc rclcrs to this in his original rcvicw ol thc book by suggcsting that it providcs
nal Philology

:
an cxplanation and justication ol thc appcaranccs

providcs us with an cxplanation,

cxplains to us, in what way, and in what scnsc, lilc is worth living. Tis, too, is what Vagncr
dcmands: a philology not just lor philologists but onc that is rclcvant to thc lundamcntal
cxistcntial issucs ol humanity at largc.
8ut this causcd ocncc to thc philological cstablishmcnt lor at lcast two rcasons. First,
it dcmandcd a synoptic vicw ol antiquity and hcncc ocndcd thc lactory workcr, thc aca
dcmic molc (p. +o abovc) burrowing away in his narrow spcciality. And sccond, by sug
gcsting that only a rclcvant philology could justily its kccp, it undcrmincd thc moral crc
dcntials ol thc ninctccnthccntury philologists complaisant assumption that his disciplinc
was an cnd in itscll.
A lurthcr way in which Te Birth ocndcd thc philological cstablishmcnt was by undcr
mining thc pcrccivcd vicwol thc Grccks as scrcncly rational. 8y cmphasising thc irrational,
ionysian clcmcnt in Grcck lilc, by cmphasising that Grcck rationality was an achie.ement
rathcr than a birthright thc works lasting, historical mcrit, it sccms to mc Nictzschc
undcrmincd thc VinkclmannGocthcSchillcr classicism to which thc cstablishmcnt was
still wcddcd.
A nal and pcrhaps suprcmc ocncc was committcd by thc portrait ol thcorctical, sci
cntic, man as so, at lcast, it could bc rcad an analrctcntivc control lrcak, tcrricd ol
thc mystcry ol lilc and out ol touch with an ultimatc rcality acccssiblc, not to scicncc, but
only to thc artist in a statc ol ionysian ccstasy. Sincc, as wc saw, thc likcs ol Vilamowitz
conccivcd ol thcmsclvcs as, prcciscly, scicntic mcn par cxccllcncc, thcy took thc portrait ol
thcorctical or Alcxandrian man Ritschl cxplicitly did this (p. + abovc) as an insult
ing portrayal ol thcmsclvcs. As von Gcrsdor put it, Vilamowitzs pamphlct rcprcscntcd
thc cry ol ragc ol thcorctical man who sccs a rccction ol his truc lcaturcs lor thc rst timc
and wants to smash thc mirror.

Vilamowitzs rcvicw did not, as it had hopcd, run Nictzschc out ol thc prolcssion. His
studcnt numbcrs cvcntually rccovcrcd and, in thc cvcnt, hc had anothcr scvcn ycars to go
as a prolcssor ol philology though thc +8 articlc on Homcr and Hcsiod (p. + abovc)
was thc last ol his philological publications. Vilamowitz did, howcvcr, sct thc scholarly
(somc would say dryasdust), antispcculativc tonc that dominatcd thc study ol classics
throughout thc lollowing ccntury. Looking back in thc light ol thc ncardcath ol classical
philology, on thc lact that it is now ncarly impossiblc to study Grcck in sccondary school,
onc might wcll comc to thc conclusion that Nictzschc was right in his pcrccption that thc
disciplinc was in nccd ol a radical rclorm that would dircct it towards rclcvancc. Noncthc
lcss, thc publication ol Te Birth and thc cvcnts surrounding it cost him dcarly. Hc lost thc
rcspcct ol thc prolcssion and ncvcr rcally rccovcrcd thc old intimacy with Ritschl. nc ol
lizabcths vcry rarc insights is that thc publication ol Te Birth cstablishcd a pattcrn
that would bc rcpcatcd by almost cvcry subscqucnt book: thosc who thought thcy kncwhim
discovcrcd in it a ncw Nictzschc lrom whom thcy lclt cstrangcd. vcry stcp lorward in his
spiritual dcvclopmcnt, shc obscrvcs, was accompanicd by loss, sucring, and lonclincss.

Relations with the Wagners

A
t thc cnd ol Novcmbcr +8: Nictzschc spcnt thrcc days with thc Vagncrs in Stras
bourg, whcrc thcy wcrc trying to nd singcrs to pcrlorm thc Fing cyclc. Tcy invitcd
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
him to spcnd Christmas in thc ncw housc in 8ayrcuth. Plcading cxhaustion, howcvcr, hc
dccidcd to spcnd Christmas in Naumburg, thc rst timc lor lour ycars. Altcr a strcsslul ycar
it was probably truc that hc nccdcd a dosc ol mothcrly comlort.
Vagncr was not plcascd by thc nonappcarancc at thc rst Christmas in thc ncwhousc ol
thc pcrson whom hc had told, thc prcvious Junc, hc rcgardcd him as a son.
6
And sincc thc
journcy lrom 8ascl to Naumburg was much longcr than to 8ayrcuth, hc was not imprcsscd
by thc cxhaustion cxcusc. !nsult was addcd to injury by thc lact that thcrc was ncithcr thc
usual Christmas prcscnt nor a card announcing that onc would bc on thc way. Nictzschc
was simply abscnt. nly at thc bcginning ol January did thc Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten
Books arrivc with a dcdication to Cosima. !n Fcbruary +8, Cosima wrotc Nictzschc that
Vagncr had bccn ocndcd by thc slight but that all was now lorgivcn. Tc lollowing
month Nictzschc wrotc von Gcrsdor,
! hadnt known that V|agncr| was much ocndcd by my nonappcarancc. God knows, by
thc way, how oltcn ! havc ocndcd thc Mastcr: cach timc !m amazcd and cant cvcr quitc
gct to thc causc ol it.
8ut thcn hc shows hc rcally does know thc causc:
Plcasc givc mc your opinion conccrning my rcpcatcd ocnccs. ! cant conccivc how anyonc
can bc, in lundamcntal mattcrs, morc truc or morc dccply committcd than ! am: il ! could
think how, !d bc cvcn morc so. 8ut in littlc, subordinatc sidcissucs, and in a ccrtain, almost
sanitary, distancing lrom pcrsonal cohabitation that ! nd ncccssary, ! must grant myscll
a lrccdom, rcally only to bc ablc to prcscrvc my loyalty in a highcr scnsc.

Tis is thc rst suggcstion in Nictzschcs lcttcrs ol any cloud in thc VagncrNictzschc
sky. And though not much biggcr than a mans hand, it indicatcs both thc bcginnings and
thc charactcr ol thc storm to comc. Nictzschc nccdcd thc spacc to bc his own man, to
cscapc lrom thc ovcrpowcring prcscncc ol thc Mastcr and lrom thc constant, timc
consuming crrandrunning dcmandcd by Cosima. Tc rudcncss surrounding his Christ
mas nonappcarancc was probably a somcwhat adolcsccnt attcmpt to cstablish that spacc.
Tc othcr highly signicant lcaturc ol thc lcttcr to von Gcrsdor is thc distinction bctwccn
Vagncr the man, lrom whom Nictzschc rcquircs a ccrtain distancc, and thc lundamcntal
mattcrs ol Vagncrianism, to which hc rcmains uttcrly committcd. Tis distinction will
bc dcvclopcd in thc +86 !agner at Bayreuth into a division bctwccn thc highcr and
lowcr Vagncr. And latcr on it will dcvclop into a complctc rcjcction ol Vagncr thc
man and composcr combincd with, so ! shall suggcst, a ncvcrtobcrclinquishcd com
mitmcnt to Vagncr thc cultural critic, thc constructivc social thcorist, and thc philosophcr
ol art.
Five Prefaces to Five Unwritten Books
T
hc Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten Books
8
wcrc not only latc as a Christmas prcscnt but
also somcwhat ungraciously givcn. 8ound togcthcr in an ugly brown lcathcr covcr, thcy
wcrc not wcll rcccivcd. Prol. Nictzschcs manuscript docs not rcstorc our spirits, Cosima
nal Philology

:,
condcd to hcr diary. And shc complaincd to Malwida von Mcyscnbug ol thc clumsy
abruptncss that somctimcs accompanics thc dccp insights in his work, adding wc wishcd
hc would stick, in thc main, to Grcck thcmcs.

Quitc apart lrom thc lact that thc collcction containcd clcmcnts which wcrc, as wc shall
scc, incompatiblc with somc ol Vagncrs dccpcst bclicls, Cosima was, ! think, right to
bc disgruntlcd with thc asscmblagc. Rcalising that hc nccdcd to givc something by way ol
a Christmas prcscnt, it sccms to mc likcly that Nictzschc simply thrcw togcthcr a hasty
asscmblagc ol lragmcnts hc had lying around. Tc rcsult is ol varying quality and, duc to
thc lact that thc lragmcnts wcrc writtcn at dicrcnt timcs, intcrnally inconsistcnt. All in
all, a nonunity that should not havc bccomc a Christmas prcscnt.

Tc rst ol thc Prefaces, n thc Pathos ol Truth, is an carly vcrsion ol n Truth and Lics
in a Nonmoral Scnsc
o
(unjustly cclcbratcd as a work ol prolound insight by Nictzschcs
postmodcrnist admircrs), which was complctcd in thc summcr ol +8. ! shall takc thc
opportunity to discuss both works togcthcr.
Tc grcat philosophcrs, obscrvcs Tc Pathos ol Truth, think thcy havc the truth, a truth
that will last lor all timc. 8ut this is what makcs thcm tragic gurcs thcrc is no truth.
Tc idca ol absolutc truth is mcrcly thc dclusion (!ahn) ol a god. n Truth and Lics
(which bcgins by rcpcating thc antcpcnultimatc paragraph ol Tc Pathos ol Truth) sccks
to cxplain why this is so.
!t ocrs thrcc argumcnts. First, though wc think that thc way thc world appcars to our
intcllcct is the way it is, a midgc or a bcc, il it could contcmplatc thc qucstion, would
havc cxactly thc samc pucd up pridc with rcspcct to thc cntircly dicrcnt way it appcars
to thcm. For thc plant, thc wholc world is plant, lor us human rcads a notc lrom this
pcriod.
+
So truths arc illusions wc havc lorgottcn to bc such.
Sccond, thc possibility ol anything bcing cithcr truc or lalsc dcpcnds on languagc. 8ut
words arc simply convcntionally agrccd rcsponscs to particular ncrvous stimulations, as
arbitrary as thc gcndcr ol nouns. (!n Gcrman, cvcry noun is cithcr masculinc, lcmininc, or
ncutcr.) Hcncc (prcsumably bccausc othcr languagcs apply cntircly dicrcnt words to thc
samc ncrvous stimulations) thcrc is no way things which count as truc in our languagc can
bc hcld to bc truc in thc scnsc ol corrcsponding to thc way thc world rcally is.
Tird, thc conccpts (dog, lor cxamplc) wc dcploy in languagc arc abstract: thcy gathcr
individual things togcthcr as thc samc. 8ut this is to makc cquivalcnt what arc not cquiv
alcnt. Hcncc, oncc again, anyonc who thinks thcy posscss cvcn a singlc truth about thc rcal
world is pathctically dcludcd.
Tc quality ol this discussion is low and rcvcals anothcr justication lor thc 8ascl philos
ophcrs rcjcction ol Nictzschcs application lor thc philosophy chair. Vhat thc discussion
rcvcals morc than anything is brilliant though hc was Nictzschcs lack ol training in thc
craft ol tcchnical philosophical thinking. Had hc bccn schoolcd in Aristotlc and mcdicval
scholasticism had hc, lor instancc, likc Hcidcggcr, attcndcd a Catholic scminary hc
would havc produccd nonc ol thcsc slipshod argumcnts.
Lct us obscrvc, rst ol all, that, wcrc thc conclusion that truth is an illusion to bc truc,
a scrious puzzlc would bc raiscd as to how thc clcvcr animal that is man has bccn ablc to
survivc in a compctitivc cnvironmcnt. Nictzschc makcs no attcmpt in Truth and Lics to
addrcss thc lact that human survival prcscnts a prima lacic casc that, at lcast mostly, our
bclicls about thc world arc truc.
:&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc sccond obscrvation conccrning Nictzschcs conclusion is that hc contradicts himscll.
!t is a good thing our supposcd truths arc illusions, hc says both in Truth and Lics and in
Tc Pathos ol Truth, sincc truth is tcrriblc: il anyonc wcrc (per impossible) to pccr through
a crack in thc chambcr ol consciousncss hc would scc that humanity, in thc indicrcncc
ol its ignorancc, rcsts on thc pitilcss, thc grccdy, thc insatiablc, thc murdcrous. Humanity
clings to drcams, as it wcrc, on thc back ol a tigcr. So, it sccms, thcrc is, altcr all, thc
possibility ol knowing thc truth about thc world ol at lcast a philosophers knowing that
truth. Nietzsche knows that bchind thc vcnccr ol civilization thc human animal is a wild
bcast. So truth is an illusion and Nictzschc knows thc truth. A contradiction.
Turning to thc rst ol thc argumcnts summariscd abovc, thc lact that thc midgc sccs thc
world dicrcntly lromus docs not, in rcality, mcan that our bclicls arc false, sincc wc and thc
midgc may both be right. Vc scc a rottcn applc, thc midgc sccs an cgglaying sitc. Vc arc both
right.

Tc sccond argumcnt thc argumcnt about dicrcnt languagcs applying dicrcnt

signs to ncrvc stimulations conluscs scntcnccs and statcmcnts, a lallacy cxposcd in cvcry
Critical Tinking +o+ coursc. Grass is grccn is a dicrcnt scntcncc lrom (thc Gcrman)
Grass ist gr un. 8ut thcy both mcan thc samc, makc thc samc statcmcnt. And what thcy
both say is true. Tc things that arc truc or lalsc, that is to say, arc, strictly spcaking, not
scntcnccs, but statcmcnts. So thc lact that dicrcnt languagcs apply dicrcnt signs to thc
samc ncrvcstimulations has no tcndcncy at all to show that truths can ncvcr bc cxprcsscd
in thosc languagcs.
Tc nal argumcnt is wcakcst ol all, cmbarrassingly bad. Tat collics, dachshunds,
tcrricrs, and Gcrman shcphcrds arc all classicd as dogs docs not claim thcm to bc com-
pletely the same cquivalcnt. !t mcrcly claims thcm to bc thc samc in a certain respect.
Vith thc linc ol thought bcing dcvclopcd in thc rst Preface Cosima was, thcn, right to bc
thoroughly dissatiscd. Tc sccond, Toughts Conccrning thc Futurc ol ur ducational
!nstitutions, is virtually idcntical with thc prclacc to thc cponymous lccturc scrics (pp. +:
abovc) and so nccds no lurthcr discussion.
Tc third Preface, Tc Grcck Statc,
:
was actually writtcn in thc rst wccks ol
+8+

and had originally bccn intcndcd as a chaptcr lor Te Birth. Vagncr would havc
lound it positivcly ocnsivc sincc it praiscs both war and slavcry, thc rst hc wishcd to
ovcrcomc and thc sccond hc considcrcd an abomination.
Tc cssays tonc is that ol ovcrcoming thc squcamishncss, thc cxccssivc scnsitivity ol
modcrn man, ol uninchingly lacing up to somc hard, cruclsounding truths. Tc argu
mcnt is as lollows. Culturc is thc highcst goal sincc only through it docs naturc achicvc
hcr salvation in appcarancc, in thc mirror ol gcnius.

Tis dcmands two things. First thc

statc, ncccssary to ovcrcoming thc war ol all against all that prcccdcs it and thcrcby to
producc thc conditions ol sccurity in which alonc art can ourish. And sccond, within thc
statc, slavcry, so as to crcatc thc conditions ol lcisurc ncccssary lor thc gcnius to producc art.
(Tis hc adds, a lurthcr rcmark liablc to havc ocndcd Vagncr, is why socialists havc always
hatcd art.) Tc statc thus has to bc thc broad bascd pyramid outlincd in Platos Fepublic, in
lact, thc right ordcr ol thc statc is prcciscly that outlincd by Plato savc lor thc substitution
ol thc gcnius in thc most gcncral scnsc lor Platos gcnius ol wisdom and knowlcdgc,

thc

Tc idca that dicrcnt pcrspcctivcs may rcvcal dicrcnt, but complcmcntary, truths about rcality is
a doctrinc ! call plural rcalism. !n chaptcr : (pp. 6 bclow) ! shall suggcst that it is, in lact,
plural rcalism that constitutcs thc maturc Nictzschcs account ol truth and rcality.
nal Philology

:&:
philosophcrking. Vhat wc nccd, in othcr words, is a statc rulcd by Sophoclcs rathcr than
Socratcs. 8ut thc statc can only ourish undcr conditions ol (actual or thrcatcncd) war: in
timcs ol pcacc, thc iron grip ol thc statc looscns and dccays. Hcncc war is ncccssary lor
culturc.
Tc standard ol argumcnt in this Preface is again low. !t sucrs, in a way in which
Vagncrs writings ncvcr sucr, lrom a misusc ol history, lrom supposing that cvcry aspcct
ol an admircd pcriod in thc past must bc rcproduccd to rcproducc thosc lcaturcs which
makc it admirablc. Fairly obviously, thc argumcnt that only socictics that rcducc thc major
ity to at lcast cconomic slavcry can producc art is rclutcd by thc washingmachinc: art
indccd rcquircs thc artist to bc lrccd lrom thc ncccssity ol lilcsustaining work, but sincc
machincs can gcncratc such lrccdom thcrc is no nccd lor human slavcry. And cvcn grant
cd that thc statc nccds an cxtcrnal thrcat to cnsurc its authority, such a thrcat may consist
in cconomic, artistic, or cvcn sporting compctition rathcr than thc thrcat ol violcncc. As
Nictzschc rcaliscs in Tus Spoke Zarathustra, a nation may scck to dominatc its ncighbours
through cultural shining rathcr than military conqucst.
6
Anothcr wcakncss a wcakncss that runs through much ol his carly thinking is an
unclarity conccrning thc condition ol thc slavc. n thc onc hand thcrc is what wc may call
thc acsthctic lascism vicw. Tc world ol art that bclongs to a small numbcr ol lympian
mcn rcquircs thc miscry ol mcn living a lilc ol toil.

Tc pyramidal socicty ocrs nothing

but cxploitation and miscry to thc slavc, but that docs not mattcr sincc only thc lilc ol thc
gcnius through whom naturc rcachcs hcr highcst goal is ol any valuc.

8ut on thc othcr

hand, Nictzschc asks us to obscrvc
what an clcvating ccct on us is produccd by thc sight ol a mcdicval scrl, whosc lcgal
and cthical rclationship with his supcrior was intcrnally sturdy and scnsitivc, whosc narrow
cxistcncc was proloundly cocooncd how clcvating and how rcproachlul.
8
Tis makcs it look as though, altcr all, Nictzschc carcs about thc wcllbcing ol thc slavcs,
but wishcs to arguc that slavcry is in thc bcst intcrcst ol thc slavc typc ol pcrson sincc hc
is, rst, protcctcd by scnsitivc lcgal rcquircmcnts lrom unlimitcd cxploitation and, sccond,
livcs a lilc not ol miscry but rathcr ol cnviablc sccurity.
Tc lourth Preface, n thc Rclation ol Schopcnhaucrs Philosophy to a Gcrman Culturc,
argucs thc nccd lor a gcncral public cducation as opposcd to thc mcrc public opinion
manulacturcd by ncwspapcrs. And it attacks thc socallcd cducatcd classcs ol thc prcscnt
agc as sucring lrom philistinc complaccncy |Gem utlichkeit|. Vhat crcatcs complaccncy,
Nictzschc says, is historical consciousncss. Such consciousncss kills cnthusiasm. Vhcn
cvcrything is historically graspcd wc cntcr a spirit ol nihil admirari. So, lor cxamplc, to
bccomc awarc ol our moral valucs as just onc itcm on a vast, historical mcnu ol altcrnativc
scts ol valucs dcstroys our commitmcnt to our own valucs, sincc wc can nd no ground lor
prclcrring thcm to any ol thc altcrnativcs on display, and lapsc thcrc arc strong cchocs ol
Vagncrs critiquc ol cultural history (p. +++ abovc) hcrc into (postmodcrn) nihilism.
Action, commitmcnt, passion, Nictzschc is suggcsting, rcquircs a ccrtain chauvinism, a

Tis is what ! callcd thc onlythcsupcrmancounts vicw. For many intcrprctcrs, this is not mcrcly
somcthing hallsuggcstcd in somc ol Nictzschcs youthlul works, but thc hcart ol his maturc philos
ophy. ! shall bc conccrncd to rcjcct this intcrprctation.
:&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
scnsc ol oncs own valucs as thc only possible valucs. (!n thc +88 Genealogy of Morals hc
will dcploy historical consciousncss to, as hc sccs it, thc bcncvolcnt cnd ol dcconstructing
Christian morality.)
Tc nal Preface, Homcrs Compctition, is by lar thc bcst and most important ol thc
sct. 8ut ! shall discuss it no lurthcr sincc it was cxamincd at lcngth in thc prcvious chaptcr
(pp. ++ abovc). Succ it to say that, writtcn ncarly two ycars altcr Tc Grcck Statc,
by pointing to thc cxistcncc ol good as wcll as bad ris, it complctcly undcrcuts thc
carlicr works argumcnt lor thc ncccssity ol war. Sincc compctition cxists as an altcrnativc
to physical violcncc, thcrc is no rcason that thc agonistic rclation ol sublimatcd violcncc
that obtains .ithin, and lucls thc lilc ol, a hcalthy statc, should not also obtain bet.een
statcs.
!n sum, thcn, thc Fi.e Prefaces add up to a collcction ol highly variablc quality in which
somc parts contradict othcrs. Truly, as Cosima suggcsts, a curatcs cgg.
10
Untimely Meditations
N
iv:zscnvs +8 was markcd by two tcnsions. Tc rst was bctwccn his rolc as
a prolcssor ol classical philology and his cvcrincrcasing absorption in philos
ophy, bctwccn his Beruf |prolcssion| and his Berufung |vocation|, as hc clcgantly
dcscribcs it.
+
Tc sccond was bctwccn, on thc onc hand, his still total commitmcnt to vicw
ing thc world lrom within thc 8ayrcuth Horizon (p. ++: abovc) and to doing whatcvcr
hc could lor thc 8ayrcuth causc and, on thc othcr, his growing nccd to cscapc thc gigantic
shadow cast by Vagncrs pcrsonality and intcllcct, to nd a placc in thc sun in which hc
could growinto his own man. (Tc composcr Pctcr Cornclius, notwithstanding his absolutc
dcvotion to Vagncr, cxpcricnccd cxactly thc samc problcm.) Tc rst ol thcsc dilcmmas hc
attcmptcd to rcsolvc by tcaching and writing about thosc classical tcxts which wcrc susccp
tiblc to philosophical trcatmcnt. Tus, though hc would ncvcr again, altcr +8:, publish a
book dcvotcd to a classical tcxt, +8 did scc a substantial, unpublishcd study ol thc prc
Platonic Grcck philosophcrs, Philosophy in the Tragic ge of the Greeks. Tc sccond tcnsion
hc attcmptcd to rcsolvc by, on thc onc hand, writing lurious polcmics on Vagncrs bchall
and at his bchcst whilc, on thc othcr, conning his pcrsonal intcraction with thc Vagncrs
to thc virtual intcraction ol lcttcrs (Cornclius adoptcd thc samc stratcgy), gaining thcrcby
thcir disappointmcnt and disapproval. Givcn thcsc troublcd watcrs, it is no surprisc that
Nictzschcs hcalth sucrcd oncc again: +8 was plagucd by viral inlcctions, cyctroublc
and intcstinal problcms, thc lattcr probably still thc rcsult ol thc dyscntcry contractcd dur
ing his war scrvicc. !n tcrms ol hcalth, +8 sct thc pattcrn lor thc rcst ol Nictzschcs lilc:
lrom now on, up until his nal thrcc months ol sanity, hc will ncvcr bc lrcc ol such troublcs
lor morc than a lcw wccks at a timc.
Iun in Basel
T
hc ycar bcgan wcll. Nictzschc was askcd to judgc a compctition lor thc bcst cssay on thc
poctry ol Vagncrs Fing cyclc by thc llgemeine Deutsche Musik.erein (AllGcrmany
Music Socicty). Hc was quitc proud ol this, announcing his appointmcnt in scvcral

:&
:&,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lcttcrs proud, prcsumably, sincc thc invitation suggcstcd that hc was achicving a ccrtain
status and succcss with rcspcct to his lilcdcning goal 8ayrcuth.
Hc was also cxtrcmcly happy to havc two closc lricnds in 8ascl: vcrbcck and Romundt,
my tablc, housc and thoughtlricnds, hc wrotc to Rohdc, arc thc most cxccllcnt company
in thc world.
,:
Romundt, who was now writing an Habilitation (sccond Ph..) on thc
thcory ol knowlcdgc, hc admircd as a tcachcr ol radical philosophical vicws who was ablc
to cxcitc his studcnts. vcrbcck hc lovcd lor his simplc goodhcartcdncss and admircd lor
his radicalism (p. +o abovc).
!n April wc lcarn somcthing ol thc charactcr ol vcrbccks radicalism:
!n my housc |hc writcs Malwida von Mcyscnbug| somcthing vcry notablc is coming about:
a charactcrisation ol our currcnt thcology with rcspcct to its Christianity. My lricnd and
brothcr in spirit, Prol. vcrbcck, to thc bcst ol my knowlcdgc thc most lrccthinking
thcologian alivc and thc posscssor ol an cnormous knowlcdgc ol Church history, works
now on this charactcrisation and will . . . makc known a startling truth.

ur housc, hc writcs, alluding to his own and vcrbccks radical disscction ol currcnt
sacrcd cows, will onc day bccomc notorious.

vcrbccks book, Ho.Christian Is Our Present-day Teology? was publishcd in Novcmbcr

+8 by Fritzsch, thrcc months altcr thc rst ol Nictzschcs Untimely Meditations appcarcd
with thc samc publishcr. !t argucd that original Christianity was a mattcr ol practicc rathcr
than thcory, ol thc hcart rathcr than thc hcad, with thc rcsult that Christian thcology is in
lact a oxymoron idcas which appcar in Nictzschcs ntichrist and which, sixty ycars latcr,
inucnccd Martin Hcidcggcrs attack on thc God ol thc thcologians. !n vcrbccks copy
ol thc rst Untimely Meditation an assault on a sacrcd cow that was as radical, as wc shall
scc, as vcrbccks Nictzschc inscribcd:
A pair ol twins lrom onc housc/Go lorth bravcly into thc world/To tcar worlddragons
limb lrom limb/Fricndship is what its callcd/Tc onc lathcr to thc othcr.

At thc bcginning ol +8, as wc saw, only two studcnts cnrollcd lor Nictzschcs coursc
on Grcck and Roman rhctoric. Hc dccidcd, thcrclorc, that thc class should mcct in his
apartmcnt in thc Gifth utte. Somctimcs bccr was providcd. Hc also oltcn cntcrtaincd his
grammarschool studcnts thcrc. nc ol thcsc, Louis Kcltcrborn, has lclt a dcscription ol
Nictzschc at homc:
nc is immcdiatcly imprcsscd by thc combination ol cxccptional courtcsy and rcncmcnt
in manncr and bchaviour with thc most charming and natural kindlincss, so that onc soon
lccls clcvatcd dircctly and automatically to a ncr and noblcr, clcancr and highcr, spiritual
atmosphcrc . . . !n complctc harmony with thc tastclulncss ol his dcmcanour and clothing,
and with his almost military prccision, arc all thc lurnishings ol thc apartmcnt in thc plcas
ant, middlcclass housc. !n lightcolourcd brccchcs and a brown lrockcoat or jackct, and,
out ol doors, wcaring a tophat |quaintly oldlashioncd, cvcn thcn| this is how hc livcs in

Tis makcs it sound as though Romundt had actually movcd into thc Gifth utte. 8ut sincc Nictzschc
writcs on April +, +8 that Romundt has bccn our houscmatc sincc ycstcrday, hc must just mcan
that hc visitcd lrcqucntly.
Untimely Meditations

:&
my mcmory. n hot summcr days |8ascl can bccomc cxtrcmcly humid| hc tricd to lowcr
thc tcmpcraturc in his room with blocks ol icc.

Tc happincss ol Nictzschcs homc lilc was incrcascd whcn a Frau 8aumann, a truc housc
mothcr, took ovcr thc owncrship ol thc Sch utzgrabcn housc in Junc. Tis lcd to thc Gifth utte
bcing rcchristcncd Baumannsh ohle |8aumanns cavc| and to lrcqucnt rclcrcnccs to its inhab
itants (including Romundt lrom April +8) as cavc bcars. Tc cavc must havc posscsscd
a samovar (pcrhaps on account ol vcrbccks Russian background) sincc, ycars latcr, Nictz
schc scnt vcrbcck a postcard rcminding him ol thcir timc togcthcr thcrc:
\crscs lrom 8aumanns Cavc
Visdom spcaks: thcrc whcrc thoughts arc abscnt
Tcrc thc tca |Tee| arrivcs at thc right timc
A god still unknown to thc souls ol thc Grccks
Machinc god |Maschinentheos| lcts us bccomc wisc!
(Tus spokc onc ol thc cavcbcars to thc othcr as hc lcarnt how to drink tca lrom him.)
6
As wcll as bcing happy in his cavc, Nictzschc also cnjoycd a vibrant social lilc. Hc was
rcgularly to bc lound in thc homcs ol collcagucs and in 8ascls bcst patrician houscs oltcn
ovcrlapping catcgorics sincc, as notcd, many ol thc prolcssors camc lrom thc bcst lamilics.
!n March hc wrotc homc that
Tcrc havc bccn scvcral lcstivitics c.g. at thc \ischcrs, to cclcbratc two cngagcmcnts . . . a
ball at thc \ischcr8ischos, a hundrcd pcoplc wcrc thcrc, bclorc that Sally, Frau Valtcr,
and somc mcn put on an opcrctta. Tcn ! was onc cvcning with thc good Sicbcrs, with
Socin and Jacob 8urckhardt.

Tc Pcnguin translation ol Ecce Homo has, on thc covcr, a Caspar avid Fricdrich portrait
ol a man, sccn lrom thc rcar Nictzschc, wc arc cncouragcd to bclicvc standing alonc on
a mountaintop, gazing down into thc mistllcd vallcys bclow. Tis promotcs thc imagc
ol Nictzschc as a misanthropic social mist. Vc know alrcady, howcvcr, lrom his busy
social lilc in Lcipzig, that this romantic stcrcotypc is actually a myth. (Tc isolation ol his
latcr ycars, wc shall scc, was thc product, not ol misanthropy or social incompctcncc, but
ol appalling hcalth and a workaholic naturc.) !n 8ascl thc sociability ol his Lcipzig ycars
continucd and cvcn intcnsicd. Hcrc, lor cxamplc, is Frau !da Miaskowskis mcmory ol
him in +8:
!n wintcr wc loundcd a small social group which cvcry two wccks mct in thc cvcnings.
n onc ol thcsc cvcnings thcrc was, lor Nictzschcs bcnct, a charming pcrlormancc . . . a
tablcau vivant lromthc Mastersingers . . . Vhcn all thc gucsts wcrc asscmblcd, ! askcd Nictz
schc to play thc prizc song and opcncd thc door to thc dining room, in which thc charm
ing tablcau was sct up . . . . vcryonc was dclightcd and Nictzschc, in lact, grcatly movcd.
Hc took my two hands and prcsscd thcm again and again, in thanks lor thc charming
surprisc . . . my mmy, shc had ncvcr bccn in such a circlc ol innoccnt lun. Tc strangc
thing was that thc two chicl sourccs ol mcrrimcnt, vcrbcck and Nictzschc, wcrc known
throughout Gcrmany as tcrriblc pcssimists and Schopcnhaucrians! Last Tursday wc did a
lot ol music. Nictzschc improviscd cntrancingly and vcrbcck brought lourhandcd picccs
by Schubcrt.
:&&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
n anothcr occasion shc wrotc,
Tis cvcning is our Tucsday group. Nictzschc says hcs got a lunny book to rcad aloud |it
was a collcction ol humorous storics by Mark Twain|. Last timc it was grcat lun, wc rcad,
playcd, and jumpcd about until hall past twclvc.
And shc rccords that during thc wintcr Nictzschc camc rcgularly on Fridays to accompany
hcr whilc shc sang.
8
Gloom in Bayreuth
!
n March, +8 showing that his impulsc to composc had not bccn cntircly squashcd by
von 8 ulows savagc judgmcnt Nictzschc composcd a Monodic ` a dcux, a lourhandcd
piano work lor thc wcdding ol a Hcrr Monod (track +6 on thc Vcb sitc lor this book),

sincc
a monody is a work that has a singlc mclodic linc (as wcll as bcing a pun in its rccipicnts
namc), thc piccc was, hc pointcd out, highly symbolic lor a wcdding.

Tc lollowing month
hc nally madc his rst visit to 8ayrcuth, accompanicd by Rohdc, to spcnd thc wcck ol
astcr (April 6+:) with thc Vagncrs in thcir ncw, but lar lrom nishcd, housc, !ahnfried.
Hc caught thcm at a bad momcnt. l thc thousand sponsorship ccrticatcs that nccdcd
to bc sold bclorc work on thc Fcstspiclhaus could cvcn bcgin, only two hundrcd had actually
bccn sold. Vagncr was thus in a grumpy mood most unusually, hc said at onc point that
hc couldnt stand thc continual chattcr in thc housc sccrctly rcgrctting (with Nictz
schc) that hc had cvcr lclt Tribschcn. Harasscd by thc nccd to dcal with communications
lrom thc Vagncr socictics all ovcr Gcrmany and to cngagc in promotional activity with
thc hatcd prcss (and so morc than usually antiScmitic), hc loathcd thc distraction lrom
thc chicl task ol complcting thc orchcstration ol G otterd ammerung. Vhcn Nictzschc tricd
to chccr thcm up by playing onc ol his own compositions probably a rcduccd vcrsion ol
thc Monodic ` a dcux hc lailcd: wc wcrc irritatcd by our lricnds musicmaking hobby,
Cosima wrotc patronizingly in hcr diary. Nictzschc was, howcvcr, allowcd to rcad lrom
his workinprogrcss, Philosophy in the Tragic ge of the Greeks, on thrcc cvcnings, which
indicatcs that it at lcast was trcatcd with morc rcspcct than his music.

Tis work is chicy notablc lor its closc idcntication with Hcraclitus, an idcntication
Nictzschc rctaincd throughout his lilc. Anaximandcr, in thc oldcst known lragmcnt ol
Vcstcrn philosophy, wrotc,
Vhcncc things havc thcir coming into bcing thcrc thcy must also pcrish according to
ncccssity: lor thcy must pay a pcnalty and bc judgcd lor thcir injusticc, according to thc
ordinanccs ol timc.
All that is born is condcmncd to dcath. For Anaximandcr, cxistcncc is a kind ol punishmcnt
lor somc mystcrious guilt, somc kind ol original sin. Vith Hcraclitus, howcvcr, Nictzschc
argucs, wc lcarn how to ovcrcomc Anaximandcrs pcssimism. Unlikc Parmcnidcs, who hcld
that bccoming (changc) is an illusion, Hcraclitus agrccs with Anaximandcr that bccoming

Gabricl Monod marricd lga Hcrzcn, daughtcr ol Alcxandcr Hcrzcn, thc Russian socialist rcvolu
tionary, and lostcr daughtcr ol Malwida von Mcyscnbug, who had kcpt Hcrzcns housc lor him in
London (scc lurthcr p. :+ bclow).
Untimely Meditations

:&
is rcal. !ndccd thcrc is nothing but bccoming it is Parmcnidcss bcing which is an illusion.
Hcraclituss achicvcmcnt, Nictzschc continucs, was to transgurc Hcsiods good ris into
a cosmic principlc. Unlikc thc lrozcn world ol Parmcnidcs, Hcraclituss world consists in
ctcrnal compctition, innumcrablc pairs ol oppositcs wrcstling in joyous combat.
8ut docs this not involvc guilt and sucring, as Anaximandcr says: Ycs, Nictzschc
rcports Hcraclitus as saying, but only lor thc limitcd human bcing who sccs divcrgcntly
not convcrgcntly. To thc acsthctic man or thc childartist (Te Birth of Tragedys hcro), it
is all innoccnt play.
+o
!n a notc writtcn slightly carlicr, Nictzschc says that
Tc Grcck naturc kncw how to makc usc ol all thc terrible lcaturcs |ol thc world| . . . thc
usc ol thc harmlul lor thc sakc ol thc usclul is idcaliscd in thc world vicw ol Hcraclitus.
++
Tis cxplains thc mcaning ol convcrgcnt. Hcraclitus, Nictzschc holds, achicvcs a vicw
according to which thc world can bc joyously armcd, sincc thc harmlul ultimatcly lcads
to thc bcnccial but only in thc cycs ol somconc who asccnds lromthc point ol vicwol thc
human individual to that ol thc worldcrcating childgodartist. As in Te Birth, thcrclorc,
ovcrcoming Anaximandcrs nausca consists, lor a Hcraclitcan, in a transccndcncc ol human
individuality.
Tough Cosima lound thc rcadings lromPhilosophy in the Tragic ge ncwand intcrcsting
shc rccords no commcnt lrom Vagncr, who likcly lound thc work (which mcntions ncithcr
music nor drama) tangcntial to his own, prcssing conccrns.

Four days altcr rcturning lrom8ayrcuth to 8ascl, Nictzschc humbly wrotc to Vagncr about
thc visit:
!l you sccmcd not satiscd with my prcscncc ! undcrstand it only too wcll, without bcing
ablc to do anything about it, lor ! lcarn and pcrccivc only vcry slowly. And cvcry momcnt
with you ! cxpcricncc somcthing ! had ncvcr thought bclorc and which ! wish to imprcss
on my mind. ! know vcry wcll, dcarcst Mastcr, that such a visit can bc no rclaxation lor you,
must indccd bc virtually unbcarablc. ! havc oltcn wishcd to givc at lcast thc appcarancc ol
grcatcr lrccdom and indcpcndcncc, but in vain. nough. ! ask you simply to takc mc as
your pupil . . . !t is truc that ! bccomc cach day morc mclancholy whcn ! lccl so dccply how
much !d likc to bc usclul to you in somc way or othcr, and how complctcly unsuitcd ! am
lor that, so that ! can do nothing to allcviatc your distraction or chccr you up.
+:
Tc lcttcrs ol thc Tribschcn pcriod cxhibit re.erence lor thc mastcr. 8ut with its cchocs ol a
Christian conlcssion ol inalicnablc sinlulncss, this lcttcr can only bc dcscribcd as gro.elling.
Tc most rcvcaling linc, howcvcr, is thc rclcrcncc to thc nccd lor grcatcr lrccdom and
indcpcndcncc. Nictzschc is hcrc trying in thc most dclicatc manncr to tcll thc Mastcr to
his lacc what hc told von Gcrsdor in thc lcttcr quotcd in thc prcvious chaptcr: that hc
nccds a sanitary distancc lrom pcrsonal cohabitation with Vagncr, nccds to bc lrcc ol his
ovcrpowcring pcrsonal prcscncc in ordcr to bc truc to him in a highcr scnsc (p. +8 abovc).
Nictzschcs tcchniquc lor gaining that distancc was to rcplacc pcrsonal cohabitation
with lcttcrs ol this grovclling charactcr. vcn altcr Vagncr had rcplicd in his blu, good
humourcd way that you must comc and burdcn mc morc oltcn and that thc chil
drcn (missing him as much as thcir lathcr, prcsumably) havc bccn playing Nictzschc and
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Rohdc,
+
Nictzschc continucs in his grovclling vcin, writing Vagncr in May that hc is
scnsiblc cvcry momcnt that without him, hc would bc a stillborn crcaturc.
+
8ut whilc
thc lcttcrs grovcl, his pcrsonal attcndancc at 8ayrcuth dwindlcs to almost nothing. !n con
trast to thc twcntythrcc visits to Tribschcn bctwccn +86 and +8:, lrom +8: to +8 hc
paid only lour visits to 8ayrcuth, and nonc at all in +8.
Scholars oltcn suggcst that this distancing ol himscll lrom Vagncr, thc man, was also
a distancing lrom Vagncr, thc artist and thinkcr. 8ut this is not so. Troughout +8 his
privatc notcbooks rcvcal not the slightest hint ol a dcparturc lrom Vagncrs worldvicw and
not thc slightcst rcscrvation about cithcr his music or his philosophy. !ndccd thcy continuc
to armthat Nictzschcs thoughts arc all 8ayrcuthhorizon obscrvations.
+
And thcy con
tain a grcat dcal ol Vagncr admiration in a contcxt whcrc attcry has no point: thc alrcady
quotcd vcry timc Vagncr insults hc touchcs on a dccp problcm, lor cxamplc.
+6
First Untimely Meditation: David Strauss,
the Confessor and the Writer
!
n thc rst ol thc grovclling lcttcrs quotcd abovc, Nictzschc, having lamcntcd his inability
to chccr Vagncr up, continucs,
8ut pcrhaps altcr all ! can |chccr you up|, whcn !vc complctcd what !m working on,
namcly a piccc against thc lamous writcr avid Strauss. ! havc rcad through his Old and
Ne. Faith and havc bccn amazcd at its obtuscncss and vulgarity.
+
To this, in his plcascbcaburdcnagain lcttcr, Vagncr rcsponds, with rcgard to thc
Straussiana, thc only thing that causcs mc pain is that ! cant wait lor it. So out with
it!
+8
!n +868 Vagncr had bccn involvcd in a public squabblc with Strauss and had dircctcd
thrcc satirical sonncts against him. Vhcn Strausss Old and Ne. Faith appcarcd in +8:,
Vagncr had lound it, as Cosima rccords, dccply supcrcial. Nictzschc kncw, thcrclorc, that
thc attack on Strauss would plcasc Vagncr. 8ack in 8ascl at thc bcginning ol May, +8,
hc wrotc to Rohdc that hc had again spcwcd lorth somc lava. Hc had comc back lrom
8ayrcuth, hc says, in such a prolongcd mclancholy, that holy lury bccamc thc only way to
gct out ol it.
+
Tis was thc rst skctch ol, as von Gcrsdor would christcn it, thc Straussiade
(somctimcs ntiStraussiade), warriorNictzschcs cannonadc against Vagncrs cncmy. Tc
work was writtcn at lightcning spccd. !t was nishcd in May and (publishcrs, likc postal
scrviccs, bcing much morc ccicnt thcn than now) appcarcd with Fritzsch in July.
Vhy, howcvcr, Strauss: l all thc many gurcs both hc and Vagncr disapprovcd ol,
why did Nictzschc sclcct thc author ol Te Old and Ne. Faith, in particular, as an objcct on
which to vcnt his bottlcdup lury:
!nitially Nictzschc thought ol calling thc First Meditation, indccd his wholc projcctcd
scrics ol Meditations, thc philosophcr as physician ol culturc.
:o
8ut in lact, as hc rccogniscs
in Ecce Homo, a mctaphor ol violcncc is morc appropriatc to thc works warlikc charactcr.
!t is, hc says, an assassination |ttentat|.
:+
Yct as Ecce Homo also says, thc rcal objcct ol
attack is not Strauss in particular but rathcr Gcrman culturc in gcncral.
::
So thc attack is
in a scnsc impcrsonal Strauss is ol intcrcst only as a paradigm ol what is wrong with thc
charactcr ol thc (non)culturc ol 8ismarcks Gcrmany.
Untimely Meditations

:&,
Togcthcr with Gcorgc liot, wc saw, Nictzschc had oncc admircd Strauss: Strausss Life
of Jesus playcd a crucial rolc in his own libcration lrom Christian laith (pp. 6 abovc).
At twcnty, hc rccalls in +888, hc took grcat plcasurc in its dcconstruction ol thc 8iblc.
:
!n
thc Meditation itscll hc acknowlcdgcs that Strauss had once bccn a nc scholar. Tc g
urc hc attacks, howcvcr, is thc agcd, soltmindcd Strauss who rcintroduccs by thc back
door thc rcligion which, in his days ol toughmindcd vigour, hc had kickcd out ol thc
lront. Tc author ol Te Old and Ne. Faith ocrs, Nictzschc notcs, a vcrsion ol Hcgclian
optimism a kind ol cvolutionary panthcism as an altcrnativc rcligion. Hc ocrs thc
rationality ol thc rcal
:
as lcading to a hcavcn on carth.
:
Nictzschc ocrs thrcc lincs ol
criticism.
First, it is a stupid casc and contcntmcnt doctrinc. Likc Hcgclianism in gcncral, it is
mcrcly a dcication ol succcss, an apothcosis ol thc commonplacc.
:6
!n his notcbooks,
Nictzschc rcpcats Schopcnhaucrs claim that thc Hcgclian worldproccss cnds in a lat
Prussian statc with good policc.
:
As Nictzschc sccs it, that is, thc Hcgclians ol thc +8os
takc Prussias triumph ovcr Francc to bc thc nal coincidcncc ol thc rational (i.c., thc
good) with thc rcal, thc cnd ol history. His objcction is that this is nothing morc than
a contcmptiblc pandcring to Strausss scllsatiscd, bourgcois audicncc, thc complaccnt
wc,
:8
as whosc spokcsman hc appoints himscll. Alrcady in its lourth cdition altcr lcss
than a ycar in print, Strausss Old and Ne. Faith was a blockbustcr. Vc havc a low
opinion, Nictzschc writcs to Cosima, ol what nds immcdiatc succcss and acccptancc in
thcsc dcsolatc timcs.
:
Such pandcring might havc something to bc said lor it wcrc thcrc
anything to admirc about 8ismarcks Gcrmany. 8ut, in lact, nothing is admirablc about a
bourgcois philistinism which, likc a worm, conccivcd ol hcavcn as nothing highcr than a
lat carcass.
o
As wc havc sccn, what Nictzschc loathcs about Vilhclminian Gcrmany is thc mood ol
triumphalism (mirrorcd in Strausss Hcgclian triumphalism), thc assumption that military
victory ovcr Francc was somchowa prool ol thc supcriority ol Gcrman culturc. (Tc cqually
disastrous mood ol Amcricas ncocons altcr thc collapsc ol thc Sovict Union providcs a
parallcl.) Nictzschc makcs thc obvious point that thc victory ovcr Francc had nothing to
do with cultural supcriority. !t was duc, rathcr, to strict military training, supcriority in
thc scicncc ol warlarc among thc lcadcrs and unity and obcdicncc among thc lcd. nc
morc victory likc this, hc adds, and whilc thc Gcrman Rcich will survivc, thc Gcrman will
bc dcstroycd.
+
l coursc, thc lact that thc 8ayrcuth projcct thc onc hopc ol rcviving thc
Gcrman appcarcd to bc loundcring through lack ol lunds mcrcly conrmcd Nictzschcs
asscssmcnt ol impcrial Gcrmany as a socicty cngullcd by barbarism. Vartriumphalism,
hc notcs, is a grcatcr dangcr to thc sccrctly growing lruit

than military dclcat would havc

bccn.

KSA + |+|. Tis H oldcrlinlikc phrasc is illuminatcd by a notc which rcads, H oldcrlin on
Gcrmany: Now you tarry and kccp silcnt, pondcr a joylul work/Tc only thing, likc yourscll, that
is/8orn out ol lovc and is good, as you arc./Vhcrc is your clos, whcrc your lympia,/So that
wc can all nd oursclvcs in thc highcst lcstival:/8ut how will your son gucss, what you, immortal
onc, havc long prcparcd lor yoursclvcs: (KSA : |6|). For H oldcrlin, as lor Nictzschc and
Vagncr, thc rcdcmption ol Gcrman lilc dcpcnds on thc rcturn ol thc Grcck lcstival. Vhat this
notc indicatcs, ! think, is that in thc +8os (and, in lact, all his lilc) Nictzschc idcntics his stancc
towards thc Gcrmans with that ol his lavouritc poct (pp. : abovc): thc stancc ol tough lovc, thc
lovc that spcaks thc hard truths that nccd to bc spokcn, but ncvcr givcs up hopc that thc Gcrmans
will onc day rcdccm thcmsclvcs.
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Nictzschcs sccond criticism is dircctcd against Strausss panthcism. vcn il thcrc is, as
Strauss claims, a primordial sourcc ol cvcrything, how, hc asks, can it possibly bc callcd
God and madc an objcct ol rcligious vcncration givcn that, as thc sourcc ol cvcrything,
it is also thc sourcc ol all e.il:
:
As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc himscll is conccrncd with
this problcm ol cvil, with attaining thc Hcraclitcan vicw that sccs cvil as justicd by its
contribution to a grcatcr good (p. +6 abovc). Tus thc criticism hcrc, onc may assumc, is
not so much ol panthcism itscll as ol thc lact that Strauss has not sccn thc problcm, has
madc no intcllcctual cort to ovcrcomc what, on the face of things, is a crushing objcction to
panthcism.
Nictzschcs third criticism amounts to thc claim that, in thc languagc ol Te Birth of
Tragedy, Strauss is a Socratist, that hc is thc thcorctical man who bclicvcs that scicncc
can achicvc absolutc mastcry ovcr naturc and thcrcby solvc cvcry human problcm. Tc
Meditation raiscs two objcctions to thc Socratism which, rcmcmbcr, Nictzschc takcs to bc
thc dominant outlook ol thc prcscnt agc. First hc rcpcats thc claim ol Te Birth that Socrat
ism is shown to bc lalsc by Kantian philosophy. Strauss, hc says, is onc ol thosc pcoplc who
cannot undcrstand Kant. Tat hc subscribcs to thc crudcst sort ol rcalism shows that hc
has no undcrstanding ol
Kants critiquc ol rcason . . . no notion ol thc lundamcntal antinomics ol idcalism|Nictzschc
mcans antinomics that arc resol.ed by idcalism| or ol thc cxtrcmc rclativity ol all scicncc
and rcason. r: it is prcciscly rcason that ought to tcll himhowlittlc ol thc initscll |nsich|
ol things is dctcrmincd by rcason.

So, sincc it cannot know rcality, scicncc cannot control it, is powcrlcss in thc lacc ol thc
traumas crcatcd by thc crcatorchildartists dccision to smash onc ol its sandcastlcs. (l
coursc, cvcn il it could control thc world, Nictzschc bclicvcs, that would not solvc our
most csscntial problcms. Man cannot livc without thc idcalism ol inspirational myth and
Socratism, as wc know, kills myth. Strauss, hc obscrvcs, would put a visionary such as Jcsus
in a madhousc and has nothing to say about thc mythic signicancc ol thc rcsurrcction
othcr than that it is humbug.)

Nictzschcs sccond objcction to Strausss Socratism is that it is consciously dishoncst.

Tc grcat dragonkillcr pulls his punchcs lor lcar ol disturbing thc complaisant slccp ol
his audicncc. n thc onc hand hc claims to acccpt arwins thcory ol cvolution. 8ut,
on thc othcr, hc tclls onc to rcmcmbcr you arc a man not a mcrc crcaturc ol naturc.
!n othcr words, rathcr than sccing that this rcvolutionary ncw mctaphysical matcrial
ism dcmands a rcvolutionary ncw morality bascd on acccptancc ol thc war ol all against
all, Strauss tclls us wc can go on just as bclorc. !nstcad ol saying ! havc libcratcd you
lrom a hclplul and mcrcilul God, thc univcrsc is only a rigid machinc, takc carc you arc
not manglcd in its whccls,

Strauss prctcnds that cvcrything can carry on in thc samc

old way.

Vagncr lovcd thc rst Meditation, writing to Nictzschc, ! havc rcrcad it and swcar to
God that you arc thc only onc who knows what ! want.
6
Liszt notcd that hc was lull
ol sympathctic wondcr at thc work.

And though Cosima was lcss imprcsscd, shc was

movcd, by somc disparaging rcmarks about Nictzschc by Vagncrs sistcr, ttilic 8rockhaus,
to dclcnd him as somconc who had put his wholc carccr in jcopardy lor hcr |ttilics|
Untimely Meditations

::
brothcr and was his trucst lollowcr.
8
Gottlricd Kcllcr (thc Swiss author ol thc novcl Green
Henry, which Nictzschc grcatly admircd) on thc othcr hand thought it a juvcnilc product
ol somconc ovcrcagcr to bc a big man.

Karl Hillcbrand, thc distinguishcd man ol lcttcrs,

howcvcr, callcd it a witty work and obscrvcd, shrcwdly, that it was a sign ol a rcturn to thc
Gcrman |moral| idcalism that our grandparcnts aspircd to.
o
!n 8ascl, thc Straussiade did
Nictzschc no harm at all. Tc Godlcaring wcrc dclightcd by thc attack on thc notorious
athcist, thc rcmaindcr lound it amusing. !t was, in lact, shortly altcr thc appcarancc ol thc
Meditation that his collcagucs clcctcd him dcan ol thc laculty lor thc lollowing ycar. Strauss
himscll was bcmuscd, how can onc bc so lurious, hc wondcrcd, with somconc who has
ncvcr crosscd his path:,
+
a qucstion thc answcr to which should now bc clcar cnough.
Vhcn, howcvcr, Strauss dicd in Fcbruary ol thc lollowing ycar, Nictzschc had an attack
ol rcmorsc: ! hopc ! didnt makc thc last ycars dicult to bcar and that hc dicd without
knowing anything ol mc, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor.
:
Rest Cure in Ilims
T
hc nal pagcs ol thc rst Meditation wcrc complctcd by dictation. !n May +8, thcrc
was a dramatic dctcrioration in Nictzschcs cycsight. Hc cxpcricnccd agonizing pain in
thc cycs and by thc timc his sistcr camc to visit on Junc hc could no longcr rcad or writc.
Hc was lorccd to wcar dark glasscs whcncvcr hc vcnturcd out ol doors and in lact spcnd
most ol thc timc indoors bchind drawn curtains. Fortunatcly, von Gcrsdor, ncwly rcturncd
lrom !taly, was on hand lor Nictzschc to dictatc thc Meditation to him and to prcparc thc
nal, printrcady manuscript. !n spitc ol his own ill hcalth, von Gcrsdor altcrcd his plans
and staycd at Nictzschcs sidc as amanucnsis until Scptcmbcr my lclt cyc as wcll as my
right hand, Nictzschc dcscribcs him to Vagncr.

(Tat von Gcrsdor and soon othcrs

would pcrlorm this scrvicc indicatcs that thosc who kncw Nictzschc scnscd alrcady that
thcy wcrc dcaling with a pcrson ol cxccptional importancc.)
8y carly July, Nictzschcs condition had dctcrioratcd so rapidly that his mcdical lricnd,
r. !mmcrmann, told himthat hc would havc to canccl his grammarschool tcaching bclorc
thc cnd ol thc school ycar and undcrgo a rcst curc in somc sccludcd mountain villagc. vi
dcntly !mmcrmann lclt thcrc was a psychosomatic lactor contributing Nictzschcs
condition: hc diagnoscd ovcrstimulatcd ncrvcs and ocrcd, by way ol rcmcdy, thc instruc
tion: bc morc stupid and you will lccl bcttcr.

Taking !mmcrmanns advicc, in a manncr ol spcaking, Nictzschc and von Gcrsdor lclt
8ascl on July lor Flims, a thousand mctrcs abovc sca lcvcl to thc wcst ol Chur, whcrc thcy
staycd, until thcy rcturncd to 8ascl in thc middlc ol August, in a chalctpcnsion abovc thc
villagc, ovcrlooking Lakc Caumau. Latcr Romundt joincd thcm. \on Gcrsdor dcscribcs
thc holiday in a lcttcr to lizabcth:
wc arc thoroughly satiscd . . . thc rcgion is hcavcnly . . . thc housc is on thc high road
and is vcry ncw and clcan. Tc bcds arc cxccllcnt thc lood substantial . . . cxccllcnt homc
cooking . . . onc can undcrgo a milk curc. Fritz docs so. At vcthirty in thc morning and
vc in thc cvcning a largc glass . . . !n thc mornings, wc havc so lar walkcd in thc lorcst
bcncath larchcs and rs |shadc lor Nictzschcs cycs|, in thc sight ol sublimc mountains wc
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
havc rcad !alk ure, Siegfried, and T.ilight of the Gods. Tis is thc right placc to cxpcricncc
twilight. Altcr lunch wc pull Plutarch apart, altcr which wc havc a sicsta lying on thc
moss or thc grass. Fivcthirty wc go swimming. At scvcn thc cvcning mcal, always a hot
onc. And so our timc ows by, wcll uscd, as thc rcsdcn songbook puts it, to all ctcrnity.
Just now Fritz rcccivcd a unusual visit. r \cttcr, a grammar school tcachcr lrom Chur,
discloscd himscll as thc winncr ol thc oo talcrs |lor thc cssay compctition on thc Fing lor
which Nictzschc had bccn a judgc.|

n August 8th, thc rst bound copics ol thc Straussiade arrivcd in Flims by post. \on
Gcrsdor takcs up thc story in a lcttcr to Rohdc:
At hallpast thrcc wc madc our way down to thc grccn Lakc Caumau. Vc cngravcd thc
initials U. 8. !. F. N. 8./8. +8

on a sloping slab ol marblc. Tcn wc swamout to a rock that

rosc up out ol thc grccn watcrs in thc middlc ol thc lakc. Hcrc wc surrcptitiously inscribcd
U. 8. F. N. C. G. H. R. 8./8. +8,

altcr which wc tarricd a whilc on thc dclightlul

Rhcingold rock. Tc sun . . . smilcd down on thc carth out ol whosc dark dcpths thc rock
rosc up. Altcr thc swim wc blcsscd thc rst stonc and its inscription with winc . . . !n thc
cvcning it was divincly purc and clcar. Tis is how wc cclcbratcd thc ntistraussiade.
6
Te Rosalie Nielsen Aair
R
osalic Niclscn may wcll havc bccn thc rst, as onc might dcscribc it, lcltwing Nictz
schcan. Tc Niclscn aair startcd shortly altcr thc appcarancc ol Te Birth of Tragedy.
A wildly cnthusiastic lan, this somcwhat cldcrly, ugly widow, who imagincd hcrscll to bc
thc lcmalc incarnation ol ionysus, dcvclopcd a longdistancc inlatuation with thc books
author and bcgan to bombard him with lcttcrs accompanicd by photographs ol a symbolic
naturc. !n thc summcr ol +8 shc bcgan to visit him, visits which hc rcccivcd pcrhaps
unlortunatcly with his usual quict courtcsy. Altcr rcturning to Lcipzig it appcars that shc
madc an attcmpt to buy Fritzsch, thc Vagncrians housc publishcr, in ordcr, so shc claimcd
to Nictzschc, to cnsurc that thcir writings wcrc wcll carcd lor. Fritzsch, aictcd with strikcs
by lcltwing tradcs unions and in nancial dicultics, was indccd ripc lor a takcovcr. Sincc
Niclscn appcarcd to havc conncxions with Mazzini and thc !talian Marxists, ctobcr lound
Nictzschc lcaring an intcrnational conspiracy to takc control ol Vagncrs publishcr with
thc aim ol swccping this rcncgadc socialist o thc stagc.

Tough Fritzsch was indccd in

troublc, it appcars that thc conspiracy cxistcd cntircly in Nictzschcs, or pcrhaps Niclscns,
hcad. !n any casc hc was soon ablc to laugh at thc wholc aair, but not as hcartily as Vag
ncr, who composcd ninc vcrscs ol doggcrcl to cxprcss his gratitudc lor Nictzschcs conccrn
lor (cvcn imaginary) thrcats to ntcrprisc 8ayrcuth. nc rcads as lollows (thc cnd ol cvcry
linc savc thc last rhymcs):

Unzeitm assige Betrachtung I |Untimely Meditation I|, Fricdrich Nictzschc, 8.8.+8.

Unzeitm assige Betrachtung Fricdrich Nictzschc, Carl Gcrsdor, Hcinrich Romundt, 8.8.+8.
Untimely Meditations

:
Sch.ert, Stock und Pritzsche
kurz, .as im !erlag .on Fritzsche
schrei, l arm or quietzsche
das schenk ich meinem Nietzsche,
. ars ihm zu .as n utzen.
Sword, stick and lools wand
in short, whatcvcr in Fritzschs rm
shricks, dins or squcaks
! givc to my Nictzschc,
May hc nd it usclul.
\agucly comical though thc cpisodc is, it docs rcvcal Nictzschcs alrcady wclldcvclopcd
hostility to socialism and organizcd labour, attitudcs rcinlorccd in thc patrician houscs ol
8ascl, whosc owncrs wcrc thcmsclvcs having troublc with union activism. !n a notc ol thc
pcriod hc writcs that hc has a lcw pious wishcs: rcmoval ol thc univcrsal right to votc,
rctcntion ol thc dcath pcnalty, and rcstriction ol thc right to strikc.
8
Tc ground ol his
hostility is ol coursc thc vicw outlincd in Tc Grcck Statc that sincc art rcquircs thc
lcisurc ol thc lcw crcatcd by thc toil ol thc many, art and socialism arc sworn cncmics
(scc p. +6o abovc). (Sincc Vagncr saw through this spurious opposition, hc was ablc
to takc a lcss paranoid attitudc to socialism and hcncc took thc Niclscn aair morc
lightly.)
Summons to the Germans
T
hc nancial situation ol thc 8ayrcuth projcct, bad at thc timc ol Nictzschcs astcr visit,
had dctcrioratcd still lurthcr ovcr thc summcr, so that by August it was dccidcd that
thcrc should bc a ncw public appcal lor lunds. Vagncr suggcstcd that Nictzschc should
writc a manilcsto to bc prcscntcd lor approval at thc mccting ol thc combincd Gcrman
Vagncr socictics (i.c., Vagncrs nancial sponsors) to takc placc in 8ayrcuth on ctobcr
+. Nictzschc agrccd but lound thc manilcsto dicult to writc, not lcast bccausc, on account
ol his cycs, hc had to dictatc thc wholc thing to Romundt. Tc dralt was postcd to Vagncr
on ctobcr :.
Tc Summons bcgins by warning thc Gcrmans that thc cycs ol thc world arc upon thcm
to scc whcthcr thcy will mcasurc up to thc 8ayrcuth artwork, an artwork which, scparating
itscll lrom thc disgracclul triviality ol thc currcnt Gcrman thcatrc, will lor thc rst timc
constitutc a sitc lor thc national spirit. o you not, Nictzschc dcmands ol his audicncc,
lccl compcllcd to hclp in this rccrcation ol thc Gcrman nation through thc artwork ol thc
luturc: Can you stand idly by whilc this crucial attcmpt is bcing madc: Tc Gcrmans arc
rcputcd to bc thc pcoplc ol thinkcrs. 8ut pcrhaps thc rcst ol thc world is wondcring
thcy havc comc to thc cnd ol thcir thinking. Tat, ccrtainly, is what thc rcpcatcd attacks on
Vagncrs projcct suggcst. Tc 8ayrcuth vcnt ol May +8: (thc laying ol thc loundation
stonc) was not, Nictzschc continucs, thc gathcring ol a musical scct. !t was rathcr thc com
ing togcthcr ol thc nation and a purication ol dramatic art ol worldwidc signicancc. Tc
Vagncrian artwork is thc nations drama, a drama which constitutcs thc most important
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
possibility ol rccovcring an original, authcntically Gcrman, way ol living. Tosc who arc
unsclsh and prcparcd lor sacricc will commit thcmsclvcs to this projcct, and whcn this
happcns Gcrmany will cut a ncw kind ol gurc on thc worldstagc:
Tc Gcrman will appcar honourablc and thc bringcr ol hcaling only whcn hc has shown
that hc is to bc lcarcd and yct through the straining of his highest and noblest artistic and cultural
po.ers .ill make it forgotten that he .as fear-inspiring.
Vc must, Nictzschc concludcs, support with all our powcrs a grcat artdccd ol thc Gcrman
gcnius, this purication and dcdication through thc sublimc magic and tcrror ol authcntic
Gcrman art, othcrwisc thc powcrlully arouscd drivcs ol political and nationalistic pas
sions . . . will lorcc our succcssors to concludc that wc Gcrmans havc lost oursclvcs just as
wc had rcdiscovcrcd oursclvcs.

Troughout thc cightccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics, thc Gcrmans wcrc known, and
camc to know thcmsclvcs, as Das !olk .on Dichten und Denken, thc pcoplc ol poctry and
thought. !n contrast to thc commcrcial drivc and military might ol impcrial 8ritain, thc
Gcrmans wcrc thought ol as pcacclul, somcwhat drcamy pcoplc who prclcrrcd writing
pocms to acquiring colonics. Tis is thc scnsc ol thc Gcrmans Nictzschc conjurcs up with
thc phrasc pcoplc ol thinkcrs. Tough hc is not opposcd to a militarily strong and politi
cally unitcd Gcrmany, poctry and thought is thc morc csscntial, original naturc to which hc
rclcrs, thc Gcrman soul that is thrcatcncd with dcstruction by thc grccdy matcrialism and
lust lor powcr ol thc 8ismarckian prcscnt. Nictzschcs Summons docs not abandon nation
alistic passions, rathcr it rcdirccts thcm. !nstcad ol bcing lcarcd as thc prccmincnt military
powcr in uropc, thc Gcrmans should strivc to shinc
o
through cultural prccmincncc.
8ad ris must bc translormcd into good ris (hard into solt powcr). Tis is thc scnsc
ol thc lollowing notc lrom carly +8:
!t is quitc lalsc to say that prcviously thc Gcrmans wcrc acsthctic now thcy arc political.
Tc Gcrmans sought an idcal in thcir Luthcr, Gcrman music, highcr than anything clsc wc
know as culturc. Tc qucst lor that should stop bccausc thcy havc powcr: Prcciscly powcr
(on account ol its cvil naturc) should dircct thcm thcrc morc strongly than cvcr. Hc |sic|
must apply his powcr to his highcr cultural goal . . . Tc glorication ol thc modcrn statc
can lcad to thc dcstruction ol all culturc.
+

Nictzschc tricd out a dralt ol thc Summons on Rohdc who said that, though spokcn
lrom thc hcart, givcn that it was supposcd to addrcss thc unconvcrtcd rathcr than thc
convcrtcd, to win ovcr thosc prcviously opposcd to 8ayrcuth, its cocrcivc rhctoric (thc cycs
ol thc world arc upon you, ctc.) was unlikcly to bc ccctivc.
:
And though Vagncr likcd
it and Cosima thought it vcry bcautilul and that spcaking with laith and truth rathcr
than mcrc clcvcrncss

was just what was rcquircd, thc committcc ol sponsors agrccd with
Rohdc. !t was rcjcctcd as too sharp and rcplaccd by a morc innocuous pamphlct by a
Prolcssor Stcrn lromrcsdcn. Nictzschc took thc rcjcction with his usual gracc in advcrsity,
admitting to Rohdc without rancour that all along his had bccn thc right rcsponsc to thc
Summons.

Untimely Meditations

:
Second Untimely Meditation: Te Uses and Disadvantages
of History for Life
N
ictzschc was philosophical about thc rcjcction, pcrhaps bccausc hc had a morc impor
tant sh to lry. Troughout thc ycar hc had bccn mcditating in his notcs on a qucstion
ol grcat momcnt to both himscll and Vagncr, thc qucstion ol whcthcr historical knowlcdgc
is a good or bad thing. Tcsc ruminations culminatcd, in about Novcmbcr, in thc idca ol
dcvoting a sccond Meditation to thc topic. For Nictzschc, ol coursc, history is abovc all
Grcck history, so that thc Meditation on thc uscs and abuscs ol history (thc notcbooks, at
onc point, contcmplatc this as a possiblc titlc) arc, oncc again, to a largc dcgrcc, a mcditation
on his own prolcssion, on thc uscs and abuscs ol classical philology. Tc work was com
plctcd by Christmas, again with cxtcnsivc sccrctarial hclp lrom Romundt and vcrbcck,
and appcarcd, oncc morc with Fritzsch, in Fcbruary +8.
Tc sccond Meditation is a major work, on a dicrcnt lcvcl to its, ultimatcly somcwhat
journalistic, prcdcccssor. As thc titlc indicatcs, it is about thc uscs and misuscs ol history,
whcrc history mcans not thc past but rathcr rcprcscntations ol thc past, historiography.
Tc gcncral argumcnt is that whilc history ol thc right sort is csscntial lor lilc, history ol
thc wrong sort kills it. 8y lilc, hcrc, Nictzschc mcans somcthing likc hcalth, that is to
say, growth: good history is csscntial to thc growth ol a living thing whcthcr this living
thing bc a man or a pcoplc or a culturc,

bad history stunts it. Nictzschc distinguishcs

thrcc typcs ol history that can promotc growth.

Monumental History. Rcprcscntations ol thc past, writcs Nictzschc, lunction monumcnt
ally arc placcd, as it wcrc, on a pcdcstal whcn thcy arc uscd to prcscnt us with g
urcs that arc cxcmplary and worthy ol imitation,
6
modcls ol sclltransguration.

Such
mythic gurcs promotc grcatncss by inspiring imitation. Tcy arc thc objccts ol cclcbra
tion at popular lcstivals in thc Grcck tcmplc or mcdicval cathcdral, lor cxamplc. Trough
thc ctcrnalizing powcr ol art and rcligion, thcir powcr to invcst gurcs with pious illusion,
with charismatic authority,
8
thcy bcstow upon cxistcncc thc charactcr ol thc ctcrnal and
stablc.

Vhat Nictzschc is talking about hcrc is moral cducation. Monumcntal gurcs

rolc or, lcss crudcly, lilcmodcls arc thc rcappcarancc ol thc imagcs ol myth which,
according to Te Birth, must bc thc unnoticcd but cvcrprcscnt dacmonic guardians undcr
whosc tutclagc young souls grow up and by whosc signs thc grown man intcrprcts his lilc
and his strugglcs (p. +o abovc).
ntiquarian History. A pcrson and historian with an antiquarian stancc to thc past
is thc prcscrving and rcvcring soul who
wants to prcscrvc lor thosc who . . . comc altcr him thc conditions undcr which hc himscll
camc into cxistcncc. An antiquarian pcrson rcvcrcs thc past in toto, his soul is, indccd,
constitutcd by thc totality ol thc past.
6o
Tis kind ol pcrsonality somconc who wants cvcrything to rcmain ctcrnally thc samc
can bc ol grcat valuc as a limit on thc cxccsscs ol monumcntal history. Vhilc rolc modcls
always nccd a ccrtain amount ol rccrcation poctic invcntion, to makc scnsc in thc currcnt
contcxt thc !talians ol thc Rcnaissancc wcrc inspircd by Grcck modcls, but that did not
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
mcan donning togas and sandals this can casily gct out ol hand, lcading to gurcs which,
as lrcc poctic invcntions, havc no gcnuinc conncxion with thc past at all. Tis can causc
grcat harm to thc continuity ol a culturc, indccd dcstroy it. Rcvolutions typically happcn
through thc glamorization ol monumcntal gurcs that havc no authcntic roots in history
at all (Stalin, Hitlcr or Mao, lor cxamplc). Tc antiquarian spirit is a vital salcguard against
thc worshiping ol lalsc idols such as thcsc.
6+
Tc downsidc ol thc antiquarian soul, howcvcr, consists in thc lact that it rcvcrcs
e.erything that is past: cvcn thc trivial, circumscribcd, dccaying and obsolctc acquirc thcir
own dignity and inviolability through thc lact that . . . thc soul ol thc antiquarian man has
cmigratcd into thcm and thcrc madc its homc. Tis makcs it blind to thc nccd lor any kind
ol changc. And this rclusal to rccognisc thc nccd to do away with thc dccaying and obsolctc
can lcad to a mummication ol thc spirit which can causc grcat harm to both individual
and community.
6:
Tis is thc point at which critical history bccomcs important.
Critical History. nly monumcntal history, writcs Nictzschc, can bc crcativc. !t alonc
can cmbody a vision ol thc luturc, inspirc architccts ol thc luturc.
6
Purc antiquarianism,
on thc othcr hand, paralyscs crcation. Hcrc it bccomcs clcar, hc says, that critical history
is also ncccssary in thc scrvicc ol lilc. To ourish, man must posscss and lrom timc to
timc cmploy thc strcngth to brcak up and dissolvc a part ol thc past, and this is what thc
rcadincss to condcmn aspccts ol thc past achicvcs. 8ut how docs thc critical spirit judgc
which aspccts ol thc past nccd to bc abandoncd: n thc basis ol lilc, says Nictzschc. Tc
critical historian dctcrmincs which aspccts ol tradition, as impcdimcnts to thc hcalth and
growth ol socicty, nccd to bc abandoncd.
6
Nictzschc says that all thrcc ol thc abovc typcs ol historiography, providcd thcy intcract
in thc right way, scrvc lilc. Monumcntal history inspircs cultural changc, changc which,
through continuity with thc past, prcscrvcs thc idcntity ol a culturc. Tc antiquarian spirit,
on thc othcr hand, by placing a brakc on thc wildcr uscs ol thc monumcnt, hclps to cnsurc
that cultural changc rcally is idcntityprcscrving, that it takcs thc shapc ol rclorm rathcr
than rcvolution.
6
Tc critical spirit makcs thc wholc proccss possiblc. 8y countcracting
thc ossilying cccts ol purc antiquarianism, it crcatcs thc ground on which it bccomcs
possiblc to crcct ccctivc monumcnts.

History Not in the Ser.ice of Life. Rcpcating a linc lrom thc rst Meditation, Nictzschc
dcncs culturc as unity ol artistic stylc in all thc cxprcssions ol thc lilc ol a pcoplc:
66
thc
lilc ol all thc pcoplc, with no division into cultivatcd and uncouth, hc cmphasiscs, cchoing,
il not Vagncrs socialism, at lcast his communitarianism.
6
Tc usc ol stylc hcrc might, disconccrtingly, sccm to makc culturc a mattcr ol lorm
rathcr than contcnt, but, in lact, that is not Nictzschcs intcntion. Stylc is not opposed to
substancc, rathcr (as in our usc ol lilcstylc) it cmbraccs it. Tis is clcar lrom thc lact that
Nictzschc gocs on to dcnc culturc as unity ol lccling among a pcoplc.
68
As wc know lrom Te Birth of Tragedy (pp. +o+ abovc), unity ol lccling is crcatcd by
thc posscssion ol gods who providc a mythical homcland lor a community as a wholc. !t
is crcatcd, in othcr words, by a panthcon ol monumcntal gurcs who collcctivcly cmbody
communal cthos.
Rcpcating Vagncrs cultural criticism and that ol his own carlicr works, Nictzschc says
that, by thc abovc standards, modcrnity lails to count as a culturc, that it is mcrcly a col
lcction ol atomic individuals hcld togcthcr by that articial cntity, thc statc. Vc havc no
Untimely Meditations

:
culturc, only civilization, hc writcs in his notcbooks ol thc pcriod,
6
no culturc, mcrcly
plumbing and thc policc. Tc rcason lor this is that modcrnity has bccomc a lairground
motlcy, a chaotic jumblc ol dicrcnt lilcstylcs,
o
a mcrc cncyclopacdia ol scraps ol
past and lorcign culturcs.
+
(Tis is what ! callcd thc motlcy critiquc ol modcrnity.) And
thc principal causc ol this is thc misusc ol history, thc usc ol history in a lilcdamaging
way.
Uscd in a hcalthy way, Nictzschc cmphasiscs, history is an art. nc docs not approach thc
past omnivorously but sclccts oncs points ol locus on thc basis ol thc valucs thcy cmbody
and how instructivc thcy arc with rcspcct to thosc valucs. (Tc Vhig vicw ol 8ritish his
tory or, lor that mattcr, prcsumably, thc Hcgclian vicw ol Gcrman history would count as
artistic lorms ol historiography.) And thc hcalthy tclling ol history must bc artistic in that
it must bc donc in a way that surrounds its hcrocs with thc pious illusion discusscd abovc,
without which thcy cannot motivatc: only il history can cndurc bcing translormcd into a
work ol art will it pcrhaps bc ablc to prcscrvc instincts or cvcn cvokc thcm.
:
Notc that
this is just a rcarmation ol thc inspirationally didactic approach to history and philology
outlincd in On the Future of our Educational Institutions (pp. + abovc).
Tis hcalthy practicc ol history is, howcvcr, dcstroycd by thc modcrn conccption ol his
toriography as valuclrcc scicncc. !n two ways. First, history as scicncc is history rcduccd
to statistics and historical laws. 8ut thcsc only show man as a hcrd animal. Tc individual,
and in particular thc grcat, inspirational individual, disappcars into thc mass.

And sccond,
through indiscriminatc rcproduction ol thc past, scicntic history rcvcals our own sct ol val
ucs as just onc sct on a smorgasbord ol altcrnativcs. Tis produccs, as Nictzschc says in thc
lourth ol thc Fi.e Introductions to Fi.e Un.ritten Books, thc spirit ol nihil admirari (scc p.
+6+ abovc). !n sctting our cthos sidc by sidc with a myriad ol othcr options, history (and
cultural studics in gcncral, onc might add) dcconstructs it, dcprivcs it ol its unconditional
authority ovcr us. As in thc Roman mpirc, modcrnitys cosmopolitan carnival ol gods
turns modcrn man into a strolling spcctator, his mood onc ol cynical scnility.

cprivcd
ol naivc condcncc in our inhcritcd conccption ol thc propcr lilc, wc comc to distrust our
instincts and bccomc incapablc ol committcd action. Postmodcrn nihilism has arrivcd.
Notes from the Underground
S
tylistically, Nictzschcs publishcd works bclorc +86 bclong rmly to thc Gcrman ninc
tccnth ccntury. Vhcthcr hc is dcploying thc poctic, dithyrambic stylc ol Te Birth or thc
polcmical stylc ol thc Straussiade, thc vocabulary is orid and hypcrbolic, thc scntcnccs long
and hcavy. As Nictzschc himscll obscrvcd in +886, Te Birth is (to a modcrn scnsibility)
badly writtcn, clumsy, cmbarrassing, with a ragc lor imagcry and conluscd in its imagcry,
cmotional, hcrc and thcrc sugary to thc point ol ccminacy, uncvcn in pacc, lacking in thc
will to logical clcanlincss . . . pondcrous.

Tcrc is no wit (as opposcd to bombast) in Te Birth, or in any ol thc carly publishcd works.
8cncath thc public surlacc, howcvcr, in thc privacy ol his notcbooks, bcginning in thc sum
mcr ol +8, a ncw Nictzschc is starting to takc shapc, a Nictzschc ol short, dancing scn
tcnccs, witty cpigrams, morc Frcnch than Gcrman in lccling. Tough hc will not makc
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
his rst public ight until +88, in thc notcbooks, Nictzschc thc aphorist, is growing his
wings, oltcn by rccording thc aphorisms ol othcrs, Gocthc, Luthcr, Lichtcnbcrg, but also by
cralting his own. Somc cvcn contain a laint ccho ol his contcmporary, scar Vildc. Hcrc
arc somc cxamplcs: !l happincss wcrc thc goal, thc animals would bc on top. Tcir cyn
icism consists in lorgctting: that is thc quickcst routc to happincss, cvcn il its onc thats not
worth much.
6
Hc spcaks morc clcarly than hc thinks.

Luthcr: !l God had thought

about thc hcavy guns hc wouldnt havc crcatcd thc world . Forgctlulncss bclongs to all
crcation.
8
Paraphrasc ol culturc a tcmpcraturc and mood which allows many originally
hostilc lorccs to play a singlc mclody.

!l philosophcrs would drcam up a polis |citystatc|

today it would ccrtainly not bc Platos polis but rathcr an apragopolis (town ol strolling spcc
tators).
8o
And so on.
!t is not, howcvcr, mcrcly thc bcginnings ol wit that makcs thc notcbooks ol thc carly
+8os worth rcading. Vhat also rccommcnds thcm is lact that thcy dcal with mattcrs
touchcd on in thc publishcd works ol thc pcriod cithcr only lightly or not at all. ! shall
bricy prcscnt somc ol thcsc notcbook discussions arrangcd according to topic.
Idealism.ersus Fealism. !dcalism, Nictzschc writcs, indicating that hc is still convinccd by
Kant and Schopcnhaucrs argumcnts, is not an hypothcsis but a lact. nc spcaks ol natural
things and proccsscs but thcy arc all containcd in thc rcprcscntation ol thc subjcct. Tc
brain docs not think: rathcr wc (thc worldtransccndcnt subjcct) think thc brain.
8+
Again,
scnsations arc not thc work ol our scnsc organs. Rathcr, scnsc organs arc cntitics wc crcatc on
thc basis ol scnsations.
8:
For all this, Nictzschc continucs, onc could still obscrvc, against
Kant, that, cvcn grantcd all his argumcnts lor idcalism, thc world might still bc cxactly
as it appcars. 8y a happy coincidcncc, in othcr words, thc worldstory thc human mind
constructs might just happcn to cxactly match thc way rcality in itscll is. 8ut actually,
Nictzschc adds, it would not bc a happy coincidcncc at all. For onc could not livc with such
sccpticism.
8
Vc need thcrc to bc anothcr world and lor it to havc a quitc dicrcnt charactcr
lrom this world. Vc nccd somc kind ol othcrworldly salvation, il not ol a Christian, thcn
at lcast ol a Schopcnhaucrian kind.
Te Limits of Science. arly in +8, Nictzschc bcgan to makc up lor thc abscncc ol natural
scicncc lrom his Plorta cducation. From thc 8ascl univcrsity library hc borrowcd a con
sidcrablc numbcr ol books on physics, chcmistry, and astronomy. (Tc most important ol
thcsc, thc Philosophiae naturalis Teoria by thc Croatian Jcsuit Rogcr 8oscovich, dcvclopcd
an atomic thcory in which atomic puncta arc cxtcnsionlcss points in spacc lrom which
causal lorccs arc cxcrtcd an anticipation ol thc lorcc clds ol modcrn scicncc.) !t would
bc a mistakc, howcvcr, to scc intcrcst in natural scicncc as rcprcscnting a turn to thc world
vicw ol scicntic matcrialism. Tc truth is rathcr thc oppositc. Tc notcs ol +8: arc
dominatcd by rcmarks conccrning thc limitations ol scicncc and ol scicntic man. Tc
lattcr, lor cxamplc, is said to bc onc who, surroundcd by thc most tcrriblc cxistcntial prob
lcms, plucks a owcr to count thc numbcr ol ccllthrcads it contains. 8ut as (according to
Nictzschc) Pascal pointcd out, hc docs so cvasivcly. His motivc is to cscapc thc cxistcntial
qucstions ol why: and whcrc to: qucstions which makc him shuddcr and to which hc
has no answcr.
8
Tc propcr stancc towards scicncc on thc part ol philosophy, howcvcr, is, not to dcstroy,
but rathcr to control it, placc it in pcrspcctivc by attcnding to its philosophical prcsupposi
tions.
8
Tis is what Kant did. Vhcn hc wrotc in thc introduction to thc Critique of Pure
Untimely Meditations

:,
Feason, ! must bcat back knowlcdgc in ordcr to makc room lor laith, hc said somcthing
vcry signicant, somcthing that answcrcd to a cultural nccd.
86
Nictzschc writcs that though it has tcrriblc conscqucnccs lor art, rcligion, and morality
(thc conscqucnccs Strauss rcluscd to conlront), arwins thcory ol cvolution is somcthing
! hold to bc truc.
8
!s this not inconsistcnt with his cndorscmcnt ol Kantian idcalism: Not
so: nc spcaks ol gcological and arwinian proccsscs . . . but it is complctcly impossiblc to
think thc (worldcrcating) subjcct away.
88
arwinism, in othcr words, is truc all right, but
only .ithin a ccrtain human pcrspcctivc. Tat rcality in itscll is arwinian (or cvcn
spatial or tcmporal) wc havc no right to assumc sincc rcality in itscll is tcrra incognita.
Te genius. !n all its phascs, Nictzschcs philosophy attachcs cxtrcmc importancc to thc
cxccptional individual, rclcrrcd to, at dicrcnt timcs, as thc gcnius, thc lrcc spirit, thc
highcr typc, thc philosophcr ol thc luturc, and thc supcrman. As alrcady intimatcd, a
lundamcntal intcrprctativc issuc is this: docs Nictzschc takc thc outstanding individual to
cxist ultimatcly lor thc sakc ol thc cntirc community, or, convcrscly, docs hc supposc thc
community to cxist lor thc sakc ol thc outstanding individual: !n thc +8 notcs, picking
up on thc ncccssity ol slavcry thcmc, Nictzschc says that talk ol thc subordination ol thc
individual to thc wcllbcing ol thc wholc is oltcn misundcrstood: it should bc subordina
tion not to thc statc or to powcrlul individuals but to thc highcst individual, thc highcst
cxcmplar, not to thc strongcst but to thc bcst. Tcsc highcst typcs arc thc crcativc mcn,
whcthcr thcy bc thc bcst morally or usclul in somc othcr, largc scnsc, in othcr words, thc
purcst typcs and improvcrs ol humanity.
8
Tis cmphasis on utility implics that thc com
munity as a wholc indccd dcrivcs somc kind ol contribution to its wcllbcing lrom thc
privilcgcd cxistcncc it grants to thc gcnius (lor cxamplc, by raising hugc sums ol moncy lor
8ayrcuth.)
!n discussing Te Future of Our Educational Institutions, wc saw thc naturc ol thc bcnc
t thc community dcrivcs lrom thc gcnius. Tc paradigmatic gcniuscs arc Sophoclcs and
Vagncr (p. +6 abovc), and what thcsc spiritual lcadcrs do is to articulatc through thc grcat
artwork that lundamcntal cthos without which thc community cannot be a community. Tis
thought sccms to bc rcpcatcd in thc rcmark in thc notcs that it is in thc work ol gcnius that
thc cthical powcrs ol a nation show thcmsclvcs.
o
!n thc notcs, howcvcr, anothcr kind ol justication ol thc gcnius can bc obscurcly lclt.
Nictzschc quotcs Gocthc as saying that thc nal causc, thc ultimatc purposc, ol thc world is
dramatic poctry.
+
thcr notcs suggcst thc idca lying bchind this. !n thc grcat gcnius . . . thc
will rcachcs its salvation.
:
!t docs so, thc notcs somctimcs suggcst, bccausc thc purposc ol
thc world, that is, thc primal unitys purposc in crcating it, is its own acsthctic pcrccption,
and this it achicvcs through and only through thc vision ol thc artistic gcnius.

!t is not
clcar how scriously Nictzschc takcs this idca and how much hc is simply playing around
with thc Schopcnhaucrian mctaphysics ol Te Birth. 8ut whatcvcr its status, this kind ol
justication ol thc gcnius a justication which makcs it thc communitys busincss to scrvc
thc gcnius (who in turn scrvcs thc primal unity) rathcr than vicc vcrsa is cntircly dcpcndcnt
on Schopcnhaucrian mctaphysics. ncc Nictzschc abandons that mctaphysics, ! shall (as
alrcady promiscd) arguc, hc is cntircly clcar that communal intcrcsts arc prior to thosc ol
thc cxccptional individual.
Nationalism .ersus Cosmopolitanism. For much ol his youth, wc know, Nictzschc was a
proud and passionatc Prussian, an ardcnt nationalist. 8ut in his maturc works, wc shall scc,
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
hc pridcs himscll on his anti-nationalism, on bcing, not a Gcrman, but a good uropcan.
!n thc notcs ol +8 wc can, ! think, idcntily thc momcnt ol transition lrom nationalism
to cosmopolitanism.
Tc notcbooks covcring thc pcriod lrom thc cnd ol +8: to thc bcginning ol +8 nd
Nictzschc rcgularly complaining about thc subscrvicncc ol thc Gcrmans to Frcnch cultural
practiccs.

!n thc notcs running lrom thc spring to thc summcr ol +8 wc still nd Nictz
schc dcploring thc abstract uropcan man, a man who imitatcs cvcrything badly.

Yct
by thc autumn ol that ycar wc nd him saying that
lundamcntally, cosmopolitanism must sprcad out. Tc arbitrary boundarics ol thc nation
statc gradually losc thcir mystcry and appcar, much morc, as tcrriblc and bad. Tc antag
onisms bccomc sharpcr in a way that cannot bc ovcrcomc. Fcvcr produccs dcath.
6
nc should not ovcrcmphasisc this rccction Nictzschcs notcs arc always cxpcrimcnts in
thought rathcr than cnunciations ol doctrinc. Yct thc notc is signicant as thc rst occasion
on which Nictzschc sccs that thcrc is somcthing, pcrhaps, to bc said in fa.our of cosmopol
itanism, namcly, that it hclps ovcrcomc war.
!hy Philosophy? Rcccting on thc PrcPlatonic philosophcrs, Nictzschc obscrvcs that
nonc ol thcm crcatcd a mass lollowing. Vhat thcn, hc asks, is thc usc ol philosophy judgcd
against thc ultimatc good, thc cultural hcalth ol thc community: Philosophy can do various
things: it can subduc thc mythical by strcngthcning thc scnsc ol scicntic truth, as did
Talcs and cmocritus, or do thc rcvcrsc, as did Hcraclitus. And it can smash cvcry kind
ol dogmatism, as did Socratcs.

Tc judicious philosophcr thus nccds to bc thc physician

ol culturc: to diagnosc thc cultural nccds ol his timcs and prcscribc accordingly. For us,
Nictzschc continucs, thc task ol thc philosophcr is to combat worldlincss (matcrialism),
to limit thc barbarising ccct ol thc drivc to knowlcdgc. Tc cultural physician ol today
must bc guidcd by thc knowlcdgc that culturc can only cvcr procccd lrom thc ccntralizing
signicancc ol an art or an artwork. His lundamcntal task is to prcparc thc way lor such
an artwork
8
lor, in othcr words, 8ayrcuth.
And should such an artwork and culturc onc day rcturn, what would thcn bc thc task ol
thc philosophcr:
Tc philosophcr ol thc luturc: Hc must bc thc highcr tribunal ol an artistic culturc, likc
thc sccurity lorcc opposcd to all stcpping out ol linc.

!n a hcalthy culturc, whcrc thcrc is no longcr any nccd lor thc cultural physician, thc philos
ophcrs task is to bc a cultural guardian who prcscrvcs that hcalth lor as long as possiblc (a
thcmc which will rcappcar at thc cnd ol Nictzschcs carccr in Te ntichrist).
Te Future of Feligion. Vith rcgard to rcligion onc noticcs an cxhaustion onc is nally
tircd ol thc old important symbols . . . it is timc lor thc invcntion ol somcthing ncw,
+oo
a
ncw rcligion. Tis wc know alrcady. 8ccausc, as Te Birth of Tragedy cmphasiscs, a grcat,
artistic culturc such as that ol thc Grccks is at thc samc timc a rcligious onc, thc rcturn ol
an artistic culturc is a fortiori thc rcturn ol a rcligious onc. 8ut what will this ncw rcligion
bc likc: From Schopcnhaucr, wc know how dccp thc ncw rcligion must bc. For it must bc
such that
Untimely Meditations

::
(+) both thc immortality thcmc and thc lcar ol dcath disappcar |it must, as thc Schopcn
haucrian worldvicwdocs, ovcrcomc lcar ol dcath .ithout postulating pcrsonal immortality|
(:) thc scparation ol body lrom soul disappcars () it contains thc insight that thc sucring
ol cxistcncc cannot bc ovcrcomc by corrcctivc mcasurcs ol a palliativc sort |it must ovcr
comc Socratism| () that thc rclationship to a God is past () |it must cnjoin| compassion
(not lovc ol scll but thc oncncss ol all that livcs and sucrs).
Nictzschc adds that thc countcrimagc to culturc occurs whcn rcligion is no longcr pos
siblc.
+o+
Tis concluding rcmark is vcry important sincc, ! shall suggcst, Nictzschcs wholc
lilc and philosophy is, abovc all clsc, a strugglc to nd a ncw rcligious outlook that will
rclound culturc.
11
Aimez-vous Brahms?
N
iv:zscnv svvx: thc Christmas and Ncw Ycar ol +8 in Naumburg. c
spitc bcing sick with thc usual litany, hc was as thrillcd as cvcr by his Christmas
prcscnts, itcmising thcm in a lcttcr to von Gcrsdor with boyish glcc: among oth
crs, a gilt photo album lor largc photographs, a woodcn lcttcr holdcr with a carvcd oral
dcsign lrom lizabcth, itcms madc ol Russian lcathcr lrom Princcss Tcrcsc ol Altcnburg
(his lathcrs lormcr pupil), and a largc Raphacl rcproduction.
+
From Naumburg hc madc
a sidc trip to Lcipzig to chcck up on how thc sccond Untimely Meditation was going with
Fritzsch and to visit Ritschl, who subjcctcd him to a vcrbal barragc conccrning thc awlul
ncss ol Vagncrs poctry, vcrbccks book, and Nictzschcs supposcdly proFrcnch stancc
:
(a
supposition bascd, prcsumably, on his critiquc ol Vilhclminian Gcrmany).
8ack in 8ascl at thc bcginning ol January, hc was sick most ol thc timc through to thc
bcginning ol April with thc usual intcstinal troublcs and nausca. And his cycsight was as bad
as cvcr. Fortunatcly, howcvcr, his highschool pupil, Adoll 8aumgartncr, whom hc lound
both talcntcd and sympathctic,

ocrcd his scrviccs as amanucnsis. Son ol a nowdcccascd

Alsatian industrialist, Adoll introduccd Nictzschc to his mothcr, Maric, with whom, wc
shall scc, hc lormcd a warm lricndship.
epression, Marriage, and ropping Out
F
or much ol thc rst hall ol +8 Nictzschc was again dcprcsscd. At thc bcginning ol
April hc rcports that though his physical hcalth is now cxccllcnt hc is vcry dissatis
cd with lilc.

Tc lollowing month hc writcs that hc is conscious ol a dccp mclancholy

undcrlying all |his| . . . chccrlulncss.

(Chccrlulncss rcmaincd at lcast thc outcr charactcr ol

his lilc, his 8ascl social calcndar bcing as lull as cvcr.)
Tc gallows humour
6
pcrvading his lcttcrs allowcd 8ayrcuth to gct wind ol Nictzschcs
dcprcssion. Vorricd, thcy discusscd his condition within thcir circlc ol lricnds. Cosima
wrotc to Malwida von Mcyscnbug that shc lcarcd hc would lollow H oldcrlin into madncss,
::

imez-.ous Brahms?

:
an idca shc got lrom von Gcrsdor who put it to Nictzschc dircctly that hc had an clcmcnt
ol H oldcrlins naturc in him.

Tc mcditations on what to do about Nictzschcs statc ol mind culminatcd in Vagncrs

writing to himon April + putting his own, crudcly vulgar, gloss on thc conscnsus diagnosis:
Among othcr things ! think that thc masculinc lilc you livc in 8ascl in thc cvcnings |with
vcrbcck and Romundt| is somcthing ! ncvcr lcd . . . it sccms that you young mcn lack
womcn: that is to say . . . why takc and not stcal: !n an cmcrgcncy onc can always stcal.
Vhat ! mcan is, you must marry or composc an opcra . . . h God, marry a rich woman!
Vhy is only von Gcrsdor a propcr malc! . . . composc your opcra, but it will bc damncd
dicult to gct it pcrlormcd. Vhat kind ol dcvil madc you just a pcdagoguc! . . . ! bathc
now cvcry day bccausc ! cant bcar my bclly. o thc samc! And cat mcat! |Nictzschc and
von Gcrsdor had bccn irting with vcgctarianism.|
8
As a lollowup to this lcttcr, von Gcrsdor (whosc lcttcrs, sincc thc prcvious ycar, oltcn
sccm morc sympathctic to thc Vagncrs than to thcir crrant son) wrotc that hc lully sup
portcd thc advicc to marry which hc had discusscd with thc Vagncrs. Tcrc arc plcnty ol
womcn around, hc wrotc, adding gcncrously that nding thc right onc is your busi
ncss.

Nictzschc was amuscd. Tough, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor, hc lound thc idca ol you
and thc 8ayrcuthcrs sitting togcthcr in a marriagcadvisorycommission dcciding what to
do about his status truly hcavcnly, hc did not quitc scc himscll sctting out on a crusadc
to rcach such a promiscd land. And anyway, hc pointcd out, von Gcrsdor was no morc
advanccd in that dircction than hc was.
+o
Vagncrs lcttcr, as wcll as bcing vulgar, dcmonstratcs prcciscly why Nictzschc nccdcd to
distancc himscll lrom, as hc would call it, Vagncrs tyrannical naturc that rccogniscd no
pcrsonality othcr than his own (p. +86 bclow). 8ccausc hc, Vagncr, is highly scxcd (Tristan
and Isoldes Licbcstod is surcly thc most cxplicit cvocation ol scxual orgasm in thc history
ol music) so must Nictzschc bc. 8ut hc has no outlct givcn that all his intimatc rclations arc
with mcn, and is liablc, Vagncr clcarly hints, to nd thc scxual urgc divcrtcd into pcrvcrtcd
channcls. !n lact, howcvcr, scx is cntircly bcsidc thc point. Tc only scnsiblc advicc Vagncr
givcs is that hc should marry a rich wilc to rclicvc him ol thc burdcn ol tcaching. For this
was, in lact, thc root ol thc problcm.
At thc bcginning ol May, +8, Nictzschc wrotc to von Gcrsdor that hc was in a
vcry good statc and that any kind ol dcprcssion or mclancholy is lar and dccp bcncath
mc. Hc adds that hc is now making vcry good progrcss on his third Untimely Medita-
tion.
++
Vhcthcr or not thc rcport is accuratc, thc conjunction is signicant. For what rcally
got Nictzschc down wcrc thc multiplc distractions, inscparablc lrom thc lilc ol a univcr
sity and grammarschool tcachcr, that prcvcntcd him gctting on with his rcal work. Tc
sourcc ol his dcprcssion was thc conict bctwccn, on thc onc hand, his mcmbcrship ol an
acadcmic world which, according to his cducationcritiquc, had sold out on thc task ol truc
cducation, and, on thc othcr, thc vocation to bc, in cvcry scnsc, a lrcc writcr ol cxplosivc
philosophical books, a vocation in tcrms ol which, incrcasingly, hc dcncd his truc bcing.
!n othcr words, thc sourcc ol his dcprcssion was thc scnsc ol lailing to bc his truc scll, his
lailurc to lollow his own dcmand that onc should bccomc who onc is.
Vriting to Malwida von Mcyscnbug on thc complction ol thc third Meditation in
ctobcr, Nictzschc obscrvcs that a trcmcndous happincss lics in making progrcss, stcpwisc,
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
with oncs task and now ! havc complctcd thrcc ol thc |as hc planncd at this timc| thir
tccn Meditations.
+:
!ngraincd into Nictzschc, to rcpcat, was thc work cthic ol his Protcstant
homcland. Happincss, skybluc happincss, hc obscrvcs in Zarathustra, is (mcaninglul, lilc
dcning) work. Morc cxactly, it is production, thc only surc prool ol work. Vithout pro
ductivity, hc condcs to his notcbooks, lilc is worthlcss and unbcarablc.
+
And to Rohdc
hc wrotc at thc bcginning ol Junc: !min a rcasonably productivc mood and hcncc chccrlul,
havc my sistcr hcrc, in bricl ! rcscmblc a happy pcrson insolar as ! knowwhat happincss is.
+
!n lact, though, production sucicnt to satisly Nictzschcs drivcn, Protcstant conscicncc
was impossiblc so long as hc rcmaincd a prolcssor:
You can gucss |hc wrotc von Gcrsdor in April| how lundamcntally mclancholy and dc
spondcnt ! am, as a productivc bcing! All ! ask is somc lrccdom, somc rcal air to livc and
dclcnd myscll. ! bccomc outragcd at thc many, uncountably many, unlrccdoms that hold
mc imprisoncd. Tcrc can bc no qucstion ol a rcal productivity whcn onc cmcrgcs so littlc
lrom unlrccdom, lrom thc sucring and burdcnsomcncss ol imprisonmcnt.
+
And Nictzschc was spcaking no morc than thc obvious truth: on top ol tcaching thirtccn
hours a wcck, six at thc univcrsity and scvcn at thc P adcgogium,
+6
a truly appalling load lor
any acadcmic lct alonc onc who was hallblind, hc had bccn rcsponsiblc, sincc thc bcginning
ol +8, lor all thc administrativc dutics associatcd with bcing a dcan. Now a ncw occ
on my back !vc had cnough, hc wrotc, cxaspcratcdly, to von Gcrsdor.
nc ol thc rccurrcnt symptoms ol Nictzschcs dcprcssion is thc rcpcatcdly cxprcsscd
dcsirc to drop out, a dcsirc which always ccntrcs round thc nccd to rcsolvc thc conict
bctwccn prolcssion and vocation in lavour ol thc lattcr. At thc bcginning ol Fcbruary, +8,
hc writcs his mothcr, !d lovc so much to havc a tiny larmand thcn !d hang my prolcssorship
on thc nail. !vc now bccn a prolcssor lor ycars, ! think thats cnough.
+
Tc lollowing
month hc rcports that my sistcr is visiting mc and day by day wc lorgc thc most bcautilul
plans lor an idyllic and simplc luturc lilc llcd with work.
+8
And to Vagncr hc writcs that
hc hopcs thc Mastcr will not bc upsct il onc day ! am not ablc to stand thc univcrsity with
its pcculiar scholarly air any morc. ! think cach summcr about bccoming indcpcndcnt in
thc most modcst ol circumstanccs (undcr which !m proud to say that ! can livc).
+
Tough hc spokc to his mothcr ol a larm, by May thc sctting lor his rctrcat has changcd
to a morc urban sctting:
!vc choscn RothcnburgobdcrTaubcr as my privatc lortrcss and hcrmitagc . . . Tcrc its
at lcast all traditionally Gcrman |altdeutsch|. ! hatc thc charactcrlcss, mixcd |i.c., motlcy|
citics |ol modcrnity| that havc lost thcir wholcncss. Tcrc ! can work out my thoughts, !
hopc, and makc plans lor dccadcs ahcad and bring thcm to complction.
:o
(Tis passagc rcvcals morc than Nictzschcs dcsirc to bc a lulltimc writcr. Rothcnburg was
and still is a small, mcdicval, town ncar Nurcmbcrg in Franconia, visually untouchcd by
modcrnity. Likc Nictzschcs Naumburg cntircly circumscribcd by an ancicnt wall, it is vcry
much likc thc Nurcmbcrg cclcbratcd in Vagncrs Mastersingers as a placc ol cultural unity,
continuity and sccurity. Vhcn Nictzschc rcmarks in his notcs that Vagncrs chccrlulncss
|in thc Mastersingers| is thc lccling ol sccurity that bclongs to somconc who has rcturncd
imez-.ous Brahms?

:
lrom thc grcatcst dangcrs and cxccsscs into thc boundcdncss ol thc homcland,
:+
hc is
cxprcssing his own, as wcll as Vagncrs, nostalgia lor thc community ol thc past: a com
munity which, as such, nccds to bc wallcd, bccausc, as Hcidcggcr rcmarks, a boundary is
whcrc somcthing starts as wcll as whcrc it stops.)
Wagner in the Balance
N
ictzschcs crcativc gcnius was, thcn, bccoming incrcasingly alicnatcd lromlilc in 8ascl.
Hc was alicnatcd, in particular, lrom thc burdcns ol univcrsity lilc which wcrc only
incrcascd by his inability to dischargc his dutics with anything lcss than hundrcdpcrccnt
Prussian conscicntiousncss. Alicnation lrom thc univcrsity was incrcascd by thc dcath, in
July +8, ol his lathcrly lricnd \ischcr8ilngcr who had bccn rcsponsiblc lor his original
appointmcnt and stuck by him through thick and thin:
ur good old \ischcr is dying |hc wrotc Rohdc|. Hc is without doubt ol all 8asclcrs thc onc
who gavc mc thc most signicant and dccpcst trust . . . ! losc a grcat dcal and will bccomc
cvcn morc alicnatcd lrom thc univcrsity than ! alrcady am.
::
A potcntially cvcn morc traumatic alicnation, howcvcr, was occurring, lrom thc bcginning
ol +8, in thc notcbooks: alicnation lrom Vagncr, alicnation, at lcast, lrom ccrtain aspccts
ol that titanic gurc, an alicnation that providcd somc ol thc matcrial which cvcntually gavc
risc to thc lourth ol thc Untimely Meditations, Fichard !agner in Bayreuth.
:
! cmphasiscd in thc prcvious chaptcr that throughout +8 Nictzschcs notcbooks contain
not a brcath ol criticism ol Vagncr. Privatc rccctions on thc Mastcr arc as rcvcrcntial as
public pronounccmcnts. So it comcs as a bolt out ol thc bluc whcn, lrom thc bcginning
ol +8, onc bcgins rcgularly to stumblc upon rcmarks ol thc ordcr ol nonc ol our grcat
composcrs was, at twcntycight, still so bad a composcr as Vagncr,
:
or From 8ach or
8ccthovcn thcrc shincs out a purc naturc. Vagncrs ccstasics arc oltcn violcnt and not naivc
cnough.
:
Vhat rcally startlcs about such rcmarks is not that thcy arc ovcrwhclmingly
critical, which thcy arc not, but that thcy arc critical at all. Vagncr, that is to say, has ccascd
to bc thc Mastcr, an objcct ol quasircligious rcvcrcncc, and has bccomc a mcrc mortal
posscssing many ol lrailtics that go with that condition. Hc has, in short, bccn rclcgatcd
lrom thc lcaguc ol thc gods to that ol thc human, indccd alltoohuman.
A lcttcr writtcn to Rohdc in Fcbruary cxplains what it was that lcd Nictzschc to turn
Vagncr into an objcct ol critical appraisal. Rclcrring to rumours ol a miraclc (thc +oo,ooo
talcrs donatcd by Ludwig ol 8avaria at thc cnd ol thc lollowing month without which thc
cntirc 8ayrcuth projcct would havc collapscd), Nictzschc says,
Lct us hopc its truc. Sincc thc bcginning ol ncw ycar it has bccn a dismal outlook |lor
8ayrcuth| in thc lacc ol which ! was nally ablc to rcscuc myscll in thc wcirdcst manncr: !
bcgan, with thc grcatcst coldncss ol obscrvation, to invcstigatc why thc projcct might lail.
!n doing so ! havc lcarnt a lot and bclicvc ! undcrstand Vagncr much bcttcr than bclorc.
!l thc miraclc is truc thcn thc rcsults ol my analysis wont upsct anything. Rathcr, wc shall
want to cclcbratc and havc a party.
:6
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhat Nictzschc is doing hcrc is indccd, as hc says, dccply wcird. Fcaring thc collapsc
ol thc 8ayrcuth projcct, which up to now has bccn thc mcaning ol his lilc, hc dccidcs to
analysc thc rcasons lor its likcly lailurc whilc simultancously hoping against hopc that it
will not lail. !t is as il a lanatical supportcr ol a lootball tcam, losing condcncc in his tcam
on thc cvc ol thc big match, sct out to cxplain thc causcs ol its dclcat, whilc still hoping
against hopc that it will triumph on thc day.
Nictzschcs cxamination ol thc Vagncr phcnomcnon, it should bc said, although indccd
coldly lorcnsic, is nothing likc thc assassination ol Strauss or thc assassinations ol
Vagncr that would comc latcr. !t is not an assassinationattcmpt, rst, bccausc hc attributcs
much ol thc troublc with thc 8ayrcuth projcct not to Vagncr but rathcr to thc audicncc
and culturc hc is lorccd to work with and within, and, sccond, bccausc whilc itcmising
Vagncrs wcakncsscs, hc also givcs duc wcight to his strcngths. Tc ovcrall charactcr ol thc
discussion is that ol a balancc shcct. And on balancc, Nictzschc nds thc wcakncsscs to bc
prctty much cqual to thc strcngths.
Tc criticisms coalcscc, it sccms to mc, around lour main points. Tc rst is that Vagncr
is at thc root ol his naturc an actor.
:
Rathcr than allowing thc audicncc to ovcrhcar, as
it wcrc, somcthing arising lrom inncr ncccssity, Vagncr is at cvcry momcnt conscious ol
his audicncc, always calculating how to producc thc maximum ccct. His music, that is
to say, is a kind ol acctpainting aimcd at casting thc audicncc into an intoxication ol
scnsory ccstasy, its aim is to mo.e at any pricc.
:8
(!s thc prudish pastors son shockcd, onc
wondcrs, by Tristans ovcrt scxuality, and by his own rcsponsivcncss to it:)
Tc sccond criticism is that not only is Vagncr an actor, hc is an actor ol a particularly
tyrannical naturc. Tis cxplains thc lact that his works arc in cvcry rcspcct colossal
:

Parsifal lasts vcandahall hours, thc Fing cyclc scvcntccn hours (minus intcrvals), and
thc nccd lor a ncw opcra housc was gcncratcd by Vagncrs dcmand lor orchcstral and stagc
rcsourccs on a scalc no prcvious composcr had cvcn drcamcd ol. Vagncr aims not just to
movc but to o.er.helm, to intimidatc by thc shccr scalc ol his works.
o
Hc is, in Nictzschcs
latcr tcrminology, thc will to powcr incarnatc. Vagncrs tyrannical naturc (wc must bc
thanklul, Nictzschc rcccts, that hc has no political powcr)
+
accts both his rcsponsc to
othcr composcrs and his social thinking:
Tc tyrannical |in him| allows validity to no othcr individuality savc his own and that ol
his intimatcs |i.c., cloncs|. Tc dangcr lor Vagncr is grcat, whcn hc docs not allow 8rahms
to bc valid. r thc Jcws.
:
r Nictzschc hcncc thc nccd lor distancc. Tis is an important notc lor two rcasons.
First, bccausc ol thc rclcrcncc to 8rahms, shortly to bccomc, as wc shall scc, thc topic
ol a painlul cncountcr bctwccn Vagncr and son, and sccond, bccausc ol thc rclcrcncc
to thc Jcws. Tc notc rcprcscnts thc rst occasion on which thc unplcasant but mindlcss
antiScmitism that mars Nictzschcs carly corrcspondcncc is rcplaccd by an cxplicitly anti
Scmitic rcmark. !t shows, in othcr words, that thc bcginning ol Nictzschcs qucstioning ol
Gcrman antiScmitism lay in his qucstioning ol thc Vagncr phcnomcnon.
Johanncs 8rahms, supportcd by thc Vagncrhating \icnncsc music critic duard
Hanslick, was rcgardcd in thc latc ninctccnth ccntury as thc agbcarcr lor classicism
lor classical rcstraint as opposcd to thc romantic cxccss ol 8ayrcuth. Tis introduccs thc
imez-.ous Brahms?

:
third ol Nictzschcs criticisms, a criticism in which hc rcturns to his own innatc musical
conscrvatism: Vagncr, all to oltcn, lacks mcasurc and limit, though it has to bc said to
his crcdit that, at timcs, in parts ol thc Fing and in Meistersinger, hc rccovcrs it.

Vith
Vagncr, that is, onc oltcn strugglcs in vain to nd barlincs and hcncc rhythmic ordcr in
his music. Tis lack ol mcasurc, Nictzschc continucs, cvokcs thc wandcring innity ol thc
sca

(an ccct, wc know, Vagncr consciously sought to producc). Tc only agc in which
Vagncr, thc thinkcr, nds no ccho ol himscll is thc agc ol classical rcvival, thc Rcnais
sancc.

Tis lack ol a classical scnsibility might bc portraycd as authcntic, honcst, ruggcd

Gcrman crudcncss, but to do so would mistakc thc Gcrman musical tradition. For Gcr
man music is by no mcans mcrc pcasant burping it was savcd lrom that by importing
rcncmcnt ol lorm lrom !taly.
6
Yct all that acquircd gracc and dclicacy (Mozart) and
dialcctical prccision (8ach) is lacking in Vagncr.

Translatcd into thc languagc ol Te Birth of Tragedy, this criticism ol Vagncrs lack ol
thc classical boils down to thc criticism that it lacks Apollonian structurc, is a kind ol
purc, scalikc ionysianism. !n othcr words, a grcat dcal ol Vagncrs music is unmc
diatcd ionysianism. Tis connccts with Nictzschcs lourth and nal criticism: Vagncrs
art transccnds rathcr than transgurcs thc world. !t is a Schopcnhaucrian art ol ight,
ol worlddcnial. 8ut ol what usc is such an art, an art in which thc will to lilc nds no
cxprcssion: !t is an art that can havc no moral ccct othcr than quictism which, Nictzschc
implics, docs not count as a propcrly moral ccct at all.
8
Tis criticism rcpcats Te Birth of Tragedys point that only thc Apollonian, conccptual
clcmcnt in thc artwork can pcrlormthc lilcarming lunction ol collccting thc community
in clarilying armation ol it lundamcntal cthos, only an Apollonian, classical artwork (as
Vagncrs carlicr conccption ol thc artwork armcd) can havc moral signicancc. Tus, to
thc cxtcnt that Vagncrs latcr works, Tristan and thc ycttobccomposcd Parsifal, bccomc,
in both thcory and practicc, almost purcly ionysian, thcy cannot pcrlormthc community
crcating lunction which, so it sccmcd, was thc wholc point ol thc 8ayrcuth projcct. Tcrc
is, thcrclorc, a latal contradiction bctwccn thc avowcd purposc ol thc 8ayrcuth projcct,
that ol crcating a national thcatrc, and thc charactcr ol thc artwork that will bc prcscntcd
thcrc.
Tc qucstion thcsc rccctions prcscnt is this: what has happcncd to Te Births, as !
callcd it, tour dc lorcc, its dcmonstration ol thc compatibility ol thc worldimproving and
worlddcnying Vagncr, thc dcmonstration that thc collcctivc artwork could both gathcr
community and providc a ionysian comlort in thc lacc ol pain and dcath (pp. ++:
abovc): !t is hard to say. Pcrhaps it is a mattcr ol which opcra onc attcnds to, which is
uppcrmost in Nictzschcs mind. !l onc thinks ol Tannha user, Te Flying Dutchman, thc rst
hall ol thc Fing, or, ccrtainly, ol Meistersinger, thc collccting, Apollonian myth is without
qucstion morc than adcquatcly prcscnt. !t is pcrhaps rclcvant, howcvcr, to rccall that lairly
rcccntly, Nictzschc has witncsscd his rst, proloundly accting pcrlormancc ol Tristan
(p. + abovc), thc dramalcss musicdrama that thrcatcns onc with cxpiring in a spas
modic unharncssing ol all thc wings ol thc soul.

Pcrhaps Nictzschc sccs, in Tristan, thc

luturc dircction ol Vagncrs art and sccs, thcrclorc, that thc work ol rcconciliation undcr
takcn in Te Birth has bccomc rcdundant.

Tough thc abovc rcmarks rcprcscnt scrious criticisms, othcr notcs mitigatc thcir lorcc. nc
ol thc ways in which thcy do this is by putting a dicrcnt spin on thc samc phcnomcna
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
that wcrc objccts ol criticism. Tus, approaching thc qucstion ol Vagncrs lack ol classical
rcncmcnt, his crudcncss, lrom anothcr pcrspcctivc, onc notc obscrvcs that it is
not to bc lorgottcn: . . . Vagncrs art spcaks thc languagc ol thc pcoplc and that mcans that,
unavoidably, cvcn thc noblcst things undcrgo a markcd coarscning. !t is intcndcd to work at
a distancc and to knit togcthcr thc chaos within thc community. .G. thc !mpcrial March
|Kaisermarsch|.
o
(Tcrc is an unspokcn allusion hcrc, ! think, to Grcck tragcdy: bccausc thc actors spokc
in thc opcn air bclorc an audicncc oltcn numbcring thirty thousand, thcy had to shout
thcir lincs.) Turning to thc mainly pcjorativc dcscription ol Vagncr as an actor, Nictzschc
obscrvcs that an actors rhctoric is morc honcst than socallcd objcctivc art bccausc (likc a
conjurcr) it makcs no attcmpt to disguisc its intcntion, to hoodwink.
+
Tc principal linc ol mitigation, howcvcr, consists in highlighting thc unhclplul con
ditions undcr which Vagncr has to work. Vc livc, that is to say, in thc agc and placc ol
antiart.
:
Tcatrc, in particular, is somcthing Vagncr cannot pcrsuadc thc Gcrmans to
takc scriously.

Vhat hc attcmpts is to mobilisc thc mass ol thcatrcgocrs so that soci

cty as a wholc bccomcs a thcatrocracy |Teatrokratrie|. !l hc had bccn an !talian (whcrc
thcy arc scrious about opcra) hc would unqucstionably havc succccdcd in bringing about
thc social translormation hc sought. 8ut Gcrmans havc no rcspcct lor opcra, vicwing it as
importcd and unGcrman.

Vagncr, that is to say, makcs hugc claims lor thc signicancc

ol art lor socicty: hc is a Luthcr gurc, who sccks to producc a ncw Rclormation ol thc
wholc community. 8ut thc Gcrmans ol today nd such aims immodcst, arc not attuncd
to grcatncss.

Vagncr, it is truc, has his lollowcrs. 8ut thcy arc lar lrom bcing thc gcnuinc
rclormcrs hc nccds. Rathcr, thcy arc musicians intcrcstcd only in novcl cccts, singcrs with
notvcrygood voiccs, worshippcrs mcsmcriscd by thc cult ol gcnius, or listcncrs borcd with
thc old art and with lilc in gcncral, intcrcstcd only in intoxication.
6
All in all, thc timcs
arc cntircly unripc lor a sccond Rclormation.

Nictzschcs account ol Vagncrs positivc virtucs boil down to onc, lor Nictzschc suprcmcly
important, word: unity.
Tc music isnt much good, nor thc poctry, nor thc plot nor thc acting which is oltcn mcrc
rhctoric. 8ut its all, as a wholc, a unity, and all at thc samc hcight. Vagncr as a thinkcr is
on cxactly thc samc lcvcl as Vagncr thc musician and poct.

Vagncrs strongcst powcr, in lact, is his lccling lor

unity in dicrcncc, outsidc himscll as an artist and within himscll as an individual. Hc has
an innatc capacity to pcrccivc thc rclation ol thc arts to cach othcr and thc conncxion ol
statc and socicty to art.
8
Vagncrs lccling lor unity in dicrcncc makcs him a gcnuinc bcarcr ol culturc.

So that
actually (a momcnt ol optimism),
!t is scriously possiblc that Vagncr can wcan thc Gcrmans lrom thcir obscssion with thc
individual, isolatcd arts. Pcrhaps it will cvcn bc possiblc to dcrivc lrom his altcrmath thc
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,
picturc ol a unicd culturc |Bildung| that can ncvcr bc achicvcd through thc mcrc addition
ol individual skills and rcgions ol knowlcdgc to cach othcr.
o
!n othcr words, lor all Vagncrs laults, and lor all that that thc cxccssivc dominancc ol his
scalikc, ionysian music oltcn conluscs and contradicts thc 8ayrcuth idcal, wc can still
hopc that lromthc altcrccct ol his work will growsomcthing that rcally is a Rclormation
ol thc community as a wholc.
Tat, in any casc, is thc notc on which Nictzschc concludcd his rcappraisal ol thc Vagncr
phcnomcnon. Vriting to thc Vagncrian, Carl Fuchs,

at thc cnd ol April, hc suggcsts that

latcr, altcr a lcw ycars, wc shall think togcthcr about our kind ol culturcwar
|Kulturkampf |

(as thc curscd phrasc has it) to lound a public thcatrc latcr whcn wc
havc a lcw morc namcs and arc not so thin on thc ground. Until thcn wc must all ght
alonc ! havc lorgcd a good wcapon with my . . . Untimcly Mcditations with which ! hit
pcoplc ovcr thc hcad until somcthing comcs out.
+
!n sum, thcn, at thc conclusion ol his mcditations on Vagncr, Nictzschc rcmains, in spitc
ol scrious rcscrvations about thc man, thinkcr, and artist, as committcd as cvcr to thc
8ayrcuth idcal, to thc rcbirth ol thc communitygathcring thcatrc ol thc collcctivc artwork.
Tc split that bcgins to appcar, hcrc, bctwccn Vagncr, on thc onc hand, and what wc may
call thc Vagncrian idcal, on thc othcr, rcmains with Nictzschc until thc cnd ol his carccr.
Tough his rcscrvations about thc lormcr continuc to incrcasc, thc lattcr, so ! havc promiscd
to arguc, rcmain with Nictzschc until thc cnd.
Te Home Iront, a New Publisher, Women
M
canwhilc, on thc homc lront, Romundt was bccoming somcthing ol a worry. Hc
lailcd in January, +8 to gct a pcrmancnt position in philosophy at 8ascl and his
wholc prolcssional luturc bcgan to look cxtrcmcly blcak. (Tc position wcnt, instcad, to
Max Hcinzc, Nictzschcs lormcr tutor at Plorta. Tough hc rctaincd cordial pcrsonal rcla
tions with Hcinzc, hc rcgardcd him as an intcllcctual athcad.)
:
Nictzschc attributcd

Fuchs rcprcscntcd anothcr lricndship that grcwout ol thc 8ayrcuth circlc and which, though Nictz
schc oltcn placcd it undcr strcss, cndurcd until his nal collapsc. Fuchs was a lormcr studcnt ol von
8 ulow, an organist and pianist and a wcllknown publicist on acsthctic qucstions who had writtcn
a Ph.. thcsis on Schopcnhaucrs philosophy ol music. For many ycars hc was musical dircctor lor
thc city ol anzig (Gcdansk). !n +oo, thc ycar ol Nictzschcs dcath, hc was rcsponsiblc, along with
thc conccrt pianist Valthcr Lampc, lor crccting a mcmorial to Nictzschc on thc Chast c pcninsula
in Lakc Sils ncar Sils Maria (scc Platc :6), a lavouritc spot ol Nictzschcs. Tc lricndship was
conductcd mainly by lcttcr: thc two mct only thrcc timcs.

Kulturkampf was thc phrasc coincd in +8 to dcscribc 8ismarcks attcmpts to climinatc thc Cath
olic Church as a rival sourcc ol powcr within Gcrmany by bringing its lunctions, such as marriagc
and cducation, undcr thc control ol thc statc. Tough no lricnd ol thc Catholic pricsthood, Nictz
schc vicwcd 8ismarcks antiCatholicism with a jaundiccd cyc rcgarding it as part ol his attcmpt to
construct a Kulturstaat (p. + abovc), a quasitotalitarian statc.
:,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc lailurc, as hc did his own lailurc to gain thc chair ol philosophy, to lcar ol Schopcn
haucr.

Givcn, howcvcr, that hc rcportcd in Fcbruary that hc and vcrbcck wcrc worricd
about thc cxccllcnt Romundt |sincc| hc has bccomc a joylcss mystic . . . clarity was ncvcr
his thing, cxpcricncc ol lilc also not, and now hc is dcvcloping a wcird hatrcd ol all cul
turc,

thcrc may havc bccn othcr causcs.

At thc cnd ol March lizabcth arrivcd (scc Platc +) to spcnd thc summcr kccping
housc in thc poison cottagc, now 8aumanns Cavc. Hcr practicc sincc +8o had bccn to
spcnd thc summcrs in 8ascl and thc wintcrs in Naumburg, though Franziskas posscssivc
ncss rcquircd diplomacy on Fritzs part to prcscrvc thc arrangcmcnt. Tc strugglc bctwccn
himscll and his mothcr, lizabcth rcports him as saying, rcscmblcd thc ght lor Hclcn
bctwccn thc Trojans and anaans.

!n May, brothcr and sistcr spcnt a holiday in a vcstar hotcl ncxt to thc Rhinc Falls ncar
Schahauscn (thc largcst watcrlalls in uropc) whcrc, lizabcth rccords, thcy laughcd a
lot, a mcrrimcnt which cnablcd Fritz to rccstablish thc cquilibrium bctwccn rcality and
conccntratcd thinking. Amusingly, shc rccalls that Fritz would havc nothing to do with any
table dh ote, calling it thc grazing ol hcrds. Rcsponding to an cxorbitant bill, hc dcclarcd
with a solcmn pun (it is not cntircly clcar that lizabcth got it) that onc always has to pay
dcarly lor grazing away lrom thc hcrd.
6

n July Nictzschc rcccivcd what was ccctivcly a hcadhunting lcttcr lrom rnst
Schmcitzncr in Chcmnitz. Schmcitzncr wrotc that hc proposcd to sct up a ncw publishing
housc spccialising in thc bcst in Gcrman philosophy, litcraturc, and acsthctics, and askcd
lor a work lrom Nictzschcs pcn.

8ccausc Fritzsch had bccn unablc to pay thc honorari

ums lor thc last two publications, Nictzschc rcspondcd lavourably. n July +8 hc scnt hima
dralt ol thc third Untimely Meditation and askcd him to takc ovcr its two prcdcccssors lrom
thc troublcd Fritzsch which, by thc cnd ol thc ycar, Schmcitzncr did. l coursc, this scp
aration lrom thc Vagncrians housc publishcr markcd a lurthcr widcning ol thc distancc
bctwccn Nictzschc and thc Vagncrs, particularly bccausc Schmcitzncr was, as wc shall scc,
lrom thcir point ol vicw, politically suspcct.

Tc ycar +8 sawtwo ncwwomcn lricnds cntcr Nictzschcs lilc. !n addition to his continu
ing cxchangc ol lcttcrs with Malwida von Mcyscnbug, hc dcvclopcd a short but bcautilul
lcttcrlricndship with an !talian noblcwoman, mma GucrricriGonsaga, who had bccn
grcatly imprcsscd by thc sccond Untimely Meditation. Agrccing with Nictzschc that thc old
rcligion was dcad, and was in any casc unacccptablc on account ol its lics cxposcd by avid
Strauss, hcr qucst, shc wrotc, was lor a luturc rcligion built on complctcly philosophical
loundations.
8
Askcd whcthcr hc agrccd, Nictzschc rcplicd that his answcr would bc lound
in his third Untimely Meditation

(to which wc shall turn shortly).

A lurthcr lricndship dcvclopcd with Maric 8aumgartncr, thc mothcr ol his pupil and
amanucnsis, Adoll, whom hc startcd to visit in L orrach ncar to 8ascl, just ovcr thc boardcr
in Gcrmany. Highly cducatcd and libcralmindcd, Maric, though now ocially Gcrman
as a rcsult ol hcr rcmarriagc to a Hcrr K ochlin, was a loyal Alsatian, originally lrom Mul
hauscn. !dcntilying lar morc with Frcnch than with Gcrman culturc shc translatcd Nictz
schcs third Untimely Meditation into Frcnch shc hatcd thc Gcrman anncxation ol Alsacc
at thc cnd ol thc FrancoPrussian war and publishcd tracts against it.
6o
!n that vcin, shc
rcspondcd strongly to Nictzschcs rcmark, in thc introduction to thc rst Meditation, that
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,:
Gcrman postwar triumphalism thrcatcns to bc thc dcstruction ol thc Gcrman spirit lor
thc sakc ol thc Gcrman Rcich,
6+
sccing an anity bctwccn a Gcrman and an Alsatian
protcst against thc arrogancc ol Gcrman impcrialism.
Marics lcttcrs to Nictzschc rcvcal a morcthanmothcrly intcrcst shc writcs that shc
drcams ol him though ncithcr would lor a momcnt havc contcmplatcd transgrcssing
bourgcois convcntions. Tirtccn ycars oldcr than Nictzschc, thc rclationship rcscmblcd that
bctwccn him and Cosima, ol whom shc was jcalous. A kccn idcalist and Schopcnhaucrian,
shc was onc ol thc many lricnds who wcrc grcatly upsct by Nictzschcs positivist turn in
+86, writing to him, with rclcrcncc to Human, ll-Too-Human (thc rst public manilcs
tation ol thc turn), that
this ncw book sccms at many placcs dcsigncd to shock, to block any |human| closcncss
and yct your wholc bcing and doing is such that onc must lovc you . . . ! shall ncvcr givc up
my bclicl in human goodncss . . . what kind ol happincss can thcrc bc il this is cxtcrmin
atcd:
6:
!n spitc ol thc spiritual gull opcncd up by Human, ll-Too-Human, whcn Nictzschc lclt
8ascl in +8, shc was movcd to tcars.
Tc rolcs in which Nictzschc cast his womcn lricnds took scvcral lorms: thc purc mothcr,
Malwida von Mcyscnbug, thc sistcrlovcr, Cosima, thc mothcrlovcr, Maric, thc purc
lricnd, Mcta von Salis, thc purc lovcr, Lou Salom c, and thc purc sistcr, lizabcth. Vhat
ncarly all his womcn lricnds (lizabcth cxccptcd) havc in common, howcvcr, is that thcy
wcrc intclligcnt, highly cducatcd, and widcly rcad. 8iographically, thcrclorc, it is no sur
prisc that whcn thc application ol a Fr aulcin Rubinstcin lrom Lcipzig to cnrol lor a Ph..
programmc brought thc qucstion ol admitting womcn to thc univcrsity bclorc thc commit
tcc ol 8ascls combincd lacultics on July +o, +8, Nictzschc was among thc lour mcmbcrs
who votcd for thcir admission. 8ccausc, altcr a twohour discussion, six laculty mcmbcrs
(including 8urckhardt) votcd against admission, thc motion was lost. 8ut Nictzschc and
thc othcr thrcc supportcrs ol thc motion must havc bccn upsct by thc rcsult, bccausc thcy
rcqucstcd that thcir disscnting vicwbc cxplicitly rccordcd.
6
Nictzschcs maturc writings arc
lamously antilcminist, cvcn misogynistic. Latcr on wc shall havc to ask what happcncd to
this carly, at lcast partial support lor cmancipationist dcmands.
Berg un

n July +, thc summcr holidays having startcd, Nictzschc travcllcd with Romundt
to 8crg un. n thc way hc stoppcd at Chur whcrc, so hc wrotc lizabcth, hc
almost dccidcd to marry a Fr aulcin 8crta Rohr, whom thcy had mct thc prcvious ycar
in Flims.
6
lizabcths disapproval callcd Fritzs lamilydiplomacy into play oncc again, as
hc assurcd hcr that hc was just joking.
6
8ut bccausc hc told von Gcrsdor at thc samc
timc that hc had bccn rcluctant to lcavc Chur on 8crtas account,
66
onc suspccts this was
not cntircly truc. !ndccd, as a rival to thc thcory that Nictzschc was rcally gay, onc might
suggcst that it was thc obscssivc, quasiinccstuous jcalousy lizabcth displaycd towards any
womcn who thrcatcncd to bccomc closcr to Fritz than hcrscll, rathcr than thc lovc that darc
not spcak its namc, that provcd thc major impcdimcnt to his lollowing thc instructions ol
thc 8ayrcuth marriagccommission to nd a wilc.
:,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
8crg un lics +,oo mctrcs high in thc Albula \allcy (lbulatal), ncar to Spl urgcn and to
Nictzschcs cvcntual summcr homc, Sils Maria. Hcrc thcy staycd in thc Hotcl Piz Acla.
Nictzschc dcscribcs thc holiday to von Gcrsdor:
Hcrc (in 8crg un, takc a look at 8acdcckcr) . . . wc arc thc solc gucsts in a hotcl that hundrcds
ol travcllcrs pass by cvcry day on thcir way to or lrom St. Moritz. l coursc, wc do not havc
a lakc hcrc likc thc onc wc had in Flims: rcccntly wc lound onc about thrcc hours up thc
mountain at about 6,ooo lcct, bathing and swimming in it until wc almost lrozc, cmcrging
rcd as lobstcrs ( feuerrot).
6
And to vcrbcck:
Hcrc wc arc living in a nc hotcl, whcrc wc arc wcll takcn carc ol and not ovcrchargcd . . . Up
to nowwc havc sccn a cli ncar thc Albula bridgc, which connccts and ovcrlooks two loncly
vallcys in thc high mountains a placc whcrc ! would likc to build myscll a towcr and
a sulphur spring in onc ol thc sidc vallcys: wc brought somc ol thc watcr homc with us
in bottlcs in ordcr to gct rid ol somc minor constipation causcd by |a charactcristically
cxtraordinary diagnosis| our consumption ol \ctlincr winc.
68
Towards thc cnd ol July thc mist and rain closcd in, as so oltcn happcns in thc high Alpinc
vallcys:
tcrriblc rain thc last scvcral days, cvcryoncs sucring cabin lcvcr |sehr ungeduldig| that
is thc way it is in this isolatcd placc. nly ! dont sharc it sincc ! am busy thinking about
and nishing my ncw work |thc third Untimely Meditation|. ngagcd in that, onc livcs in
a dicrcnt placc whcrc onc docsnt havc anything to do with rain any morc.
6
Brahms Banned in Bayreuth
S
avc lor thc knowlcdgc that hc was pcrsona non grata in thc Vagncr camp, 8rahms had
ncvcr riscn abovc Nictzschcs musical horizon bclorc thc middlc ol +8. Hc was, until
thcn, tcrra incognita. !n Junc, howcvcr, all that changcd. Nictzschc wrotc to Rohdc lrom
8ascl:
Your countryman |both Rohdc and 8rahms wcrc born in Hamburg| was hcrc rcccntly and
!vc hcard much ol his music, abovc all his Triumphlied |Triumphal Song| which hc himscll
conductcd. To mc it was thc most dicult problcmol acsthctic conscicncc to comc to tcrms
with 8rahms.
o
So takcn with thc Triumphlied was Nictzschc that hc travcllcd to Zurich to hcar it again on
July +:. (Givcn that, ol thc works lor which 8rahms is lamous, only thc German Fequiem
had bccn complctcd to datc, thc choicc is not as wcird as it sccms.)
8rahms composcd thc Lied to cclcbratc victory in thc FrancoPrussian war. Vagncr had
composcd his Kaisermarsch |March !mpcrial| lor thc samc purposc. 8ut whcrcas Vagncr
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,
had no rcal acction lor thc Hohcnzollcrn dynasty and composcd thc !mpcrial March only
in an (unsucccsslul) attcmpt to drag thc mpcror into thc projcct ol making 8ayrcuth a
national Gcrman thcatrc, 8rahms was gcnuincly dcvotcd to thc mpcror and proud ol thc
Rcich.
Travclling lrom8crgr un, Nictzschc arrivcd in 8ayrcuth on August with thc scorc ol thc
Triumphlied ticking away likc a bomb in his suitcasc. Sick as usual altcr travcl, hc bookcd
himscll into thc Sonne |Sun| Hotcl. Vagncr, howcvcr, on hcaring ol his arrival, rushcd ovcr
and insistcd hc stay in thc now ncarly complctcd !ahnfried. Nictzschc quickly rccovcrcd
and thcir rst cvcning togcthcr wcnt o wcll. Tc lollowing cvcning, howcvcr, mattcrs took
a dicrcnt turn.
Tings must havc got o to a bad start bccausc, as Cosima rccords in hcr diary, Nictzschc
told thcm hc and vcrbcck had acccptcd an ocr lrom Schmcitzncr to publish with him.
Tcy wcrc thus lorccd to scrvc thc Social cmocratic |socialist| Party bccausc that was
thcir only way ol gctting publishcd.
+
8y this timc, ol coursc, thcrc was no lovc lost bctwccn
Vagncr and thc socialists.
Altcr dinncr, gathcrcd in thc hugc drawingroom stucd to ovcrowing with \ictorian
objccts Richards piano, his big writingdcsk, Cosimas smallcr writingdcsk, picturcs,
busts, books, souvcnirs, and pottcd palms Richard cntcrtaincd thc gucsts, who includcd
thc conccrt pianist Paul Klindworth and, according to Nictzschc, thc grcat Vagncrian so
prano Lilli Lchmann, by playing a piano rcduction ol thc Rhincmaidcns sccnc lrom thc
cnd ol G otterd ammerung.

As soon as hc had nishcd, Cosima rccords, Nictzschc burst

lorth with thc scorc ol 8rahms Triumphlied.
Lct us rccall, hcrc, Nictzschcs privatc rccctions on Vagncrs tyrannical naturc, that thc
dangcr lor Vagncr is grcat, whcn hc docs not allow 8rahms to bc valid. r thc Jcws (p. +86
abovc). angcr mcans, hcrc, somcthing likc dangcr that all thc promisc will bc crushcd
out ol thc Vagncrian cntcrprisc by a tyrannical naturc that rcluscs to allow anyonc clsc to
brcath. So what, it sccms, Nictzschc was trying to do was to rclorm Vagncrs charactcr a
prcsumptuous cntcrprisc givcn that, at sixtyonc, Vagncr was thirtyonc ycars his scnior. r
clsc hc was trying to provokc a nal brcach in thc cvcnt ol lailing to pcrsuadc Vagncr at lcast
to givc 8rahms a lair hcaring. Hc was, it sccms, ocring somcthing likc an ultimatum: stop
bcing such a tyrant or clsc !m o. l coursc what rcally mattcrcd was Vagncrs pcrccivcd
tyranny towards Nietzsche: 8rahms, onc may suspcct, was a surrogatc lor himscll. !n any
casc thc cort camc to nothing bccausc, Cosima rccords, R|ichard| laughcd loudly at thc
idca ol sctting thc word Gerechtigkeit |justicc| to music.
:
n thc lollowing altcrnoon, somconc, it is unclcar who, sat down at thc piano and
playcd thc ocnding piccc. Vagncr bccamc lurious, lamcnting, writcs Cosima, thc dismal
charactcr ol thc composition which . . . lricnd Nictzschc had praiscd. !t was, hc claimcd,
dcrivativc lrom Handcl, Mcndclssohn, and Schumann, and lackcd both Liszts spirituality
and authcntic cmotion.

Tc rcmaindcr ol thc day saw no lurthcr talk ol 8rahms. !n thc

cvcning, altcr playing somc picccs lrom opcras by Aubcr, Vagncr nally lormally buricd
8rahmss piccc ol jingoism by playing his own, by implication, innitcly supcrior vcrsion
ol thc samc thing, thc Kaisermarsch.

Tc opcra and with it thc cntirc Fing cyclc would bc nally complctcd thrcc months latcr on
Novcmbcr :+, twcntysix ycars altcr Vagncrs rst thoughts on thc subjcct.
:,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vagncrs pcrccption ol thc traumatic occasion is rccordcd by lizabcth. Vagncr told hcr,
shc writcs, that
Your brothcr laid thc rcd book |containing thc Triumphlied| on thc grand piano, and
whcncvcr ! camc down to thc drawingroom this rcd objcct starcd right at mc it lit
crally inamcd mc, just as a rcd rag docs a bull. ! could vcry wcll scc that, by mcans ol
it, Nictzschc wishcd tacitly to say, Just look! hcrc is somconc who has donc good work
too! Vcll, thc cnd ol it was that onc cvcning ! simply lcll into a passion, and lcll almost
to bits as wcll! 8ut what did my brothcr say: ! dcmandcd anxiously. Hc said nothing,
Vagncr rcplicd, hc simply blushcd and gazcd at mc with minglcd surprisc and calm dig
nity. ! would givc a hundrcd thousand marks lor a bcaring such as Nictzschcs always
distinguishcd, always dignicd!

Nictzschc ncvcr mcntioncd thc 8rahms incidcnt in any lcttcr. lizabcth rccalls that whcn,
sitting with him on a bcnch in a park in 8adcn8adcn, shc askcd him why hc had ncvcr
told hcr thc story ol 8rahmss Triumphlied hc rcplicd Lizzic, on that occasion Vagncr was
not grcat.

Vagncr also gavc an account ol thc incidcnt to his lricnd, Hans von Volzogcn. Vagncr
told him, Volzogcn rccollccts, that
Nictzschc said that ! had to gct to know thc music in ordcr to havc a propcr opinion about
it. ! rcluscd, but hc kcpt on at mc. !n thc cnd ! bccamc lurious with him (you know how !
am whcn ! gct angry my poor Cosima has had to sucr lrom it oltcn cnough). ! bccamc
crudc my God ! did ! Nictzschc cw out ol thc door. Ycs, thats thc way ! am and he
ne.er came back! And now. . . !m supposcd to lovc 8rahms on whosc account !vc lost my
Nictzschc!
6
Nictzschc rcmaincd in 8ayrcuth until August +, Cosimas diplomacy prcvcnting an opcn
brcach. 8ut clcarly rclations bctwccn thc onccrcvcrcd Mastcr and thc onccrcvcring gucst
wcrc now undcr grcat strain. Nictzschc causcd Vagncr many dicult hours, Cosima
rccords. Among othcr things, hc |Nictzschc| maintaincd that thc Gcrman languagc gavc
him no plcasurc, and that hc would rathcr talk in Latin, ctc. anothcr dclibcratc provoca
tion ol thc nationalistic Vagncr.

Vagncr is right that hc lost Nictzschc on this occasion. Tough Nictzschc continucd
to support thc 8ayrcuth causc, though thc Vagncrs continucd to bc cnthusiastic about
Nictzschcs publications lor anothcr ycar, and though sporadic lcttcr cxchangcs continucd
(in +8 Nictzschc wrotc a total ol vc lcttcrs to thc Vagncr houschold), thc old intimacy
ncvcr rcturncd. Tc 8rahms occasion was thc last timc Nictzschc would cvcr stay as a gucst
in Vagncrs homc. From now on, until opcn warlarc was dcclarcd, thc rclationship was
political rathcr than pcrsonal.

Compounding thc disastcr ol thc visit to 8ayrcuth, on thc rcturn journcy to 8ascl, Nictzschc
had his bag stolcn at V urzburg railway station. !t containcd, among othcr things, a signcd
copy ol thc librctto ol thc Fing cyclc. Vriting as il making a major discovcry about human
naturc, hc concludcs his account ol thc incidcnt to von Gcrsdor with Moral: onc shouldnt
lcavc oncs suitcasc unattcndcd on railway stations, othcrwisc thcrc will bc somc horriblc,
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,
cunning brutc waiting thcrc, on thc lookout lor suitcascs.
8
Nictzschc was, as lizabcth
rcmarks a propos this incidcnt, somcwhat naivc rcgarding thc ways ol thc world.
Tird Untimely Meditation: Schopenhauer as Educator
T
hc complctcd third Untimely Meditation was scnt to Schmcitzncr on August + and
appcarcd on ctobcr +, +8 (Nictzschcs thirticth birthday). Nictzschc had compli
mcntary copics scnt to Vagncr, von 8 ulow, Malwida von Mcyscnbug, Maric 8aumgartncr,
mma GucrricriGonzaga, Krug (but not Pindcr), Rohdc, von Gcrsdor, and a couplc ol
othcrs. Tis list is ol somc signicancc givcn Nictzschcs rcmark that only thc rcactions ol
six or scvcn rcadcrs arc ol any signicancc.

(Tat hc writcs only lor thc lcw, or cvcn no

onc, bccomcs, wc shall scc, an important thcmc in his maturc work.)
Nictzschc always rcgardcd thc third Meditation as a crucial work. !n +88: hc rccom
mcndcd it to Lou Salom c as prcscnting his lundamcntal attitudc to cvcrything, prc
sumably.
8o
!ts topic is what, lty ycars latcr, Hcidcggcr would call authcnticity. !t is about
ovcrcoming thc lazincss that makcs human bcings sccm likc lactory products . . . pscudo
mcn dominatcd by public opinion. Tough most ol us inhabit that condition, nonc ol us
(nonc, at lcast, ol Nictzschcs propcr rcadcrs) is rcally comlortablc with bcing a mcrcly hcrd
typc. !t is, morcovcr, a condition wc can cscapc: Tc man who docs not wish to bclong to
thc masscs nccds only to . . . lollow his conscicncc, which calls to him: 8c yourscll! All you
arc now doing, thinking, dcsiring, is not you yourscll .
8+
8ut how is onc to discovcr this
scll onc is to bccomc:
PostFrcudian psychothcrapy typically thinks ol thc truc scll or cgo as a kind ol drivc or
prcssurc buricd within cach uniquc individual, struggling to burst through thc lid ol social
rcprcssion. Nictzschc dismisscs this picturc complctcly: your truc naturc lics, not conccalcd
dccp within you but immcasurably high abovc you, or at lcast abovc that which you usually
takc yourscll to bc.
8:
Tc truc scll is a task to bc pcrlormcd rathcr than a prcssurc to
bc rclcascd. And to discovcr oncs task onc nccds to ask what onc has truly lovcd up to
now, what it is, in othcr words, which has drawn |oncs| . . . soul alolt:
8
8ut how is onc
to discovcr that:
At this point, thc considcrations ol thc third Meditation bcgin to convcrgc with thosc
ol thc sccond. To discovcr oncs truc lovc and task onc is to scck out a rcvcrcd objcct
which supplics onc with thc lundamcntal law ol |oncs| . . . own truc scll . !n thc sccond
Meditation such hcrocs wcrc dcscribcd as monumcntal gurcs. Hcrc thcy arc dcscribcd
as cducators.
8
Nictzschcs point is not dicult to grasp. Vhat hc is talking about, oncc
again, is thc rolc modcl. Christians, lor cxamplc, oltcn trcat Jcsus in this way. Pondcring,
in a dicult situation, how to act in accordancc with thcir inncrmost conscicncc, thcy oltcn
ask thcmsclvcs: Vhat would Jcsus do in this situation: To do this is to takc Jcsus as, in
Nictzschcs scnsc, an cducator.
Nictzschc now turns to thc possibility ol thc philosophcr as cducator. Hc makcs clcar
that by philosophcr hc mcans somconc whosc thought is cmbodicd in thcir lilc, so that
thcy can providc an cxamplc onc can lollow. Kant was a grcat thinkcr but, in this scnsc, no
philosophcr, bccausc, lor all thc call to moral couragc containcd in his thcorising, in lilc,
hc cravcnly submittcd to pctty convcntions ol acadcmic lilc and prctcndcd (lor thc sakc ol
his job) to a rcligious bclicl hc did not havc.
8
:,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
8ccausc thc lunction ol thc cducator is to cnablc us to stand out against public opinion
and bccomc our individual sclvcs, hc must abovc all himself stand out against public opinion.
Tis is particularly truc in thc dcstitutc timcs ol modcrnity markcd, as thcy arc, by (a) loss
ol community wc livc in an agc ol atoms, ol atomistic chaos, (b) low matcrialism, grccd
lor moncy, (c) cgoism, all mcn lccl in thcmsclvcs only thc scllsccking worm, (d) thc
rcduction ol individuals to mcdiacontrollcd automata, (c) a moral vacuum Christianity
dcstroycd thc natural valucs ol antiquity but has now, itscll, lost thc powcr to dircct pcoplcs
livcs and (l ) hastc and hurry, so that, cvcn il wc kncw what thcy wcrc, wc would havc
no timc to allow ctcrnal valucs to govcrn our livcs, no timc lor moral cquanimity.
86
!n thc
morally vacuous agc ol thc mcchanizcd, atomizcd, harricd, consumcr socicty, thc cducator
must bc, abovc all, out ol stcp with thc spirit ol thc agc: untimcly.
And hcrc wc comc, nally, to Schopcnhaucr, whom, cvcn altcr his turn against him in
+86, Nictzschc continucs to dcscribc as my rst and only cducator.
8
Vc comc, that is,
to Schopcnhaucr, not as a collcction ol writings, but rathcr as a living man, bccausc, ol
coursc, only thc living man can providc a modcl for life.
88
Schopcnhaucrs most salicnt charactcr trait, Nictzschc suggcsts, is prcciscly his ruggcdly
couragcous untimclincss. Unlikc Kant, hc scorncd thc scholarly cliquc ol prolcssors who
might othcrwisc havc givcn him a job, and, in an agc dominatcd by Hcgcls triumphalist
optimism, did not hcsitatc to propound his incvitably unpopular philosophical pcssimism.
isplaying thc hcroism ol truthlulncss, Schopcnhaucr acknowlcdgcd thc lact that a happy
lilc is impossiblc, that thc highcst lorm ol humanity is thc hcroic lilc, a lilc that acccpts
thc sucring involvcd in bcing truthlul
8
in bcing a kind ol cxistcntial whistlcblowcr.
For othcr swimmcrs against thc tidc thc social ostracism to which thcy condcmncd
thcmsclvcs provcd too much. H oldcrlin wcnt mad and Klcist committcd suicidc. 8ut, likc
Vagncr, Schopcnhaucr posscsscd thc iron constitution which cnablcd him to withstand
thc solitudc to which hc was condcmncd.
o
Nictzschc now asks what circlc ol dutics can bc drawn lrom this idcal. How can wc
show that it points towards practical activity, that is to say, cducatcs our li.es:
+
Schopcn
haucr himscll was ncithcr a critic ol current socicty nor a social rclormcr. Hc did not think
modcrnity was any bcttcr or worsc than any othcr agc bccausc hc thought that all human
lilc in all agcs was cqually painlul and worthlcss. Tus it comcs as no surprisc whcn Nictz
schc acknowlcdgcs that it is a hard . . . task to show that anything practical lollows lrom thc
loltincss ol Schopcnhaucrian man, that onc might wcll takc lromhimthc rcjcction ol any
participation in thc world ol action.
:
Noncthclcss, in a startling passagc ol thought, hc
managcs to cxtract practical dutics lrom thc adoption ol Schopcnhaucr as rolc modcl.

Tc
dutics that dcrivc lrom thc modcl arc not, hc says,
thc dutics ol a solitary: on thc contrary thcy sct onc in thc midst ol a mighty community
hcld togcthcr not by cxtcrnal lorms but by a lundamcntal idca. !t is thc lundamcntal idca
ol culture, insolar as it scts lor cach onc ol us but onc task: to promote the production of the
philosopher, the artist and the saint .ithin us and .ithout us and thereby to .ork at the perfecting
of nature.

As wc havc sccn, Schopcnhaucr does rcjcct participation in action. Tc highcst insight into thc
naturc and valuc ol lilc is cmbodicd in thc transition lrom virtuc to asccticism (p. 8 abovc). Vhat
Nictzschc is suggcsting is that hc undcrstands Schopcnhaucrs systcm bcttcr than Schopcnhaucr
himscll, that its implications arc actually dicrcnt lrom what Schopcnhaucr takcs thcm to bc.
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,
!n support ol this startling lcap ol thought Nictzschc says that naturc nccds both thc philos
ophcr and artist to achicvc its mctaphysical goal . . . ol its own scllcnlightcnmcnt, and hcrc
hc rcpcats Gocthcs rcmark that dramatic poctry is thc causa nalis |ultimatc purposc| ol thc
world. And Naturc nccds thc saint (as conccivcd by Schopcnhaucr) bccausc only through
him can naturc achicvc nal rcdcmption lrom itscll .

As with thc carlicr rclcrcncc to Gocthcs rcmark (p. + abovc), this strangc passagc ol
thought takcs us back to thc vcrsion ol Schopcnhaucrs mctaphysics prcscntcd in Te Birth
of Tragedy. Vc arc all, hc suggcsts thcrc, nothing but gurcs in, as it wcrc, a painting ol a
battlcsccnc

constructcd by and lor thc only rcal bcing, thc Primal Unity or Vill or
Naturc, as it is now callcd. !t lollows that bccausc wc arc thc Primal Unitys crcaturcs it
is our duty to collaboratc in allowing this worldcrcating childartist to scc his own naturc
rccctcd in thc puricd worldpicturc paintcd by thc philosophcr and thc artist. And it
lollows, too, that wc must collaboratc in thc appcarancc ol thc saint: lor only by cxpcricn
cing, through thc saints insight, thc ncccssity lor dcnial ol thc will can Primal Vill scc
thc nccd lor its own, and mans, rcdcmption through thc abolition ol thc world ol pain it
has constructcd. nly through thc insight (or pcrhaps onc should say rapturc) ol thc saint
can wc hopc that onc day thc world will comc to an cnd.
Tis barcly intclligiblc passagc has vcry littlc to bc said lor it, lost, as it is, in thc darkcst
and most scllcontradictory rcgions ol Schopcnhaucrs mctaphysics. Tc unanswcrablc
qucstion is: Vhy on carth should wc havc any duty to thc worlds crcator, particularly
onc ol so qucstionablc a charactcr as Te Births Primal Unity: Tanklully, howcvcr, Nictz
schc will soon makc his turn against Schopcnhaucrian mctaphysics, and whcn hc docs, as
alrcady notcd, thc idca ol art as Naturcs causa nalis will disappcar without tracc.
Tcrc is, howcvcr, a quitc dicrcnt linc ol thought by which Nictzschc sccks to arrivc
at approximatcly thc samc conclusion, onc that will bccomc morc and morc salicnt as his
philosophy maturcs. Mankind, hc says, must work continually at thc production ol indi
vidual grcat mcn that and nothing clsc is its task.
6
(8ccausc hc conccivcs ol grcatncss
as acccntuating thc dicrcncc bctwccn humans and animals to thc maximum dcgrcc,

thc
grcat individual will havc to bc a geistige |spiritualintcllcctual| gurc, approximatcly, in
othcr words, a philosophcr, artist or saint.) !n cxplaining why this is our ovcrriding task,
Nictzschc appcals, not, this timc, to highown mctaphysics, but rathcr to biology:
How much onc would likc to apply to socicty and its goals somcthing that can bc lcarnt
lrom obscrvation ol any spccics ol thc animal or plant world: that its only conccrn is thc
individual highcr cxcmplar, thc morc uncommon, morc powcrlul, morc complcx, morc
lruitlul how much onc would likc to do this il inculcatcd lancics as to thc goal ol socicty
did not ocr such tough rcsistancc! Vc ought rcally to havc no diculty in sccing that,
whcn a spccics has arrivcd at its limits and is about to go ovcr into a highcr spccics, thc
goal ol its cvolution lics, not in thc mass ol its cxcmplars and thcir wcllbcing . . . but rathcr
in thosc apparcntly scattcrcd and chancc cxistcnccs which lavourablc conditions havc hcrc
and thcrc produccd.
So, concludcs Nictzschc, mankind ought to scck out and crcatc thc lavourablc conditions
undcr which thosc grcat mcn can comc into cxistcncc. And lor thc rcst ol us, our livcs
acquirc thcir highcst valuc whcn wc livc lor thc good ol thc rarcst and most valuablc
cxcmplars.
8
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Nictzschc hcrc is appcaling to a vcrsion ol (social) arwinism rcmcmbcr that hc had
dccidcd by thc bcginning ol +8 that arwins thcory ol cvolution was truc.

And what
hc is appcaling to, in particular, is thc valuc ol, in arwinian languagc, thc random muta
tion. According to cvolution thcory, hc is obscrving, a spccics cvolvcs into a highcr spc
cics whcn it produccs a mutation which is bcttcr adaptcd to thc currcnt statc ol thc cnvi
ronmcnt. 8ccausc thc mutations brccd succcsslully whcrcas thc rcmaindcr tcnd to dic out
bclorc doing so, gradually thc spccics cvolvcs into a ncw spccics bcttcr adaptcd to thriv
ing in thc currcnt cnvironmcnt. 8ccausc human bcings and human socictics bclong, just
likc plants and animals, to thc rcalm ol biology, Nictzschc concludcs, wc ought to apply
this samc principlc to socicty and so do cvcrything possiblc to promotc thc appcarancc ol
chancc cxistcnccs, random mutations. (Tis idca may havc dcvclopcd in convcrsation with
Vagncr bccausc it appcars in mctaphorical lorm in Meistersinger: as Hans Sachs cvcntually
convinccs thcm, thc mastcrsingcrs must acccpt thc wild novclty ol Valtcrs prizc song, must
admit Valtcr into thcir guild, bccausc thc law ol lilc is: changc or dic.)
As ! havc mcntioncd bclorc, thc most common intcrprctation ol Nictzschc rcprcscnts
him as an aristocratic individualist: only thc grcat individual, thc supcrman, is ol valuc,
thc rcst ol us must bc his slavcs. !t is important to noticc, thcrclorc, that on ncithcr ol
thc abovc lincs ol argumcnt docs thc cxccptional individual posscss ultimate valuc. n thc
Schopcnhaucrian linc ol argumcnt thc grcat individual is a means to thc scllundcrstanding
and conscqucnt sclltranslormation ol thc Primal Unity, so that thc ultimatc valuc is somc
thing likc thc wcllbcing ol bcing as a wholc. n thc arwinian linc ol argumcnt thc grcat
individual is again valuablc only as a means, this timc a mcans to thc cvolution ol society as
a .hole to a highcr condition.
+oo
vcn though, thcrclorc, thc third Meditation placcs grcat
strcss on thc importancc ol thc grcat individual, it at no point ocrs him as an cnd in him
scll, at no point propounds thc only thc supcrman counts doctrinc. Tis pattcrn, as wc
will discovcr, runs throughout all ol Nictzschcs maturc philosophy. Tc grcat individual is
crucially important but only cvcr as a mcans.

ur solc task is, thcn, to promotc thc production ol individual grcat mcn, ol gcniuscs.
Tc only rcmaining qucstion is ho. thc nongcniuscs among us arc to do this. Arc wc all
consigncd to slavcry to crcatc his lrccdomlromthc ncccssity ol carning a living:
+o+
Should
all nongcniuscs bccomc coalmincrs or sockdarncrs: Not so. vcn sccond and third ratc
talcnts can contributc to thc task by prcparing both within and without lor thc appcarancc
ol gcnius.
+o:
Prcsumably thc idca hcrc is that thc highcr thc gcncral lcvcl ol culturc thc morc
lavourablc arc thc conditions lor thc appcarancc ol gcnius. Tc inspiring tcachcr who is not
himscll a gcnius can turn thc potcntial gcnius into an actual onc. Prcsumably, howcvcr,
fourthratc talcnts are conncd to coalmining and sockdarning.

Karl Hillcbrand had givcn thc rst Meditation a good rcvicw, carning thcrcby Nictzschcs
undying gratitudc (in Ecce Homo, hc calls him thc last humane Gcrman who kncw how to
wicld thc pcn).
+o
8ut his rcsponsc to thc third was distinctly critical. Hcrr Nictzschc, hc
wrotc (with considcrablc justicc) in Augsburgs llgemeine Zeitung,
tclls us pcrhaps in too grcat dctail but at thc samc timc not quitc prcciscly cnough how thc
acquaintancc with Schopcnhaucr, that hc has had lor about ninc ycars, has acctcd him
and how it could acct othcr young mcn. Hc locuscs on thc philosophcr as cducator, but !
conlcss that ! cant always lollow him.
+o
imez-.ous Brahms?

:,,
Cosima, on thc othcr hand, claimcd to cxpcricncc no such diculty and attributcd Hil
lcbrands dicultics to a complctcly Hcgclizcd brain.
+o
Shc bcgan a vcpagc lcttcr ol
apprcciation with thc words this is my Untimcly |Mcditation|, particularly liking thc call
to authcntic individuality in thc rst scction and thc intoxicating rc with which thc wholc
thing glows. Tc work, shc suggcsts, will bccomc thc 8iblc ol all thosc who havc spcnt
thcir livcs struggling and sucring lor a grcat idca.
+o6
And Vagncr himscll scnt lour tclc
grammatic lincs ol apprcciation:
ccp and grcat. Most audacious and ncw thc prcscntation ol Kant |as, unlikc Schopcn
haucr, not truly a philosophcr|. Truly comprchcnsiblc only lor thc posscsscd . . . May you
cast long and dccp shadows into thc sunny land ol thcsc bonny timcs!
+o
\on 8 ulow lovcd thc work and was particularly imprcsscd by thc corrclation bctwccn (sub
scrvicncc to) public opinion and privatc lazincss.
+o8
Malwida von Mcyscnbug wrotc that
thc work is always with mc, it has bccomc my 8iblc. Ncvcr has anyonc dcncd thc objcct
ol culturc morc bcautilully, and lizabcth, too, was dccply movcd.
+o
Vhat thcsc rcactions makc clcar is that what thc particularly lcmalc lans ol thc
third Meditation rcspondcd to was its quasircligious rhctoric ol authcnticity: thc appcal to
thc rcadcr to stcp outsidc lazy conlormism to thc hcrd (to cscapc what Hcidcggcr would
call thc dictatorship ol thc Tcy and Sartrc bad laith), to sacricc all lor thc sakc ol
somc grcat, worldrcdccming idcal. Tc only onc ol Nictzschcs acquaintanccs who did
not rcspond in this way which suggcsts shc must havc bccn an intcrcsting woman was
mma GucrricriGonzaga, who, although putting hcr ngcr on thc appcal ol thc work, its
passionatc ycarning to cscapc a tcrriblc world and to attain a highcr rcalm ol truth, bcauty
and lovc, notcs that it lails to addrcss thc lact that naturc had givcn us no wings to rcach
such a rcalm, so that thc ovcrall ccct ol thc work is dcprcssing.
++o
Tc most amusing rcsponsc to thc Meditation camc in thc lorm ol an anonymous tclc
gram which rcad: You arc likc thc spirit that you can undcrstand, but you arc not likc mc.
|signcd| Schopcnhaucr.
+++
(Schopcnhaucr had alrcady bccn dcad ltccn ycars.) Tis was
Nictzschcs own nal asscssmcnt ol thc work. !n Ecce Homo hc says that, rcally, it only uscs
Schopcnhaucr as a scmiotic lor himscll, that what hc is rcally talking about is Nietzsche as
cducator.
++:
r rathcr as future cducator. For what is rcally salicnt about thc work is thc gull bctwccn
its high idcalism and Nictzschcs actual lilc. !n thc work, as wc saw, Kant lails to count as
an authcntic philosophcr bccausc, although prcaching moral couragc, in practicc hc clung
to his univcrsity, submittcd himscll to its rcgulations . . . cndurcd to livc among collcagucs
and studcnts,
++
as wcll as prolcssing a rcligious laith hc did not havc. !n contrast to thc
couragcous Schopcnhaucr, Kant ncvcr propcrly bccamc thc scll that hc potcntially was.
8ut anothcr thinkcr who clung to his univcrsity (thc passagc is almost ovcrtly autobio
graphical) whcn his truc scll dcmandcd hc do somcthing quitc dicrcnt was Nictzschc.
Tus whcn lizabcth put it to himthat hc was himscll thc cducating philosophcr dcscribcd
in thc cssay hc quitc corrcctly rcplicd that shc was (as usual) talking nonscnsc.
++
For as
hc conlcsscd to von Gcrsdor at thc cnd ol +8, with thc burdcns ol univcrsity lilc it had
lor a long timc bccn impossiblc lor him to think about untimcly things.
++
Tc call ol
conscicncc, in othcr words, has bccn ovcrrulcd by thc mcchanizcd slavcry, thc hastc and
hurry, ol univcrsity lilc. Noncthclcss, thc lact that it was articulatcd so clcarly in thc work
:cc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
must havc providcd Nictzschc with at lcast a lurthcr impulsc towards practising what hc
prcachcd.
Christmas at Home and the Hymn to Iriendship
T
hc writing ol thc third Meditation, which Nictzschc had lound particularly dicult,
had cost him a grcat dcal ol ncrvous cncrgy. Vith it out ol thc way, and with its, on
balancc, highly lavourablc rcccption, hc was ablc to rclax whcn hc rcturncd to Naumburg
lor a whitc Christmas (again turning down an invitation to spcnd Christmas in 8ayrcuth).
Taking a brcak lrom philosophical work, hc was ablc nally to complctc thc Hymn to
Fricndship in both a piano solo and lourhandcd vcrsion. (Tc mclody ol this work was
rccyclcd in thc Praycr to Lilc, music track + on thc wcbsitc lor this book.) Tough a
purcly instrumcntal work, it has a programmc which hc dcscribcs to Malwida:
First \crsc: prcludc hymn lor thc proccssion ol thc lricnds to thc tcmplc ol lricndship.
!ntcrmczzo: as il in sadhappy rccollcction.
Sccond vcrsc: hymn.
!ntcrmczzo: likc a prophcsy ol thc luturc, a glancc into thc lurthcst distancc.
Tird and nal vcrsc: nalc song ol thc lricnds.
++6
Nictzschc was vcry plcascd with thc piccc, rcgarding it as a clcar prool ol thc purcly sub
jcctivc naturc ol timc: though it lasts only ltccn minutcs onc lorgcts oncs |cvcryday| timc
bccausc a wholc lilctimc is travcrscd in thc piccc.
++
(nc can think ol thc immincnt car
crash cxpcricncc in which oncs wholc lilc ashcs bclorc oncs cycs to gct his point.)
Vhilc in Naumburg Nictzschc mct thc ncw wivcs ol both Pindcr and Krug, cncountcrs
which madc it clcar that hc was growing away lrom thcsc intimatcs ol his youth. ! saw
a lot ol Krug and Pindcr at Christmas, hc wrotc Rohdc. ! tcll you: you and ! havc an
ctcrnal youth ol lovc, in contrast with thcsc thirtyycarold grcybcards.
++8
n January hc
travcllcd back to 8ascl through hcavy snow and intcnsc cold.
12
Auf Wiedersehen Bayreuth
R
v:ivxixc :o 8ascl on January , +8, Nictzschc lclt morc opprcsscd than cvcr
by thc mountain ol work lacing him. !n addition to thc appalling burdcn ol his
univcrsity and P adcgogium tcaching, hc had loolishly promiscd Schmcitzncr a
lurthcr tcn Untimely Meditations ovcr thc ncxt vc ycars. 8ut thosc his rcal work ol
clcaning up thc soul ol thc agc hc could only producc, hc told von 8 ulow, during holidays
and pcriods ol sick lcavc. Tank God, hc wrotc, with thc lalsc hopc ol thc chronically
sick, that, apart lrom thc ongoing cyc problcms, lor oncc thcrc is no illncss in sight, and
thc daily cold baths ! takc makcs it cxtrcmcly unlikcly ! will cvcr bc sick again.
+
Tis was in
January! Likc his altcr cgo, Zarathustra, lizabcth commcnts, Nictzschc likcd to mock thc
wintcr.
:
To Malwida von Mcyscnbug hc wrotc that hc had so many prolcssional dutics that
hc stumblcd lrom onc day to thc ncxt in a druggcd condition. Hc cnvicd, hc wrotc, thc
dcad, but had rcsolvcd to grow old, not out ol plcasurc in lilc, but in ordcr to complctc his
task.

8y Fcbruary, howcvcr, hc had brightcncd up, somcwhat. !t is a gilt ol Tychc (thc god
dcss ol luck), hc wrotc Rohdc, to livc in thcsc 8ayrcuth ycars. Tough thc 8ayrcuth lcstival
would not takc placc until thc lollowing ycar, Vagncr had planncd an claboratc scrics ol
rchcarsals lor +8. Sincc thc music was incrcdibly ncw and dicrcnt, it was univcrsally
agrccd that onc nccdcd to attcnd thc rchcarsals (now wc would listcn to rccordings) to prc
parc oncscll lor thc actual pcrlormanccs. Apprchcnsivcly, howcvcr, Nictzschc addcd that his
cxpcctations wcrc so high that hc was likcly prcparing himscll lor a lall.

Lilc is dangcrous,
hc wrotc, onc trcmblcs bclorc thc luturc.

Scvcral ol Nictzschcs univcrsity studcnts havc rccordcd mcmorics ol him in this phasc ol
his lilc. Jakob Vackcrnagcl rccalls that although Nictzschc took his scminars lor advanccd
studcnts vcry scriously,
his lccturcs wcrc not much apprcciatcd by us |undcrgraduatc| studcnts. From Jacob 8urck
hardt wc had comc to cxpcct a high standard ol lccturing. 8ut Nictzschcs lccturcs wcrc
dclivcrcd in an cxtrcmcly dry and lactual manncr, with only thc occasionally mcmorablc
phrasc. So, lor cxamplc, wc lound his !ntroduction to Plato particularly boring.

:c:
:c:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
n thc human lcvcl, howcvcr, Vackcrnagcl continucs,
onc took grcat plcasurc in his company. !n thc rst ycars ol his bcing hcrc |in 8ascl| hc had
a rich social lilc that includcd dancccvcnings. Tc young womcn wcrc cnchantcd by him.
Vc studcnts listcncd cagcrly to thcir accounts ol convcrsations with him. nc ol thcmoncc
told mc, lor instancc, hc had told hcr hc had drcamt hc was a camcllia.
6
Anothcr studcnt, Ludwig von Schccr, rccords a morc lavourablc imprcssion ol Nictzschcs
lccturcs:
! lound that thc challcnging tonc in writings did not corrcspond to his bchaviour as a privatc
pcrson. To discovcr himto posscss such modcsty, almost humility, ol manncr was a surprisc.
Hc was short rathcr than ol mcdium hcight, thc hcad sunk dccp into thc shouldcrs ol thc
compact, yct dclicatc, body. And bchind thc iridcsccnt spcctaclcs and thc long, drooping
moustachc thc lacc had that spiritual look which oltcn lcnds a imprcssivc prcscncc to short
mcn . . . a hcavy, almost tircd, walk to thc lcctcrn . . . hc did not havc thc stcntorian voicc
ol thc orator, nor thc sharply articulatcd but lundamcntally inccctivc modulation typical
ol thc pathos ol many univcrsity lccturcrs. Nictzschcs dclivcry was solt and natural, as it
cscapcd his lips. !t had only onc thing to bc said lor it: it was spokcn dircctly lrom thc soul,
which attractcd oncs immcdiatc sympathy.

Tcrc probably was, howcvcr, somcthing in thc lcss lavourablc dcscription, sincc Nictzschc
admittcd to Rohdc during this pcriod that to prcscrvc his hcalth and strcngth lor his rcal
work, hc had givcn his studcnts a couplc ol vcncrablc old warhorscs hc could ridc in his
slccp.
8

Fcbruary brought thc annual tormcnt ol thc 8ascl Fastnacht |carnival|. Most intolcrablc ol
all wcrc thc drums, which playcd continuously lrom scvcn in thc morning until wcll into
thc cvcning. So Nictzschc cd to Luccrnc lor thc wcckcnd ol Fcbruary ++: ! lound
dccp snow and a hcavcnly silcncc, hc wrotc homc. !t was likc a hugc gcncral pausc in a
loud piccc ol music, onc hcard thc silcncc.

Tc bcst thing about Luccrnc, howcvcr, was

walking up Mount Pilatus. !t had, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor, a particularly pcrsonal mcaning
lor him,
+o
a mcaning that bccomcs clcar in a lcttcr to Rohdc writtcn shortly altcr his rcturn
to 8ascl: it sccms to mc that ! want to bccomc a mountain man, my way ol lilc will gradually
bccomc as lorticd and inwardly indcpcndcnt as a mountain mans.
++
A mountain man is,
wc shall scc, just what, in a lcw ycars, Nictzschc did bccomc. Tc rctrcat lrom thc noisc ol
8ascl to thc silcnt solitudc ol thc mountains was, as hc anticipatcd, a prcccho ol his luturc
lilc.
Vhilc Fritz was in Luccrnc, lizabcth arrivcd in 8ayrcuth to run thc Vagncr housc
hold lor thc six wccks thcy wcrc away lor conccrts in \icnna and 8udapcst. Franziska had
bccn thoroughly opposcd to thc idca. To hcr, Vagncr was a scandalous gurc whom shc
always rcluscd to mcct. 8ut Nictzschc was dclightcd by thc intimacy that grcw up bctwccn
lizabcth and Cosima thcy soon bcgan to usc thc lamiliar du with cach othcr bccausc,
it sccms clcar, it allowcd him to prcscrvc thc rclationship with thc Vagncrs by proxy, and
so avoid Vagncrs suocating prcscncc.
8y March, prcssurc ol work lcd to an almost complctc withdrawal lrom 8ascls social
lilc.
+:
Vhy on carth docs anyonc bccomc a prolcssor at twcntylour! Nictzschc lamcntcd
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:c
a lcw months latcr. ! havc bccn bowcd down by work thc last six ycars
+
thc cntircty ol
his lilc as a prolcssor, in othcr words.
We Philologists
!
n March, sucring his usual cyc troublc, Nictzschc bcgan to dictatc to thc visiting von
Gcrsdor a prospcctivc lourth Untimely Meditation, to bc callcd Vc Philologists. !n
thc notcs lor this projcct hc rcturns oncc again to thc qucstion ol what il anything justicd
thc uniquc status ol thc Grcck: thc idca that ancicnt Grcccc was thc acmc ol Vcstcrn
civilization, so that all our corts should bc dircctcd to rccrcating this cultural idcal. Tis
notion had bccn unchallcngcd in Gcrmany sincc Gocthc and Vinkclmann in thc cigh
tccnth ccntury, and justicd, ol coursc, thc prccmincnt position occupicd by Grcck phi
lology in Gcrman cducation.
Vhat, Nictzschc pondcrs, justics this supposcdly cxcmplary status ol thc Grccks: Vhy
should wc trcat thcm as rolc modcls: Vhat is supposcd to bc so spccial about thcm: Givcn
an intcrcst in thc ancicnt world, should wc not attcnd at lcast cqually to thc ancicnt Jcws,
gyptians, or Pcrsians: !n thc main, Nictzschc rcccts, thc prccmincncc ol thc Grccks
comcs lrom a combination ol lalsc idcalization, ight lrom thc rcalitics ol thc prcscnt
to a scntimcntal drcam, hostility to Christianity, and rcpctition ol thc cultural cringc ol
thc Romans. So surcly thc imitation ol thc Grccks is a rclutcd principlc:
+
Actually not,
Nictzschc cvcntually dccidcs. Vhat is crucially important about thc Grccks is that although
thcy sharc in thc univcrsal naturc common to all humanity, thcir childlikc innoccncc, thcir
naivcty, allows important human phcnomcna statc, cducation, scx, and art to show up
with a uniquc clarity: a Grcck cook is morc ol a cook than othcr.
+
Tc Grccks wcrc opcn,
candid pcoplc bccausc, unlikc Christian and postChristian humanity, thcy wcrc shamclcss:
!l ! say that thc Grccks wcrc, collcctivcly, morc cthical than modcrn humanity what docs
this mcan: Tc wholc visibility ol thcir soul in action shows that thcy wcrc without shamc.
Tcy did not know thc bad conscicncc. Tcy wcrc morc opcn, morc passionatc, as artists
arc, thcy carricd with thcm a kind ol childlikc naivcty, and so all thc bad things thcy did
carricd with thcm a kind ol purity, somcthing approaching thc holy.
+6
(Albcrt Camus cclcbratcs Grcck naivcty in a similar way, associating it, in particular, with
thc nakcdncss ol thcir athlctcs.) So thc Grccks arc, altcr all, worthy ol spccial attcntion.
Noncthclcss attcntion must bc paid to thc real Grccks, not to thc scntimcntalizcd, gold
papcrwrappcd,
+
castratcd
+8
imagc ol thcm that has bccn dominant sincc thc cightccnth
ccntury. Vc must rccognisc thc human, all-too-human
+
in Grcck and so in human
naturc: wc must bring to light the irrational in human aairs, .ithout any trace of shame.
nly whcn that is donc will onc bc ablc to distinguish what is lundamcntal and incapablc ol
improvcmcnt lrom what can bc improvcd.
:o
Morcovcr, only whcn wc lrankly acknowlcdgc
thc alltoohuman will wc bc ablc to dcal with it in a scnsiblc way. Likc thc Grccks thcm
sclvcs, wc must acknowlcdgc
thc lust lor intoxication, lor trickcry, lor rcvcngc, lor bcaring a grudgc, lor vilication as
human, and so bc ablc to intcgratc thcm in thc building ol socicty and cthics. Tc wisdom
ol |Grcck| institutions lay in that abscncc ol a scparation bctwccn good and cvil, black and
:c,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
whitc. Tc naturc which thus showcd itscll was not dcnicd but only intcgratcd, rcstrictcd to
particular cults and days. Tat is thc root ol all thc lrccspiritcdncss |Freisinnigkeit| ol thc
ancicnts: onc sought, lor natural lorccs a modcratc dischargc, not dcstruction and dcnial.
:+
Tis is an important anticipation ol Nictzschcs latcr critiquc ol Christianitys trcatmcnt ol
cvil. Morc locally it is, ! think, a protcst against hypocritical, \ictorian prudcry which, lor
instancc, banishcd scx to backstrcct brothcls.
My goal, Nictzschc writcs, is enmity bctwccn our contcmporary culturc and that
ol |authcntically apprchcndcd| antiquity. Vhocvcr scrvcs thc lormcr must hatc thc lat
tcr.
::
Tc troublc, howcvcr, with philology as currcntly practiscd is that it uscs its rcp
rcscntation ol thc Grccks in an cntircly unproductivc way in ordcr to justify thc currcnt
statc ol culturc. Tc Grccks, that is to say, did not simply dccoratc and polish likc thc
Romans. For thcm culturc bclongcd to thc roots ol lilc.
:
Modcrnity, which vicws culturc
as mcrc icing on thc cakc, a thin vcnccr ol cultivation laid ovcr a rcality ol crass commcr
cialism, congratulatcs itscll that it is rcpcating thc bcst ol Grcccc. 8ut, in lact, thc conccpt
ol culturc as dccoration comcs lrom thc AlcxandrianRoman pcriod which alrcady rcp
rcscnts a dcclinc lrom thc grcatncss ol Grcccc.
:
Nictzschcs protcst, hcrc, is against thc
ninctccnth ccnturys tastc lor lacadcs lor laying a vcnccr ol cithcr classical or gothic orna
mcntation ovcr othcrwisc idcntical buildings. His critiquc is not unrclatcd to that ol thc
8auhaus.
At onc in his cnmity with his mcntor, Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschc attributcs this usc ol
history as a lorm ol scllcongratulation abovc all to Hcgcl. All modcrn historians writc
lrom thc standpoint ol succcss. Tcy assumc that wc livc in thc bcst ol all possiblc worlds
and so rcad our lilc back into that ol thc Grccks, and thcn rcad thcir (mis)intcrprctcd
lilc back into our own, thcrcby congratulating both thcm and us. Modcrn historians, in
othcr words, arc closct thcologians.
:
Nictzschc sccs only onc cxccption to this viciously
unproductivc circlc his collcaguc Jacob 8urckhardt.
:6

8urckhardt was, likc Nictzschc (but unlikc Nictzschc rcmaincd), a Schopcnhaucrian. Vith
Schopcnhaucr whosc pcrsonality hc in many ways sharcd hc sccs thc basic human con
dition as onc ol miscry. And, again with Schopcnhaucr, hc sccs history as ctcrnal rcpctition
ol thc samc pattcrns ol violcncc and irrationality. Tis is why Nictzschc idcntics himas thc
onc signicant cxccption to ninctccnthccntury historians Hcgclian dctcrmination to tcll
history as thc cvcr grcatcr triumph ol rcason, truth, and justicc. 8urckhardt is most lam
ous lor applying this vicw to thc Rcnaissancc (p. +o abovc). 8ut hc also applicd it to thc
Grccks, dcvoting his historical acumcn to dcconstructing thc scrcnclyrationalandhappy
portrait ol thcm paintcd by cightccnthccntury classicism, to uncovcring thc violcnt and
irrational undcrbclly ol Grcck lilc and art.
l coursc, Nictzschc, too, had bccn indcpcndcntly cngagcd in dcconstructing thc
cightccnthccntury vicw ol thc Grccks in Te Birth of Tragedy, in cmphasising that thcy
wcrc by no mcans immunc to thc dcstructivc sidc ol thc ionysian. Yct Te Birth was itscll,
in at lcast onc rcspcct, triumphalist: unlikc thc barbarians, thc Grccks had succeeded in sub
limating thc dangcrs ol thc ionysian by mcans ol thc tragic lcstival. Tc notcs lor Vc
Philologists, on thc othcr hand, insist lar morc cmphatically on thc dark undcrbclly still
cxisting in Grcck lilc, insist that somconc who lails to grasp how brutal and mcaninglcss
history is will havc no chancc ol undcrstanding thc drivc to givc it scnsc.
:
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:c
Nictzschc had attcndcd 8urckhardts lccturcs on Grcck cultural history in +8: and
togcthcr thcy had long and intcnsc discussions about thcir common intcrcst. !t is likcly,
thcrclorc, that 8urckhardts inucncc is at work in Vc Philologists. !n onc rcspcct, how
cvcr, Nictzschc thought that cvcn 8urckhardt had lailcd to look uninchingly cnough into
thc Grcck darkncss. Vriting to Rohdc in May +86, hc complains that in Rohdcs work
on thc Grccks hc cvadcs thc pcdcrastic rclationship in Grcck lilc, a particularly glaring
omission, sincc both thc cducation ol Grcck youth and thc Grcck conccpt ol ros wcrc
bascd on it: thc Grccks conccption ol hctcroscxual lovc was, Nictzschc claims, bascd on
thc modcl ol thc oldcr mans lovc lor thc boy. 8urckhardt, hc adds, cngagcs in thc samc
cvasion. !n his lccturcs hc ncvcr mcntions thc subjcct.
:8
Vc Philologists was ncvcr publishcd, indccd ncvcr cvolvcd bcyond thc stagc ol notcs.
!n May ol +8 hc complains that though hc has writtcn lorty pagcs thc work would not
ow.
:
!t is unclcar what thc problcm was. 8ut thc most likcly cxplanation is that, having
alrcady spiritually discngagcd lrom his prolcssion, hc no longcr had sucicnt cncrgy to
attack its currcnt practicc yct again. !t is notablc that in spitc ol thc prospcctivc titlc ol thc
work, thc notcs, whilc saying a grcat dcal about thc Grccks, havc vcry littlc to say about thc
currcnt statc ol philology.
A Review, a Iarewell to Romundt, a Birthday Greeting to Wagner,
and a Health Crisis

n April +, +8, a long rcvicw ol thc rst thrcc Untimely Meditations appcarcd in
Londons !estminster Fe.ie.. Foundcd by 8cntham and Mill with cditorial contri
butions lrom Gcorgc liot and latcr Tomas Huxlcy (who rst coincd thc tcrm arwin
ism in its pagcs), this important journal had discovcrcd Schopcnhaucr in +8 at a timc
whcn hc was still unknown in Gcrmany. Noting Nictzschcs dcvotion to Schopcnhaucr, thc
anonymous rcvicwcr, though acknowlcdging thc lattcrs humour and sharp obscrvations on
human naturc, still castigatcs him as onc ol thc worst ol thc Gcrmanys ontological card
castlc buildcrs. And, turning to Nictzschc, thc rcvicwcr hopcs that positivc thought in
somc lorm will . . . triumph in thc cnd ovcr thc barrcn and bcwildcring mctaphysics ol Gcr
many.
o
Nictzschc hcard that thc rcvicwcr was somcwhat cross but was dclightcd to bc
gaining scrious attcntion in ngland.
+
Tc rcvicw is important, lor it strcsscs how out ol
tunc with thc scicntic, matcrialist outlook ol thc agc Nictzschc and Vagncrs rcsurrcc
tion ol Schopcnhaucrs idcalist mctaphysics was. And it is prcscicnt in that, vcry shortly,
positivc thought will indccd triumph ovcr mctaphysical houscs ol cards in Nictzschcs
thought.

!n Fcbruary, Hcinrich Romundt, always morc absorbcd by thc worlddcnying aspccts ol
Schopcnhaucr than Nictzschc, announccd to his atmatcs in 8aumanns Cavc that, having
lailcd to gain a philosophy post at thc univcrsity, hc was going to bccomc a Catholic pricst.
Nictzschc rcgardcd this as a pcrsonal bctrayal, as did vcrbcck, not mcrcly on account ol
thc rctrcat lrom rcason to laith, but bccausc ol thc type ol laith:
h our good Protcstant air! ! havc ncvcr bccn morc awarc ol my inncrmost dcpcndcncc on
thc spirit ol Luthcr and now this unhappy man wants to turn his back on cvcrything that
:c&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
comcs lrom this libcrating gcnius. ! ask myscll whcthcr hc has lost his rcason and whcthcr
hc isnt bcst trcatcd with cold baths.
:
Most pcoplc ol a Protcstant upbringing havc a disposition to cxpcricncc Catholicisms dark
intcriors, inccnsc, candlcs, sacrcd hcarts, and gildcd statucs ol thc \irgin as chcap thcatrc
lor illitcratc pcasants. Most Protcstants arc idolsmashcrs at hcart. Tis, ! think, is what
Nictzschc mcans by Protcstant air acsthctic austcrity, lrccdom lrom idols.
n April +o Romundt nally dcpartcd lrom 8ascl in a CharlicChaplincsquc manncr
that cpitomiscd his wholc bcing:
vcrbcck and ! wcrc attcnding to his |travcl| nccds morc than hc himscll hc kcpt drilting
o into indicrcncc. Tc complctc indccisivcncss ol his naturc camc to a comical hcad
whcn, an hour bclorc his dcparturc, hc dccidcd hc didnt want to go. Hc didnt givc any
rcasons so wc madc surc hc would bc dcparting that cvcning. Hc bccamc passionatcly
miscrablc and kcpt rcpcating that what was bcst and good in his lilc was now at an cnd.
!n tcars, hc kcpt bcgging lor lorgivcncss, hc didnt know how to dcal with his miscry. A
charactcristic disastcr happcncd at thc last momcnt. Tc conductor closcd thc doors |ol
thc train about to dcpart| and Romundt, wanting to say somcthing morc to us, tricd to
lowcr thc glass window ol thc carriagc. Tis, howcvcr, put up rcsistancc. Hc tricd again
and again, all thc whilc, as hc was thus tormcnting himscll, attcmpting to makc himscll
undcrstood to us but without succcss. Tc train pullcd slowly out ol thc station . . . thc
ghastly symbolism ol thc wholc sccnc lay hcavily on |our| . . . spirits.

Tc ncxt day Nictzschc rctircd to bcd with a thirtyhour hcadachc and much vomiting ol
bilc which oncc again shows how strcss activatcd his undcrlying hcalth problcms. To his
rclicl, Romundt soon abandoncd his intcntion ol going ovcr to Romc. Hc cndcd up a high
school tcachcr in ldcnburg and writcr ol occasional philosophical cssays.

n May : Nictzschc scnt his usual birthday grcctings to Vagncr (two days latc). !t is
onc ol thc dccpcst lcttcrs hc wrotc anyonc and indicatcs, ! think, that thc lcvcl at which hc
communicatcd with Vagncr was dccpcr than with anyonc clsc (cxccpt, as wc shall scc, Lou
Salom c). Vhcn ! think ol your lilc, Nictzschc writcs,
! havc thc lccling ol a dramatic coursc to it: as though you arc too much a dramatist to livc
in any othcr lorm and, in any casc, can only dic at thc conclusion ol thc lth act. Vhcn
cvcrything drivcs and storms towards a singlc goal, accidcnts, it sccms, disappcar, arc alraid
to appcar. n account ol thc powcrlul thrust cvcrything bccomcs ncccssity and iron.
Tis is an carly appcarancc ol onc ol thc ccntral thcmcs in Nictzschcs maturc philosophy:
that in ordcr to lcad satislying, mcaninglul livcs wc must crcatc our livcs as artworks, acs
thctic unitics which incorporatc all that has happcncd, so that nothing appcars any longcr
as accidcntal.
Nictzschc continucs thc lcttcr by tclling Vagncr ol a strangcly bcautilul prophcsy hc
had lound among thc pocms ol poor H oldcrlin, with whom things didnt go as wcll as
with mc and who only had an intimation ol that in which wc trust and will comc to scc.
And thcn, as a birthday gilt, hc quotcs thc pocm in lull. !t rcads,
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:c
Oh holy heart of the \olk, Oh Fatherland!
ll patient like the silent mother earth
nd all-kno.ing, e.en though from out of your
Depth the alien has its best.
Tey har.est your thoughts, your spirit,
Tey happily pluck your grapes, you they scorn
You untended .ine, so that you
!ander in .ild confusion o.er the earth.
Tou Land of high, most serious genius!
Tou Land of lo.e! I am yours already,
[ButJ often I .eep angrily, that you so often
Stupidly deny your o.n soul.
No. you tarry and remain silent, intending a joyful .ork
Tat .hich you create, intends a ne. gure,
Te only thing that, like you yourself, is born
out of lo.e and is good like you.
!here is your Delos,

.here your Olympia,

So that .e can nd oursel.es in the highest festi.al?
But ho. can your son guess .hat you
O immortal one, ha.e long prepared for yours?

Nictzschc quotcs this pocm to validatc, oncc morc, Vagncrs projcct ol bringing about thc
rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy thc highcst lcstival. Vith luck, hc is suggcsting, thc 8ayrcuth
projcct will bc in harmony with thc hcart ol thc Gcrman !olk. And pcrhaps hc wishcs to
rcmind Vagncr that thc rcbirth ol thc Grcck is his projcct, onc hc should not allowhimscll
to bc distractcd lrom.
nc ol H oldcrlins lavouritc stanccs is that ol holy mourning mourning thc soul ol
thc !olk which has not yct rccovcrcd itscll. !t nds cxprcssion, hcrc, is thc pocts angry
wccping ovcr thc lact that thc Gcrman !olk has straycd so lar lrom its truc scll. Nictzschcs
rcvcrcncc lor H oldcrlin cxplains, ! bclicvc, thc lorm takcn by his, as wc arc about to scc,
disacctcd bchaviour at thc rst 8ayrcuth Fcstival: hc took himscll to bc inhabiting thc
stancc ol holy mourning, mourning lor what might havc bccn but is not yct. H oldcrlin, as
it wcrc, scriptcd Nictzschcs rcsponsc to thc Fcstival.
Vagncr, it appcars, ncvcr rcplicd to this lcttcr.

n May +, Nictzschc rcccivcd lrom Schmcitzncr a lricndly rcmindcr ol his commitmcnt
to producc tcn morc Untimely Meditations, and a rcqucst lor thc manuscript ol thc lourth, so
that hc could start printing in Junc. Probably as a rcsult, Nictzschcs hcalth cntcrcd a stccp
dcclinc. For thc ncxt six wccks, dcspitc thc consoling prcscncc ol lizabcth, hc sucrcd
acutc cycachcs, hcadachcs and tcrriblc stomach convulsions, somc ol thcm so violcnt that
blood camc up with thc vomit. His lricnd and doctor, Prolcssor !mmcrmann, at his wits
cnd, tricd him rst on a solution ol silvcr nitratc (uscd, thcsc days, to prcparc photographic
papcr, darkcn hair, and rcmovc warts), and whcn that produccd no improvcmcnt, vcry high
doscs ol quininc. n Junc :8, von Gcrsdor wrotc to his lricnd in 8ascl, ! dont want to

!n Grcck mythology, an island sanctuary that was thc birthplacc ol Apollo.

:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
shakc your condcncc in thc mcdical trcatmcnt but it noncthclcss sounds to mc as though
!|mmcrnann| has bccn making dubious cxpcrimcnts on your poor stomach.

Mcanwhilc, in spitc ol knowing his condition, Cosima scnt him onc ol hcr usual shop
ping lists. Could hc plcasc acquirc, lrom Strasburg (a signicant distancc lrom 8ascl), shc
wrotc in July, a lcw pounds ol caramcl swccts, ditto p at c dabrocots, a bag ol lruit conts
(not in bottlcs ol syrup but rathcr glac cd), a bag ol orangc glac ccs,
6
as il Nictzschc had
nothing bcttcr to do than act as a domcstic scrvant ol thc Vagncr houschold. !n ssorted
Opinions and Maxims hc rccords, undcr a vcil ol impcrsonality, thc rcsponsc this kind ol
trcatmcnt cvcntually produccd:
Bitterest Error: !t ocnds us bcyond lorgiving whcn wc discovcr that, whcrc wc wcrc
convinccd wc wcrc lovcd, wc wcrc in lact rcgardcd only as a piccc ol houschold lurniturc
and room dccoration lor thc mastcr ol thc housc to cxcrcisc his vanity upon bclorc his
gucsts.

Nictzschc borc his hcalth troublcs with his usual lortitudc, not cntircly unhappy, pcrhaps,
that thcy would providc a valid cxcusc not to attcnd thc 8ayrcuth rchcarsals, duc to start in
August. choing his youthlul dctcrmination to inhabit thc rcligious laith that cvcrything,
no mattcr how sccmingly tcrriblc, contributcs to a grcatcr good and anticipating his com
ing thcmc ol lilc as an artwork, hc wrotc Maric 8aumgartncr that hc was attcmpting to
undcrstand his lilc as
an artwork in which this cxistcncc and my pcrsonal circumstanccs |his hcalth, thc lact that
his prolcssion lclt him no timc to writc| arc conncctcd in such a way that thcy arc not
harmlul but arc cvcn usclul. vcry projcct rcsts on that. Tis mcans thcn: rcjccting many
things |c.g., lricndship with Vagncr| in ordcr not to havc to rcjcct thc main thing. You
scc: ! am not without couragc.
8
Cure in Steinabad
!
n spitc ol or bccausc ol !mmcrmanns trcatmcnt, Nictzschcs condition grcw stcadily
worsc. !n dcspcration his doctor lricnd told him to givc up all plans ol going to thc
8ayrcuth rchcarsals and undcrgo instcad a curc. Accordingly, Nictzschc sct o on July
+ lor lour wccks in thc thcrmal rcsort ol Stcinabad, ncar 8onndorl, just ovcr thc Gcrman
bordcr in thc 8lack Forcst. Tc clinic was run by a gastric spccialist, a r. Joscph Vicl, who
had an intcrnational rcputation as thc author ol a cookbook dctailing a rcgimcn ol hcalth
through dict. Nictzschc had grcat rcspcct lor him: himscll a bclicvcr in dicting oncs way to
hcalth, hc callcd Vicl a mcdical rcvolutionary.

Quack, howcvcr, cvcn by thc standards

ol thc timc, would bc morc appropriatc as thc chronically sick do, Nictzschc was lorcvcr
grasping at straws. Vicl prcscribcd coldwatcr cncmas rst thing cvcry morning and lour
small mcals a day composcd almost cntircly ol mcat, prcccdcd in thc morning by somc
Carlsbad lruit salts and accompanicd, at midday and in thc cvcning, by a glass ol clarct.
As Nictzschc wrotc Maric 8aumgartncr thrcc days altcr his arrival, no watcr, no soup, no
vcgctablcs, no brcad. Finally, hc sucrcd, as hc had in boarding school, thc application ol
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:c,
lccchcs to his cars.
o
And, whcn hc lclt Stcinabad, Vicls parting advicc was to havc his
lood cookcd only in cnamcllcd pots (which, as onc knows, always bccomc chippcd).
+
Vicl diagnoscd chronic stomach catarrh accompanicd by signicant widcning ol thc
stomach.
:
Catarrh postulatcd an inammation ol thc lining ol thc stomach, and widcn
ing was postulatcd in ordcr to account lor thc paticnts hcadachcs: thc thcory was that thc
widcning ol thc stomach intcrlcrcd with thc circulation ol thc blood so that not cnough
rcachcd thc brain.

Vhat, apart lrom thc congcnital ncarblindncss in his right cyc, was rcally wrong with
Nictzschc at this stagc in his lilc: As von Gcrsdor rccogniscd,

Nictzschc clcarly sucrcd

lrom symptoms indistinguishablc lrom thosc ol migrainc. Nausca and vomiting, scnsi
tivity to light, and latiguc arc classical migrainc symptoms, whilc thc things that acctcd
Nictzschc, cmotional strcss, bright light and loud noisc (thc 8ascl carnival drums) arc
classical triggcrs. 8ut what about his intcstinal problcms: !mmcrmann suggcstcd a stom
ach ulccr.

Tc pain ol a stomach ulccr, howcvcr, is typically rclicvcd by drinking milk,

and though Nictzschc drank plcnty ol milk, and occasionally thought it might bc hclp
ing,
6
thcrc is no rcal cvidcncc that did. Anothcr diculty with thc stomachulccr hy
pothcsis is that whilc, typically, ulccrs cithcr go away by thcmsclvcs or clsc lcad to scrious
complications such as dcath, Nictzschc sucrcd intcrmittcnt stomach pain all his lilc, but
ccrtainly did not dic ol a stomach ailmcnt. Tis suggcsts that, insolar as it is onc, irritablc
bowcl syndromc (!8S) is a morc plausiblc diagnosis ol thc stomachpain sidc ol Nictzschcs
complcx mcdical condition. Tc history ol his stomach problcms pcriods ol intcnsc pain
lollowcd by pcriods ol complctc lrccdom lrom pain, thc altcrnation ol constipation with
diarrhoca, lrcqucnt latiguc and thc pcrccivcd nccd lor bcdrcst, thc lack ol any succcsslul
dictary rcmcdy, and thc lrcqucncy with which cmotional strcss triggcrcd an attack arc all
consistcnt with !8S.

8y thc bcginning ol August Vicl thought hc noticcd a lcsscning ol thc stomach widcn
ing, but sincc thc paticnt showcd no improvcmcnt, hc abandoncd his diagnosis in lavour
ol !mmcrmanns suggcstcd stomach ulccr.

Yct sincc hc did not changc thc trcatmcnt

Nictzschcs condition, unsurprisingly, did not improvc, allowing him only a lcw good days
among thc many bad oncs.
8
nc ol lcw advantagcs ol thc Stcinabad institution was its swimming pool: too cold lor
ordinary mortals (lacking Plorta conditioning), Nictzschc rcports that hc was ablc to havc
it to himscll at six oclock cvcry morning.

Anothcr advantagc was thc surrounding pinc

lorcst, whcrc hc could walk in thc dim lighting that protcctcd him lrom cycpain and hcad
achcs. His lormcr studcnt Louis Kcltcrborn rcmcmbcrs visiting Nictzschc in Stcinabad:
!t was a bright, warm July Sunday and naturc was showing hcrscll o in hcr ncst jcw
cllcry . . . 8ut rathcr than cnjoying naturc, thc grcatcst joy lor mc was to mcct oncc again
my wclcoming lricnd. Ccrtainly onc saw in his lacc and colour that hc was sick, and hc
dcscribcd in dctail how hc was doing, as wcll as thc dctails ol his trcatmcnt, ol which hc
had grcat hopcs. Hc showcd mc all around thc thcrmal cstablishmcnt and thc park sur
rounding it, wantcd mc to takc a swim, which ! dcclincd, and altcr lunch wc wcnt lor a
hikc ol scvcral hours through thc wondcrlul surrounding lorcst. Nictzschc had always bccn
a lusty hikcr and thc powcrlul, rcgular bodily movcmcnt ol brisk walking always sccmcd to
::c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
do him good. Hcrc, onc was ablc to brcathc thc lull, spicy smcll ol thc wondcrlul rtrccs.
At cach ncw turning thc path passcd through ncw bcautics . . . abovc all onc cxpcricnccd
thc allcmbracing, dccp silcncc as a truc blcssing. Vc mct vcry lcw othcr hikcrs and our
path took us through no villagcs . . . And so wc lclt oursclvcs lar away lrom all human bustlc
and noisc, and in this mood ol dccp satislaction and rcposc ol thc spirit ! cnjoycd twicc as
much thc always so unusual, clcvatcd and cxciting convcrsation.
o
Vhat might thcy havc talkcd about: Hcalth and thc link bctwccn hcalth and dictary and
othcr pcrsonal habits would havc bccn a likcly topic. ! wont bc hcalthy until ! carn it hc
writcs von Gcrsdor.
+
!n anothcr lcttcr hc suggcsts that it is thc machinist rathcr than thc
machinc that is sick,
:
culpably or morally sick, sick on account ol dwclling on thc cvils
ol thc world too much.

!n thc birthday lcttcr to Vagncr mcntioncd carlicr, hc writcs,

! wish us both happincss and ! wish us both hcalth . . . Vhat ! rcally want to say is: cgoism
lurks within illncss, whcrcby that illncss is lorccd to think always ol itscll: whilc gcnius, in
thc lullncss ol its hcalth, always thinks only ol thc othcr, involuntarily blcssing and hcaling
mcrcly by laying on his hand. A sick man is always a scoundrcl . . .

Tcsc rcmarks arc not cntircly consistcnt with cach othcr. Tc main thrust, howcvcr, consists
ol thrcc idcas. First, that physical discasc is causcd by psychological discasc and, convcrscly,
physical hcalth by psychological hcalth. Sccond, that, thcrclorc, thc curc lor physical dis
casc is always psychological as wc say, gctting oncs hcad in ordcr, mind ovcr mattcr.
And third, that psychological discasc is always thc product ol moral discasc vicc and
psychological hcalth thc product ol moral hcalth virtuc. Tc discascd arc always cgoists
who subtract lrom thc gcncral good, thc hcalthy arc always altruists who add to it.
Tc corrclation bctwccn hcalth and virtuc is, wc shall scc, a ccntral thcmc in Nictzschcs
maturc philosophy. !mportantly, howcvcr, thc ordcr ol causation is rcvcrscd. Vhcrcas, hcrc,
Nictzschcs main tcndcncy is to makc psychological and so physical hcalth thc product ol
virtuc (conccivcd as altruism), in his maturity hc makcs virtuc thc product ol psychological
hcalth.
Nictzschc had good rcason to abandon this vicw, which makcs oncs physical hcalth
a baromctcr ol oncs moral hcalth. For not only is thc vicw that all physical discasc is
psychosomatic ridiculous quackcry (cath is a lailurc ol positivc thinking, and so on),
it also cmbodics a vicious, closct thcology to which thc chronically sick brought up within
a Christian culturc, arc particularly vulncrablc: my sickncss must bc my own lault, a pun
ishmcnt lor my wickcdncss, sincc this prcmisc is spokcn only sotto .oce thcrc is an
allpowcrlul, wholly good God and hc could not allow unmcritcd sucring to occur.

Anothcr topic ol convcrsation must, ol coursc, havc bccn 8ayrcuth. ccply uncomlortablc
that all his lricnds (whom he had pcrsuadcd to bccomc Vagncrians) wcrc in 8ayrcuth lor
thc bcginning ol thc rchcarsals ol this radically ncw musical cxpcricncc, Nictzschc kncw
that hc was not mcrcly abscnt but that his lricnds would cxpcricncc his abscncc as a Sartrcan
abscncc. (! go into a bar lor an urgcnt mccting with my lricnd Picrrc, but hc is not thcrc.
Vhat ! am awarc ol, Sartrc suggcsts, is ncithcr thc bottlcs bchind thc bar, nor thc barmaid,
nor thc drinkcrs, but simply and solcly the absence of Pierre.) Trying to cxcusc himscll to
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:::
Rohdc, Nictzschc writcs lrom Stcinabad that hc is in 8ayrcuth morc than thrccquartcrs
ol thc day in spirit, and hovcrs abovc it likc a ghost.

And to vcrbcck on his last day at

thc spa,
whcncvcr ! gct a lcttcr lrom 8ayrcuth ! cxpcricncc a hallhour spasm: its as though ! must
jump up, throw cvcrything asidc and rush to join you all. Likc a wondrous tcmptation, !
oltcn hcar on my walks somcthing ol thc liquid gold ol that orchcstral sound, and thcn
! lccl boundlcssly dcprivcd. To know that you arc thcrc it could so casily havc happcncd
that nonc ol us wcrc . . .
6
Tc us, hcrc, points to anothcr topic that was on Nictzschcs mind in Stcinabad: thc lor
mation ol a communc ol untimcly thinkcrs or, as hc was bcginning to call thcm, lrcc
spirits.

To von Gcrsdor hc writcs that

Vc must still makc usc ol our youth to lcarn many things. And gradually it will comc to a
communal cxistcncc ol living and lcarning. Tcrc is always somconc ncw who wants to join
this company, as, lor cxamplc, a vcry giltcd and carlymaturing (though carlysucring)
pupil, thc |8ascl| law studcnt |Albcrt| 8rcnncr.
8
As wc shall scc in thc ncxt chaptcr, 8rcnncr did in lact join Nictzschc thc lollowing ycar in
Sorrcnto, in what thc lattcr dcscribcd as a monastcry lor lrcc spirits.
Anothcr topic Nictzschc might havc discusscd with Kcltcrborn was his, Nictzschcs, own
luturc. Vriting to Carl Fuchs, who complaincd about his lack ol succcss as a musician,
Nictzschc rcminds him ol Liszts rcmark that many arc robbcd ol succcss through bcing in
a hurry, through a notwantingtowait. For himscll, hc continucs, quoting Shakcspcarc
(Hamlet), rcadincss is all:
nc shouldnt allow latc to scc what it is onc wants . . . !t is my inncrmost disposition to
harbour somcthing lor ycars, and not allow myscll to rccognisc it, but thcn whcn it grips
mc, to cmbracc it, ! was rcady.

Curt Paul Janz nds an unacccptablc gull bctwccn thc high idcalism ol thc Untimely Med-
itations, thc dcmand that onc bccomcs thc truc scll lying immcasurably high abovc onc,
and Nictzschcs rcluctancc to abandon thc univcrsity. 8ut, quitc apart lrom thc lact that
hc had virtually no mcans ol support othcr than his salary, and that hc also nccdcd to hclp
support his mothcr, Nictzschc was, ! think, not so much e.ading thc dccision that nccdcd to
bc madc as attenti.ely .aiting, holding himscll alcrt and at thc rcady lor thc right momcnt
to arrivc. To Maric 8aumgartncr hc writcs lrom Stcinabad,
\arious things arc now growing in mc and lrom month to month ! scc somc things about
my lilcs mission morc dcnitcly, without having thc couragc to tcll anyonc. A quict, but
quitc dccisivc progrcss lrom stcp to stcp. Tat is what vouchsalcs to mc that ! will go lairly
lar. ! sccm to myscll to bc a mountain climbcr scc how proudly ! can spcak.
6o

Nictzschc lound no intcrcsting company among his lcllow convalcsccnts in Stcinabad and
spcnt most ol his timc alonc. Hc did, howcvcr, do a littlc communal sightsccing: a walk
:::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
to Rothaus to visit what was said to bc thc largcst brcwcry in Gcrmany, and visits to a
chccscmaking lactory and a pig larm.
6+
Hc lclt on August +:.
A New Apartment and New Iriends: Paul R ee and Heinrich K oselitz
M
canwhilc, back in 8ascl, lizabcth had takcn ovcr a ncw apartmcnt lor thcm both
at 8 Spalcntorwcg, a couplc ol minutcs walk lrom 8aumanns Cavc. Quasimarital
cxistcncc suitcd thcm both: lizabcth bccausc shc had always bccn hall in lovc with hcr
brothcr, Fritz bccausc thc curc in Stcinabad had bccn no curc at all, so that, on rcturning to
8ascl, hc nccdcd somcthing othcr than his prcvious bachclor cxistcncc and Frau 8aumanns
cooking. His vcry survival dcpcndcd on it, hc wrotc vcrbcck.
6:
Tc apartmcnt at numbcr
8 allowcd Nictzschc an cntirc oor to himscll, whilc lizabcth had part ol an uppcr oor.
!n all thcrc wcrc six rooms partly llcd with lurniturc scnt lrom Naumburg, as wcll as a
kitchcn, a ccllar, and a houscmaidcook. Tough it was probably bcyond his mcans hc
had to borrow a hundrcd talcrs lrom von Gcrsdor
6
Nictzschc lound thc ncw homc
comlorts vcry satislactory: vcrything round mc is complctcly Nictzschcan and strangcly
comlorting, hc rcportcd.
6
Tc rcmaindcr ol thc ycar was punctuatcd by lrcqucnt attacks ol all thc usual troublcs.
ltcn hc could not rcad or writc, so that lizabcth cntcrtaincd him by rcading aloud
thc novcls ol Sir Valtcr Skott (sic)
6
all ol thcm, shc bclicvcd. 8y cccmbcr Nictz
schc calculatcd that in cvcry twotothrccwcck pcriod hc was spcnding thirtysix hours
in bcd.
66
Christmas was particularly bad, markcd by a massivc collapsc ol, as hc habitually
callcd it, thc machinc. Tis lcd him to a ncw sclldiagnosis. Tc singlc sourcc ol all his
problcms was an inammation ol thc brain: his lathcr had dicd at thirtysix and hc would
quitc possibly dic cvcn sooncr.
6
8y January ol thc lollowing ycar his hcalth rcquircd that
hc givc up thc highschool tcaching and, thc ncxt month, hc had tcmporarily to suspcnd
his univcrsity courscs too.

!n spitc ol his condition, thc autumn ol +8 markcd thc bcginning ol, altcr Vagncr, thc
two most philosophically important lricndships ol Nictzschcs lilc: thc rst, with Paul R cc,
intimatc and ultimatcly traumatic, thc sccond, with Hcinrich K osclitz, lcss intimatc but
longcr lasting.
Paul R cc, vc ycars youngcr than Nictzschc, was ol part Hugucnot but mainly Jcwish
origin (scc Platc +8). Philosophically disposcd, hc bcgan, likc Nictzschc, as a Schopcn
haucrian. Hc had, howcvcr, comc to rcjcct thc lattcrs idcalist mctaphysics and adoptcd a
thoroughly scicntic, positivist outlook. Anyonc who rcjcctcd arwin, hc wrotc, nccd not
rcad his (R ccs) works.
!n +8 hc publishcd his Psychological Obser.ations as wcll as complcting a Ph.. thcsis on
Tc Noblc in Aristotlc at Hallc. !n +8 his Te Origins of the Moral Sentiments appcarcd,
and in +88 both Te Genesis of Conscience and Te Illusion of Freedom of the !ill: Its Causes
and Consequences. 8ut thcn, lailing to nd an acadcmic post, hc abandoncd philosophy
lor mcdicinc and, in +8o, qualicd as a doctor. Altcr tcn ycars ol sclcssly caring lor
thc pcasants on his brothcrs cstatc in ast Prussia, hc movcd to Cclcrina, in thc uppcr
ngardinc vallcy, ncar St. Moritz, whcrc hc carcd lor thc mountain pcoplc, who camc
to rcgard him as a ncarsaint. !n +o+, a short distancc away, hc slid on somc icc and
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
drowncd in thc rivcr n ncar Schlarigna. !ronically, in that hc and Nictzschc had partcd
amidst violcnt rccriminations (scc Chaptcr +8), this was but a stoncs throwlromSils Maria,
whcrc, twcnty ycars carlicr, Nictzschc had lound his spiritual homc. !t is possiblc that R ccs
dcath was suicidc. Tough ol a gcntlc and upright disposition and givcn to sclldcprccating
humour, whilc rcjccting Schopcnhaucrs mctaphysics, hc continucd to sharc Schopcnhaucrs
low opinion ol thc valuc and virtuc ol human cxistcncc. Morcovcr, though himscll Jcwish,
thosc who kncw him wcll, such as Lou Salom c and thc sociologist Fcrdinand T onnics,
agrcc that hc was antiScmitic.
Following thc victory in thc FrancoPrussian war, a wavc ol antiScmitism arosc in tan
dcm with thc Gcrman racial chauvinism Nictzschc loathcd. Tc tcrm antiScmitism, was
rst coincd by Vilhclm Marr in +8 to dcscribc thc political opposition to Jcwish cman
cipation hc was hclping to lomcnt. (Cosima Vagncr, as wc havc sccn, was particularly badly
inlcctcd, and rccordcd in hcr diary on rst mccting R cc in +86, Cold and prccisc char
actcr, docs not appcal to us, on closcr inspcction wc camc to thc conclusion hc must bc an
!sraclitc.)
68
Tcodor Lcssing discusscs R cc in his book Je.ish Self-Hatred as an cxamplc ol
somconc who absorbcd thc antiScmitism ol his cnvironmcnt and turncd it into a powcrlul
inncr drivc to scllhatrcd. Lou Salom c, who cvcntually bccamc a psychoanalyst and a mcm
bcr ol Frcuds inncr circlc, drcw a conncction bctwccn R ccs scllhatrcd and his altruism:
his losing himscll in sclcss dcvotion to othcrs, shc suggcsts, hc cxpcricnccd as a happy
dclivcrancc lrom himscll.
6
!t is also possiblc, though not ccrtain, that R cc was tormcntcd
by homoscxual inclinations.
!n ctobcr, Nictzschc wrotc R cc, whom hc had bricy mct through Romundt in May,
+8, his rst lcttcr, to tcll him how much hc had cnjoycd thc anonymously publishcd
Psychological Obser.ations and that hc had instantly pcnctratcd thc incognito.
o
R cc rcplicd
lrom Paris that hcd always admircd Nictzschc lrom alar and that hc would likc to bc ablc
now to think ol him as a lricnd.
+
R cc visitcd Nictzschc in Fcbruary ol thc lollowing
ycar, and thc ncxt month Nictzschc wrotc his ncwwon lricnd ol his dclight in know
ing somconc quitc dicrcnt lrom anyonc hc kncw in 8ascl, somconc with whom hc could
talk about humanity. Shall wc, hc wrotc,
makc this sharcd nccd thc basis ol our lricndship and hopc to mcct oltcn: !t would bc a
grcat joy and prot to mc il you say Ycs. Lct us scc, thcn, how much pcrsonal opcnncss a
lricndship loundcd on this basis can bcar! ! do not nd it so casy to promisc this . . . 8ut !
wish lrom thc hcart to dcscrvc your opcnncss . . .
:
Vhat sccms to bc contcmplatcd, hcrc, is a lricndship loundcd on two things: a scicntic
intcrcst in humanity, and an, as it wcrc, cncountcrgroup commitmcnt to pcrsonal opcn
ncss, soultosoul disclosurc.
A lcttcr to Rohdc claboratcs on what Nictzschc mcans by talking about humanity. R ccs
Psychological Obser.ations, hc writcs, is thc work ol a moralist ol thc sharpcst sight, a tal
cnt vcry rarc among thc Gcrmans

(prcciscly thc cold prccision which Cosima, who prc

lcrrcd to scc things soltcncd by clouds ol Catholic inccnsc, dislikcd about him). R ccs Psy-
chological Obser.ations, probably inucnccd in lorm and contcnt by Schopcnhaucrs oltcn
sardonic phorisms on Lifes !isdom, as wcll as by thc scvcntccnthccntury Frcnch apho
rist La Rochcloucauld (whom Schopcnhaucr also admircd), is, as Nictzschc cxplains, thc
work ol a skillul marksman who again and again hits thc bullscyc but it is thc black
::,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol human naturc.

!t is, in othcr words, an cxcrcisc in thc hcrmcncutics ol suspicion.

Following La Rochcloucaulds obscrvation that Scllcstccm is clcvcrcr than thc clcvcrcst
man ol thc world (which Schopcnhaucr quotcs)

and causcs us constantly to dcccivc

oursclvcs as to thc truc motivcs lor our actions, R ccs book is composcd ol amour-propre
puncturing aphorisms such as Spcakcrs and authors gcncrally convincc only thosc who
wcrc alrcady convinccd, !l vanity did not cxist ncarly all thc scicnccs would still bc in thc
cradlc, Vc rcgard only thosc critics as compctcnt who praisc our achicvcmcnts, Vhcn
onc can no longcr lovc onc thinks ol marriagc, and so on.
An important qucstion is, howdocs Nictzschcs lascination with R ccs book, a lascination
that soon lcd him to attcmpt aphorisms on similar lincs ol his own, t with thc high moral
idcalismol thc thrcc complctcd Untimely Meditations and ol thc still to bc complctcd lourth
onc: Although onc might anticipatc that a prcoccupation with thc scamy sidc ol thc psychc
would lcad to a rcjcction ol thc Meditations idcalism as unrcalistic, Nictzschcs thinking
did not, in lact, lcad him in that dircction. Tough hc was about to rcjcct thc metaphysical
idcalism ol Kant and Schopcnhaucr (Tc world is |nothing but| my rcprcscntation) in
lavour ol rcalism or r ccalism
6
as hc calls it, acknowlcdging his lricnds inucncc moral
idcalism, wc shall scc, rcmaincd with him all his lilc. As hc says in thc Vc Philologists
notcs, howcvcr, a usclul idcalism must bc bascd on wartsandall rcalism about human
naturc, not on goldpapcrwrappcd (p. :o abovc) scntimcntality. nly rcalism, r ccalism,
about human naturc can hopc to discriminatc bctwccn what is unaltcrablc (hardwircd) in
it and what can bc changcd. nly rcalism, thcrclorc, can discriminatc bctwccn lutilc and
usclul kinds ol idcalism. As hc was to put it scvcn ycars latcr:
Howmany pcoplc knowhowto obscrvc somcthing: l thc lcwwho do, howmany obscrvc
thcmsclvcs: vcrybody is lurthcst away lrom himscll . . . Vc want to bccomc who wc
|truly| arc . . . to this cnd wc must bccomc thc discovcrcrs ol all lawlulncss and ncccssity
in thc world. Vc must bccomc physicists to bccomc in this scnsc creators whilc up to now
all valuccstimations and all idcals wcrc bascd on ignorancc ol physics or |as in thc casc ol
Christianity| built to contradict it. Tcrclorc, long livc physics! And cvcn morc, that which
compcls us to it our |La RochcloucauldianSchopcnhaucrianR ccian| honcsty!

Noticc that thc notcs lor Vc Philologists wcrc writtcn before Nictzschc rcad R ccs Psy-
chological Obser.ations, wc should think in tcrms ol a convcrgcncc ol intcrcst in humanity
rathcr than R ccs turning Nictzschc in an cntircly ncw dircction.

Hcinrich K osclitz (scc Platc +), known to gcncrations ol Nictzschcrcadcrs as Pctcr
Gast,

ninc ycars his junior, kncw Nictzschc lor a longcr pcriod, and with lcwcr intcr
ruptions than any othcr lricnd savc vcrbcck. Hc provcd invaluablc as an amanucnsis
towards thc cnd, hc was thc only pcrson who could rcad Nictzschcs writing but Nictz
schc ncvcr rcally grantcd him cithcr thc rcspcct or intimacy hc gavc to othcr lricnds, ncvcr
accordcd him thc usc ol thc lamiliar du. 8asically, thc rclationship always rcmaincd that ol

Nictzschc invcntcd this pscudonym thinking it would lurthcr K osclitzs carccr as a composcr and
pcrsuadcd him to adopt it. Gast, in Gcrman, mcans gucst, and Pctcr dcrivcs lrom thc Latin
petra, mcaning stonc. So (a point ! owc to Robin Small) thc namc sccms to contain a joking
rclcrcncc to thc stonc gucst who carricd thc on o to hcll at thc cnd ol Mozarts Don Gio.anni.
Nictzschc rcgardcd K osclitz as thc ncw Mozart, which incrcascs thc plausibility ol this ctymology.
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
prolcssor to studcnt. Tc son ol a patrician Saxon industrialist, K osclitz studicd music in
Lcipzig and aspircd unsucccsslully to bc an opcra composcr. A lan, initially, ol Vagncr
and Schopcnhaucr, hc was trcmcndously imprcsscd by Te Birth of Tragedy, which hc accur
atcly dcscribcd as a trcmcndous protcst against thc cncrvating, instinctdissolving cccts
ol our Alcxandrian culturc.
8
Hc was also dccply imprcsscd by thc rst two Untimely Med-
itations. ncouragcd by Schmcitzncr, whom hc kncw, hc and his lricnd Paul Vidcmann
dccidcd to translcr lrom Lcipzig to 8ascl Univcrsity in ctobcr +8, in ordcr to attcnd
Nictzschcs lccturcs.
Vhcn wc rst mct him, K osclitz rccollccts in an cxtcndcd rccord ol his rst acquain
tancc with Nictzschc,
wc wcrc astoundcd by his appcarancc. A military occr! not a scholar at all . . . Tc imprcs
sion was ol cmincnt scllcontrol |thc Plorta/Prussian look|. Strict towards himscll, strict
in mattcrs ol principlc, hc was, by contrast, in his judgmcnts ol othcr pcoplc, cxtrcmcly
gcncrous.
About this timc, Nictzschc composcd a Hymn to Solitude,

a work, K osclitz rcports, lull

ol harsh hcroism incxtricably mixcd with solt and dolce passagcs which arc yct rcsistcd
with dcancc. K osclitz hcard him play thc work (thc scorc ol which has bccn lost) on thc
piano: Nictzschcs touch was ol grcat intcnsity without bcing hard, his playing cvocativc,
polyphonic and manylaycrcd, so that lrom thc orchcstral sound hc brought out hcrc thc
utcs and violins and thcrc thc tromboncs.
A closcr rclation, K osclitz continucs, bcgan at thc cnd ol April +86 whcn hc lcarnt ol
thc cxistcncc ol an unnishcd lourth Untimely Meditation that was conccrncd with Richard
Vagncr. Hc pcrsuadcd Nictzschc, who hcld it to bc too pcrsonal and thcrclorc unpublish
ablc, to add thc thrcc nal chaptcrs and himscll undcrtook to producc a printrcady copy.
riginally intcndcd as a privatc gilt lor Vagncrs birthday, it cndcd up as a work dcsigncd
to bc a part ol thc rst 8ayrcuth Fcstival.

Veytaux, Geneva, and a Marriage Proposal

M
arch ol +86 brought with it thc annual tormcnt ol thc 8ascl Fastnacht. Pcrhaps with
Te Birth of Tragedys distinction bctwccn barbarian and Grcck manilcstations ol
thc ionysian in mind, K osclitz dcscribcd thc carnival as lcss joyful than barbaric and
brutal, thc cxprcssion ol which is thc inccssant drumming.
8o
Tis timc Nictzschc lound
rclugc by travclling with von Gcrsdor to \cytaux, ncar Montrcaux on Lakc Gcncva, whcrc
hc rcmaincd a lull month lrom March 6 until April 6, walking six hours a day through
gcncrally wct and wintry conditions. Hc was thrillcd to visit ncarby Castlc Chillon, madc
lamous by 8yrons pocm, Te Prisoner of Chillon, thc work ol his boyhood hcro.
Considcrably rcstorcd, Nictzschc travcllcd lrom \cytaux to Gcncva, whcrc hc wantcd to
pay homagc at thc housc in which \oltairc had spcnt his cxilc hc rclcrs to this paradigm
Socratist as my highcst hcro, a symptom ol thc sca changc occurring, at this timc, in

At thc samc timc hc was rcading thc 8uddhist tcxt thc Sutta Nipata. Hc particularly likcd thc linc
! wandcr loncly as a rhinoccros (KG8 !!. ) an intcrcsting variant on Vordsworths cloud.
::&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
his spiritualintcllcctual outlook.
8+
Hc also wantcd to mcct a Countcss iodati, who was
supposcd to havc nishcd a Frcnch translation ol Te Birth of Tragedy, and catch up with
Hugo von Scngcr, musical dircctor ol thc Gcncva symphony orchcstra and an cnthusiast lor
Vagncr and 8crlioz. (uring Nictzschcs stay hc conductcd 8crliozs ovcrturc to 8cnvcnuto
Ccllini at his gucsts rcqucst.)
Tc countcss, howcvcr, turncd out to bc conncd to a lunatic asylum, having lost hcr
mind. Scngcr, whom Nictzschc had rst mct in +8:, was a lan ol Te Birth and had visitcd
Nictzschc in 8ascl thc prcvious Fcbruary. Hc was somcwhat ncurotic and, as thc Gcrmans
say, a skirthuntcr. Altcr hc kisscd his nglish piano pupil, liza \aughan, during a lcsson
shc, a woman ol charactcr, lorccd him into an unhappy marriagc. Among his currcnt piano
studcnts was thc slim, blond, and bcautilul Mathildc Trampcdach (scc Platc :o), who was
sccrctly in lovc with him and who would cvcntually bccomc his third wilc.
nc morning Scngcr turncd up with Nictzschc in tow at thc Gcncva pcnsion whcrc
Mathildc was staying togcthcr with hcr sistcr. Unlortunatcly, Mathildc rccalls, wc couldnt
scc thc lamous man sincc, in spitc ol thc dim light, hc hcld a thickly lincd grccn sunshadc
ovcr his hcad |thus casting his lacc into shadow|, undoubtcdly on account ol his wcak cycs.
A lcw days latcr von Scngcr invitcd thc two girls to join him and Nictzschc lor a carriagc
drivc. Mathildc joincd in thc convcrsation about poctry and pocts, asking Nictzschc il hc
kncw Longlcllows Excelsior. Vhcn hc conlcsscd his ignorancc shc ocrcd to producc a
Gcrman translation. Mathildc continucs,
Tc two mcn wcrc dccp in convcrsation about thc lrccdom ol pcoplcs, at which point !
couldnt stop myscll intcrjccting that it was astonishing that pcoplc dcspcratc lor outcr
libcrty scarccly notcd how limitcd and constrictcd thcy wcrc inwardly, and that libcra
tion lrom thc wcight ol human wcakncsscs dcmandcd thc grcatcst dcgrcc ol cncrgy . . . as !
lookcd up ! caught Nictzschcs intcnsc cycs xcd on mc.
Mathildc mct Nictzschc a third and nal timc:
Hc camc to say goodbyc and was lcd into thc rcccption hall whcrc hc grcctcd us with a
solcmn bow. Tcn hc turncd to thc piano |as in thc Colognc brothcl| and bcgan to play
with incrcasing wavcs ol stormy lccling until thcsc subsidcd into solcmn harmonics, nally
disappcaring into a pianissimo. Shortly altcr, wc partcd without a word bcing uttcrcd. Tc
only gcsturc was a dccp bow.
8:
A couplc ol days latcr Mathildc rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom Nictzschc (which, ol coursc, shc
prcscrvcd):
Mein Fr aulein . . . gathcr all thc couragc in your hcart in ordcr not to bc tcrricd by thc
qucstion ! now ask you: will you marry mc: ! lovc you and it sccms to mc you alrcady
bclong to mc. Not a word about thc suddcnncss ol my acction . . . Vhat ! want to know
is whcthcr you dont lccl as ! do that wc wcrc ncvcr strangcrs to cach othcr. ont you
think that binding oursclvcs togcthcr would makc both ol us lrccr and bcttcr than wc could
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
managc alonc in othcr words cxcclsior:

Vill you darc to travcl with mc, with somconc

who strivcs most sinccrcly to bccomc lrccr and bcttcr: n all thc paths ol lilc and thought:
Plcasc cast asidc all inhibitions and lct your hcart bc lrcc. No onc knows ol this lcttcr apart
lrom our common lricnd Hcrr von Scngcr.
8
Apart lrom Mathildcs bcauty and intclligcncc, and thc lact that vcrbcck had rcccntly
announccd his cngagcmcnt to thc wondcrlul !da Rothpctz thcrcby making thc issuc ol
marriagc a prcssing onc lor Nictzschc, thc cluc to this cxtraordinary ocr probably lics in
thc rcpcatcd appcal to lrccdom. Mathildcs tcmcrity in intcrvcning in a mans convcrsation
lcd Nictzschc to supposc shc was a ncw kind ol libcratcd bohcmian, a woman who was
alrcady thc convcntiondclying lrcc spirit hc would likc to bc and with whom hc could
thcrclorc bypass normal social convcntions. l coursc, hc could not. Mathildc gracclully
turncd him down. Quitc apart lrom thc lact shc was alrcady in lovc with Scngcr, il thcrc
is any truth in thc sclshgcnc thcory, what womcn scck in a marriagc partncr is a good
providcr. And that, quitc cvidcntly, Nictzschc would ncvcr bc.
Tc lorcgoing hypothcsis about Nictzschcs motivation is conrmcd by a lcttcr hc wrotc
thc lollowing month to von Gcrsdor:
! wont marry, in thc cnd, ! hatc thc rcstrictions and bcing cnmcshcd in thc wholc civilizcd
|bourgcois, suburban| ordcr ol things. Hardly any woman will bc lrccspiritcd cnough
to lollow |sic| mc cvcrincrcasingly, thc |bachclor| Grcck philosophcrs sccm to mc to
providc thc modcl ol thc dcsirablc way to livc.
8
8ack in 8ascl on April +:, suntanncd, tcmporarily in rcasonablc hcalth, and carrying no
visiblc scar lrom Mathildcs rcjcction, Nictzschc rcccivcd a proposal lrom Malwida von
Mcyscnbug that, lor thc sakc ol his hcalth, hc should spcnd thc lollowing wintcr and spring
with hcr undcr thc mild !talian sky. (A changc ol air was thc rcmcdy lor ill hcalth thc
\ictorians prcscribcd morc lrcqucntly than any othcr.) !n Junc hc was grantcd a ycars sab
batical lcavc lor which, altcr scvcn ycars cmploymcnt, hc was duc, and this madc it possiblc
lor him to takc hcr suggcstion scriously.
Wagner in Bayreuth
M
canwhilc Nictzschc had bccn hard at work on thc lourth Untimely Meditation, !ag-
ner in Bayreuth, which appcarcd with Schmcitzncr on July +o, +86. Hc askcd that
complimcntary copics bc scnt to thc Vagncrs (two), von Gcrsdor, Rohdc, R cc, Malwida
von Mcyscnbug, Romundt, his mothcr, Fuchs, Sophic Ritschl, Krug (but again not Pindcr),
von Scngcr, Hillcbrand, Maric and Adoll 8aumgartncr, and lour othcrs
8
thc lcw lor
whom hc wrotc.

Tc translation ol thc Latin titlc ol Longlcllows pocm is cvcr highcr or, morc looscly, onwards
and upwards. Tc pocm dcscribcs a young man who passcs through an alpinc villagc bcaring a
banncr on which xcclsior is inscribcd. !gnoring all warnings, hc climbs highcr and highcr until,
incvitably, lilclcss but bcautilul, hc is discovcrcd lying hallburicd in thc snow.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc work was timcd to coincidc with thc rst 8ayrcuth Fcstival, duc to start thc lollow
ing month. Tc idca was to cxplain thc signicancc and importancc ol thc cvcnt, in othcr
words, to producc a work ol thc samc charactcr as Te Birth of Tragedy, though now, likc
thc Summons to the Germans, with thc locus cxclusivcly on Vagncr. Nictzschc wrotc thc
work with diculty.
86
A major rcason was that by thc timc hc camc to writc it his attitudc
toward Vagncr has changcd lrom adulation to ambivalcncc. As wc saw in thc last chaptcr,
pcrsonal dicultics with Vagncr arc accompanicd in thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod by many
ol thc criticisms ol thc artist (that hc is an actor, a tyrannical produccr ol chcap cccts,
that his music dcnics rathcr than arms lilc) which, in latcr lilc, would lorm thc basis ol
thc casc against Vagncr Nictzschc would prosccutc with grcat lcrocity.
Tc diplomatically ingcnious dcvicc Nictzschc adoptcd to rcconcilc public commitmcnt
with privatc rcscrvation was to borrow thc narrativc structurc ol Vagncrs own 8ccthovcn
cssay (p. +:+ abovc), to composc an idcaliscd biography in which Vagncrs highcr scll
cvcntually triumphs ovcr thc crrors and wcakncsscs ol his lowcr scll. Tis cnablcd him to
combinc thc nccd lor hagiography with thc rcquircmcnts ol his own intcgrity, by ocring
a vcilcd warning to Vagncr to rcmain truc to his highcst idcal.
Rctrospcctivcly, in Ecce Homo, Nictzschc indicatcs that, in rcality, hc had alrcady givcn
up hopc that cithcr Vagncr or 8ayrcuth would livc up to that idcal: in thc cssay, hc says, at
cvcry psychologically dccisivc point ! am only talking about myscll, you can put my namc,
or thc word Zarathustra, without hcsitation whcrcvcr thc tcxt has thc word Vagncr . . . it
docs not comc into contact with Vagncrian rcality cvcn lor a momcnt.
8
Tc rcsult is that,
likc Schopenhauer as Educator, thc cssay basically only talk|s| about mc . . . is a vision ol my
luturc.
88
!n othcr words, Vagncrs highcr scll and idcal is rcally not his idcal at all but rathcr
Nietzsches. From our point ol vicw, howcvcr, this makcs thc cssay cvcn morc important. For
what thcsc rcmarks tcll us is that thc at lcast quasiVagncrian idcal skctchcd in +86 remains
Nictzschcs idcal at thc vcry cnd ol his path ol thinking, in +888.

Tc Meditation bcgins by dcploring thc statc ol modcrn thcatrc, a placc ol luxury
art,
8
chcap, cscapist thrills lor a borcd and workwcary audicncc. Tc modcrn world is,
howcvcr, so intcrconncctcd that to changc onc clcmcnt in it would bc to changc thc total
ity: to rclorm thc thcatrc, to producc a highcr, purcr art, would bc to translorm morality,
politics, and civil socicty. !t would, Nictzschc claims, abolish thc sickncss ol modcrn man
and crcatc a ncw and hcalthicr culturc.
o
(nc might makc this claim lcss larlctchcd than
it sounds by thinking about tclcvision. To producc a highcr, purcr tclcvision might indccd,
as Lord Rcith ol thc 88C bclicvcd, producc a proloundly dicrcnt socicty.)
!nitially, Vagncr thc lowcr Vagncr was himscll cnsnarcd by thc dccadcncc ol mod
crn culturc, was just anothcr composcr ol grand opcra. His immcnsc ambition mcant that,
in thc bcginning, hc sought to outdo compctitors such as Mcycrbccr in thc production
ol cmpty articcs and chcap, hypnotic cccts dcsigncd to wrcst a succcss lrom thc
public (a low vcrsion ol thc Grcck agon, prcsumably). Ncvcr, Nictzschc commcnts, can
a grcat artist havc startcd out so dccply involvcd in crror, or in a morc rcvolting lorm ol
his art.
+
(Rccall thc notc quotcd in thc last chaptcr that no grcat composcr was so bad
at twcntycight as Vagncr (p. +8 abovc).) 8ut thcn hc bccamc a socialist rcvolutionary
and shuddcrcd at his lormcr lilc as thc lackcy ol a corrupt socicty. His music now bccomcs
thc voicc ol thc pcoplc, his aim thc rcplaccmcnt ol opprcssivc capitalism, with its rcduc
tion ol human bcings to mcrc workcrs, with a rcal, human community, an authcntic !olk.
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::,
Tc lailurc ol thc +88 rcvolution shattcrcd his cxpcctations and lor a timc hc cntcrcd thc
Schopcnhaucrian spirit ol worlddcnial. !n Tristan, his opus metaphysicum, a brokcn man
longs lor thc mystcrics ol night and dcath. Tcn, howcvcr, a ncw optimism took hold.
Tis cxprcsscd itscll in thc miraclc ol Meistersinger, a work in which, though oldcr and
wiscr than in his rcvolutionary days, Vagncr oncc again arms lilc and sccks to discovcr
thc gcrm and rst sourcc ol thc lilc ol a truly human community to bc pcrlcctcd at somc
point in thc luturc.

!n his lull maturity, that is, Vagncr nally bccomcs his truc scll, thc
dithyrambic dramatist, thc dramatist who, by clcaning up thc Augcan stablcs ol modcrn
thcatrc, ocrs thc possibility ol a ncwordcr ol things in which human bcings can oncc morc
ourish.
:
Alonc, ol coursc, hc could not do this. 8ut Vagncr is not alonc. Fricnds (thc mcmbcrs
ol thc Vagncr socictics) camc to him this was thc causc ol Meistersingers ncw optimism
a band ol scllsacricing idcalists. Tis is thc gcrm ol Vagncrs truly human community
ol thc luturc which thc collcctivc artwork will collcct togcthcr in 8ayrcuth. All who attcnd
will bc untimcly mcn, lar rcmovcd lrom thc socallcd cultivatcd pcrsons (thc diamonds
andtiaras crowd) ol thc prcscnt agc.

Couragcous action is impossiblc without a drcam, an idcal vision.

Not that Vagncr is a

utopian, hc bclicvcs in no nal ordcr ol things. 8ut hc docs bclicvc in thc luturc, bccausc hc
bclicvcs that somc ol thc prcscnt traits ol Vcstcrn man do not bclong to thc bonc structurc
ol human naturc and as a rcsult arc capablc ol bcing changcd.

Tc vaguc lincamcnts ol
this bcttcr luturc can bc inlcrrcd lrom a propcr apprchcnsion ol our prcscnt nccd.
6
Vhat
thcn is thc nccd:
Languagc, Nictzschc obscrvcs (closcly lollowing Vagncrs Opera and Drama), is sick. 8y
bcing rcquircd, in a machinc socicty, to bccomc thc abstract, conccptual tool ol thcorctical
man, it has lost its original purposc, thc capacity to cxprcss lccling, to spcak naivcly. Rathcr
than bcing an instrumcnt ol authcntic, soultosoul communication, languagc as wc now
know it rcndcrs us inarticulatc, alicnatcd onc lrom anothcr. (Rccall Nictzschc and R ccs
ycarning to bc complctcly candid with cach anothcr.) Faust, thc man ol scicncc, thcorctical
man par excellence, who ycarns to cxpcricncc rcal lilc and lovc, pcrsonics our prcdicamcnt.
Vagncrs dithyrambic (i.c., ionysian) music, howcvcr, providcs an antidotc. Vhcn wc
swim in its cnigmatic, cry clcmcnt . . . wc no longcr posscss any standard ol |thcorctical|
mcasurcmcnt, cvcrything xcd and rigid bcgins to grow uid, a uidity which ovcrcomcs
all articial alicnation and incomprchcnsion bctwccn man and man. Tis, says Nictzschc,
touching on Rousscaus thcmc ol thc noblc savagc, rcturns us to naturc, naturc, howcvcr,
transformed into lo.e. Tus rcturncd, wc rccovcr suprapcrsonal joy, that is to say, right
lccling.
Right in othcr words ionysian lccling is not, howcvcr, mere lccling. !t sccks out
a corrcsponding ncccssary shapc in thc world. !t sccks out, that is to say, cxprcssion in a
communal structurc, a statc. As Te Birth of Tragedy thinks ol tragic drama as born out
ol, in thc words ol its subtitlc, thc spirit ol music, so Nictzschc now thinks ol an cntirc
community as thus born. Vith cxtraordinary ambition, hc suggcsts, in ccct, that Vagncrs
music ocrs us thc possibility ol a state founded on music.

Noticc howNictzschcs narrativc rcquircs thc ction that Meistersinger is thc crown and tcrminus ol
Vagncrs output. Sincc, as wc havc sccn, thc cssay rcally cxprcsscs Nietzsches idcal, this suggcsts thc
idca that Meistersinger is thc artistic cxprcssion ol thc crown and tcrminus ol Nietzsches philosophy.
::c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhat hc is doing hcrc, csscntially, is rcpcating thc univcrsal brothcrhood passagc lrom
thc bcginning ol Te Birth of Tragedy (p. +:8 abovc). Undcr thc magic ol ionysus, hc says
thcrc, all thc rigid, hostilc barricrs bctwccn man and man arc abolishcd, so that cach pcrson,
singing and dancing, lccls himscll mcrgcd with his ncighbour into a highcr community.
Tc lootballcrowd lccling, as ! callcd it. Tcrc, too, hc anticipatcd thc idca ol a statc
loundcd on music by asking us to imaginc 8ccthovcns jubilant dc to Joy translatcd
into visiblc lorm. (Noticc, incidcntally, that it is thc idca ol a statc loundcd on music that
cxplains his othcrwisc pcculiar tastc lor quasipolitical picccs ol music such as 8rahmss
Triumphlied and Vagncrs Kaisermarsch (pp. +: abovc). Had hc bccn nglish and ol a
latcr gcncration hc would havc cnthuscd about lgars Pomp and Circumstance marchcs.)
l coursc, a community or statc cannot bc loundcd on right, in othcr words com
munal, lccling alonc. Tis is whcrc thc drama, thc Apollonian sidc ol thc dithyrambic
drama, comcs into play. Tough art is, to bc surc, no instructor or cducator in dircct action,
Vagncrs works do providc a lramcwork ol action, lor thcy rcprcscnt, says Nictzschc, thc
most moral music ! know.
8
(Morality, says a mcmorablc notc lrom this pcriod, is thc
grammar ol lilc.)

His charactcrs, that is, providc an inspirational abbrcviation ol thc cnd

lcssly complcx calculus ol human action and dcsirc. Votan, Sachs, 8runhildc, lizabcth,
and Scnta arc trcmcndously clcvating rolc modcls who draw us timc altcr timc to thc tri
umph ol lovc ovcr powcr and grccd. Tc Fing cyclc, in short, is a trcmcndous systcm ol
|moral| thought, onc that is cxprcsscd, howcvcr, not through conccpts, but through myth.
8ccausc it is addrcsscd, not to thcorctical man but to his antithcsis, thc !olk, it thinks
mythologically as thc !olk has always donc. !ts morally inspirational contcnt, as onc might
put it, is sho.n rathcr than said.
+oo
nc nccd, thcn, to which thc Vagncrian musicdrama rcsponds is thc nccd lor com
munity. 8ut as in Te Birth, Nictzschc sccs it as rcsponding, too, to thc individuals nccd to
ovcrcomc sucring and dcath. Vc nccd, hc says, to bc dclivcrcd lrom thc tcrriblc anxicty
which timc and dcath cvokc and lrom thc scrious and strcsslul in lilc. To do this thc
individual nccds to bc consccratcd to |i.c., to idcntily himscll with| somcthing highcr than
himscll that is thc mcaning ol tragcdy.
+o+
Tis is part and parccl ol thc ionysian lccl
ing that mcrgcs us with our ncighbour. Vhcn wc swim in thc cnigmatic cry clcmcnt
(Tristans Liebestod) that dissolvcs cvcrything xcd and rigid wc no longcr know oursclvcs,
and so arc rclcascd lrom thc sucring and mortality that is thc pcnalty ol individuality:
lor a lcw hours, at lcast, . . . wc lancy wc havc rcturncd to lrcc naturc, to thc rcalm ol
lrccdom. From this vantagc point wc bchold, as though in immcnsc airrccctions, thc
strugglcs, victorics and dclcats ol us and our kind as somcthing sublimc.
Tc prcviously lcarlul and strcsslul now appcar morc likc strangcly isolatcd lragmcnts in
thc total cxpcricncc. vcn dcath itscll now appcars as thc suprcmc stimulus to lilc. Vhcn
wc rcturn to cvcryday lilc wc bring with us an ncw kind ol cquanimity: translormcd into
tragic mcn wc rcturn to lilc in a strangcly consolcd mood, with a ncw lccling ol sccurity.
+o:
As in Te Birth, Nictzschc appcals hcrc to sclltransccndcncc as thc kcy to thc trag
ic ccct. ionysian music raiscs us lrom an individual to a univcrsal, suprapcrsonal
vicwpoint. From this pcrspcctivc, that ol thc primal unity, strcss and pain losc thcir sting
bccausc thcy arc not our strcss and pain, dcath is no thrcat bccausc it is not .e who dic. And
indccd, sincc thcrc is no gain without pain, sincc thc dcstruction ol thc old is ncccssary to
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

:::
thc birth ol thc ncw, wc scc that lilc demands pain and dcath in ordcr to bc thc dcvcloping,
cvcrchanging phcnomcnon ol Hcraclitcan lascination that it is. From thc ionysian point
ol vicw wc .elcome thc appcarancc ol dcath in lilc.
Tus lar, !agner in Bayreuth is a rccognisablc continuation ol thc intcrprctation ol
8ayrcuth ocrcd in Te Birth. Howcvcr, in ctobcr +8, Nictzschc wrotc to Rohdc as
lollows:
My obscrvations undcr thc titlc Fichard !|agncr| in Bayreuth . . . arc almost nishcd. !t is,
howcvcr, way bclow thc standard ! dcmand ol myscll. !t has thcrclorc, lor mc, only thc
valuc ol a ncw oricntation to thc most dicult point in our cxpcricncc to datc. 8ut !m not
in complctc command ol it and scc that it is not complctcly achicvcd.
+o
Tis indicatcs, rst, that !agner in Bayreuth attcmpts to vicw 8ayrcuth lrom a radically
ncw vantagc point and, sccond, that thc attcmpt is, in Nictzschcs judgmcnt, not cntircly
succcsslul. Vhat, thcn, is thc ncw oricntation and why is it not an cntirc succcss:
My hypothcsis is that thc kcy is to bc lound in thc usc ol thc word lancy, in thc claim
that in thc ionysian statc wc lancy (. ahnen) wc havc rcturncd to lrcc naturc, to (thc
languagc cchocs Kants talk ol intclligiblc or noumcnal lrccdom) thc rcalm ol lrccdom
(p. ::o abovc). Nictzschcs . ahnen, is dcrivcd lrom Vagncrs word !ahn, which, wc know,
has, as thc most obvious ol its scvcral mcanings, dclusion and illusion. Tc suggcstion
containcd in thc usc ol thc word is that whatcvcr thc psychological bcnct ol thc ionysian
high, thc asccnt to thc highcst rungs ol scnsibility,
+o
thc cxpcricncc is actually an illusion
sincc thcrc is, in lact, no rcalm ol lrccdom, no mctaphysical domain bcyond thc cvcryday
world ol individuals. !n Te Birth of Tragedy, ol coursc, Nictzschc could ncvcr havc uscd
such a word sincc, subscribing as thc work docs to KantianSchopcnhaucrian idcalism, thc
primal unity with whom onc idcntics in ionysian cxpcricncc is absolutcly rcal. !t is,
indccd, thc only rcal bcing, it bcing thc cvcryday world that is illusory, mcrcly a drcam.
!n Te Birth, in short, it is thc e.eryday .orld of indi.iduals that is !ahn. Hcrc, howcvcr,
thc antithcsis is rcvcrscd. Although it may somctimcs sccm to thc composcr ol Tristan
that thc drcam is almost morc rcal than waking actuality, thc lact ol thc mattcr is that thc
ionysian drcam is just a drcam.
+o
Vhat this indicatcs is that a prolound shilt in Nictzschcs thinking has occurrcd bclorc,
or during, thc writing ol thc lourth Meditation. Hc has abandoncd mctaphysical idcalism
in lavour ol rcalism naturalism or, in a broad scnsc, matcrialism thc shilt to thc pos
itivc thought thc rcvicwcr in thc !estminster Fe.ie. hopcd Nictzschc would cvcntually
nd his way to (p. :o abovc). Tis is conrmcd in a lcttcr ol +88: prior to attcnding thc
8ayrcuth lcstival (and so prior to thc publication ol !agner in Bayreuth), hc says, hc had
undcrgonc a translormation and crisis (accclcratcd, surcly, by discussions with R cc) that
consistcd in thc battlc ol rcason against all mctaphysical mystication ol truth and simplic
ity, against that |socallcd| rcason which sccs in cvcrything a miraclc and absurdity.
+o6
!n
spitc ol this turn to positivism, howcvcr, hc rcmains convinccd ol thc valuc ol thc ionysian
statc and pcrsonally addictcd to thc liquid gold ol Vagncrs music. Tc ncw oricntation,
! suggcst, thcrclorc, consists in thc attcmpt to producc a ncw synthcsis, to combinc a com
mitmcnt to thc signicancc ol Vagncrs ionysian music with a ncw, unmctaphysical,
cvcn antimctaphysical, outlook, a ncw philosophical worldvicw. Tc attcmpt, in a word,
is to producc a Dionysianism .ithout metaphysics.
:::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhy did hc lccl not complctcly in command ol thc ncw synthcsis bctwccn ionysian
ism and naturalism: Vhy did hc havc thc scnsc that somcthing was not quitc right about it
without as oltcn happcns in philosophy bcing quitc ablc to put his ngcr on thc prob
lcm: Vhy, il hc has not bccn pcrsuadcd othcrwisc by K osclitz, would hc havc lclt thc work
unnishcd and unpublishcd:
Vhat worricd him was pcrhaps thc lollowing. Tc cssay suggcsts that two things arc
truc ol thc statc into which wc arc transportcd by Vagncrs music: that it is psychologically
bcnccial and that it is a dclusion. Tat, ol itscll, is no problcm, sincc dclusory statcs can
oltcn havc bcnccial cccts: bclicving in thc dclity ol oncs actually unlaithlul spousc is,
in most cascs, an cxamplc. Tc troublc, though, is that thc publication and comprchcnsion
ol Nictzschcs cssay .ould ha.e the eect of destroying the illusion. vcn morc to thc point,
thc contcnt ol thc cssay dcstroys thc illusion for Nietzsche. !l ! know, il Nictzschc knows,
that thc scnsc ! havc had ol univcrsal brothcrhood and ol my immunity to dcath and sul
lcring is nothing morc than a druginduccd hallucination, a chcap trick produccd by, as
thc Meditation indccd calls him, thc grcat sorccrcr,
+o
anything morc than a momcntary
bcnct is dcstroycd. !n a word, thcn, Nictzschc bclicvcd thc ncw synthcsis to bc a lail
urc. A gcnuinc rcconciliation bctwccn ionysianism and naturalism must bc illusionlrcc
and so rcquircs thc possibility ol an ovcrcoming ol individuality without thc drcam ol
a supranatural idcntity to which onc transccnds. Latcr on, in his maturc thought, ! shall
suggcst, Nictzschc docs achicvc a gcnuinc synthcsis bctwccn ionysianism and naturalism,
docs show how thcrc can bc ionysianism without mctaphysics. 8ut that lics wcll in thc
luturc: a grcat dcal ol watcr will nccd to ow undcr thc bridgc bclorc it arrivcs. Tc lourth
Meditation rcsts, it sccms to mc, on thc insight that thcrc ought to bc a rcconciliation. 8ut
as yct, Nictzschc is not in command ol thc insight bccausc hc is unablc to pcrlorm thc
rcconciliation.

Givcn thc implicd criticism containcd in !agner at Bayreuths narrativc ol its subjccts pro
grcssion lrom produccr ol chcap, tyrannical cccts to dithyrambic dramatist, it is no sur
prisc that Nictzschc was cxtrcmcly ncrvous about thc rcccption it would rcccivc in 8ayrcuth.
Hc madc at lcast lour attcmpts to dralt thc lcttcr to thc Vagncrs that would accompany
thcir complimcntary copics.
+o8
To Cosima hc wrotc that hc could not rcstrain himscll lrom
cxprcssing lrom alar his grcat joy in thc grcat and portcntous cvcnt about to occur. To
Vagncr hc wrotc that, altcr complcting thc work, hc lclt likc thc ridcr ol Swabian lcgcnd
who travcrscd thc Bodensee (Lakc Constancc) in wintcr but only altcr arriving on thc othcr
sidc (sincc thc icc was covcrcd with snow) rcalizcd, with tcrror, what hc had donc. Hc
addcd that only Vagncrs statcd commitmcnt to Gcrman lrccdom gavc him thc couragc
to producc thc work, thc contcnt ol which hc had carricd within him sincc his lourtccnth
ycar. And with ncrvous prcscicncc hc obscrvcs: My writing brings mc thc unplcasant con
scqucncc that cvcry timc ! publish a work somcthing in my pcrsonal rclationships is callcd
into qucstion and has to bc put right through thc cxpcnditurc ol human sympathy.
+o
(Tc
diculty, ol coursc, in lricndships bascd too strongly on sharcd commitmcnts, is that thcy
cannot accommodatc changcs ol mind.)
Vagncrs rcply, howcvcr, sccmcd rcassuring: Fricnd! Your book is tcrric! Vhcrc did
you gct such knowlcdgc ol mc:
++o
Comc soon and acclimatizc yourscll to thc impact |ol
thc music| in thc rchcarsals.
+++
And hc scnt a copy ol Nictzschcs work to King Ludwig.
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
Cosima rcplicd with lour anodync lincs, so that bctwccn thcm thc Vagncrs rcspondcd to
thc gilts with a total ol cight lincs. Tcy wcrc, ol coursc, incrcdibly busy with lastminutc
prcparations lor thc Fcstival. Still, cight lincs indicatcs that Nictzschc was no longcr thc
quasison whom Vagncr had oncc wantcd to bccomc Sicglricds guardian.
thcr rcactions to thc work, at lcast among Vagncrians, wcrc cxtrcmcly lavourablc.
Malwida von Mcyscnbug wrotc him that, along with Vagncr, hc was showing mankind
its holy goal as no othcr, not cvcn Schopcnhaucr, has donc and askcd to bc grantcd thc
right to look on him with thc happy pridc as only a mothcr can havc towards hcr bclovcd
son.
++:
Romundt wrotc that hc rcad thc work at a sitting, unablc to put it down, and
that it opcncd up a wondcrlul ncw world and awakcs thc conviction that its hour must
comc.
++
Rohdc wrotc that hc was rcading thc work to his anc cc, adding, patcrnalisti
cally, shc is still vcry young and ! nccd and want to cducatc hcr.
++
Te Iirst Bayreuth Iestival
T
hc programmc lor thc rst 8ayrcuth Fcstival was as lollows:
: July August (+86) third cyclc ol rchcarsals.
6 August: drcss rchcarsal lor das Fheingold.
August: drcss rchcarsal lor die !alk ure.
8 August: drcss rchcarsal lor Siegfried.
August: drcss rchcarsal lor G otterd ammerung.
+, +, +6, + August: rst pcrlormancc ol thc Fing cyclc (i.c., thc abovc lour opcras).
:o: August: sccond pcrlormancc ol Fing cyclc.
:o August: third pcrlormancc ol Fing cyclc.
!n spitc ol ill hcalth, Nictzschc arrivcd on July :: and rcmaincd in 8ayrcuth until August
:, apart lrom an intcrludc in Klingcnbrunn lrom August to +:. douard Schur c (Frcnch
music critic, writcr on thc occult, Vagncrian, Nictzschcadmircr, and, latcr, anthroposo
phist and lricnd ol Rudoll Stcincr) has lclt a dcscription ol Nictzschc in 8ayrcuth:
! was imprcsscd by both his intcllcctualspiritual supcriority and his strangc physiognomy.
Tc high lorchcad, thc short brushcut hair and thc promincnt, Slavic chcckboncs. Tc
thickly drooping moustachc as wcll as thc sharp lacial lcaturcs sccmcd to lcnd him thc
appcarancc ol a cavalry occr, had it not bccn lor an immcdiatcly apparcnt cxprcssion ol
simultancous shyncss and supcrciliousncss. Tc musical voicc, thc slow manncr ol spcak
ing pointcd to his artists naturc. His cautious, thoughtlul walk was that ol a philosophcr.
Nothing was morc mislcading than thc apparcnt rcposc ol his lacial cxprcssion. Tc xcd,
immobilc cycs bctraycd painlul thoughtproccsscs. Tc cycs wcrc simultancously thosc ol a
sharp obscrvcr and a lantastical visionary . . . !n passionatc momcnts his cycs would bccomc
moist, lost in drcamincss, only to bccomc aggrcssivc oncc again. Nictzschcs wholc prcscncc
rcvcalcd his distancc, thc scarccly conccalcd scorn that lrcqucntly marks thc spiritual aris
tocrat. uring thc drcssrchcarsal and thc thrcc rst pcrlormancc ol thc tctralogy |i.c., thc
Fing cyclc| Nictzschc appcarcd sad and opprcsscd . . . !n thc prcscncc ol Richard Vagncr hc
::,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
was shy,

inhibitcd, and almost always silcnt. Vhcn wc lclt thc pcrlormanccs togcthcr hc
uttcrcd not onc word ol criticism, hc showcd much morc thc rcsigncd sadncss ol a somconc
who had lost somcthing.
++
Schur c was right. Nictzschc was mclancholic, inhabiting, as ! suggcstcd, H oldcrlins stancc
ol holy mourning (p. :o abovc). Vhcn pcoplc askcd him about !agner in Bayreuth hc
rcplics that hc did not want to discuss that old stu, and whcn it was pointcd out it had
only appcarcd vc wccks prcviously hc rcplicd that it sccmcd morc likc vc ycars.
++6
n
July : hc walkcd out ol a rchcarsal ol G otterdammerung saying hc could not bcar it
++

could not bcar thc liquid gold hc had imagincd in Stcinabad! Tough hc managcd to
cnjoy it bcttcr a lcw days latcr,
++8
hc still wrotc to lizabcth on thc lollowing day that
hc almost rcgrcts coming to 8ayrcuth. (Tc Gcrman hc uscs lor rcgrct is Bereut, a pun
on Bayreuth.)
++
vcntually, on August , hc could bcar 8ayrcuth no morc, attcmptcd to
givc away his tickcts, and lclt lor thc mountain villagc ol Klingcnbrunn (tinkling loun
tain), ncar Spicgclau, a sixhour train journcy away, in thc 8ohcmian Forcst, on thc Czcch
bordcr.
Vhy was Nictzschc so dcprcsscd: Vhy did hc lccl hc had lost somcthing:
To start with, thc wcathcr was insancly hot and humid, somcthing hc always hatcd. And
hc hatcd thc lowccilingcd apartmcnt hc had rcntcd in thc ccntrc ol thc ovcrcrowdcd town.
Tcsc problcms, howcvcr, hc rcmcdicd by spcnding his days with Malwida von Mcyscnbug,
whosc rcntcd housc had a lovcly cool gardcn.
+:o
Hc was, ol coursc, in lcss than idcal hcalth.
8ut hc himscll latcr admittcd that his ight lrom 8ayrcuth was causcd by not a physical but
by a spiritual crisis which hc disguiscd undcr thc politc ction ol ill hcalth.
+:+
And as wc
shall shortly scc, hc madc a rcmarkably quick rccovcry lrom his supposcd ailmcnts. Vhat,
thcn, was thc charactcr ol this crisis:
Curt Paul Janz suggcsts that with hall thc nobility ol uropc gathcrcd in 8ayrcuth, no
onc, cspccially not Vagncr, paid any attcntion to an obscurc prolcssor, with thc rcsult that
Nictzschc sucrcd a t ol piquc. 8ut this is most implausiblc. Vagncr did not ignorc him,
on thc contrary, it was Nictzschc who rcluscd all social invitations, including thosc lrom
thc Vagncrs.
+::
lizabcth rcports that Vagncr ncvcr lost an opportunity ol honouring
and distinguishing Nictzschc but that Fritz cscapcd thcsc attcring attcntions whcncvcr
hc could lor hc dislikcd Vagncrs boistcrous praisc.
+:
Nictzschc himscll latcr wrotc that
thc bittcr disappointmcnt ol 8ayrcuth was causcd by thc cnormous gap bctwccn thc idcal
hc carricd with him to 8ayrcuth and thc rcality hc cxpcricnccd.
+:
Conlrontcd with rcality,
thc idcal (as hc had long suspcctcd it would, but hopcd against hopc to bc provcd wrong)
turncd out to bc, as hc latcr put it, a fata morgana, a miragc.
+:
How so:
To start with, thc audicncc was (as it has rcmaincd) quitc othcr than thc band ol idcal
istic, untimcly mcn ol talcnt !agner in Bayreuth had cnvisagcd. Rathcr than thcsc, it was
dominatcd by high socicty, a constant proccssion ol dukcs and princcs. Rcgular gucsts at
Vahnlricd, lor cxamplc, includcd thc 8aroncss von Schlcinitz, thc 8aronncss von Mcy
cndorl, thc Countcss Uscdom, and thc wilc ol thc !talian cabinct ministcr, Minghctti,
who likcd thc dcmocratic lccling ol mingling with thc odd paintcr or doctor in thc

Moralists arc always shy bccausc thcy know that as soon as pcoplc noticc thcir inclinations thcy
will bc takcn lor traitors and spics (AM :).
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
Vagncr houschold and in a ncarby alchousc.
+:6
Ludwig ol 8avaria was prcscnt, ol coursc,
though only lor thc drcss rchcarsals, which, in thc casc ol Fheingold, hc insistcd on scc
ing alonc.

For thc rst pcrlormancc propcr ol thc Fing, thc Gcrman mpcror arrivcd
and cmbraccd Vagncr (cvcn though hc actually dislikcd his music). Tc mpcror ol 8razil
attcndcd, as did thc Grand ukc ol Vcimar, who was grcctcd with grcat pomp at thc rail
way station by Franz Liszt. !n short, thc audicncc was ncithcr Vagncrs pcoplc nor Nictz
schcs sclcct group ol avantgardc artists, social rclormcrs, and dcdicatcd lricnds. Vith a
lcw cxccptions, rathcr, it was, as Nictzschc latcr put it, thc loang ri ra ol uropc.
As lizabcth obscrvcs, what was supposcd to initiatc a radical rclormation ol thc thcatrc
turncd out to bc just anothcr lcstival ol grand opcra.
+:
8ut, ol coursc, thc cost ol thc
wholc cxcrcisc cnsurcd, lrom thc start, that this would bc so. Vhcn Nictzschc tricd to gct
rid ol cight tickcts (i.c., onc Fing cyclc lor two pcoplc), hc ocrcd thcm to his lricnds
thc 8aumgartncrs at +oo talcrs. 8ut cvcn that, prcsumably a discountcd ratc, would bc
somcthing likc 6,ooo U.S. dollars in todays moncy, a pricc only thc social clitc could aord.
Tinking about thc wholc cntcrprisc hardhcadcdly, onc could casily havc prcdictcd lrom
thc start, on nancial grounds alonc, that thc ncw Rclormation was doomcd to lailurc.
Tc audicncc, thcn, lcll dramatically short ol Nictzschcs idcalistic vision. Vhat, howcvcr,
ol thc artist: Vhat ol Vagncr himscll:
nc diculty many lound during thc Fcstival was thc prcscrvation ol a suitablc solcm
nity on what was supposcd to bc a quasircligious occasion. Tc problcm consistcd in thc
many laults ol staging to this day a constant hazard lor nonminimalist productions. !n
onc pcrlormancc, Fheingolds Rhinc maidcns startcd whirling round and round as il sit
ting on horscs on a lun lair mcrrygoround, whilc Siegfried s tcrrilying dragon, Falncr,
appcarcd with a hcad and body but no ncck. Tc ncck, it appcars, had bccn scnt by thc
dragons London manulacturcrs not to Bayreuth but rathcr to Beirut.
+:8
Tis, howcvcr, is
not what disappointcd Nictzschc. Rathcr, it was Vagncrs highly naturalistic conccption
ol thc staging. ! uttcrly disagrcc with thosc who wcrc dissatiscd with thc dccorations,
thc sccncry and thc mcchanical contrivanccs at 8ayrcuth, hc latcr wrotc. Tc problcm,
rathcr, was that lar too much industry and ingcnuity wcrc applicd to thc task ol chaining
thc imagination to mattcrs which . . . bclicd thcir cpic origin,
+:
a modc ol production, in
othcr words, which killcd thc mythic potcntial ol thc works. (Nictzschc would likcly havc
approvcd ol thc minimalist productions dcsigncd by Vagncrs grandson, Vicland, during
thc +os and 6os.)
!n Te Birth of Tragedy and in thc sccond Untimely Meditation,
+o
as wc saw, Nictzschc
insists that gcnuincly mythic gurcs nccd to bc, likc thc maskcd gurcs ol Grcck tragcdy,
abstract rathcr than naturalistically dctailcd. An abstract, 8rcchtian production rcquircs
cach individual to rccrcatc gurcs and thcir cnvironmcnt in tcrms ol his own imagination
and so allows divcrscly constitutcd individuals to bc collcctcd togcthcr in a sharcd agrcc
mcnt. !t lollows that minimalist productions arc what is rcquircd, not thc naturalism ol
spccial cccts. (As somconc wiscly rcmarkcd, spccial cccts arc thc dcath ol lm.) 8ut

Vhcn thc sound provcd too hollow without an audicncc, lizabcth rcports, a bunch ol ordinary
townspcoplc wcrc gathcrcd togcthcr lor !alk ure quitc thc wrong audicncc, a motlcy bunch ol
philistincs, shc complains (YN p. 8), dcmonstrating thcrcby not mcrcly hcr lowcrmiddlcclass
snobbcry but also hcr ignorancc ol Vagncrs conccption ol thc Fcstival as bcing ol and lor thc
pcoplc.
::&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vagncr clcarly rcvcllcd in spccial cccts. !n !agner in Bayreuth Nictzschc had argucd lor
8ayrcuth on thc grounds that it was csscntial lor Vagncr to lcavc bchind, by cxamplc, a
tradition ol thc propcr pcrlormancc ol his works. 8ut hcrc hc was, Spiclbcrgizing, as onc
might say, his own works. Tis shows how lar hc had dcpartcd lrom thc rcbirth ol Grcck
tragcdy idcal, how lar thc produccr ol chcap cccts his supposcdly lowcr scll had, in
lact, thc uppcr hand. H oldcrlins qucstions, Vhcrc is your clos, whcrc your lympia,
whcrc your highcst lcstival: quotcd in his birthday lcttcr to Vagncr (p. :o abovc), rcccivc
thc sad answcr: nowhcrc.
++
Tc samc lcttcr, howcvcr, mcntions anothcr causc ol his dcspair at 8ayrcuth: thc positivist
turn against thc mctaphysical mystication ol all truth and simplicity (p. ::+ abovc) that
had occurrcd prior to his arrival, thc turn against SchopcnhaucrianVagncrian mctaphysics
and towards naturalism. !n !agner in Bayreuth hc had attcmptcd a synthcsis bctwccn Vag
ncrs ionysian music and his ncw naturalism. 8ut this had provcd as unsatislactory as had
8ayrcuth. !t was, thcn, timc to givc up trying to incorporatc Vagncr into his ncw outlook.
!t was timc lor thc warrior, Nictzschc, to takc sidcs lor rcason and against Vagncr. And
so hc lclt lor Klingcnbrunn to gathcr his strcngth.
Return to Bayreuth and a Ilirtation

uring his wcck in Klingcnbrunn, altcr a day in bcd to rccovcr lrom thc tortuous jour
ncy, Nictzschc wrotc, with astonishing spccd, a third ol what would bccomc thc dcn
ing work ol his positivist pcriod, Human, ll-Too-Human. Tc provisional titlc was Te
Ploughshare a ploughsharc bcing that which ploughs up thc old ground in prcparation
lor a ncw planting. !n this work thc mctaphysics ol thc 8ayrcuth horizon is nally and
lully rcplaccd by its oppositc: thc ncw, matcrialistic, scicntic, rcalistic, antimctaphysical,
antiSchopcnhaucrian horizon that brought Nictzschc into linc with thc mainstrcam ol
latcninctccnthccntury cducatcd thought. !t was, thcrclorc, during, though scqucstcrcd
lrom, thc 8ayrcuth Fcstival, that thc ncw Nictzschc cmcrgcd into light ol day. Yct at thc
cnd ol thc wcck hc wcnt back to 8ayrcuth. Tough hc had cnjoycd thc purc air ol thc
mountains, hc wcnt down, oncc again (as would his altcr cgo, Zarathustra), into thc lumcs
ol thc vallcy. Tc puzzlc is why hc should havc donc so.
nc rcason is that, as lizabcth obscrvcs, hc nccdcd thc music as an addict nccds a drug.
Tc silkworm, shc quotcs him as saying, drags its old prison along with it lor somc timc
altcr it rst cmcrgcs lrom thc chrysalis.
+:
And though thc ostcnsiblc subjcct is 8cctho
vcn, hc rclcrs to thc samc thing in a scction ol Human, ll-Too-Human (its bcauty and
signicancc allow it to bc rcquotcd) cntitlcd Art makcs thc thinkcrs hcart hcavy:
Howstrong thc mctaphysical nccd is, and howhard naturc makcs it to bid it a nal larcwcll,
can bc sccn lrom thc lact that cvcn whcn thc lrcc spirit has divcstcd himscll ol cvcrything
mctaphysical, thc highcst cccts ol art can casily sct thc mctaphysical strings, which havc
long bccn silcnt or indccd snappcd apart, vibrating in sympathy, so it can happcn, lor
cxamplc, that a passagc in 8ccthovcns Ninth Symphony |in thc last movcmcnt| will makc
him lccl hc is hovcring abovc thc carth in a domc ol stars with thc drcam ol immortality in
his hcart: all thc stars sccm to glittcr around him and thc carth sccms to sink lurthcr and
lurthcr away. !l hc bccomcs awarc ol bcing in this condition hc lccls a prolound stab in thc
uf !iedersehen Bayreuth

::
hcart and sighs lor thc man |Vagncr| who will lcad him back to his lost lovc, whcthcr shc
bc callcd rcligion or mctaphysics.
+
Tough in Human, ll-Too-Human Nictzschc calls upon thc thinkcrs intcllcctual probity
to rcsist thc sircn call ol his lost lovc, in Klingcnbrunn, il lizabcth is corrcct, hc suc
cumbcd. Hc succumbcd, that is to say, to his continuing nccd lor ionysian transport.
motionally, thcn, Nictzschc was still attachcd to Vagncrs music. And cmotionally hc
was still attachcd to thc pcrson and thc projcct that had bccn thc mcaning ol his lilc lor
ovcr a dccadc: ! was sick, hc rccalls latcr, bccausc my task had bccn withdrawn lrom
mc.
+
!n rctrospcct, Nictzschc simplicd thc scqucncc ol cvcnts in 8ayrcuth to thc point
ol lalsication. Tc way hc tclls it in Ecce Homo, hc lclt 8ayrcuth lor Klingcnbrunn, his
mind clcarly madc up, and ncvcr rcturncd.
+
!n rcality, howcvcr, hc was in a tcrriblc statc
ol conlusion, lost in a tcrriblc conict bctwccn hcart and hcad. As a thinkcr hc had dccidcd
that thc 8ayrcuth projcct was a worthlcss lailurc. 8ut as a man, virtually all ol whosc lricnds
he had convcrtcd to Vagncrianism, hc rcmaincd cmotionally bound to thc projcct. Vhcn
hc rst arrivcd in 8ayrcuth hc wrotc anxiously to his sistcr, you arc not to tcll anyonc, but
only hall thc tickcts arc sold lor thc sccond cyclc and lor thc third scarccly a third.
+6
And
lizabcth rccalls that whcn hc nally lclt hc sighcd, h Lisbcth, so that was 8ayrcuth!
with tcars in his cycs.
+
Tus, thc human rcality was that Nictzschc was impossibly conictcd. Hc kncwVagncrs
art had no rcal cultural importancc, that all his carly hopcs lor it wcrc a fata morgana. Yct
at thc samc timc hc had dcspcratcly wantcd it to succccd.

8ack in 8ayrcuth lovc was in thc air. mboldcncd, pcrhaps, by thc croticism implicit in
thc convcntionabolishing ionysianism ol Vagncrs music, Rohdc, in spitc ol his rcccnt
bctrothal,
+8
paid complimcnts to cvcry woman hc mct. (Tc prcvious Scptcmbcr hc had
sccn Tristan in Munich which, hc wrotc, shook mc in a vcry pcrsonal way . . . ! lclt thc
pulscbcat ol thc ycarning passion absolutcly dircctly.)
+
And von Gcrsdor, lor his part,
lcll madly in lovc with an !talian countcss. Nictzschc, having pcrhaps dccidcd that sincc
thc occasion was not thc momcntous, sacrcd cvcnt hc had hopcd lor hc might as wcll
cnjoy himscll, lcll lor a bcautilul blond callcd Louisc tt who was also a giltcd singcr
and passionatc Vagncrian. A nativc ol Alsacc, shc had marricd and movcd to Paris.
Louisc lclt 8ayrcuth bclorc Nictzschc. (Tc claim in Ecce Homo that hc lclt rst dcspitc
thc attcmpts ol a charming Parisicnnc to dctain him
+o
is purc ction.) Altcr shc had
gonc Nictzschc wrotc hcr that it was dark around mc whcn you lclt 8ayrcuth, it was as
il somconc had takcn away thc light, and wcnt on to say that ! think ol you with such
brothcrly warmth that ! will lovc your husband bccausc hc is your husband.
++
Louiscs
rcply cxcccdcd thc bounds ol propricty:
How good it is that a truc, hcalthy lricndship can cxist bctwccn us so that wc can think ol
cach othcr lrom thc hcart without our conscicnccs lorbidding it . . . ! cant howcvcr think
ol your cycs: ! still lccl your dcar, dccp look on mc as it was back thcn . . . vcrything that
has happcncd bctwccn us must bc kcpt sccrct.
+:
8y carly Scptcmbcr propricty is trying to asscrt itscll in thc corrcspondcncc Louisc
lcts him know shc is a Christian and asks him il hc bclicvcs in thc immortality ol thc
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
soul.
+
(Tc answcr is that hc docs not sincc a notcbook cntry ol thc prcvious ycar says
that no one in thcir scnscs docs so any morc.)
+
8ut at thc cnd ol Scptcmbcr Nictzschc
still has Louisc on his mind, writing hcr that thc ncw lricndship was a littlc dangcrous,
likc ncw winc.
+
Tcrc is gcnuinc croticism in thc lallout lrom this, as it wcrc, shipboard
romancc a Brief Encounter kind ol croticism whcrc dcccncy mcans that lovc ncvcr rcally
has a chancc.
13
Sorrento
N
iv:zscnv ~vvivvb back in 8ascl lrom8ayrcuth on August :, +86, and contin
ucd working on thc notcs that would cvcntually bccomc Human, ll-Too-Human.
Sincc lizabcth, altcr a ycar as his housckccpcr, had gonc back to Naumburg,
hc rcturncd to his old, bachclor digs in 8aumanns Cavc. vcrbcck was in rcsdcn with
his ncw wilc, !da, and so Nictzschcs lavouritc studcnt, Adoll 8aumgartncr, took ovcr thc
rooms hc had vacatcd. And R cc took his placc in lunchtimc convcrsations.
!n 8ayrcuth, Malwida von Mcyscnbug had rcncwcd hcr suggcstion that, lor his hcalth,
Nictzschc should join hcr in !taly. Nictzschc had applicd lor sabbatical lcavc thc prcvious
May, strcssing (as onc docs) thc acadcmic charactcr ol his proposcd visit to thc South
+
to
thc homcland ol classical civilisation. Tc lcavc approvcd, hc acccptcd Malwidas invitation
and arrangcd to bc accompanicd by a lavouritc lormcr pupil, thc dclicatc Albcrt 8rcnncr
(who had, in lact, barcly cightccn months to livc). n Scptcmbcr :6 hc askcd Malwida il
hc could bring R cc, as wcll, sincc hc took grcat dclight in his uttcrly clcar hcad as wcll as
his considcratc, truly lricndly soul.
:
Shortly bclorc lcaving lor Sorrcnto hc rcccivcd a tclcgram lrom Vagncr, who, sucring
lrom thc strcsscs ol thc Fcstival, had also dccidcd on !taly as a placc ol rccupcration. !t must
havc bccn dicult lor Nictzschc not to nd it insulting:
Plcasc scnd two pairs ol silk vcsts and undcrpants madc in 8ascl on Vcdncsday to 8ologna
Hotcl !taly. Until thcn \cnicc Hotcl uropa. Richard Vagncr.

Tis was cithcr cmotionally dcnsc or clsc a crudc attcmpt to rcasscrt thc old Mastcrscrvant
rclationship prcciscly what Nictzschc had lound it impcrativc to cscapc. Yct, cvcr anxious
to prcvcnt his ncwly critical stancc to Vagncr dcvcloping into an ovcrt pcrsonal brcach,
Nictzschc rcplicd that thc task dclightcd him sincc it rcmindcd him ol thc old Tribschcn
days. Hc rcports in thc samc lcttcr that hc spcnds most ol his timc in a darkcncd room
undcrgoing an atropinc (dcadly nightshadc) trcatmcnt lor his cycs (prcscribcd by his 8ascl
ophthalmologist, r. Schicss) and that hc plans to bccomc hcalthy in !taly or clsc dic. For

::,
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
good mcasurc hc cnds his lcttcr by pandcring to Vagncrs antiScmitism: plcasc grcct my
noblcst lricnd your rcvcrcd wilc, to usc onc ol thc most impcrmissiblc Gcrmanisms ol
thc Jcw, 8crnays.

Going South

n ctobcr + Nictzschc sct o to pick up R cc lrom Montrcux, whcrc hc had bccn

visiting his aucnt mothcr in hcr holiday rcsort. From thcrc thcy wcnt to ncarby 8cx,
southcast ol Lakc Gcncva. Altcr two dclightlul autumn wccks amidst thc goldcn lcavcs ol
this wincgrowing rcgion, a timc R cc dcscribcd as thc honcymoon ol our lricndship, thcy
continucd on to Gcncva to pick up 8rcnncr. Fromthcrc thcy took thc cvcning train through
thc ncw Mont Ccrnis tunncl to Turin and thcncc to Gcnoa.
!n thc rstclass compartmcnt (onc supposcs R cc and 8rcnncr wcrc aslccp) Nictzschc
struck up a convcrsation ovcr blowing up hcr aircushion with a rcmarkablc young
woman, !sabclla von Prahlcn (latcr 8aroncss von UngcrnStcrnbcrg), and hcr slightly oldcr
companion, 8aroncss Claudinc von 8rcvcrn. Tcy talkcd irtatiously through thc night
a travcllcrs romancc cnjoying what !sabclla rccalls as an orgy ol thoughts. Nictzschc
poscd thc suggcstivc qucstion Arc you a lrcc spirit too: to which !sabclla rcplicd, cqually
suggcstivcly, that shc would likc to bc.

From Gcnoa, Nictzschc and company boardcd

thc stcamcr lor thc thrccday trip down !talys wcstcrn coast to Naplcs. n a sightsccing
stopovcr in Pisa !sabclla and Nictzschc caught up with cach othcr again, whcrc, shc rccalls,
thcy agrccd that cgoism was thc highcst lorm ol culturc rcncd cgoism, howcvcr, not
crudc scllindulgcncc. Shc also rccalls that R cc appcarcd jcalous ol thc timc Nictzschc spcnt
with hcr: hc took mc asidc and wcnt on and on about his displcasurc ovcr thc lact that !,
in spitc ol his corts to thc contrary, had got Nictzschc dangcrously cxcitcd, whcn what hc
nccdcd was grcat quictncss and solitudc on account ol a scrious ncrvous condition.
6
(nc
thinks, hcrc, ol thc suggcstion that R cc was givcn to homoscxual inclinations.)
!n Naplcs thcy wcrc collcctcd by Malwida von Mcyscnbug and thc ncxt day, ctobcr
:, thcy arrivcd in Sorrcnto to takc up rcsidcncc in a modcst pcnsion, thc \illa Rubinacci
(now unrccognisably translormcd into thc Hotcl dcn), o thc \ia Corrcalc, whcrc shc
had rcntcd thc sccond and third oors. Tc Vagncrs had arrivcd in Sorrcnto bclorc thcm
and wcrc rccovcring lrom thc Fcstival, in typically Vagncrian stylc, in thc bcst hotcl in
town: sct amid vc acrcs ol citrus grovcs, manicurcd lawns, palmlincd avcnucs, and cxotic
owcrbcds, thc Grand Hotcl xcclsior \ittoria, atop a cli with a shccr twohundrcd
loot drop into thc sca, commands a panoramic vicw ol thc cntirc Gull ol Naplcs towards
\csuvius in thc distancc. Sincc thc pcnsion was lcss than vc minutcs walk lrom thc hotcl,
thcy callcd on thc Vagncrs as soon as thcy arrivcd.
Malwida von Meysenbug
M
alwida, twcntycight ycars oldcr than Nictzschc, was a rcmarkablc woman who,
though hc must havc tricd hcr paticncc many timcs, rcmaincd laithlul to him cvcn
whcn, in thc proccss ol going mad, hc abuscd hcr lcarlully. Shc also rcmaincd truc, hcr
wholc lilc, both to Vagncr, to whosc inncr circlc shc bclongcd, and to Schopcnhaucr in
Sorrento

::
othcr words, to thc worldvicw that Nictzschc and R cc, in Sorrcnto, sct out to abolish. !n
spitc ol this, as wcll as apprcciating hcr substitutc mothcring, Nictzschc had grcat rcspcct lor
hcr charactcr, rcading and rcrcading hcr autobiography, Memoirs of a Female Idealist,

and
rccommcnding it cnthusiastically to his lricnds. Shc had considcrablc inucncc on him
his lamous rcmark that without music lilc would bc an crror sccms to dcrivc lrom hcr
rcmark, apropos Vagncr, that without music lilc would bc a dcsolation.
8
Tcir lricndship
was aidcd, ! think, by ccrtain similaritics in thcir naturcs and lilchistorics, thc most cvi
dcnt bcing thcir sharcd lovc ol thc South, thc South as a physical placc but also as a spiritual
vision, thc vision ol, among othcrs, H oldcrlin and Claudc Lorrainc.
As shc rccounts in hcr Memoirs,

Malwida was born into a lamily ol minor north Gcrman

nobility. As a child, shc was, likc Nictzschc, ultrapious. Shc also lost a small brothcr. Likc
him shc abandoncd Christian mctaphysics during adolcsccncc, along with Christian asccti
cism: thc scnscs, shc wrotc, arc thc instrumcnts not thc cncmics, ol thc spirit. Unlikc
Nictzschc howcvcr, shc prcscrvcd an uncompromising, that is to say an idcalists, com
mitmcnt to Christian i.c., Schopcnhaucrian cthics: compassion shc wrotc, is thc truc
csscncc ol thc cthical lilc. To bc good is my idcal, shc continucd, so that cvcntually com
passion vanquishcd thc last traccs ol sclshncss in mc. Part ol what Nictzschc admircd in
hcr was thc absolutc purity ol hcr commitmcnt to hcr idcal.
+o
Tough Malwida had rcjcctcd thc Christian God, shc rctaincd a Spinozalikc, panthc
istic rcligiosity: awc bclorc thc mystcry. God, shc rccords, bccamc no longcr individual
to mc but rathcr llcd thc univcrsc, now at onc with thc strict laws govcrning thc world.
Likc Nictzschc, Malwida rcjcctcd pcrsonal immortality. Tc dcmand lor it shc rcgardcd as
a pcrsonal sclshncss . . . |an| arrogancc ol thc cgo. !mmortality, shc concludcd, can only
consist in a transccndcncc ol pcrsonality: only thc spirit lrccd ol all individuality is immor
tal.
++
And shc rccords hcr own cxpcricncc ol such lrccdom, ol cxpcricncing hcr conscious
ncss ol unity with all that is.
+:
Tough, in thc Sorrcnto pcriod, Nictzschc would not havc
countcnanccd this account ol immortality as mystical absorption into a panthcistic All, by
thc timc ol Zarathustra it bccamc, as wc shall scc, a ccntral idca a lact that may bc partially
attributablc to Malwidas dclaycd inucncc.
Malwidas autobiography is a story ol pcrsonal libcration, ol a lrcc spirit trying to rcalisc
hcr lrccdom to bccomc who shc was. A hcro ol thc carly lcminist movcmcnt thc
Memoirs bccamc compulsory rcading lor thc ncxt gcncration ol cmancipationists shc
brokc with hcr ultraconscrvativc lamily ovcr hcr support lor thc +88 workcrs upris
ing. Shc bccamc, that is, a radical dcmocrat and socialist, which is what attractcd hcr to
thc carly Vagncr. (Tcy quarrcllcd ovcr his abandonmcnt ol socialism.) Tc locus ol hcr
lrccspiritcdncss was lcmalc cmancipation workcrs and womcns rights wcrc, lor hcr,
thc samc causc. mancipation, shc saw, dcmandcd nancial indcpcndcncc, which in turn
dcmandcd cducation. Accordingly, shc bccamc involvcd in sctting up an cmbryonic uni
vcrsity lor womcn in Hamburg bclorc bcing lorccd, as a political rcvolutionary, to cc to
London. Hcrc shc bccamc a closc lricnd and govcrncss to thc childrcn ol thc cxilcd Rus
sian anarchistsocialist Alcxandcr Hcrzcn, whosc daughtcr, lga, shc cvcntually adoptcd as
hcr own. (!t was lgas marriagc to Gabricl Monod lor whom Nictzschc wrotc thc Mon
odic ` a dcux (p. +66 abovc). Malwida clcarly had a grcat nccd to mothcr pcoplc not just
Nictzschc but, it somctimcs sccms, cvcry young lcminist in uropc. Altcr Nictzschcs col
lapsc shc adoptcd a similarly mothcrly rclationship with thc luturc Nobcl laurcatc Romain
Rolland.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Te Villa Rubinacci
T
hc apartmcnt in thc \illa Rubinacci (that Malwida had rcntcd lrom thc Attanasio
lamily) had two oors, and was to bc Nictzschcs homc lor thc six months lrom cto
bcr :, +86 until May , +8. Tc lcss luxurious uppcr oor was occupicd by thc scll
sacricing Malwida and hcr loyal and ccicnt houscmaidcook Trina (who taught Nictz
schc to cook risotto). Tc lowcr oor consistcd ol a largc dining room and living room lor
communal gathcrings, as wcll as bcdrooms lor, as Vagncr callcd thcm, thc thrcc boys. Tc
villa occupicd an clcvatcd sitc surroundcd by grovcs ol orangcs and lcmons that wcrc (and
still arc) uscd to makc thc dclicious limoncello liqucur. Tcsc wcrc intcrspcrscd with olivc
grovcs and vincyards, intcnsivc cultivation bcing possiblc in thc rich volcanic soil providcd
by \csuvius. Nictzschc lovcd to takc long, thoughtlul walks in thc shadc ol thc lcmon trccs.
Tcrc was a particular trcc, hc told Malwida, in whosc shadc ncw thoughts wcrc guarantccd
to comc to him. Tc villa was backcd by pinccovcrcd hills pincs which listcn, dccpcning
lurthcr . . . thc southcrn stillncss and thc midday quict
+
bcyond which lay thc bcautilul
Gull ol Sorrcnto. From thc lront balconics, ovcrlooking thc Gull ol Naplcs, wcrc vicws to
Capri in thc wcst and \csuvius in thc northcast, activc as Nictzschc arrivcd in Sorrcnto.
Somc ol thcsc land and scascapcs rcappcar in Zarathustra.
Tc day ol Malwidas small colony (as shc dcscribcd it) bcgan whcn cvcryonc rosc at 6.o
and wcnt at Nictzschcs insistcncc lor a brisk walk. nc can do things in a barracks,
8rcnncr wrotc homc, that would bc unbcarablc il onc wcrc alonc. (Sincc hc was an insom
niac, Nictzschcs day oltcn bcgan much carlicr hc kcpt a slatc tablct at his bcdsidc to
rccord thoughts that camc to him during thc night.) 8rcaklast was takcn communally at
.o. From .oo until +o.oo Nictzschc would dictatc to 8rcnncr his cycsight was so bad
at this timc that his normally voluminous lcttcroutput was rcduccd to a lcw postcards.
Altcr a communal lunch, thcrc would bc morc walks and cxcursions in thc surrounding
arca. Somctimcs thcy wound thcir way up thc hills bchind thc housc to larmhouscs whcrc,
Malwida rccollccts, comcly girls danccd thc tarantclla. Somctimcs thcy rodc on donkcys,
occasions on which 8rcnncrs poor riding and long lcgs scraping thc ground causcd gcn
cral mcrrimcnt.
+
Somctimcs thcrc would bc longcr cxcursions: thrcchour walks ovcr thc
hills to thc Gull ol Sorrcnto or cxcursions to Pompcii (inocnsivc vulgarity, Nictzschc
calls it in Te Gay Science, rclcrring to its Roman inhabitants rathcr than modcrn visi
tors).
+
r thcy would takc a boat to Capri or !schia. Altcr dinncr, thc cvcning would bc
dcvotcd to discussing thc colonists various projccts or to rcadings lrom, inter alia, \oltairc,
Montaignc, idcrot, 8urckhardt, Rankc, Tucydidcs, Hcrodotus, Caldcron, Ccrvantcs,
Michclct, Turgcncv, Rcnan, thc 8iblc, La Rochcloucauld, Stcndhal, Platos La.s or lrom
Adoll 8aumgartncrs notcs takcn lrom8urckhardts lccturcs on thc Grccks, on which Nict
zschc, as thc rcsidcnt classicist, would thcn givc a commcntary. (Tc murdcrcr ol cvcnings
such as this, tclcvision has a lot to answcr lor.) n Christmas vc thc communal sitting
roomwas translormcd into a gardcn with lightcd orangc trccs (in pots, prcsumably), pilcs ol
roscs and camcllias, and thc cciling hung with Chincsc lantcrns. As prcscnts, R cc rcccivcd
a mirror a rclcrcncc to his cmphasis on vanity as a lactor in human motivation 8rcnncr
a silk umbrclla, and Nictzschc a Sorrcntinc housccap, which hc mistook lor a Turkish lcz.
Nictzschc was working on thc matcrial that would bccomc Human ll-Too-Human by
thc timc hc arrivcd it had mutatcd lrom bcing Te Ploughshare to bcing planncd as a lth
Sorrento

:
Untimely Meditation undcr that ncw titlc and R cc was working on his Origin of the Moral
Sentiments, which would appcar thc lollowing ycar. !n Nictzschcs prcscntation copy hc
inscribcd a dcdication calling himscll thc works lathcr and Nictzschc its mothcr. Nictzschc
rccommcndcd thc manuscript to his own publishcr, Schmcitzncr, saying that it cmploycd
so ncw and thoroughly rigorous a mcthod, that it will probably rcprcscnt a turning point in
thc history ol moral philosophy.
+6
Allrcd 8rcnncr was working on a novclla, Te Flaming
Heart, and Malwida on hcr novcl Phaedra, as wcll as a collcction ol cssays, Mood-Pictures
from the Legacy of an Old !oman.
Givcn thcir dicrcnt outlooks, that thcy got on so wcll is a tributc to cvcryoncs capacity
to scparatc lricndship lrom opinion. Tcrc must, noncthclcss, havc somctimcs bccn sharp
disagrccmcnts in thc cvcning discussions. Vhcrcas both R cc and Nictzschc thought thcy
wcrc cmploying a ncw mcthod ol inquiry which thcy callcd historical philosophy and
which thcy bclicvcd turncd philosophy into a branch ol thc natural scicnccs,
+
Malwida,
in Mood-Pictures, rcpcats Schopcnhaucrs obscrvation that scicntic mcthod, cvcn within
its paradigm cld ol inquiry, physics, cannot account lor its own loundations cannot
cxplain thc naturc ol lundamcntal lorccs such as gravity and magnctism lct alonc
cncompass phcnomcna such as lovc, spirituality, and artistic gcnius.
+8
Consistcnt with
this, shc bclicvcd that Nictzschc was ovcrimprcsscd by R ccs novcl way ol addrcssing
philosophical qucstions:
r. R ccs strict scicntic and rcalistic outlook was somcthing almost complctcly ncw in
rclation to his |Nictzschcs| crcativc output that had, until thcn, bccn pcrmcatcd by an inncr
poctic and musical clcmcnt. !t gavc him an almost childishly astonishcd plcasurc. ! oltcn
noticcd this and gavc him a humorous warning that ! did not sharc R ccs outlook, dcspitc
my high rcspcct lor his pcrsonality and rccognition ol his good naturc, which showcd itscll
particularly in his scllsacricing lricndship lor Nictzschc.
+
Latcr on shc rcmarkcd to Lou Salom c a propos what shc (wrongly) took to bc R ccs dclcncc
ol cgoism, that his own charactcr was thc most shining rclutation ol his own thcorics.
Conccrning thc aphorisms in thc stylc ol R cc and his Frcnch modcls that Nictzschc was
now producing, Malwida lclt that though somc wcrc brilliant, many, which madc clcar thc
dismaying translormation ol his worldvicw, wcrc distinctly unplcasant.
:o
l thosc prcscrvcd
in his notcbooks ol thc pcriod, onc can gucss that shc apprcciatcd ncithcr Schopcnhaucr
is to thc world as a blind man to writing,
:+
nor
Fcar dwclls in thc hcart ol human lantasy. Tc last lormol thc rcligious consists in arming
thc complctcly dark, incxplicablc rcgion, in this . . . onc thinks, thc worldriddlc must bc
conccalcd,
::
a dircct critiquc ol hcr own rcligious mysticism. n thc othcr hand, shc would havc bccn
dclightcd by Socialism rcsts on thc dccision to rccognisc all mcn as cquals and to bc just
to all ol thcm: it is thc highcst lorm ol morality.
:
!n Nictzschcs cntirc carccr, thc only
rcmarks that arc anything othcr than rampantly hostilc to socialism comc lrom this pcriod,
and must rccct thc tcmporarily modcrating inucncc ol Malwida. Tc rcmark that Tc
wisc pcrson knows no custom savc that which takcs its law lrom himscll
:
would havc
appcalcd to hcr as validating hcr own strugglc to lrcc hcrscll lrom thc convcntions ol hcr
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lamily and class, as would havc thc idcalismol Tc lrcc spirit livcs lor thc luturc ol mankind
so that hc invcnts ncw lilcpossibilitics to wcigh against thc old oncs.
:
Tc lundamcntal
agrccmcnt bctwccn Malwida and Nictzschc was thc nccd to discovcr a ncw lorm ol culturc.
Tcir lundamcntal disagrccmcnt conccrncd its charactcr.

Sincc thc Vagncrs wcrc just two minutcs round thc corncr lor thc rst tcn days ol thc
Sorrcnto idyll, thcrc wcrc rcgular visits. Malwida, dcvotcd to two mcn now in a statc ol
spiritual cnmity, lound that though Nictzschc ncvcr objcctcd to thc visits, his dcmcanour
in company with thc Vagncrs cxhibitcd a ccrtain lorccd naturalncss and chccrlulncss, that
was othcrwisc was quitc lorcign to him.
:6
n Novcmbcr thcrc occurrcd what was to
provc that thc last mccting bctwccn thc two, two pcoplc who had cxpcricnccd pcrhaps thc
grcatcst and most productivc artistphilosophcr lricndship a star lricndship, Nictzschc
callcd it
:
thcrc has bccn. Vagncr nccdcd to rcturn to 8ayrcuth to work on his nal
opcra, Parsifal, and would soon bc o to London to givc a scrics ol cight conccrts in thc
Royal Albcrt Hall. (Hcrc Cosima struck up a warm rclationship with Gcorgc liot, most
surprising, givcn hcr antiScmitism and liots passionatc antiantiScmitism.)
Nictzschc, though nccding to cscapc thc ovcrpowcring prcscncc ol thc Mastcr, was, as
cvcr, conccrncd to avoid an opcn brcach and continucd to try to prcscrvc thc rclationship by
lcttcr. Tc month altcr thc Vagncrs dcparturc hc scnt a chatty lcttcr to Cosima conlcssing,
howcvcr, to a growing dicrcncc with Schopcnhaucr and standing on thc sidc ol rcason
against all thc dogmatic lundamcntal principlcs ol his philosophy.
:8
Cosima wrotc a long
and lricndly rcply in which, howcvcr, shc says, somcwhat ominously, that shc would bc
intcrcstcd to hcar what objcctions hc has to our philosophcr.
:
Tis was not quitc hcr last
lcttcr to him. Tat was writtcn on ctobcr :: ol thc lollowing ycar, a lcttcr in which shc
thankcd him lor scnding hcr an cxcgcsis ol thc Fing cyclc by a octor tto iscr ol
whom morc shortly.
A lcw days altcr his last mccting with Vagncr, Nictzschc hcard ol thc dcath ol Ritschl,
thc last grcat philologist.
o
!n lcss than a wcck hc had lost two lathcrs.

Tc bcginning ol +8 saw Nictzschc oltcn conncd to bcd with thc lamiliar combina
tion ol blinding hcadachcs and vomiting. cspcratc, and altcr consulting with his 8ascl
ophthalmologist, r. Schicss, hc arrangcd to bc cxamincd by a Prolcssor Schr on at thc
univcrsity clinic in Naplcs. Schr on dismisscd thc idca ol a brain tumour, spokc ol ncural
gia, and said that thc condition could last scvcral ycars and thcn suddcnly disappcar. Vhat
hc suggcstcd by way ol trcatmcnt is unknown, savc lor thc lact that hc rccommcndcd scxual
rclcasc, which, apparcntly, Nictzschc achicvcd with scvcral visits to Naplcs brothcls.
+
At thc bcginning ol April, R cc lclt lor Jcna, whcrc hc lclt that his arwinian convictions
would bc morc acccptablc than in conscrvativc 8ascl, and 8rcnncr rcturncd to 8ascl lor thc
bcginning ol thc univcrsitys summcr scmcstcr. Nictzschc misscd R cc badly: nothing is
morc dcsolatc than R ccs room without R cc . . . dont lct mc cvcr losc you again, hc wrotc
his abscnt lricnd.
:
Lclt now alonc with Malwida, thc convcrsation rcturncd oncc again
to marriagc plans. Malwida proposcd various candidatcs as, by lcttcr, did lizabcth lga
Hcrzcns sistcr Natalic camc undcr considcration. Tc ostcnsiblc rcason was to makc Nictz
schc nancially indcpcndcnt ol his job in 8ascl thc succcsslul candidatc must bc both
good and rich, as Malwida succinctly put it. 8ut givcn Schr ons advicc, Nictzschc may havc
had mcdical rcasons lor bccoming quitc dcspcratc about thc projcct by July, hc is writing
Sorrento

:
that hc must marry bclorc thc autumn cvcn il hc has to pick somconc up o thc strcct.

Tat
mcdical considcrations supplicd a motivc is supportcd by his rcpcatcd, lrank dcclaration in
Human, ll-Too-Human that a man nccds rcgular scxual outlct lrom which hc concludcs
that sincc a good marriagc must bc bascd on lricndship rathcr than scxual attraction (which
in any casc incvitably wancs), it must tolcratc cxccptions, mistrcsscs.

As usual, howcvcr,
all thc marriagc plans turncd to dust.
Pcrhaps anothcr motivc Nictzschc had lor wanting to marry was a scnsc ol incrcasing
isolation, ol growing morc and morc distant lrom his oldcst and most intimatc lricnds.
vcrbcck was now marricd and, during thc Sorrcnto pcriod, Nictzschc had no commu
nication at all with cithcr Rohdc or von Gcrsdor. His rst lcttcr to thc lattcr sincc July
+86, in lact, was writtcn at thc cnd ol cccmbcr +88 and thcn it was only to tcll von
Gcrsdor to stop scnding abusivc lcttcrs to Malwida.

(\on Gcrsdor blamcd hcr lor thc

unhappy coursc ol his lovc aair with an !talian girl.) Nictzschc did rcccivc a lcttcr lrom
Paul cusscn togcthcr with a copy ol his ncw Schopcnhaucr book, Elements of Metaphysics.
!n thanking him Nictzschc praiscd thc book lor its clcar and comprchcnsivc prcscntation ol
Schopcnhaucrs philosophy. Hc addcd, howcvcr, that hc wishcd hc had such a book much
carlicr, sincc your book is an able collection of e.erything that I no longer hold to be true, and
concludcd thc lcttcr by saying that hc would say no morc in ordcr not to causc you pain on
account ol thc dicrcncc in our judgmcnts.
6
cusscn rcccivcd no lurthcr communication
until a scribblcd notc in March +88. Tc loss ol thcsc lricndships was a scrious mattcr
sincc it was thc loss ol almost cvcryonc with whom hc uscd thc lamiliar du in spitc ol
thcir rclativc intimacy hc and R cc ncvcr progrcsscd bcyond thc Sie.
R ccs abscncc was, howcvcr, partially compcnsatcd lor by a growing lricndship with his
admircr, thc writcr and paintcr 8aron Rcinhart von Scydlitz, inter alia, prcsidcnt ol thc
Vagncr Socicty in Munich. Nictzschc had lurcd him and his attractivc Hungarian wilc
south to Sorrcnto with lyrical dcscriptions ol thc wcllcovcrcd walks bctwccn orangc grovcs
whcrc thcrc is no wind at all, so that only lrom thc stormy movcmcnts ol thc pincs abovc
can onc scc how thc world storms outsidc (thc rcality and imagc ol our lilc hcrc truc in
both rcspccts)

thc ccct ol this parcnthctical rcmark must bc to rcport both physical

windlcssncss and psychological cquanimity.
Rosenlaui: Nietzsche and Sherlock Holmes
8
y thc bcginning ol May +8, Nictzschc was spcnding onc day in thrcc in bcd with
awlul hcadachcs. And sincc hc bclicvcd that cxtrcmcs ol tcmpcraturc cxaccrbatcd his
hcalth problcms, thc approach ol summcr madc dcparturc incvitablc. n May 8 thc von
Scydlitzs accompanicd him to Naplcs to board thc ship to Gcnoa and saw that his bags and
books wcrc salcly stowcd. Tc journcy northwards was rough, so that, in addition to tcrriblc
hcadachcs, Nictzschc sucrcd violcnt scasickncss, cight timcs during thc thrccday voyagc
hc had to changc his placc on thc boat to avoid nauscating odours and thc sight ol othcr
passcngcrs tucking in with horriblc gusto. From Gcnoa, his rst stop on thc slow journcy
back to 8ascl was in 8ad Ragaz, in thc Swiss provincc ol St. Gallcn, ncar thc bordcr with
Licchtcnstcin. Sincc thc hopcdlor improvcmcnt in hcalth which had bccn thc main rcason
lor thc stay in Sorrcnto had not occurrcd, hc intcndcd to try yct anothcr thcrmal curc in
this spa rcsort. uring his thrccandahallwcck stay Nictzschc morc or lcss dccidcd to
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
givc up his prolcssorship providcd hc could marry a rich woman until a visit lrom thc
cvcrpractical vcrbcck pcrsuadcd him to postponc thc dccision.
8ad Ragaz having produccd no improvcmcnt in his hcalth, Nictzschc dccidcd hc nccdcd
coolcr, and so highcr, air. n Junc ++ hc movcd to anothcr spa town, Roscnlaui (litcrally
avalanchc ol roscs), in an alpinc vallcy abovc Mciringcn, +,oo mctrcs abovc sca lcvcl.
Apart lrom a twowcck intcrruption ncar Zug with his sistcr, hc spcnt thc rcmaining thrcc
andahall months ol his sabbatical in Roscnlaui. Vith thc surrounding alps and thick pinc
lorcst in thc vallcy it was, hc wrotc, my kind ol naturc. And it sccms that hc did cxpcricncc
in Roscnlaui an at lcast momcntary improvcmcnt in hcalth. Vhcn hc had a rclapsc hc lclt
hc should bc still highcr.
8
Sincc thc ski scason was ovcr, Nictzschc lound himscll at rst thc only gucst in thc Hotcl
Roscnlaui and obtaincd a chcap ratc. Hc cconomiscd cvcn morc by avoiding thc sct mcal at
thc table dh otel. Hc atc, in lact, only two mcals a day, claiming to Malwida that hc nccdcd
lcss lood than othcr pcoplc.

From Roscnlaui hc wrotc vcrbcck that thc work on Human, ll-Too-Human was going
wcll: ! walk six to cight hours a day and think out thc matcrial which ! altcrwards throw
down on papcr, quickly and with complctc ccrtainty.
o
Tis manncr ol working long
thoughtlul walks, accompanicd always by a notcbook, lollowcd by short pcriods ol intcnsc
writing bccamc thc modus opcrandi lor thc rcst ol his lilc. His cycs, hc thought, dcmandcd
it: ! havc cycsight lor about oncandahall hours a day . . . !l ! rcad or writc longcr a bad
attack ol pain lollows thc samc day.
+
Tc aphoristic stylc ol ncarly all his maturc works
hc oncc said hc approachcd philosophical problcms likc cold baths, last in and last out
:

was thus not mcrcly a litcrary choicc: it was dcmandcd by thc condition ol his cycs. r,
morc accuratcly, dcmandcd by what hc belie.ed about his cycs. For hc had bccn alrcady
bccn adviscd by two doctors, Schicss in 8ascl and Schr on in Naplcs, and would shortly bc
adviscd by a third, that thc morc hc uscd his cycs thc closcr hc would comc to complctc
blindncss. Tough thc advicc was, in lact, quitc wrong, it may wcll havc pcrsuadcd him to
bclicvc that hc ought to lccl pain il hc uscd his cycs lor morc than an hour and a hall, and so
causcd, or at lcast contributcd to, his actually lccling such pain a rcvcrscplaccbo ccct,
as onc might put it.
Sincc input always dclays output, thc spccd with which Nictzschc workcd on Human,
ll-Too-Human was probably aidcd by thc lact that hc had only thrcc books with him: a ncw
book by Mark Twain ! lovc his crazincss morc than Gcrman clcvcrncss hc wrotc R cc
Platos La.s, and R ccs justappcarcd Origin of the Moral Sentiments. ! am ccrtainly thc
rst to rcad you ncxt to a glacicr, hc wrotc his lricnd, thc right placc to rcad a book which
survcys human naturc with a kind ol contcmpt and scorn (oncscll vcry much includcd)
mixcd with compassion lor thc multiplc tormcnts ol lilc.

!n Roscnlaui Nictzschc rcturncd to his usual voluminous lcvcl ol corrcspondcncc. Somc

lcttcrs conccrn his dcspcratc dcsirc to givc up thc job. Hc drcads, hc writcs Maric 8aumgart
ncr, rcturning to thc twilight ol my 8ascl cxistcncc. Hc is ccrtain hc has a highcr dcstiny,
a highcr task, than bcing a philologist, ycarns to cmcrgc lrom his inauthcntic lilc as an
acadcmic. ! lust altcr myscll , hc tclls hcr.

As cvcr, howcvcr, bccoming himscll is linkcd

to thc marriagc projcct. Yct, with somcthing likc dcspcration, hc rcaliscs that all thc can
didatcs so lar considcrcd havc bccn pipc drcams. Natalic Hcrzcn, in particular, had madc
it quitc cxplicit that shc was a nonstartcr.
Sorrento

:
Tough shc was obviously not a marriagccandidatc, Nictzschc still carricd a candlc lor
Louisc tt. n hcaring shc had bccomc prcgnant hc wrotc to hcr that
rcccntly |i.c., in imagination| ! lookcd into thc darkncss ol your cycs. Vhy docs no onc
look at mc with such cycs: ! cry out lull ol bittcrncss. h it is so awlul! Vhy havc ! ncvcr
hcard you sing: . . . Somcwhcrc in thc world thcrc must bc a voicc lor mc.

(Tc croticism ol this lcttcr nds its way into Zarathustras pcrsonication ol lilc as a
woman to whom Zarathustra sings, !nto your cycs ! lookcd ol latc, lilc, and into thc
unlathomablc ! sccmcd thcn to bc sinking.)
6

Vhilc in Roscnlaui Nictzschc rcccivcd a copy ol a pocm, Promcthcus Unbound, lrom
a Jcwish admircr, Sicglricd Lipincr, a mcmbcr ol a small circlc ol Nictzschcadmircrs in
\icnna (whosc cnthusiasm would cvcntually ltcr through to Frcud). Tc pocm is con
ccrncd with salvation through sucring. (Lipincr latcr bccamc a closc lricnd ol Gustav
Mahlcr and, partly by transmitting Te Births idcas on tragcdy, had a signicant inu
cncc on thc tcxt ol thc lattcrs works thc third symphony contains a sctting ol Zarathus-
tras !ntoxicatcd Song (scc Platc :6).) Nictzschc kncw Lipincr was Jcwish lrom somc
antiScmitic dcscriptions ol him by R cc and Rohdc: R cc dcscribcd him as a not partic
ularly appctizing man, whilc Rohdc dcscribcd him as onc ol thc most bowlcggcd ol all
Jcws, though with a not unsympathctic, shy, scnsitivc cxprcssion in his ghoulish, Scmitic
lacc.

Nictzschc thought thc pocm tcrric, writing Rohdc that il thc poct is not a vcri
tablc gcnius ! dont know what onc is any morc . . . all ol it is wondcrlul and its as il ! mcct
in it my own scll clcvatcd to a statc ol divinity.
8
To Lipincr himscll hc wrotc at thc cnd
ol August, tcll mc quitc lrankly whcthcr in thc mattcr ol anccstry you stand in any kind
ol rclation to thc Jcws. ! havc rcccntly had so many cxpcricnccs which havc rouscd in mc a
vcry grcat hopc lor youths ol this anccstry.

Tis, ! think, is thc dccisivc momcnt at which Nictzschc nally complctcs his rcjcction
ol antiScmitism. Vhcn onc notcs that, a ycar carlicr, hc had still bccn prcparcd to pandcr
to Vagncrs antiScmitism, wc can scc that thc lricndship with R cc and his admiration lor
Lipincr, togcthcr with thc lact hc no longcr lclt thc nccd to think cxactly what Vagncr
thought, had nally brought about a clcar rcjcction ol thc movcmcnt gathcring around him
as a political lorcc. Tis prcparcd thc way lor a brcach with his sistcr who, as wc shall scc,
would marry onc ol thc worst antiScmitcs ol all.

Tc Roscnlaui \allcy, with its historic hotcl, in which Gocthc had staycd in thc +8os, and
with its wondcrlul watcrlalls, walks, and amazing vicws towards thc igcr, M onch, and
Junglrau mountains, was much lavourcd by nglish tourists. nc ol thcm was Sir Arthur
Conan oylc, who was so imprcsscd by thc drama ol thc ncarby Rcichcnbach Falls that in
Tc Final Problcm (+8+) hc scnt Shcrlock Holmcs ovcr thcm, lockcd in dcathly cmbracc
with his archcncmy, Prolcssor Moriarty (only to rcsurrcct him latcr in rcsponsc to popu
lar dcmand). Nictzschc did not mcct oylc, but hc did mcct Gcorgc Croom Robcrtson,
prolcssor ol philosophy at Univcrsity Collcgc, London, and cditor ol thc (to this day) prcs
tigious philosophy journal Mind. Hc lound Croom Robcrtson cxtrcmcly sympathctic and
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
was dccply imprcsscd by what hc took to bc thc statc ol nglish philosophy: Mind, hc wrotc
R cc,
has all thc grcat nglishmcn as contributors, arwin (who contributcd a charming cssay
8iographical Skctch ol an !nlant in Numbcr \!!) Spcnccr Taylor and so on. As you know,
wc in Gcrmany havc nothing similar or as good.
o
Nictzschc adds that hc had pcrsuadcd Croom Robcrtson to rcad R ccs ncw book and dis
cuss it in his journal a promisc thc cditor kcpt by writing a short rcvicw. 8ack homc,
Croom Robcrtson wrotc Nictzschc that his Untimely Meditations wcrc mcntioncd in a sur
vcy ol rcccnt Gcrman philosophy by Vilhclm Vundt that was about to appcar in Mind.
Vundt, not having caught up with thc scachangc in Nictzschcs outlook, wrotc thc lol
lowing:
A promincnt rcprcscntativc ol thc pcssimistic strain in our litcraturc is Prolcssor Fricdrich
Nictzschc ol 8ascl, thc succcssivc parts ol whosc Untimely Meditations havc drawn much
noticc. !n thc writings ol Nictzschc and othcrs ol his stamp, thc pcssimistic mood is com
bincd in a vcry pcculiar way with an cnthusiastic dcvotion to ccrtain idcas closcly rclatcd
to rcligious mysticism. Richard Vagncr and his music arc ardcntly worshippcd by this scct
ol pcssimists. Tc grcat composcr himscll is won ovcr to Schopcnhaucr by thc philos
ophcrs prolound vicws ol thc naturc ol music, and his |Vagncrs, prcsumably| cnthusiastic
admircrs dcclarc that thc Vill has bccn rcvcalcd as cosmological principlc in thc |Ring ol
thc| Nibclungcn.
+
Back in Basel
T
hc bcginning ol Scptcmbcr, +8, lound Nictzschc back in 8ascl drcading thc thought
ol rcturning to lccturing thc grcatcst cursc ol my lilc
:
and grcatly alraid that
thc philosophical booty

ol his sabbatical would go cold on him. His mcntal and phys

ical condition had dctcrioratcd vcry badly during his sabbatical ycar: !da Miaskowski
hardly rccogniscd thc chccrlul lcllow who had bccn hcr music and dancing partncr in
his carly 8ascl days (pp. +666 abovc). Vith lizabcth oncc morc in attcndancc, hc
movcd into a ncw apartmcnt in :: Gcllcrstrassc. Tough hc hatcd thc idca ol tcaching
again hc was, in a way, happy to bc back in Switzcrland. Hc had thought, hc wrotc Mal
wida, ol sccing whcthcr hc could livc in !taly, on Capri, but rcgrctlully saw that !taly
drains away my couragc, cncrvatcd mc . . . !n Switzcrland ! am morc !, and sincc ! build
cthics on thc dcvclopmcnt ol thc ! and not on its cvaporation, it lollows that !n
thc Alps ! am unconqucrablc, that is, whcn ! am alonc and havc no cncmy othcr than
myscll .

Nictzschcs lcars that thc onsct ol tcaching would mcan loss ol contact with thc work on
Human, ll-Too-Human provcd unloundcd. Vith K osclitz on hand to act as both amanu
cnsis and gcncral raiscr ol spirits, thc two ol thcm workcd hard asscmbling thc booty ol
thc Sorrcnto pcriod into publishablc lorm. Vork procccdcd apacc and by thc cnd ol thc
ycar it was almost nishcd.
Sorrento

:,
Te Shocking Incident of the Iriendly octor
and the octoring Iriend

uring his stay in Roscnlaui Nictzschc had mct, and bccn imprcsscd by, a kccn admircr
ol both Vagncr and himscll, a Franklurt doctor namcd tto iscr. iscr gavc him
somc mcdical advicc but prcsscd him to comc to Franklurt lor a thorough cxamination,
which Nictzschc did during thc rst wcck in ctobcr. Hcrc hc was cxamincd not only by
iscr but also by an ophthalmologist, r. Gustav Kr ugcr. Tc gist ol thc combincd diag
noscs was that Nictzschcs hcadachcs and convulsivc attacks wcrc causcd partly by damagc
ol unknown origin to thc rctinas ol both cycs and partly by a prcdisposition in thc irrita
bility ol thc ccntral organ (i.c., thc brain) originating in cxccssivc mcntal activity.

(Tis
lattcr piccc ol pscudoscicncc was a rcpctition ol thc bc morc stupid and you will lccl bcttcr
advicc givcn to him by !mmcrmann in 8ascl.) iscr rulcd out thc possibility ol any kind ol
a brain tumour
6
Nictzschcs constant lcar was that hc had inhcritcd his lathcrs soltcning
ol thc brain which, in thc abscncc ol modcrn scanning tcchnology, hc was actually in no
position to do. Nictzschcs condition, iscr suggcstcd, was incurablc but managcablc. 8luc
lcns spcctaclcs, rclraining lrom spicy lood, winc, cocc, and tca, a quict lilc, and (iscrs
onc and only piccc ol scnsiblc advicc) abandoning all hcroic rcmcdics such as cold baths
in wintcr, wcrc rccommcndcd. Tc killcr blow, howcvcr, was, oncc again, thc prcscription
that, to avoid blindncss, Nictzschc should givc up all rcading and writing lor scvcral ycars.
n ctobcr +o Nictzschc wrotc thc alrcadymcntioncd lcttcr to Cosima rccommcnding
thc ubiquitous iscrs intcrprctivc cssay on thc Fing (it was publishcd in thc Bayreuther
Bl atter, Vagncrs housc magazinc, in thc lollowing ycar). Hc continucs thc lcttcr by saying
that thrcc doctors (Schicss, Schr on, and Kr ugcr) havc now told him that blindncss is incv
itablc unlcss ! submit to thc hard judgmcnt ol thc doctors: lor scvcral ycars absolutcly no
rcading or writing. Hc adds that a tcrriblc dccision has to bc madc but that hc docs not
lack thc couragc to makc it implying that hc will continuc with his work.

n hcaring lrom Cosima ol Nictzschcs prcdicamcnt, Vagncr workcd out that iscr
must bc onc ol thc doctors instrumcntal in providing thc dismal diagnosis. Hc thcn took it
upon himscll, on ctobcr :, to writc to iscr with his own diagnosis ol thc root causc ol
Nictzschcs troublcs, tclling him that thc paticnt will morc likcly listcn to thc advicc ol a
lricndly doctor than a doctoring lricnd. Tc causc ol Nictzschcs troublcs, asscrtcd Vagncr,
was masturbation (thc old bclicl, now a jokc, that masturbation makcs you blind) and
Nictzschcs altcrcd modc ol thought was duc to unnatural dcbauchcry with indications ol
pcdcrasty.
8
Nictzschc should gct marricd without dclay. Tis lattcr diagnosis harks back
to Vagncrs warning to Nictzschc that hc was too intimatc with his mcn lricnds, somcthing
ol which hc, Vagncr, had ncvcr bccn guilty. Vagncr oncc wrotc to a lricnd,
Lovc in its most pcrlcct rcality is possiblc only bctwccn thc scxcs, it is only as man and
woman that human bcings can truly lovc . . . it is an crror to look upon this as only onc ol
thc lorms ol lovc, as il thcrc wcrc othcr lorms cocqual with it . . . it is only in thc union ol
man and woman (scnsuous and supcrscnsuous) that thc human bcing cxists.

Truc lovc is inscparablc lrom scx. Nictzschc lovcd his mcn lricnds. rgo, Nictzschc was a
pcrvcrt.
:,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Paticnt condcntiality counting, cvidcntly, lor nothing, iscr rcplicd to Vagncr at
lcngth:
Conccrning your hypothcsis |ol unnatural dcbauchcry| ! lound in my invcstigation no di
rcct ground lor this kind ol assumption, though ! amlar lromdismissing your obscrvations.
gainst thc prcscncc ol masturbatory inucnccs thc statcmcnts ol thc paticnt himscll sccm
to spcak. At thc mcntion ol his scxual condition Nictzschc assurcd mc that hc had ncvcr
bccn syphilitic but hc also dcnicd my suggcstion ol strong scxual cxcitcmcnt and abnor
mal satislactions . . . Rclcvant sccms to mc thc lact that hc . . . rcportcd gonorrhoca inlcc
tions lrom his studcnt ycars and thcn hc also rcportcd that, on mcdical advicc, hc had
rcccntly cngagcd in intcrcoursc in !taly. Tc truth ol thcsc asscrtions is not to bc doubtcd
and thcy provc at lcast that thc paticnt has thc capacity lor normal scxual satislaction . . . also
in rclation to marriagc . . . hc sccms dcdicatcd to thc idca ol it in a way that an invctcratc
masturbator would not bc.
6o
Sincc Nictzschc, as wc havc sccn, had a vcry strong avcrsion to tclling anything othcr than
thc strict truth, and sincc iscr, as a Vagncridolatcr would rathcr havc cndorscd thc lattcrs
diagnosis than contradict it, this rcport is almost ccrtainly truc. (Noticc that though thc
visits to brothcls might sccm to tcll in lavour ol thc traditional story that thc madncss into
which Nictzschc lapscd in +88 was causcd by cndstagc syphilis, thc lact that hc cxplicitly
conlronts and rcjccts thc possibility ol syphilitic inlcction tclls against it.)
!n a lurthcr ocncc against paticnt condcntiality, both thc cxistcncc and thc contcnts
ol thc Vagncriscr corrcspondcncc wcrc somchow lcakcd soon altcr it occurrcd. At thc
sccond 8ayrcuth lcstival in +88 thc gossip was all about thc abscnt Nictzschc about how
hc was going blind through masturbation, had bccn picking up prostitutcs in !taly, had
had vcncrcal discasc as a studcnt and somchow thc gossip camc to Nictzschcs cars. !n
Fcbruary +88, on hcaring ol Vagncrs dcath, hc wrotc vcrbcck, Vagncr was by lar thc
lullcst man ! havc known and in this scnsc ! havc sucrcd tcrribly lrom his abscncc thcsc six
ycars. 8ut somcthing likc a dcadly insult camc bctwccn us.
6+
Latcr hc callcd it an abysmal
trcachcry ol rcvcngc. Vhat hc was rclcrring to is cxplaincd in a lcttcr writtcn to K osclitz in
April, +88: Vagncr, hc wrotc, is lull ol malicious idcas but what do you say to thc lact
that hc cxchangcd lcttcrs (cvcn with my doctors) to voicc his belief that my altcrcd way ol
thinking was a conscqucncc ol unnatural dcbauchcry, with indications ol pcdcrasty:
6:
Tc
nal ycars ol Nictzschcs sanity, wc shall scc, wcrc llcd with obscssivcly vitriolic attacks on
Vagncr. Tcrc can bc littlc doubt that thc appalling incidcnt ol thc lricndly doctor and thc
doctoring lricnd contributcd to both thc strcngth and thc quality ol thcsc attacks.
14
Human, All-Too-Human

x xvw ycars ay, +88, Nictzschc giltcd his autographcd copy ol thc scorc ol
Tristan to K osclitz and ol Meistersinger to K osclitzs lricnd and his own somctimc
studcnt, Paul Vidcmann. !l hc had thought to clcar thc dccks ol Vagncriana,
howcvcr, hc lailcd sincc thc ncxt day hc rcccivcd lrom Vagncr a copy ol thc complctcd
librctto ol his nal opcra, Parsifal. To von Scydlitz Nictzschc wrotc,
!mprcssion on rst rcading: morc Liszt |a Catholic| than Vagncr, spirit ol thc Countcr
Rclormation. To mc, accustomcd as ! am to thc Grcck, thc univcrsally human, its all
too limitcd to thc Christian cra. Purc psychological lantasy, no csh and much too much
blood . . . Tc languagc rcads likc a translation lrom a lorcign languagc.
+
nc might think ol l Grccos bonclcss, cshlcss, ghostly, alrcadyalmostasccndcdto
hcavcn saints and martyrs to gct thc point about Liszt and thc CountcrRclormation.
Vagncr had anticipatcd this rcaction by signing thc copy lor his dcar lricnd, Fricdrich
Nictzschc, Richard Vagncr, Church Councillor, a sclldcprccating jokc that Nictzschc
stubbornly rcluscd to gct. !ncrcdiblc, hc commcnts rctrospcctivcly in Ecce Homo, Vagncr
had bccomc pious.
:
A lcw days latcr, Human, ll-Too-Human was nally complctcd and scnt o to
Schmcitzncr. !t was planncd to appcar in May, timcd to commcmoratc thc hundrcdth
annivcrsary ol thc dcath ol \oltairc, Nictzschcs tcmporary hcro, to whom thc rst cdi
tion ol thc work was dcdicatcd. Hc was cxtrcmcly ncrvous about thc works rcccption. For
pcrsonal rcasons thc dcsirc not to upsct thc Vagncrs and his Vagncrian lricnds hc
wantcd it to appcar undcr a pscudonym (as had R ccs Psychological Obser.ations),

a silly
idca which Schmcitzncr rcjcctcd on thc ground that thc namc ol an cstablishcd author was
a commcrcial assct. Nictzschc cavcd in but still insistcd that thc prcparation ol thc pub
lication bc kcpt sccrct. vcn R cc was not to bc lorcwarncd.

Sincc thc appcarancc ol thc

work without any lorcwarning would surcly havc thc ccct ol crcating more ol a bombshcll,
Nictzschc sccms to havc had mixcd motivcs, sccms havc both not wantcd and wantcd to
shock thc world. Abovc all, hc sccms to havc both not wantcd and wantcd to shock thc

:,:
:,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vagncrs. At thc bcginning ol thc ycar, whcn hc was still planning lor thc work to appcar
undcr a pscudonym, hc skctchcd a lcttcr to accompany Vagncrs complimcntary copy, a
lcttcr which in thc cvcnt, was ncvcr scnt:
in that ! scnd |this ncwwork| l lay my sccrct trustingly into your and your noblc wilcs hands
and assumc that you will now kccp it as your sccrct. Tc book is by mc: ! havc brought to
light my inncrmost lcclings about mcn and things and lor thc rst timc circumscribcd thc
pcriphcry ol my thinking. !n timcs ol paroxysms and tormcnts this book was my comlort.
!t must havc a pscudonym bccausc ! dont want to disturb thc ccct ol my carlicr works,
bccausc ! want to prcvcnt thc public and privatc abusc ol my pcrson (my hcalth wont stand
it), and nally bccausc ! want a sober discussion to bc possiblc in which my intclligcnt lricnds
can takc part without pcrsonal lcclings ol tcndcrncss standing in thc way . . . ! lccl likc an
occr who has stormcd a lortrcss, woundcd indccd, but hc is up thcrc and has unlurlcd
his ag . . . Although ! know no onc who is ol a likc mind with mc, ! conccivc ol myscll
as having thought collcctivcly rathcr than individually that strangc lccling ol bcing both
alonc and onc ol many a hcrald gonc on ahcad who docsnt cxactly know whcthcr thc
company ol knights is lollowing or whcthcr it cvcn cxists.

Vith thc usual ccicncy ol ninctccnthccntury publishcrs thc book appcarcd, on timc,
on May with, signicantly, no rclcrcncc to its authors acadcmic position on thc titlc pagc.
Complimcntary copics wcrc scnt to K osclitz, Paul Vidcmann, Rohdc, R cc, von Scydlitz,
Malwida, Lipincr, Romundt, Mathildc Maicr (whom Vagncr oncc thought ol marry
ing),
6
Maric 8aumgartncr, Carl Fuchs, Hillcbrand, Croom Robcrtson, iscr, cusscn, von
8 ulow, 8urckhardt, vcrbcck, Gabricl Monod, lizabcth, thc Vagncrs (onc copy cach),
thc 8ascl Univcrsity Library, and six othcrs.
Te Turn to Positivism
A
s wc havc sccn, Nictzschc undcrwcnt a translormation and crisis ol which hc rst
bccamc lully conscious during thc summcr ol +86, shortly bclorc thc rst 8ayrcuth
Fcstival (pp. ::+ abovc). Tc conscqucncc ol this translormation was a commitmcnt to
thc battlc ol rcason against all mctaphysical mystication ol truth and simplicity.

Latcr
on, hc dcscribcd this as a turn to positivism.
8
Human, ll-Too-Human is thc product and
rccord ol this turn.
Schopcnhaucrs (and Vagncrs) vcrsion ol Kants mctaphysical idcalism cntails thc cxis
tcncc ol a mctaphysical, supranatural world bcyond or bchind thc drcamworld ol
naturc, bcyond, as Schopcnhaucr puts it, thc phcnomcnal appcarancc ol things.

Nictz
schcs turn to positivism is, abovc all, a turn away lrom mctaphysical idcalism. !t is thc
abolition ol thc mctaphysical word.
+o
Abovc all, his positivism is a turn to mctaphysical
rcalism or r ccalism.
++
Nothing cxists bchind naturc, nothing cxists but naturc. Hcncc,
positivism concludcs, nothing is bcyond thc rcach ol natural scicncc, nothing is knowablc
savc that which is, in principlc, knowablc by scicncc. Vhy did Nictzschc makc this turn
lrom mctaphysics to matcrialism, to naturalism:
nc important lact is that thc romanticism, as Nictzschc camc to call it, ol Schopcn
haucr, Vagncr, and Te Birth of Tragedy was always a neo-romanticism. Tc rcal romantic
Human, ll-Too-Human

:,
movcmcnt had morc or lcss nishcd in thc carly ninctccnth ccntury, to bc rcplaccd by thc
spirit ol scicncc and tcchnology, by arwin, railways, and global clcctronic communica
tion: Te Origin of Species appcarcd in +8, 8ascl got its rst railway conncxion in +8,
Naumburg in +8, thc tclcgraph was invcntcd in +8:, thc tclcphonc in +86. Augustc
Comtc had invcntcd thc philosophy ol positivism in thc +8os

and positivismhad bccomc

thc dominant outlook ol thc cducatcd classcs. \icwing history, ` a la Hcgcl, as a story ol
humanitys dcvclopmcnt lrominlancy to maturity, Comtc distinguishcd thrcc agcs ol man:
thc rcligious, thc mctaphysical, and thc scicntic, that is to say, positivc. Vith positivism
humanity rcachcs its highcst dcvclopmcnt and lull maturity.
Positivism, roughly spcaking thc Socratism attackcd in Te Birth of Tragedy, is what, in
his carly pcriod, Nictzschc was rcacting against. Vith Vagncr, hc was, as wc havc sccn, scll
consciously untimcly, a swimmcr against thc tidc ol currcnt, cducatcd opinion: against, lor
instancc, thc complaisant matcrialism ol avid Strauss. 8ut in Human, ll-Too-Human hc
has givcn up thc ght, givcn up, at lcast, this kind ol untimclincss.
Looking back, in +888, on thc +868 turn to positivism and rcconstructing his statc ol
mind at thc timc, Nictzschc writcs, thc truc world (i.c., thc KantSchopcnhaucr thing in
itscll ) |is| now a . . . supcruous idca consequently . . . lct us abolish it.
+:
Noticc that thcrc
is, hcrc, no talk ol proof. At no point docs Nictzschc claim that mctaphysical idcalism has
bccn refuted, that naturalism has bccn pro.ed. Tc turn to positivism is rathcr a mattcr ol
decision, thc dccision to adopt a ncwrcscarch programmc with naturalismand thc potcntial
omniscicncc ol scicncc as its dcning prcsupposition. Vhat Nictzschc is doing in Human,
ll-Too-Human is trying on lor sizc thc spirit ol thc arwinian agc, trying to dctcrminc
whcthcr wc cannot scc our way to a bcttcr socicty by adopting that outlook, not lty, but
rathcr a hundrcd and lty pcrccnt: as wc shall scc, Nictzschc pcrccivcs that bcncath thc
surlacc ol thc positivist outlook a grcat dcal ol thc prcvious mctaphysicorcligious outlook
rcmains, disguiscd but not climinatcd.
So, in Human, Nictzschc has dccidcd to tradc in thc Schopcnhaucrian lor a r ccalist hori
zon on, ! suggcst, thc provisional basis hc sccs as dcmandcd by truc scicncc: mcn ol
convictions, hc writcs, arc not mcn ol scicncc, thc scicntic spirit always brings with it
a cautious rcscrvc with rcspcct to all convictions including, consistcncy dcmands, natu
ralism itscll.
+
(Tc movc lrom positivism to Nictzschcs maturc philosophy is, oncc again,
! shall suggcst, a shilt ol horizons a mattcr ol synthcsising thc romantic and positiv
ist horizons into a third. Tomas Kuhns account ol thc history ol scicncc as a mattcr ol
paradigm shilts ts Nictzschcs intcllcctual carccr vcry wcll.)
Nictzschcs paradigm shilt to positivism cxplains Human, ll-Too-Humans titlc. As
wc shall scc, its main topics arc rcligion, art, and morality, phcnomcna which, in thc
KantSchopcnhaucr tradition, arc takcn to dcmand a mctaphysical cxplanation. Nictzschcs
stratcgy is to show that in lact nonc ol thcm do, that thcy arc all capablc ol an cntircly
human cxplanation. As Ecce Homo puts it, thc titlc says: whcrc you scc idcal |i.c., non
natural| things, I scc human, alas alltoohuman things.
+
As obscrvcd, Nictzschcs stratcgy is not to refute mctaphysics but to show that thc mcta
physical world is a supcruous hypothcsis. Considcr, by way ol illustration, Frcud. Vhy do
pcoplc bclicvc in God: nc cxplanation might bc: lor thc samc rcason thcy bclicvc in thc

!n Da.n Nictzschc calls Comtc that grcat and honcst Frcnchman bcsidc whom thc Gcrmans and
nglish ol this ccntury can placc no rival ( :).
:,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
sun thcrc is a God and pcoplc cxpcricncc his prcscncc. 8ut Frcuds cxplanation is: bccausc
pcoplc havc a nccd lor a lathcr gurc, thcy invcnt him. Frcuds cxplanation is thus alas all
toohuman lor rcligion bccausc it shows, il truc, that wc do not need thc God hypothcsis
to cxplain rcligious bclicl. !n a similar way arwins dangcrous idca is alltoonatural lor
rcligion: by cxplaining thc appcarancc ol intclligcnt dcsign in thc world in tcrms ol thc
purcly natural mcchanism ol natural sclcction it dcmonstratcs anothcr way in which thc
God hypothcsis is rcdundant.
Te Iree Spirit: Nietzsche and the Iife-Reform Movement
T
hus thc titlc ol thc work. Almost morc intcrcsting, howcvcr, is thc subtitlc: Book for
Free Spirits. At onc stagc Nictzschc had thought ol Te Free Spirit as thc books main
titlc.
8ooks, Nictzschc bclicvcs at lcast his books arc, in thc wrong hands, dangcrous.
And so, as notcd, hc always writcs lor a vcry sclcct audicncc, lor thc vcry lcw.
+
!n dclcncc
ol thc obscurity ol which hc accuscs himscll, hc says that hc has no dcsirc to corrupt old
maids ol both scxcs who havc nothing to kccp thcm going but thcir innoccncc. And so
hc writcs in a manncr only his lricnds will undcrstand.
+6
As wc shall scc, hc oltcn begged
various old maids whom hc lovcd dcarly not to rcad his books. So onc lunction ol thc
subtitlc is to constitutc, as it wcrc, a hcalth warning: lor lrcc spirits alone lor, at lcast,
potential lrcc spirits alonc. Tc subtitlc is, as it wcrc, a rcstrictcd audicncc only stickcr.
Vhat ccct is thc book supposcd to havc on thc potcntial lrcc spirit: Most pcoplc writc
books lor moncy. r, il thcy arc acadcmics, to gain tcnurc, or promotion. r, in thc bcst
instancc, to intcrcst and instruct. 8ut not Nictzschc. Hc wrotc, as thc pcrccptivc Lou
Salom c put it, not to teach but to con.ert |Er .ill nicht lchrcn sondern bckchrcn|.
+
All
his books, as hc put it in a lcttcr to Rohdc, arc bait and scductivc voiccs
+8
dcsigncd to
rccruit suitablc individuals to his causc. To Rcinhart von Scydlitz, whomhc hopcd to scducc
away lrom Vagncr, hc prcscntcd himscll quitc opcnly as a piratc . . . always, likc any othcr
corsair, sccking to stcal human bcings, not to scll thcm into slavcry but, around mc, into
lrccdom.
+
!n his carly pcriod thc causc had bccn Vagncrs programmc ol cultural rcgcncration.
Now it is rcgcncration through positivism. Tc causc is dicrcnt but thc dcsirc to convcrt
rcmains unaltcrcd. Vho, howcvcr, arc thcsc potcntial lrcc spirits hc hopcs will join his
ncw causc: Vhat is a lrcc spirit:

Nictzschc writcs, A lrcc spirit thinks dicrcntly lrom what, on thc basis ol thcir origin,
cnvironmcnt, class and prolcssion, or on thc basis ol thc dominant vicw ol thc agc, would
havc bccn cxpcctcd.
:o
So a lrcc spirit is somconc who thinks and so acts dicrcntly
lrom thc lcttcrcd spirit,
:+
lrom what Nictzschc will latcr call thc hcrdtypc. Tc lrcc
spirit thus swims against thc currcnt ol his timcs, is, in othcr words, untimcly. Frcc spirit
is thc succcssor conccpt to untimcly spirit.
Frccspiritcdncss was in thc air during thc closing dccadcs ol thc ninctccnth ccn
tury. Toughtlul pcoplc wcrc lcd up with thc stuy and oltcn hypocritical convcntions
ol \ictorian, Vilhclmian socicty. !n +88 thc tcrm Lebensreform Be.egung, LilcRclorm
Movcmcnt, was coincd to dcscribc thc countcrculturc that had bccn dcvcloping lor somc
timc in Gcrmanspcaking countrics.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:,
Lilc rclormcrs wcrc against sought lrccdom lrom somc subsct ol: thc big city which
isolatcs individuals into anonymous, loncly atoms, modcrn industrial tcchnology which
rcduccs human bcings to mcrc tools (human rcsourccs, as wc now say), and spccds up lilc
to an inhuman pacc, thc totalizing burcaucratic statc which absorbs all aspccts ol lilc into
itscll, cstablishcd rcligion (lilc rclormcrs wcrc lrccthinkcrs), alcohol, middlc class matcr
ialism (consumcrism), and \ictorian morality in all its lorms, cspccially its rcprcssion ol
cmotion, scx, and womcn. Lilc rclormcrs wcrc for: thc communal solidarity ol traditional
villagc lilc (in many Alrican villagcs it is still thc casc that il anyonc starvcs cvcryonc docs),
thc unalicnatcd charactcr ol traditional work practiccs (Nictzschc obscrvcs that in thc
traditional cralt cconomy, purchasing an artclact was a bcstowing ol distinction akin to
that which wc now bcstow in buying a painting),
::
living in naturc and in harmony with
its rhythms, natural hcaling and mcditation, nudism (thc F[reieJK[ operlicheJ K[ulturJ (Frcc
8odily Culturc) was part ol thc movcmcnt), loosc, owing clothing, sunbathing, vcgc
tarianism, a ncwrcligious spirituality tcnding in panthcistic and/or pagan dircctions, dancc,
pcacc, lrcc lovc, and lcmalc cmancipation. And youth, whcrcas up to thc middlc ol thc ccn
tury young pcoplc had sought to look oldcr than thcy wcrc, had drcsscd likc thcir lathcrs
and grandlathcrs (Nictzschc carricd thc practicc on longcr), lilcrclormcrs startcd to cclc
bratc youth as thc timc ol lilc in which onc is lcast acctcd by, most in a position to libcratc
oncscll lrom, thc lcttcrs ol an unhcalthy, lilcrcprcssing culturc. A trcndsctting, cultural
wcckly, simply callcd Jugend (youth), gavc its namc to thc ncw dcsign stylc ol Jugendstil, thc
Gcrman namc lor art nouvcau. nc important strand in thc lilcrclorm movcmcnt was thc
Jugendbe.egung (Youth Movcmcnt), which grcw out ol thc !ander.ogel Frcc as a 8ird
movcmcnt. Somcwhat likc thc 8oy Scouts, !ander.ogel youths would go on wcckcnd trips
into thc lorcst, whcrc thcy would light camprcs and sing songs about thc joys ol cscaping
thc grcy and grimy city. (Latcr, thcy lound thcmsclvcs hijackcd by thc Hitlerjugend.) Abovc
all, lilc rclormcrs wcrc dcdicatcd to life in thc gctalilc scnsc that implics joy: thcy wantcd
morc Lebensfreude, joic dc vivrc, than was ocrcd by thc grim rcprcssion ol thc ickcnsian
city.
To cscapc thc atomizcd lilc ol thc urban mainstrcam, lilcrclormcrs oltcn sought to,
as wc now say, drop out, to rccovcr a scnsc ol community by crcating various kinds ol
communcs in rural scttings. Tc idca ol thc communc bccamc a local part ol thc lilcrclorm
movcmcnt. Alrican Spir (+8o), lor cxamplc, a Russian philosophcr Nictzschc admircd,
drcw up a plan lor a community ol rational living, which hc publishcd in thc hopc ol
gaining rccruits.

Among thc twcntytwo statutcs ol his proposcd constitution onc nds, lor
cxamplc, thc rulc that cvcryonc will addrcss cach othcr with thc lamiliar du, that thcrc will bc
no alcohol or gambling, and that cating will bc communal, as will bc cvcnings dcdicatcd to
discussions, lccturcs, music, or gamcs (as, lor instancc, in Sorrcnto).
:
ltcn thc lilcrclorm
impulsc towards a ncw modc ol communal living lcd to cmigration to South Alrica or
South Amcrica. lizabcths illlatcd attcmpt, in +886, to crcatc thc colony Nue.a Germania
in Paraguay was in part, ! think, a disastrous and corrupt vcrsion ol thc lilcrclorm impulsc.
Tc most lamous Lebensreform communc was Montc \crit` a in Ascona, on thc shorc ol
Lakc Maggiorc, which was cstablishcd in +oo with Tolstoy and Nictzschc as its hcrocs. !t
bccamc a local point lor countcrcultural, lrccspiritcd, gurcs in thc rst dccadcs ol thc

Likc his lricnd Tolstoy, with whom hc had lought in thc Crimcan Var, Spir lrccd thc scrls on
his cstatc as soon as it was allowcd. Nictzschc rcad and admircd thc cxposition ol his thcorctical
philosophy in Tought and Feality, though it is not ccrtain hc kncw ol Spirs plans lor a communc.
:,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
twcnticth ccntury, inter alios, . H. Lawrcncc, Carl Jung, !sadora uncan, Max Vcbcr,
Martin 8ubcr, Stclan Gcorgc, Jamcs Joycc, Valtcr Gropius, and Hcrmann Hcssc. !t is to
thc lilcrclorm movcmcnt that thc hippic movcmcnt ol thc +6os traccs its anccstry, as do
todays Grccns.
Tough Nictzschc was no hippic as obscrvcd, his upright bcaring and lamous mous
tachc, plus his cnthusiasm lor sclldisciplinc, cold baths, and brisk walks, lcd to his bcing
mistakcn lor a Prussian cavalry occr hc had, noncthclcss, many anitics with thc lilc
rclormcrs. So, lor cxamplc, hc polcmicizcd against alcohol
:
and tobacco, cxpcrimcntcd
with vcgctarianism, and was an cnthusiast lor altcrnativc mcdicinc. Hc hatcd thc har
ricd,
:
atomizcd lilc ol thc big, industrialiscd city Human, ll-Too-Human complains
that in modcrn lilc wc scc cvcrything as il lrom a railwaycarriagc window
:6
and hatcd
thc totalizing, burcaucratic, 8ismarckian statc.
8rought up in rural Naumburg, morcovcr, Nictzschc was always, at hcart, a smalltown
boy: wc wish to livc in a small town hc dcclarcd atly.
:
Tc closcst hc camc to a homc in
latcr lilc was Sils Maria, a tiny pcasant villagc in thc Swiss Alps. vcn whcn hc lclt that thc
climatc that suitcd his hcalth rcquircd him to livc part ol thc ycar in citics, hc sought out
villagclikc parts ol thcm his (to this day) quict backwatcr ol Gcnoa, lor cxamplc and
praiscd thosc ol thcir lcaturcs that thcy sharcd with small towns thc stylistic homogcncity
ol Turin, lor cxamplc. !n contrast to thc harricd lilc ol thc city hc bclicvcd that onc should
livc closc to, and in harmony with, naturc, that onc should posscss a country sensibility:
!l a man has not drawn rm, rcstlul lincs along thc horizon ol his lilc, likc thc lincs drawn
by mountain and lorcst, his inncrmost will itscll grows rcstlcss, distractcd and covctous, as
is thc naturc ol thc citydwcllcr: hc has no happincss himscll and |conscqucntly| bcstows
nonc on othcrs.
:8
Nictzschc chosc to livc among thc lakcs and thc lorcsts ol somc ol thc most bcautilul
placcs in thc world: hc posscsscd, wrotc his lricnd Mcta von Salis, thc most conspicu
ously dcvclopcd talcnt lor discovcring thc privilcgcd placcs on carth. Paradisc, hc wrotc, in
a passagc cntitlcd et in arcadia ego, is a Poussin landscapc populatcd by Grcck hcrocs.
:
Nictzschc bclicvcd, too, at lcast in thcory, in lrcc lovc. Hc was against marriagc (cxccpt
as a last, nancial rcsort), told thc bcautilul but marricd Louisc tt that, as a lrcc spirit, hc
was, likc winc, highly dangcrous to hcr,
o
and, as wc shall scc, wantcd to livc in a wild (dc
lacto) marriagc with Lou Salom c. Likc his admircr, !sadora uncan, hc bclicvcd in dancc
(rccall howmuch hc cnjoycd balls in his carly 8ascl days) litcral dancc, but also thc spiritual
dancc that, in Tus Spoke Zarathustra, triumphs ovcr thc spirit ol gravity. And hc bclicvcd
in youth: my works arc always lor thc youth, hc writcs.
+
Hc was, morcovcr, until a dramatic
changc ol mind in +88:, in lavour ol lcmalc cmancipation and had, rcmcmbcr, lought hard
to gain admittancc lor womcn to 8ascl Univcrsity. Finally, and abovc all, Nictzschc bclicvcd
in joy, in lilc in thc scnsc ol living it to a joylul lullncss: thc cntirc point ol his philosophy,
hc writcs, is to rccovcr that ability to rcjoicc posscsscd by thc ancicnts but dcstroycd by
Christianity, to lay thc loundations lor a ncw tcmplc ol joy.
:
Nictzschc can, thcn, bc sccn as bclonging to thc lilcrclorm movcmcnt and as spcak
ing on bchall ol thc countcrculturc it rcprcscntcd: rccall thc rcmark in thc lcttcr to
Vagncr that hc thinks ol himscll as having thought collcctivcly rathcr than individually
(p. :: abovc.) As hc saw it, ! bclicvc, thc lormulation ol thc conccpt ol thc lrcc spirit in
Human, ll-Too-Human is an attcmpt to articulatc thc spirit ol thc lilcrclorm movcmcnt.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:,
Tc movcmcnt, ol coursc, did not consist in a sct ol articlcs to which onc cithcr signcd up
or did not. !t was, rathcr, a loosc asscmbly ol bclicls and idcals such that a givcn individual
would subscribc to somc but by no mcans all. icrcnt individuals, that is, would givc
dicrcnt spins to thc movcmcnt. Human, ll-Too-Humans particular spin is positivism, as
its dcdication to thc nlightcnmcnt hcro, \oltairc, that grcat libcrator ol thc spirit, makcs
clcar.

Lilcrclorm is going to bc carricd out, not through anything solthcadcd such as

Vagncrian music, praycr, astrology, spiritualism or thc powcr ol crystals, but through thc
rcmorsclcss wiclding ol hardhcadcd scicntic cnlightcnmcnt to clcar away cvcry ancicnt
supcrstition unablc to justily itscll bclorc thc court ol rcason. As Nictzschc writcs in his
notcbooks, hc drcams ol
a lcllowship ol mcn who want to bc unconditioncd, who givc no quartcr and want to bc
known as dcstroycrs. Tcy subjcct cvcrything to thcir critiquc and sacricc thcmsclvcs lor
thc truth. Tc bad and lalsc arc cxposcd to thc light ol day.

Tis talk ol thc Nictzschcan hcro as a dcstroycr raiscs thc qucstion ol whcthcr thc conccpt
ol thc lrcc spirit is an cntircly ncgativc onc. cctivcly, Human, ll-Too-Human admin
istcrcd thc coup dc gr acc to thc lricndship with Rohdc. Hc hatcd thc book and could
not rccognisc his lricnd in it. Tc idca ol thc lrcc spirit was, hc thought, a purcly ncg
ativc, unlruitlul conccpt.

Michcl Foucault, taking much ol his inspiration lrom thc work,

sccms to havc thought thc samc. 8ut both arc wrong.
A kcy scntcncc in Te Gay Science (its rst lour books arc still proximatc to Nictzschcs
positivist pcriod) is nly as crcators can wc dcstroy.
6
And in thc +886 introduction to
thc sccond cdition ol Human, Nictzschc dcscribcs thc lrcc spirit who just wants to prowl
around in thc dcscrt hc has crcatcd by dcstroying all thc old ccrtaintics, as sucring lrom
a sickncss.

cstruction, lor Nictzschc, is al.ays a prcludc to construction apart lrom

rcading him as a Nazi, rcading him as a purc dcconstructionist is thc most scrious mis
rcading possiblc.
Vriting to Romundt in April +86, hc says Lct us swimonwards against thc currcnt . . . !
honour only onc thing: moral lrccdomand insubordination. 8ut thcn hc immcdiatcly adds,
! hatc all lccblcncss and sccpticism. Trough thc daily nccd to raisc oncscll and othcrs
highcr, with thc idca ol purity bclorc oncs cycs always as an cxcclsior so ! wish myscll
and my lricnds to livc.
8
xcclsior, cvcr highcr, wc saw, is thc titlc ol thc pocmto which hc
rclcrrcd in proposing marriagc to Mathildc Trampcdach, a proposal in which hc dcscribcs
himscll as, likc Longlcllows mountain climbcr, somconc who strivcs most sinccrcly to
bccomc lrccr and bcttcr (scc pp. :+6+ abovc). And thc point is, ol coursc, that onc cannot
strivc to bccomc bcttcr without somc conccption ol what it is that constitutcs bcttcrncss.
So thc Nictzschcan lrcc spirit wants to dcconstruct thc old laiths, to bccomc lrcc from
thcm. 8ut only in ordcr to bc lrcc for somc positivc idcal. Aprimc task, thcrclorc, in cxamin
ing Human, ll-Too-Human will consist in asking what thc positivc idcal is in thc namc ol
which thc mctaphysical supcrstitions ol thc old culturc arc bcing dcstroycd.
Te Monastery for Iree Spirits
H
uman, ll-Too-Human, wc havc sccn, is a consciousncssraising cxcrcisc. !t is bait
intcndcd to scducc thosc with thc potcntial to think as Nictzschc docs away lrom
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
mainstrcam culturc, or lrom othcr vcrsions ol lilcrclorm, to his own particular vcrsion
ol thc movcmcnt. !n addition, howcvcr, Nictzschc has somcthing morc spccic in mind.
As wcll as gcncral consciousncssraising hc wants, likc Alrican Spir, to lound a communc
bascd on rational living ultimatcly, ! think, a lamily ol communcs.
Hc wants to crcatc, that is, what hc variously calls a monastcry lor lrcc spirits, thc
school ol thc ducator,

an idcal colony, a modcrn monastcry. Tc lilc hc sharcd with

Malwida, R cc, and 8rcnncr in Sorrcnto hc thought ol as thc prototypc ol such a com
munc.
o
Malwida rcports having discusscd thc communc idca in Sorrcnto. Tcir cvcnings
togcthcr wcrc so pcacclul and harmonious, shc rcports, that shc suggcstcd, jokingly, that thc
Sorrcnto m cnagc rcprcscntcd an idcal lamily. Tis, shc continucs, lcd to thcm dcvcloping
a plan to lound
a kind ol mission housc lor adults ol both scxcs to havc a lrcc dcvclopmcnt ol thc noblcst
spiritual lilc so that thcy could thcn go lorth into thc world to sow thc sccds ol a ncw
spiritualizcd culturc . . . Nictzschc and R cc immcdiatcly ocrcd thcir scrviccs as tcachcrs. !
was convinccd ! could attract many womcn studcnts . . . in ordcr to dcvclop thcm into thc
noblcst rcprcscntativcs ol thc cmancipation ol womcn.
+
Alrcady, in his carly pcriod, Nictzschc had had thc idca ol an organizcd, communal gath
cring ol untimcly, 8ayrcuthinspircd spirits. Vriting to Rohdc in +8o, hc says that thc
point ol thcir writings is to draw pcoplc away lrom mainstrcam cducational institutions
and into a ncw kind ol monastcry that would constitutc a ncw Grcck acadcmy.
:
As wc
havc sccn, Nictzschc had a prolound bclicl in thc powcr ol cducation cithcr to ossily pcoplc
into cloncs ol thc status quo or to libcratc thcm to ncw and hcalthicr cultural horizons. So
thc idca ol a ncw acadcmy, a kind ol rcsidcntial lrcc univcrsity,

is thc idca ol a ccll ol

rcsistancc to thc prcvailing culturc which cultivatcs thc sccds ol a ncw onc.
Nictzschc uscs thc tcrm monastcry morc lrcqucntly than any othcr to rclcr to his pro
poscd communc bccausc it ccctivcly comprchcnds all thc strands in his thinking. First,
it is to bc a placc whcrc pcoplc lrcc thcmsclvcs drop out, scqucstcr thcmsclvcs lrom
currcnt socicty. Likc thc Christian monastcry, it is to bc a placc lor thosc who wish to havc
nothing morc to do with thc world in its prcscnt condition.

Sccond, it is to bc a placc
whcrc, as in thc Christian monastcry, pcoplc livc ascetically, in grcat simplicity.

Tcy
rcjcct thc matcrialism ol thc modcrn, middlcclass mainstrcam. Tird, thc monastcry will
bc a placc ol learning in thc Middlc Agcs almost all scholars wcrc monks. Tc lilc ol thc
mind will providc thc locus ol monastic lilc: work will principally bc rcading, discussing,
and producing works ol litcraturc, art, scicncc, and philosophy.

And lourth, as thc Chris

tian monastcry sought, through praycr, sacricc, and cxamplc, to work lor thc rcdcmption
ol mankind, so Nictzschcs monastcry, too, is to work (through Rcason rathcr than God,
ol coursc) lor thc rcdcmption ol mankind: its mcmbcrs arc to bccomc thc lcadcr(s) and
cducator(s) ol mankind.
6
As wc know lrom thc Untimely Meditations, an cducator is an
cxcmplary gurc, a rolc modcl. So thc communc ol lrcc spirits will lcad, at lcast in part,

A notc lrom thc summcr ol +8 rcads: Statutc ol thc Socicty ol thc Untimcly. ach quartcr,
cvcryonc will prcscnt a writtcn rcport on his activitics. .R.G.8.N. (KSA 8 ||.) Tc initials
stand lor an cnvisagcd corc mcmbcrship, almost ccrtainly, vcrbcck, Rohdc, von Gcrsdor, cithcr
8rcnncr or 8aumgarthcr, and Nictzschc himscll. Apartial prototypc ol such a socicty was, ol coursc,
thc Germania socicty ol Nictzschcs boyhood.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:,,
by cxamplc: thcy will lcad by modclling thc kind ol lilc thcy hopc will cvcntually rcdccm
socicty at largc, signpost its way out ol its currcnt dcsolation into a ncw and highcr cul
turc. ccasionally thc monastcry idcal nds its way into thc publishcd works. Hcrc is how
Nictzschc dcscribcd it in +8:
Lccturcs and hours ol mcditation lor adults, and thcsc daily, without compulsion but at
tcndcd by cvcryonc as a command ol custom: thc churchcs as thc worthicst vcnucs lor
thcm bccausc richcst in mcmorics: cvcry day, as it wcrc, a lcstival ol attaincd and attainablc
dignity ol human rcason: a ncw and lullcr corcsccncc ol thc idcal ol thc tcachcr, in which
thc pricst, thc artist and thc physician, thc man ol knowlcdgc and thc man ol wisdom |i.c.,
Nictzschc| arc luscd with onc anothcr . . . this is my vision: it rcturns to mc again and again,
and ! rmly bclicvc that it lilts a corncr ol thc vcil ol thc luturc.

Human, All-Too-Human: Te Attack on Metaphysics

T
hc lundamcntal aim ol Human, wc havc sccn, is to hunt down and dcstroy bclicl in
a mctaphysical world, in both its ovcrt and covcrt lorms, as a prcliminary to con
structing a ncw, postmctaphysical, rational culturc. As notcd, Nictzschc idcntics thrcc
lundamcntal arcas in which bclicl in thc mctaphysical occurs rcligion, art, and morality
and scts out to show, in cach casc, that thc origins, thc causes, ol mctaphysical bclicl arc
anything but reasons lor such bclicl. Tis is what hc calls his historical (latcr gcncalogical)
mcthod ol philosophising.
8
Sincc a rationally justied bclicl must bc bascd on good rcasons,
to show a particular bclicl not to bc so bascd is to rclutc it not in thc scnsc ol conclusivcly
showing it to bc lalsc, but rathcr in thc scnsc ol showing that a rational bcing, Nictzschcs
targct rcadcr, must cxpcl that bclicl lrom thc sct ol bclicls hc subscribcs to. Tc historical
mcthod Nictzschc and R cc workcd out bctwccn thcm is, ! think, thcir ingcnious and inu
cntial answcr to thc lollowing problcm: givcn that onc cannot pro.e thcm to bc lalsc, how
can onc construct a rational critiquc ol mctaphysical bclicls:
Feligion. Vhy do pcoplc bclicvc in thc world ol rcligious mctaphysics: Nictzschcs
approach is that ol thc picador rathcr than matador: rathcr than dclivcring a singlc, killcr
thrust, hc idcntics a largc numbcr ol causcs that contributc to rcligious bclicl and paticntly
shows, onc by onc, that thcy arc all disrcputablc. Hc obscrvcs, lor cxamplc, that though rcli
gious bclicl may makc onc happicr, this in no way cntails thc truth ol thc bclicl.

Tis might
sccm too obvious to bc worth saying anywhcrc past a Critical Tinking +o+ coursc, but in
lact Nictzschc is cntircly right in obscrving that an alltoohuman and alltoocommon
lailing is thc unconscious inlcrcncc lrom happincss to truth. As hc points out, pcoplc ruth
lcssly logical and rigorously rational whcn dcaling with most things in daily lilc nancial
invcstmcnt, lor instancc suddcnly switch thc rational brain into ncutral whcn it comcs
to thc big, cxistcntial qucstions. Tc dcsirc to nd a prolound and comlorting mcaning
in lilc lcads to wishlul thinking, to bclicl in, lor cxamplc, astrology, rcincarnation, karma,
alicns or thc Christian hcavcn.
o
Tcn again, Nictzschc suggcsts, Christianity burdcn|s| thc hcart so as altcrwards to bc
ablc to lightcn it.
+
ur Christian bclicl in our own original sinlulncss is thc rcsult ol ccclc
siastical indoctrination aimcd not at imparting a truth, but at incrcasing pricstly powcr. Vc
arc victims ol a kind ol condcncc trick. Tc samc is truc ol thc ascctic practiccs ol saints
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
and mystics: wc arc casily convinccd that thcy must posscss somc vital piccc ol knowlcdgc
to practisc such cxtrcmcs ol sclldcnial. 8ut actually thcy havc no such knowlcdgc. Tc all
toohuman origin ol such practiccs is, oncc again, thc lust lor status and powcr.
:
(Hcrc wc
scc thc rst glimmcring ol a conccpt ccntral to Nictzschcs maturc philosophy: thc will to
powcr.) Anothcr disrcputablc origin ol rcligious bclicl is thc misintcrprctation ol patho
logical conditions.

For cxamplc (Nictzschcs aphorisms arc oltcn invitations to construct,

as ! do hcrc, oncs own cxamplcs), thc man who says that God spcaks to him cvcry day is
likcly sucring lrom an ovcractivc supcrcgo. Tcn again, thc mctaphysicalcthical sys
tcm ol Christianity can lunction to allcviatc borcdom: thc battlc against thc inncr cncmy
ol, in particular, scxual lust, makcs lilc morc intcrcsting. !n a world ocring lcwcr outlcts
lor human aggrcssion, Christianity invcntcd a ncw lorm ol warlarc.

8ut, ol coursc, thcrc

is no morc a valid routc lrom borcdomallcviation to truth than thcrc is lrom happincss.
Anothcr kind ol tracking down ol disrcputablc origins ol rcligious bclicl involvcs a lorm
ol spcculativc anthropology. Tc prchistoric origins ol rcligion lic in primitivc humanitys
attcmpt to undcrstand thc workings ol naturc. riginally, Nictzschc suggcsts, human bcings
had no conccption ol natural causality. vcrything was undcrstood anthropomorphically:
thc storm was a gods angcr, spring rain a gods bcncvolcncc. Tc way onc sccks to control
thc bchaviour ol pcoplc is to pcrlorm scrviccs lor thcm, ocr thcm gilts. And so primitivc
man ocrcd thc gods things thcy could bc cxpcctcd to cnjoy: sacriccs and cntcrtaining
spcctaclcs ol scx and violcncc, warlarc, in othcr words. Hcncc thc origin ol thc rcligious
cult lics in a primitivc attcmpt to bring ordcr into naturc.

l coursc, wc arc no longcr

animists. Yct thc prcscrvation ol bclicl in gods, passcd down unthinkingly lrom gcncration
to gcncration, suggcsts that a piccc ol primitivc humanity continucs to cxcrcisc itscll in
us.
6
To thc cxtcnt wc still bclicvc in gods wc arc likcly to bc unconsciously adhcring to a
piccc ol primitivc i.c., supcrscdcd scicncc.
A nal point. Nictzschc conccdcs that thcrc could bc a mctaphysical world. Sincc wc
bchold all things through thc human hcad and cannot cut o this hcad, wc cannot rulc this
out as a possibility. Sincc wc cannot rcmovc thc Kantian sunglasscs ol thc human mind
wc havc no ccrtain idca ol how rcality in itscll is. Noncthclcss, hc continucs, only pas
sion, crror and sclldcccption havc madc thc mctaphysical world valuablc, tcrriblc, dclight
lul, havc populatcd it with God, thc angcls, and thc souls ol thc dcpartcd. Vhcn onc has
cxposcd thcsc disrcputablc origins ol thcsc bclicls, hc says, onc had rclutcd thcm shown
thcm to bc, to rcpcat, not false, but rathcr unworthy ol rational bclicl, dcvoid ol rational
justication.

rt. Tc rst thing that nccds to bc said is that, contrary to appcaranccs, whcn Nictz
schc attacks art hc docs not mcans to attack all art. As wc shall scc, thcrc is actually an
important placc lor somc kinds ol art in thc ncw world Human is intcnt on construct
ing. Vhat Nictzschc attacks, rathcr, is romantic art, mctaphysical art, art that dcals in
worldtransccndcncc. !n othcr words, though hc is ncvcr mcntioncd by namc, Vagncrs
art. sscntially what Nictzschc now wants to abandon banish is what, in Te Birth of
Tragedy, hc had callcd ionysian art, thc art ol mctaphysical comlort. Vhat hc wants to
rctain is Apollonian art, thc art that tcachcs us to scck joy |not bchind but rathcr| in thc
appcaranccs.
8
Art (mctaphysical art), says Nictzschc, raiscs its hcad whcn rcligions rclax thcir hold. !n
a postnlightcnmcnt world in which cducatcd pcoplc would bc cmbarrasscd to arm thc
Human, ll-Too-Human

::
dogmas ol Christian mctaphysics, thcy can continuc to cnjoy rcligious lcclings and moods in
art. Art, as onc might put it, ocrs rcligious lccling without doctrinal rcsponsibility. Vhat
kinds ol lccling: Pcoplc (i.c., Schopcnhaucr, scc p. 8 abovc) talk, Nictzschc obscrvcs, ol
thc ccrtainty ol rcdcmption as rcvcalcd in thc wholc surc gospcl in thc glancc ol Raphacls
Madonna. 8ut cvcn morc strongly thcy dcrivc thc samc lccling lrommusic: it can happcn,
as wc know (p. abovc), that a passagc in 8ccthovcns Ninth Symphony will makc |a
pcrson| lccl hc is hovcring abovc thc carth in a domc ol stars with thc drcam ol immortality
in his hcart.

Tc subjcct ol this passagc is ol coursc, Nictzschc himscll, Nictzschc as rcprcscntativc ol

thc spiritual condition ol his agc. Rccall that, at ninctccn, cvcn though hc had lost his Chris
tian laith, hc still rcgardcd all grcat music as rcligious in charactcr, as gcncrating a lccling
out ol which hcavcn suddcnly shincs lorth, a dim intimation ol thc divinc (p. 8 abovc).
And noticc that thc passagc in 8ccthovcns Ninth Symphony is cvidcntly thc dc to Joy
in thc last movcmcnt prcciscly what thc opcning ol Te Birth of Tragedy had idcnticd as
thc momcnt ol ionysian transccndcncc.
Vhat havc thcsc accuratc and autobiographical obscrvations to do with dcmolishing
mctaphysics: Nictzschc says that cxpcricnccs such as thcsc show how casy it is lor thc lrcc
spirit oncc again to sigh lor his lost lovc whcthcr shc bc callcd rcligion or mctaphysics.
Tcy show, thc continuing strcngth ol thc mctaphysical nccd.
6o
Tc rclcrcncc, as obscrvcd
carlicr, is to Schopcnhaucrs chaptcr cntitlcd n Mans Nccd lor Mctaphysics,
6+
a chaptcr
in which hc argucs that thc primary lunction ol rcligion and mctaphysics is to ovcrcomc
pain and dcath, to addrcss thc univcrsal human nccd lor thc assurancc ol an immortal
ity that will compcnsatc lor thc sucring ol mortal cxistcncc. Nictzschcs point is that
insolar as wc havc thcsc cxpcricnccs and basc hallbclicls upon thcm wc arc backslidcrs,
not rcally, or not yct, lully lrcc spirits. At thc vcry lcast, our intcllcctual probity is put to
thc tcst.
6:
!n a rclatcd passagc, Nictzschc providcs thc brisk, historical dcconstruction ol mcta
physical bclicls bascd on musical lccling wc havc alrcady discusscd (p. abovc). Vc havc
prolound lcclings which not only sccm carry onc into thc hcart ol ultimatc rcality but
also to bc somchow scllccrtilying. 8ut, hc obscrvcs, such lcclings only sccm prolound
bccausc, impcrccptibly, thcy arousc ccrtain groups ol thoughts which wc rcgard as pro
lound thoughts about dcath, judgmcnt, hcavcn and hcll, thc rst and last things (thc
titlc ol Part ! ol Human) that Christians arc supposcd to mcditatc upon. Yct, hc continucs,
a prolound thought can noncthclcss bc vcry lar lrom thc truth as, lor cxamplc, cvcry mcta
physical thought is. And whcn wc dcduct thc thought lrom thc lccling all wc arc lclt with
is strong lccling, and this has nothing at all to do with kno.ledge.
6
Anothcr linc ol attack prcscnts thc mctaphysical artist as somcthing ol a con artist. (As
Lou Salom c points out, thc Vagncr cult is thc unnamcd targct hcrc.)
6
Artists ol this ilk
cncouragc thc romantic notion and cult ol gcnius, thc idca ol thc grcat artist as somconc
who is ablc to scc through as it wcrc, a holc in thc cloak ol appcarancc so that hc is ablc
to communicatc somcthing conclusivc and dccisivc about man and thc world.
6
Tough
thcy sccm to bc ghting lor an clcmcnt ol thc divinc in human naturc, thcy arc actually
ghting to gcncratc thc maximum prcstigc lor thcir art (so as, lor cxamplc, to raisc moncy
lor 8ayrcuth.)
nc ol thc tcchniqucs uscd to boost thc cult ol gcnius is to disguisc all signs ol bccoming
in thc artwork so as to givc it thc appcarancc ol a casually improviscd pcrlcction that only
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
a god could havc achicvcd. nc has this lccling bclorc, lor instancc, thc tcmplc at Pacstum
(Nictzschc visitcd it on onc ol his cxcursions lrom Sorrcnto), thc lccling that a god must
onc morning playlully havc constructcd his dwclling.

!n lact, howcvcr, thc briclcst ol

glanccs into 8ccthovcns notcbooks shows that, not a gilt lrom hcavcn, not thc inspiration
ol thc muscs (thc origin ol music), but rathcr hard work and good tastc arc what makc a
grcat artist: All grcat artists havc bccn grcat workcrs, incxhaustiblc not only in invcntion
|ol matcrial| but also in rcjccting, silting, translorming, ordcring.
66
!n a word, socallcd
gcnius is ninctcnths pcrspiration and at most onctcnth inspiration.
Not only do artists promotc thc cult ol gcnius, but also wc, thc audicncc, connivc with
thcm out ol thc alltoohuman motivc ol vanity. 8ccausc wc oursclvcs cannot writc a
Shakcspcarc play, wc dcccivc oursclvcs into thinking thcy must bc ol miraculous origin.
Tis rcscucs our vanity sincc, in Gocthcs words, thc stars wc do not covct. Tus, whcn
wc trcat somconc as divinc (whcn wc call thc singcr a diva or thc composcr Maestro or
Mastcr), what wc rcally mcan is hcrc thcrc is no nccd to compctc.
6

Morality. Christian morality as articulatcd by Kant and morc particularly by Schopcn
haucr, is bascd on two idcas. Tc rst is that virtuc consists in altruism uncgoism
as Nictzschc calls it. Tc idcal against which wc arc to mcasurc oursclvcs is Jcsus, that
paradigm ol purc, sclcss, univcrsal lovc. Tc sccond idca is that ol lrccdom and rcsponsi
bility. According to Christian moralists, thc actions wc pcrlorm arc our own lrcc choicc: in
cvcry casc, wc could havc actcd othcrwisc than wc did. !t lollows that wc arc rcsponsiblc,
accountablc, lor all our actions. Combincd, Nictzschc bclicvcs, thcsc idcas arc disastrous
lor human psychological hcalth. 8ccausc wc lccl wc ought to bc uncgoistic, and bclicvc,
morcovcr, that wc can bc uncgoistic, yct know that, at lcast most ol thc timc, wc arc not,
wc sucr lrom guilt, low scllcstccm.
68
!t thus bccomcs ccntral to Nictzschcs lilcmission
to libcratc us lrom thc grips ol Christian morality.
So lar, this has nothing to do with mctaphysics. 8ut in Schopcnhaucrs hands Christian
morality quickly acquircs mctaphysical baggagc. Likc Kant, Schopcnhaucr bclicvcs that
cvcnts in thc natural world arc, without cxccption, subjcct to causal laws. !l naturc wcrc
all thcrc was thcrc could bc no lrccdom. 8ut in lact, thanks to mctaphysical idcalism, wc
know that naturc is mcrc appcarancc, bchind which is thc intclligiblc world ol thc thing
in itscll . And hcrc wc nd thc ground ol lrccdom: sincc, as Kant shows, causality is nothing
morc than a lorm ol appcaranccs, thc scll in itscll has to bc undctcrmincd, lrcc. Hcncc,
in spitc ol cxccptionlcss causal dctcrminism throughout naturc, thc rcsponsibility wc lccl
lor our actions and thc guilt wc lccl whcn thcy arc not up to thc moral mark arc cntircly
justicd.
Tus lar, Schopcnhaucr mcrcly rcpcats Kant:
6
though as natural bcings wc arc lully
dctcrmincd, as intclligiblc bcings wc arc lrcc. 8ut, as hc justly obscrvcs, thc dctails ol
how this schcmc ol things could work arc lclt by Kant in a statc ol dccp mystcry. His own
contribution is to providc thosc dctails. !t works likc this. Tc apparcnt world ol naturc
is likc a train systcm: whcrc thc trains go is cntircly bcyond my control. 8ut which train !

Mozarts Jupitcr Symphony is a bcttcr illustration ol Nictzschcs point. !t was so callcd bccausc,
it was lclt, only a god could havc crcatcd such cortlcss pcrlcction. r rathcr, that is how onc was
supposed to lccl. Tc nicknamc camc not lromMozart but rathcr lromsomconc intcrcstcd in sclling
thc product, thc musical imprcsario Johann Solomon.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:
stcp into is cntircly up to mc. ! am born, that is to say, with a particular charactcr which
lunctions just likc thc charactcr or naturc ol any othcr natural bcing. Just as thc rocks
bchaviour is complctcly dctcrmincd by its naturc plus thc circumstanccs it nds itscll in (il
thrown into watcr it will sink rathcr than oat), so my bchaviour is complctcly dctcrmincd
by my charactcr plus thc circumstanccs ! nd myscll in. !l ! am a klcptomaniac and scc
somcthing nicc ! will stcal it. !hat character I ha.e, ho.e.er .hat character I ha.e stepped
into is entirely up to the intelligible me, thc rcsult ol an intclligiblc act ol lrcc choicc by
my rcal scll. Hcncc, although all my actions arc causally dctcrmincd, ! am at thc samc timc
both lrcc and rcsponsiblc.
o
Tc sccond way in which morality, in Schopcnhaucrs hands, acquircs mctaphysical bag
gagc conccrns thc possibility ol altruism. As wc saw (p. 8 abovc), thc norm ol human
bchaviour is, lor Schopcnhaucr, cgoism. Tis is rootcd in thc lact that thc only pain and
plcasurc ! lccl arc my own, that in tcrms ol oncs naivc and natural cxpcricncc ol thc world,
othcrs arc no dicrcnt lrom lcclinglcss robots. !l, thcn, thc natural world ol individuals
wcrc absolutcly rcal, altruism would nd ncithcr cxplanation not justication. 8ut, though
rarc, altruism, docs occur. And thc only possiblc cxplanation ol this is that thc altruistic
pcrson has thc mctaphysical insight that bchind thc vcil ol Maya all is nc. Givcn this
insight, anothcrs sucring bccomcs just as much minc as my own. !n this way, moral vir
tuc bccomcs, lor Schopcnhaucr, just likc art, a mattcr ol gcnius, a mattcr, oncc again, ol
sccing through a holc in thc cloak ol appcarancc (p. :+ abovc).
!n two ways thcn, Nictzschc obscrvcs, mctaphysical notions, mythological monstcrs arc
callcd upon to buttrcss morality.
,+
Schcmatically put, Schopcnhaucrs argumcnt is thc
lollowing. (+) Vc havc thc lrccdom to act altruistically and ought so to act. (:) For two
rcasons, this is not possiblc il thcrc is only a natural world. So () thcrc must bc a supcr
natural, mctaphysical world. Nictzschcs dcconstruction ol this routc to thc mctaphysical
takcs thc lorm ol attacking (+). Tc attack is twoprongcd. First hc argucs that thcrc is no
rcason to bclicvc in lrccdom ol any kind. And sccond, hc argucs that, in particular, wc arc
not lrcc to bc altruistic.

Nictzschcs critiquc ol lrccdom is simplc: sincc univcrsal causal dctcrminism is truc,
cvcrything, and in particular cvcry human action, is a ncccssary, mathcmatically calculablc
conscqucncc ol past cvcnts. !l onc wcrc allknowing onc would bc ablc to prcdict lrom thc
prcscnt statc ol thc world cvcry luturc action.
:
From univcrsal causation Nictzschc dcrivcs
immcdiatcly thc abscncc ol lrcc will.

(Noticc that, hcrc, Nictzschc has no timc lor thc

idca that thcrc might bc an important kind ol lrccdom that is compatible .ith univcrsal
causal dctcrminism. !n his latcr works, hc will changc his mind on this.)

!n dcconstructing thc routc to thc mctaphysical through art, Nictzschc is attacking a tcndcncy that
most ol us can, il not sharc, at lcast cmpathisc with. 8ut in criticising thc routc through morality hc
is attacking a routc sharcd only by thosc immcrscd in thc philosophy ol Kant and Schopcnhaucr.
Lcst it bc thought that Nictzschc rcally should not bc bothcring with routcs liablc to bc takcn only
by thosc with that vcry spccial background, it nccds to bc oncc again rcmcmbcrcd that hc writcs,
in thc rst instancc, lor a particular audicncc: rst lor himscll Human is thc work in which !
libcratcd myscll lrom that in my naturc .hich did not belong to me (H !!! HH +) and sccond
lor Gcrmans ol thc latc ninctccnth ccntury with backgrounds vcry likc his own. For his choscn,
primary audicncc it would bc almost ccrtain that thcy too, wcrc, or had bccn, immcrscd in thc
VagncrSchopcnhaucr worldvicw.
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhy should wc bclicvc in univcrsal causal dctcrminism: Nictzschc providcs no dircct
argumcnt lor its truth. !t is, rathcr, a lundamcntal axiom ol thc scicntic rcscarch pro
grammc to which Human is committcd. !nstcad, hc dclcnds thc principlc indircctly by
attacking what (Ncwtonian rathcr than quantum mcchanics bcing thc ordcr ol thc day) hc
takcs to bc thc only possiblc objcction to thc principlc thc allcgcd cxistcncc ol human
lrccdom.
riginally, suggcsts Nictzschc, it was thought that e.erything happcns on account ol a
lrcc will: hungcr, lor cxamplc, just happcncd on its own account. 8ccausc primcval man
could not scc a causc, hc assumcd nonc cxistcd and that cvcrything happcncd ol its own lrcc
will. Vc havc now dispcnscd with this piccc ol prchistory cxccpt in thc casc ol oursclvcs.
8ut now it is timc to divcst oursclvcs ol this last rclic ol primcval thought, to takc thc nal
stcp lrom humanitys childhood and into intcllcctual adulthood. Vc should no morc call a
human bcing immoral lor his harmlul actions than wc call thc thundcrstorm immoral lor
making us wct.

Vhat, howcvcr, is it which has prcvcntcd us taking this stcp to complete scicntic nat
uralism: Nothing othcr than Christianitys cultural indoctrination dcsigncd, not lor our
bcnct, but to promotc its own powcr.

Frcc will is an invcntion ol thc pricsts dcsigncd to

makc us dcpcndcnt on thcm. (! shall rcturn to this claim shortly.) 8clicl in lrcc will thus
has a thoroughly disrcputablc provcnancc and should bc abandoncd by any rational bcing.
And so thcrc is no nccd lor Schopcnhaucrs cxotic mctaphysics. Tc cthics it was dcsigncd
to cxplain and justily was a lalsc cthics.
6

! turn now to Nictzschcs attack on thc morality ol altruism, thc Christian cthic ol, as
Zarathustra will call it, ncighbour lovc articulatcd in Schopcnhaucrs moral philosophy. As
wc havc sccn, Schopcnhaucrs routc lrom virtuc to thc mctaphysical is, in a nutshcll, thc
lollowing argumcnt. Vcrc naturalism to bc truc, all action would bc cgoistic. 8ut though
rarc, thcrc arc occasional cascs ol gcnuinc altruism. Tcrclorc, naturalism cannot bc truc,
thcrc must bc a mctaphysical world. An obvious way, thcrclorc, ol blocking this routc to thc
mctaphysical would bc to dcny that thcrc arc any cxccptions to thc norm ol cgoism.

Tis
is Nictzschcs stratcgy. goism is not mcrcly thc norm, it is thc univcrsal rulc. Tc stratcgy,
in othcr words, is to arguc lor psychological cgoism thc doctrinc that all human action
is motivatcd by scllintcrcst.

Actually, Nictzschc arms a particular lorm ol psychological cgoism psychological

hcdonism. Tis is thc vicw (onc that, latcr, hc will cmphatically rcjcct) that all actions arc
motivatcd by scllintcrcst plus a particular vicw ol scllintcrcst: that thc only intcrcsts wc
havc arc in cxpcricncing plcasurc and avoiding pain: in cvcry casc, Nictzschc writcs, thc
solc dcsirc that satiscs itscll is thc dcsirc lor my own plcasurc.
8
So lar as arguing lor thc thcsis gocs, Nictzschcs tcchniquc is to cxplain away apparent
cascs ol altruistic action or lccling. Tus, lor cxamplc, pity is rcally an cxcrcisc in lccling
powcrlul.

!l ! givc thc :oo dollars ! havc just takcn out ol thc ATMmachinc to thc bcggar
on thc pavcmcnt my motivc is to cnjoy thc cxpcricncc ol my own supcrior position in lilc.
And truthlulncss, lar lrom bcing an cxcrcisc in honcsty or justicc, is gcncrally cxplaincd

A morc succcsslul way would bc to point out that Schopcnhaucrs account ol virtuc as insight
into thc truth that oncs own truc, mctaphysical scll is idcntical with all othcr mctaphysical sclvcs
rcduccd phcnomcnal altruism to mctaphysical cgoism. !l, thcn, phcnomcnal cgoism had no moral
worth ncithcr should mctaphysical cgoism.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:
by thc lact that lying rcquircs high intclligcncc and a good mcmory, so that thc motivc
pcoplc gcncrally havc lor bcing truthlul is lcar ol bcing lound out.
8o
And so on, through
many othcr dctailcd analyscs disclosing thc alltoohuman motivcs undcrlying apparcnt
altruism.
Tc problcm, howcvcr, with thc asscmbly ol such cascs is that, at bcst, thcy add up only to
thc position, alrcady admittcd by Schopcnhaucr, that cgoism is thc general rulc ol human
bchaviour. No asscmblagc ol cascs can cstablish that it is thc univcrsal rulc. And indccd
common scnsc tclls us that thc univcrsal rulc is lalsc. Pcoplc sacricc thcmsclvcs in war
without, somctimcs, any bclicl in an altcrlilc or any lcar ol social rctribution il thcy do
not. And pcoplc do things bccausc thcy think it thcir duty. l coursc, Nictzschc can claim
that, givcn timc, hc can discovcr an cgoistic motivc in thcsc cascs too, but thc qucstion
is: how docs hc know: Tc claim that thcrc must bc such a motivc to discovcr is no morc
than ungroundcd, indccd irrational, dogmatism prcciscly what thc nlightcnmcnt, sci
cntic outlook is supposcd to bc ovcrcoming. Rohdc particularly dislikcd what hc saw as
thc dogmatism ol Nictzschcs book.
Rccognising this, pcrhaps, Nictzschc trics to rcdccmthc situation via thc dcspcratc movc
ol producing an a priori, conccptual argumcnt lor psychological cgoism:
No onc has cvcr donc anything that was donc wholly lor othcrs and with no pcrsonal
motivation whatsocvcr. How indccd should a man bc able to do somcthing that had no
rclcrcncc to himscll, that is to say, lackcd all inncr compulsion . . . How could thc cgo act
without thc cgo:
8+
Tc argumcnt gcsturcd towards, hcrc, is this: an action is a bodily movcmcnt causcd by
a dcsirc or want, an inncr compulsion, in othcr words, a prclcrcncc. So cvcry act ! pcr
lorm satiscs somc prclcrcncc ol minc. My scllintcrcst is composcd ol my prclcrcnccs.
Tcrclorc, cvcry act is scllintcrcstcd. 8ut, as alrcady pointcd out, it sccms simply lalsc to
supposc that all prclcrcnccs arc scllintcrcstcd. Tc man who dics in battlc sacrices scll
intcrcst to lovc ol country. Lacking a philosophical training, tcchnical logicchopping was
not Nictzschcs strong suit.
Why econstruct Metaphysics?
N
ictzschc acknowlcdgcs a scrious downsidc to his dcconstruction ol mctaphysics, thc
survcy ol which wc havc now complctcd. Tc loss ol Christianity, in particular a
proccss which is happcning anyway, but which Humans dcconstructivc programmc aims to
cxpcditc has a tragic sidc to it. For Christianity has, in lact, bccn rcsponsiblc lor thc ncst
products ol Vcstcrn civilisation likcly, Nictzschc is thinking hcrc, inter alios, ol his lcllow
Saxons, 8ach and Handcl.
8:
And morcovcr, thc slowbrcathing rcposc ol a past in which
onc was ablc to vicw oncscll lrom thc pcrspcctivc ol ctcrnity contrasts sharply with thc
agitatcd cphcmcral cxistcncc ol thc prcscnt agc.
8
Tc qucstion prcscnts itscll, thcrclorc,
as to what thc point is ol dcmolishing laith in thc mctaphysical world. Vhat, il anything,
makcs thc cntcrprisc worthwhilc:
Nictzschc himscll raiscs this qucstion: will our philosophy . . . bccomc a tragcdy: Vill
truth not bccomc inimical to lilc, to thc bcttcr man:
8
Hc worricd about this in thc
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
notcbooks. Tc worry conccrns, in particular, thc programmc ol psychological obscrva
tions dcsigncd, at lcast on Nictzschcs part, to dcmolish thc idca ol human altruism. La
Rochcloucauld and thc author ol thc Psychological Obser.ations (i.c., R cc) arc, hc obscrvcs,
skillul marksmcn who always hit thc Sch.arze. Sch.arze mcans bullscyc. 8ut it also
mcans thc black. So, hcrc, hc is making two points at oncc: R ccs aphoristic obscrvations
on human naturc arc always dcad on targct. 8ut cqually, thcy always highlight thc black sidc
ol human naturc ocr, in Hcincs phrasc, a night vicw ol humanity. Tc samc, is truc ol
his own obscrvations. A couplc ol cxamplcs. nc is twicc as glad to lcap altcr a man who
has lallcn into thc watcr whcrc thcrc arc pcoplc prcscnt who darc not do so.
8
Tcrc arc
lcw who, whcn thcy arc in want ol mattcr lor convcrsation, do not rcvcal thc morc sccrct
aairs ol thcir lricnds.
86
Aphorisms such as thcsc havc an ouch lactor. As Nictzschc says,
thcy put us on thc moral dissccting tablc whcrc knivcs and lorccps arc applicd in a way
that is not only prccisc but also crucl.
8
Tc notcbooks worry about thc ccct ol such cruclty.

8clicl in thc good, in uncgoistic

actions, hc obscrvcs, has incrcascd social trust. 8ut bclicl in thc oppositc will makc human
socicty wcakcr, morc mistrustlul. To bc surc, onc can admirc thc skill ol thc marksmcn,
yct in thc intcrcsts ol human wcllbcing onc could wish thcy did not havc thc intcntion ol
bclittling and crcating suspicion.
88
So would wc not bc bcttcr o without thcm: (Noticc
thc passing ol a shadow ovcr thc rclationship with R cc. Nictzschc placcs, hcrc, a qucstion
mark against both R ccs charactcr and his inucncc on Nictzschcs own work.)
Nictzschcs mcthod ol rcjccting this doubt is not cntircly consistcnt duc, ! suspcct, to a
subtcrrancan strugglc bctwccn his own, lundamcntally constructivc, lilcarming impulsc,
and R ccs disposition to worlddcnying nihilism. Hc has, that is, two dicrcnt ways ol
rcsponding to thc doubt.
Tc rst rcsponsc obscrvcs that although his programmc ol dcconstruction is csscntial to
killing o thc mythical monstcrs invcntcd by Christianity, whcthcr psychological obscr
vation is morc advantagcous or disadvantagcous to man may rcmain undccidcd. Vhat is
ccrtain, howcvcr, hc continucs, is that it must carry on sincc scicncc, which knows no rcgard
lor nal objcctivcs to do with human wcllbcing, cannot dispcnsc with it.
8
Tis raiscs thc
obvious qucstion: why scicncc: Vhy thc will to truth whatcvcr thc cost:
!n a discussion ol this samc issuc truth vcrsus human happincss in conncction with
rcligion, Nictzschc dccidcs that, at lcast in thc short tcrm, thc dcstruction ol rcligion .ill
makc human bcings morc miscrablc sincc scicncc can ocr nothing by way ol an cquivalcnt
comlort. So, as 8yron puts it in his pocm Manfred (thc inspiration lor Nictzschcs illlatcd
Manfred Meditation (p. + abovc)),
sorro. is kno.ledge: those .ho kno. the most
must mourn the deepest oer the fatal truth,
the tree of kno.ledge is not that of life.
Noncthclcss, hc continucs, onc has to hold last to thc work ol dcconstruction sincc onc
can no longcr havc any association with |Christianity| without incurably dirtying oncs
intcllcctual conscicncc and prostituting oncscll bclorc oncscll and othcrs.
o

Tcy also worry that it can bc ovcrdonc. You havc, Nictzschc writcs, initiating a linc ol scll
criticism, dcvclopcd thc art ol nding a shamclul origin to such an cxtcnt onc would nd a dis
cussion ol . . . toothbrushing dcmcaning (KSA 8 : |:|). Somctimcs, as Frcud probably did not
say, but 8ill Clinton might havc, a cigar is just a cigar.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:
Tis, as wc might call it, macho morality, is thc typical companion ol positivism. Tc
samc morality appcars in anothcr positivist work, Albcrt Camuss Te Myth of Sisyphus, in
Camuss attack on Kicrkcgaards lcap ol laith as philosophical suicidc, a mutilation ol
thc soul that is a burning insult to human pridc. Rcal mcn, knights ol truth,

do not
go snivclling back to rcligion or rcligious substitutcs such as Vagncrs music bccausc, likc
Sisyphus pushing his rock up thc mountain throughout all ctcrnity, thcy can stand thc pain.
!n somc passagcs Nictzschc prcscnts a kind ol argumcnt lor macho morality. Sincc thc
dcnition ol man is rational animal, sincc rcason is thc human csscncc, it lollows that
thc asccnt ol man through thc supcrstitions cmbodicd in rcligion and art to thc scicntic
outlook ol nlightcnmcnt rationality rcprcscnts his progrcssivc humanisation. Tc culti
vation ol rcason and scicncc, thc highcst powcrs ol man rcprcscnts, that is to say, humanitys
(Hcgclian or Comtcan) progrcss lrom inlancy to lull maturity, to thc lull rcalization ol its
distinctivc powcrs.
+
Tc argumcnt, hcrc, sccms to bc this. Tc human csscncc is rationality. Hcncc thc uncon
ditional pursuit ol truth (i.c., bcing a complctcly rational bcing) is thc lullcst dcvclopmcnt
ol thc human csscncc. Tcrclorc, onc ought to pursuc truth at any pricc. Howcvcr, oncc
thc argumcnt is sct out likc this its wcakncsscs bccomc obvious. First, though vcncrablc,
thc dcnition ol man as rational animal is actually quitc arbitrary. For cvcn il rationality is,
within thc animal world, uniquc to humans, so too arc, lor instancc, rcligion, art, politics,
and laughtcr. So onc might cqually wcll dcnc man as artistic animal, rcligious animal,
political animal, or animal with a scnsc ol humour. Laying this asidc, howcvcr, thc argu
mcnt contains a bad mistakc conccrning rationality. !l, that is, rationality is vicwcd (actually
implausibly) as a capacity that scts us apart lrom othcr animals thcn what must bc mcant is
instrumental rationality, thc calculation ol ccicnt mcans to dcsircd cnds. 8ut bcing rational
in this scnsc docs not cntail a commitmcnt to truth at any pricc. !l, lor cxamplc, thc loss
ol rcligion rcally would makc us, cvcn in thc long run, morc miscrablc than wc arc, thcn,
il possiblc, wc ought to try to prcscrvc it. Nictzschc has misscd this point bccausc hc has
conluscd complete rationality with pure rationality, whcrc a purcly rational bcing is conccivcd
as a purc thinkcr with no dcsircs othcr than thc dcsirc to know. As it wcrc, a brain without
a body. 8ut human bcings arc not likc that.

Rcally, howcvcr, Nictzschcs dalliancc with macho morality is no morc than a dalliancc.
For his main ccrtainly his bcst thrust consists in arguing, rst, that, on balancc, thc old,
mctaphysical culturc has bccn scriously damaging to human wcllbcing, and, sccond, that,
at least in the medium to long term, nlightcnmcnt rcason and scicncc, propcrly dcploycd,
will makc us bcttcr o, will producc a highcr culturc in which human bcings can livc lar
morc ourishing livcs than in thc old culturc. Hc has, it sccms to mc, thrcc basic lincs ol
argumcnt to dcmonstratc that thc old, Christian culturc has bccn scriously damaging to
human hcalth. Tc rst has to do with its promotion ol scllhatrcd, thc sccond with its
lailurc to addrcss thc rcal causcs ol sucring, thc third with thc incapacity ol Christian
cthics to promotc social wcllbcing.
Self-hatred. Christianity, says Nictzschc, scrvcs thc cnd ol not mcrcly casting suspicion
on cvcrything human but ol opprcssing, scourging and crucilying it. Abovc all, ol coursc,

!n Te Birth of Tragedy Nictzschc praiscs Schopcnhaucr lor his lrank acknowlcdgmcnt ol thc miscry
ol human cxistcncc, rclcrring to him as, altcr thc manncr ol urcr, a knight ol . . . truth (8T :o).
Tc rclcrcncc is to urcrs Knight, Death and De.il, a print ol which Nictzschc posscsscd and
which, as hc told Malwida, acctcd him dccply (KG8 !!. 6).
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
it crucics scx. (Lack ol scxual rclcasc, hc obscrvcs, gcncratcs scxual lantasy, so that thc
Christian saints sucrcd lrom many dirty lantasics which thcy had to conlcss and thcn
scourgc thcmsclvcs all thc morc.) Tc moral dcmands Christianity placcs on us arc, by
design, impossiblc to lull, thc point bcing to makc us lccl as sinful as possible and hcncc
dcpcndcnt on thc Churchs powcr ol absolution, and hcncc, ol coursc, on thc pricsts. Chris
tianity, to rcpcat, burdcn|s| thc hcart so as . . . to bc ablc |partially| to rclicvc it. Tc prin
cipal mcans ol doing this is by crcating rolc modcls it is impossiblc to livc up to. (Nonc
ol us can, in Jimmy Cartcrs words, avoid adultcry in thc hcart, nonc ol us can survivc
without killing at lcast small things.) Tc Christian comparcs himscll with God (or Jcsus)
so that, cvcn altcr thc idca ol God dics away, onc is lclt with a lccling ol dcprcssion causcd
by thc pang ol conscicncc . . . thc lccling ol guilt. Tc Christian is likc on Quixotc, who
undcrcstimatcs his own couragc bccausc his hcad is llcd with thc miraculous dccds ol thc
hcrocs ol mcdicval chivalry.
:
l coursc, this stratcgy ol making us lccl unspcakably sinlul dcmands that wc havc lrcc
will othcrwisc our sinlulncss would bc thc crcators lault, not ours. Tis is why thc dcnial
ol lrcc will, and so ol moral rcsponsibility, is so important to Nictzschc: thc rcal payo is thc
dcnial ol guilt. Tc abolition ol lrcc will is thus, in a way that curiously mimics Christianity
itscll, redempti.e. Tc dismal, lcarinspiring drcam disappcars (rccall Fritzs tcrror bclorc
thc statuc ol thc knight in his lathcrs church (p. 8 abovc) and whcn onc opcns oncs cycs
onc is oncc morc in paradisc.

iscarding thc myth ol lrcc will, humanity rccovcrs its lost

innoccncc.

Causes of Suering. Givcn somc lormol sucring, Nictzschc obscrvcs, onc can cithcr altcr
its cccts on our scnsibility or rcmovc its causc. Christianity docs thc lormcr your worldly
mislortunc is Gods chastising you but thcrcby rcvcaling that hc has you in thc lorclront
ol his mind, that you arc thc objcct ol his (tough) lovc. Christianity narcoticizcs (is, as
Marx obscrvcd, thc opium ol thc masscs), but in doing so it distracts onc lrom sccking
to rcmovc thc causc ol sucring. !l onc takcs a painkillcr thc impctus to go to thc dcntist
is wcakcncd.

!n thc samc vcin, Nictzschc obscrvcs that cducation (hc is thinking hcrc ol
tcchnical cducation) will bc takcn scriously only altcr bclicl in God has disappcarcd, just
as mcdicinc can only ourish as a scicncc whcn onc givcs up bclicl in miraclcs.
6
Scllhclp
will only ourish altcr wc givc up thc idca ol divinc hclp.
nc might, ol coursc, objcct that many ol thc things that causc us to sucr thc ccrtainty
ol dcath, thc compctitivc structurc ol lilc cannot havc thcir causcs rcmovcd by scicncc, so
that an altcring ol our scnsibility by a rcligion ol somc sort will always bc ncccssary to a
ourishing cxistcncc. Scnsing this wcakncss in his position, Nictzschc prcvaricatcs. n thc
onc hand, hc writcs that duc to thc advancc ol scicncc, thc rcalm ol implacablc dcstiny is
growing narrowcr and narrowcr a bad outlook lor pricsts and writcrs ol tragcdy,

which
might bc suggcsting that thc ultimatc aim ol scicncc is human immortality. 8ut on thc
othcr hand, hc suggcsts that thc aim ol scicncc is morc modcst: as littlc pain as possiblc,
as long a lilc as possiblc, thus a kind ol ctcrnal bliss.
8
8ut ol coursc longcr lilc is no kind
ol ctcrnal lilc at all, so that thc problcm ol dcath rcmains. As Nictzschc rccogniscs in his
maturc philosophy, his position hcrc is unsatislactory. Somcthing dccp and scrious nccds
to bc said about dcath as it had bccn in Te Birth of Tragedy.
Ethics. 8clorc Christianity appcarcd, Nictzschc writcs, thc standard ol good and cvil
was custom, and custom was bascd on social utility. Tat was thc standard, not thc qucstion
ol whcthcr oncs motivcs wcrc cgoistic or uncgoistic. Providcd onc habitually submittcd
Human, ll-Too-Human

:,
to custom onc was a good pcrson, thc qucstion ol whcthcr onc did so willingly or unwill
ingly was irrclcvant. So prcChristian moral judgmcnts wcrc bascd on thc conscqucnccs
ol actions. !l thcy wcrc bcnccial no onc was intcrcstcd in cxamining your motivcs. (Kant
says that thc shopkccpcr who is honcst bccausc hc bclicvcs honcsty thc bcst busincss policy
dcscrvcs no moral crcdit, that only il hc is honcst bccausc hc sccs it to bc his duty is hc mor
ally admirablc. !l Nictzschc is right, a prcChristian would scc no moral dicrcncc bctwccn
thc two.)
Social utility is rcally thc only rational basis lor morals. And thc lact is, Nictzschc argucs,
that thc wcllbcing ol socicty at largc is much bcttcr promotcd by cvcryonc pursuing his
own highcst good than by pityllcd agitations and actions lor thc sakc ol othcrs. l
coursc crudc individuals will havc a crudc undcrstanding ol thcir own good that will by no
mcans promotc gcncral wcllbcing. Vhat wc nccd is a cultivatcd undcrstanding ol our own
highcst advantagc.

As wcll as arming psychological cgoism, thcrclorc, Nictzschc also

arms a lormol cthical cgoism: not only are wc, wc also ought to bc, cnlightcncd cgoists
as Nictzschc and !sabclla von Prahlcn agrccd whilc sightsccing in Pisa (p. :o abovc). Vc
ought to pursuc that which bcst promotcs our happincss not that which sccms to, but
that which really does promotc it.
!t is not, thcn, Christian altruismbut rathcr cnlightcncd cgoism, Nictzschc claims, which
bcst promotcs thc wcllarc ol socicty as a wholc. Vhy docs hc bclicvc this: Tc only clucs
arc his idcntication ol pursuing oncs highcst good with cultivating thc pcrsonal in us,
mak|ing| oncscll a complctc person.
+oo
To nd out what hc has in mind, hcrc, somc shing
around in othcr tcxts is callcd lor.
Trough all phascs ol his carccr, Nictzschc spcaks rcpcatcdly ol oncs ufgabe, oncs task
or mission. !n Schopenhauer as Educator oncs truc scll is idcnticd as a task sct high
abovc onc (p. + abovc). !n Zarathustra thc cponymous hcro says what docs happincss
mattcr to mc . . . ! amstriving altcr my work, to which his animals rcply, but you arc basking
in a skybluc lakc ol happincss, which lorccs him to admit that thcy know him as wcll as hc
knows himscll.
+o+
Part ol what is involvcd, hcrc, is thc socallcd paradox ol happincss: just
as playing thc piano or typing gocs bcttcr il onc avoids thinking about whcrc thc ngcrs arc
going, so happincss is bcst achicvcd, not by aiming dircctly at it, but rathcr by absorbing
oncscll in commitmcnt to somc task other than thc achicvcmcnt ol oncs own happincss.
Nictzschc writcs to Malwida, on his way back to 8ascl lromSorrcnto in July +8, that in
spitc ol his alicnation lrom thc lilc ol a prolcssor and drcad ol oncc morc having to lccturc,
hc is going back bccausc hc cant stand it not to havc thc lccling ol bcing usclul, and thc
8asclcrs arc thc only oncs who allow mc to lccl that ! am.
+o:
(Soon hc will changc his
mind, dcciding that hc is morc usclul to humanity as a lrcc writcr.) Tis is a lundamcntal
(and to my mind corrcct) thcmc in all ol Nictzschcs writing: to cultivatc oncscll lully, as
an intcgratcd pcrson, onc nccds a lilcunilying task in Sartrcs languagc a lundamcntal
projcct that givcs unity and cohcrcncc to all oncs lcsscr projccts. Morcovcr, this task
has to bc other-rcgarding, othcrbcncting. Vc might put his point by saying that living
a truly satislying human lilc is a mattcr ol bcing, as it wcrc, a prolcssional. nc cannot
bc an actor without an audicncc, a doctor without paticnts, or a lawycr without clicnts.
And onc cannot bc lulllcd as an actor or doctor without lccling onc is doing a good job,
bcncting oncs audicncc or paticnts. !n a similar way, Nictzschc holds, ! think, that gcnuinc
happincss is a mattcr ol having an othcrdircctcd, lilcdcning task a lilc mcaning and
lccling you arc making a good job ol it, making, as wc say, a contribution. !t is, thcn, truly
:&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
cnlightcncd cgoism, rathcr than sighing with inccctual, Christian pity or gritting oncs
tccth with Kantian dutilulncss, that produccs productivc commitmcnt to thc wcllarc ol
oncs community at largc.
Nietzsches Higher Culture
V
c comc now to, ultimatcly, thc most important, thc constructivc sidc ol Human.
Vc nccd, Nictzschc has argucd, to dcvclop a ncw, cnlightcncd, thoroughly post
Christian socicty, a highcr culturc bascd on rcason. Vhat will it look likc:
Vc livc, hc says, in thc agc ol comparisons. Vith thc ncw tcchnologics ol travcl and
communication railways, thc tclcgraph, and thc prospcct ol airships
+o
wc arc no longcr
prisoncrs ol thc cncloscd, hcrmctically scalcd national culturcs ol thc past. Vc livc, rathcr,
in Vagncrs papcr culturc, amidst a wholc polyphony ol lragmcnts ol past and dicrcnt
culturcs. arlicr, wc saw, Nictzschc dcplorcd this lairground motlcy ol modcrn culturc, but
hcrc hc looks on its bright sidc. Tc (as wc now say) multicultural charactcr ol modcrnity
givcs us thc opportunity ol consciously choosing a ncw culturc on thc basis ol comparison,
ol mixing and matching.
+o
Vhat, thcn, should wc choosc:
First, thc ncw culturc should bc purgcd, ol coursc, ol all thc dcplorablc lcaturcs ol mo
dcrnity. !t will, lor cxamplc, avoid thc comcdy ol unrcason whcrcby (as in Gocthcs lablc ol
thc Sorccrcrs Apprcnticc) human bcings invcnt machincs to makc thcir livcs casicr but cnd
up as industrial (or clcctronic) slavcs ol thcir own tcchnology, mcrc matcrial lor hcating up
thc grcat machinc, which thcn bccomcs an cnd in itscll .
+o
Sccond, thc ncw agc will bc
onc in which culturc is not thrcatcncd by thc mcans to culturc.
+o6
Nictzschc is cxprcssing,
hcrc, his opposition to thc big, allcontrolling statc, whcthcr it bc 8ismarcks Prussia or thc
totalising statc hc thinks would arrivc wcrc socialism to havc its way. !nucnccd by 8urck
hardts account ol thc !talian Rcnaissancc,
+o
Nictzschc sccs a dcgrcc ol social anarchy as
ncccssary to thc cmcrgcncc ol thc cxccptional individual. An allcontrolling statc produccs
mcrc hcrd typcs, robotic, rwcllian conlormists: Tc statc is a prudcnt institution lor thc
protcction ol individuals lrom onc anothcr: il it is complctcd and pcrlcctcd too lar it will
in thc cnd cnlccblc thc individual and, indccd, dissolvc him that is, thwart thc original
purposc ol thc statc.
+o8
Tcn again, in contrast to at lcast Prussian modcrnity, thcrc will bc no conscript army,
sincc conscription is a guarantccd way ol killing o thc bravcst and thc bcst, prcciscly thosc
whom socicty nccds lor a good and abundant postcrity. !t kills thcm o bccausc thcy
naturally gravitatc to thc most dangcrous lcadcrship positions.
+o
Nictzschc mcntions thc
Grccks in this conncction, but is surcly thinking, too, ol thc Plorta alumni who dicd on 8is
marcks battlcclds. (Shortly, wc shall scc, hc dccidcs that standing, national armics should
bc abolishcd altogcthcr.)
Tcn again, in contrast to thc lrcnctic pacc ol modcrnity and to its obscssion with activity
and production (outputs, as wc say in thc modcrn univcrsity), thc ncw culturc will placc a
high valuc on idlcncss, will makc a grcat dcal ol spacc lor thc .ita contemplati.a. Activc
mcn arc gcncric crcaturcs, hcrd typcs: sincc thcy act rathcr than think, thcy havc no chancc
ol thinking, in particular, that thcrc might bc somcthing wrong with thc culturc which thcy
inhabit and which shapcs thcir actions. nly thinkcrs havc a chancc ol challcnging thc
status quo, ol bccoming uniquc individuals lrcc spirits, in othcr words.
++o
Human, ll-Too-Human

:&:
Te Teory of Cultural Evolution
N
ictzschcs dclcncc ol idlcncss raiscs thc qucstion ol thc importancc ol lrcc spirits.
Vhy, cxactly, docs hc valuc thcm so highly: Humans lundamcntal aim, wc havc sccn,
is a sccond Rclormation, a paradigm shilt to a ncw culturc.
+++
!t is, morcovcr, a book lor
lrcc spirits. vidcntly, thcrclorc, lrcc spirits arc thc kcy clcmcnt in bringing about this
paradigm shilt. 8ut how and why should this bc so:
Nictzschc obscrvcs that lcttcrcd spirits act out ol habit rathcr than rcason. nc docs
not bccomc a Christian as thc rcsult ol a rccctivc choicc lollowing a coursc in comparativc
rcligion, but rathcr in thc way in which thosc born in wincdrinking countrics bccomc winc
drinkcrs.
++:
(Tc gcographical clustcring ol rcligions shows that Nictzschc is, in gcncral,
right.) Fcttcrcd spirits, hc continucs, rcgard lrcc spirits as dangcrous bccausc thcy assumc
that thcir cstablishcd laith is what bcst promotc communal utility. 8ut prcciscly bccausc
thcir traditional practiccs arc bascd on laith rathcr than rcason, thcy arc somctimcs wrong.
!n a mctaphor, thc community may nd itscll in a lorcst and unablc to nd its way out.
Tis is whcrc thc lrcc spirit may bc usclul or thc gcnius, a word now to bc undcrstood
without any avour ol thc mythological or rcligious: thc lrcc spirit or gcnius is original in
that somctimcs hc discovcrs a ncw path which no onc clsc knows.
++
Somcwhat pcrvcrscly, Nictzschc spcaks ol this proccss as progrcss to a highcr culturc
through dcgcncration. History, hc writcs,
tcachcs us that thc branch ol a pcoplc |!olk| that prcscrvcs itscll bcst is that in which
most pcoplc havc, as a conscqucncc ol thc samcncss ol thcir sharcd habitual and undis
cussablc principlcs, that is to say, as a conscqucncc ol thcir sharcd laith, a living scnsc ol
community.
++
Hcncc thc prcscrvation ol a community dcmands that lcttcrcd spirits arc always thc rulc,
lrcc spirits thc cxccption.
++
Howcvcr,
thc dangcr lacing thcsc strong communitics loundcd on similarly constitutcd, rm
charactcrcd individuals is that ol thc gradually incrcasing inhcritcd stupidity that haunts
all stability likc its shadow. !t is thc morc unlcttcrcd, unccrtain and |according to thc prc
vailing morality| morally wcakcr individuals upon whom spiritual progress dcpcnds in such
communitics: it dcpcnds on thc mcn who attcmpt ncw things and, in gcncral, many things.
Countlcss numbcrs ol this kind pcrish on account ol thcir wcakncss without producing any
visiblc ccct, but in gcncral, and cspccially whcn thcy lcavc postcrity, thcy ccct a looscn
ing up and lrom timc to timc inict an injury on thc stablc clcmcnt ol a community. !t is
prcciscly at this injurcd and wcakcncd spot that thc wholc body is, as it wcrc, inoculated with
somcthing ncw, its strcngth must, howcvcr, bc, as a wholc, sucicnt to rcccivc this ncw
thing into its blood and to assimilatc it. cgcncratc naturcs arc ol thc highcst signicancc
whcrcvcr progrcss is to bc ccctcd. vcry progrcss ol thc wholc has to bc prcccdcd by a
partial wcakcning. Tc strongcst naturcs preser.e thc typc, thc wcakcr hclp it to e.ol.e.
To makc clcar that, as types, thc lcttcrcd and lrcc spirits arc ol equal valuc, Nictzschc cnds thc
passagc by saying that only whcn thcrc is sccurcly loundcd and guarantccd long duration is a
stcady cvolution and cnnobling inoculation at all possiblc: though thc dangcrous companion
:&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol all duration, cstablishcd authority, will, to bc surc, usually rcsist it.
++6
pprcssion and
rcsistancc, rcaction and rclorm, rcprcscnt, thcrclorc, not isolatcd pcriods ol turbulcncc but
rathcr a pcrmancnt (agonistic) tcnsion in, thc pcrmancnt dynamic ol, a hcalthy socicty.
Givcn this account ol cultural cvolution, which, as wc saw, madc its rst, cmbryonic,
appcarancc in thc third Untimely Meditation (pp. +8 abovc), it bccomcs vcry natural
to dcscribc thc lrcc spirit as thc random mutation Nictzschc uscs thc word mutila
tion.
++
As wc know lrom Te Birth of Tragedy, a community can only thrivc, can only
cxist as a community, through posscssion ol a sharcd communal laith. 8ut such a laith
can bccomc a stupidity whcn it disablcs thc community lrom mccting thc challcngcs
prcscntcd by an cvcrchanging cnvironmcnt. (Somc pcoplc arguc, lor cxamplc, that thc
laith that is Vcstcrn dcmocracy is incapablc ol mccting thc challcngc ol global warming.)
Hcncc a hcalthy socicty nccds pathndcrs, thosc who rcjcct thc cstablishcd way ol doing
things and hcrald a ncw lorm ol lilc, invcnt ncw lilcpossibilitics to wcigh against thc old
oncs.
++8
Tis account ol social cvolution is purc (social) arwinism. Strangcly, though this is
thc pcrvcrsc clcmcnt in thc discussion Nictzschc ocrs it as a objection to arwinism
which, rcmcmbcr, vc ycars carlicr, in +8, hc had hcld to bc truc.
++
Sincc it is prcciscly
thc wcakcr naturcs that contributc to social cvolution, hc claims, thc cclcbratcd strugglc
lor cxistcncc docs not sccm to mc thc only thcory by which thc progrcss or strcngthcning
ol a . . . racc can bc cxplaincd . . . A pcoplc that bccomcs somcwhat wcak and lragilc but as a
wholc is still strong and hcalthy is most succcsslul.
+:o
Tis is a rcally vcry wcak objcction
and conrms thc suspicion that Nictzschc only kncw arwin lrom sccondhand sourccs.
arwinismholds mcrcly that thc most adapti.e spccics survivc bcst. !t is not at all committcd
to thc survival ol thc ttcst, whcrc thc ttcst or strongcst spccics is idcnticd as that which
bcst prcscrvcs its systcm ol intcrnal organisation.
Rational Living: Slavery, Punishment, Euthanasia,
Eugenics, Conservation
V
hat thc idlcncss ol thc rccctivc lrcc spirit to whom thc luturc dircction ol socicty
is cntrustcd mcans is lrccdom lrom thc nccd to carn a living. And this, ol coursc,
comcs at a cost. !l somc arc to bc idlc othcrs must support thcm. So a rational socicty will
bc hierarchical. Such a hicrarchy, howcvcr, is not cxploitation but mcrcly thc dclcgation ol
manual labour to thosc who sucr lcast lrom it.
+:+
Tis suggcsts that Nictzschc cndorscs
a bcncvolcnt kind ol slavcry: thc ancicnt slavc (iogcncs was onc), hc points out, prob
ably corrcctly, workcd lcss hard and livcd morc happily and sccurcly on thc wholc than thc
ninctccnthccntury industrial workcr, ruthlcssly cxploitcd in thc ickcnsian world ol thc
machinc socicty.
+::
As ! pointcd out carlicr, thcnccdlorslavcry argumcnt sccms to bc rclutcd by thc wash
ing machinc. 8ut actually, by +8, Nictzschc has rcaliscd this, sincc in thc notcbooks
hc says that thcrc will always havc to bc pcoplc to do thc hard and rough work so long
as they cannot be relie.ed of it by machines.
+:
!t would sccm thcn that slavcry is not, altcr
all, an absolutcly ncccssary lcaturc ol Nictzschcs utopia.
+:
Givcn that hc abhors indus
trial slavcry, warns against our bccoming slavcs ol thc machinc, it would sccm that in thc
Human, ll-Too-Human

:&
Human pcriod hc dclcnds slavcry as at most a contingcnt and tcmporary ncccssity. (Latcr
on, hc will changc his mind, discovcring a dicrcnt ground lor dclcnding slavcry in somc
scnsc.)

Sincc thcrc is no lrcc will, our crimc against criminals is that wc trcat thcm as scoun
drcls.
+:
Sincc thcrc is, that is to say, no guilt in thc criminal, sincc his action is thc
ncccssary conscqucncc ol his cnvironmcnt and hcrcdity, thcrc should bc no clcmcnt ol
rctribution, ol dclivcring just dcsscrts to thc ocndcr. Tc solc lunction ol punishmcnt
is to dctcr though thc inclusion ol capital punishmcnt in thc armoury ol dctcrrcnts can
ncvcr bc justicd.
+:6
Scllchoscn cuthanasia will bc sanctioncd by thc rational socicty, as it was in thc
ancicnt world. Sincc wc havc givcn up rcligious prohibitions, taking thc path ol thc lrcc
dcath
+:
rathcr than waiting lor thc uttcr collapsc ol thc bodily machinc rcprcscnts a vic
tory ol rcason.
+:8
Tcn again thcrc will bc a wholc rangc ol morc rational choiccs conccrning thc propaga
tion ol mcn (cugcnics), nutrition, and cducation.

And wc will lcarn to managc thc carth

as a wholc |morc| cconomically.
+:
(Alrcady Nictzschc sccs thc nccd lor cnvironmcntal
conscrvation. Amazingly, in thc notcbooks ol +88:, hc anticipatcs global warming: nc
should prcscrvc . . . lorcsts. !t is truc: through thc clcaring and cutting down ol thc lorcst
thc carth is bccoming warmcr.)
+o
!n gcncral, thcn, in Nictzschcs ncw, conscious culturc,
rcason will triumph ovcr tradition. Givcn, in addition to thcsc rational rclorms, Nictzschcs
unwavcring support lor brothcls, onc scnscs, in thcsc prcscriptions, much ol thc spirit ol
twcnticthccntury Holland and Scandinavia.
Religion and Art in a Higher Culture
T
hough Nictzschcs rhctoric givcs thc imprcssion that Human is an assault on all lorms
ol rcligion and art, this imprcssion is mislcading. !n rcality, it is only metaphysical lorms
that arc shown thc door.
Nictzschc writcs surprisingly in vicw ol his ncw cnthusiasm lor scicncc that altcr thc
joy ol rst discovcry, scicncc docs not, in lact, add plcasurc to lilc, indccd dcprivcs us ol
morc and morc plcasurc through casting suspicion on mctaphysics, rcligion and art, sourccs
ol joy to which mankind owcs almost all ol its humanity. For this rcason a highcr culturc
must givc man a doublcbrain, as it wcrc a brain with two chambcrs, onc lor thc rcccption
ol scicncc, thc othcr lor that ol nonscicncc. Tis, hc says, is a rcquircmcnt ol hcalth. !l it
is not donc, illusion, crror and lantasy, bccausc thcy givc plcasurc, will rcturn and drivc out
thc scicntic intcrcst in truth.
++
!t is, hc continucs, a sign ol strcngth and cxibility to
bc ablc to dancc bctwccn thc scicntic and thc artisticrcligious pcrspcctivcs.
+:
A highcr
culturc must, thcn, construct so largc a hall ol culturc that both scicncc and nonscicncc

As argucd in Te Future of Our Educational Institutions (pp. +: abovc), thc dumbing down ol
highcr cducation lor thc masscs will ccasc, high schools will bc gcnuincly high schools, clitist (or
mcritocratic) institutions rcscrvcd lor thc cultivation ol thc crcativc lrcc spirits our cultural hcalth
dcmands. !t should by nowbc clcar that Nictzschcs thcory ol cultural cvolution and his cducational
clitism arc mutually rcinlorcing.
:&,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
can bc accommodatcd within it, cvcn il at oppositc cnds.
,+
!t sccms, thcn, that, altcr all,
both rcligion and art will havc a rolc to play in thc rational socicty. Vhat arc thcsc rolcs:
A cluc is providcd by thc rcmark in thc notcbooks that though scicncc can discovcr mcans
it cannot dctcrminc goals.
+
! shall discuss rst rcligion and thcn art.
!n discussing thc origin ol thc rcligious cult Nictzschc says, it will bc rcmcmbcrcd, that
prchistoric humanity turncd to animism bccausc it had no conccption ol natural causa
tion, ol an ordcr in naturc indcpcndcnt ol thc lrcc wills ol human or supcrhuman bcings.
Tcrricd by thc powcr ol natural lorccs, it attcmptcd to propitiatc thcm in thc way onc
propitiatcs powcrlul human bcings. Yct at thc cnd ol thc discussion hc says that Grcck rcli
gion, thc rcligion ol thc lympians, was dicrcnt lrom this, was ol a morc noblc origin,
not bcing born out ol lcar. Tc Homcric Grccks had no nccd to propitiatc animist gods
sincc thcy had thc conccption ol moira, latc, thc conccption ol a causal ordcr indcpcndcnt
ol, and abovc, cvcn thc gods.
+
(Vagncr cmbodics this idca in thc Fing: thc latcwcaving
Norns arc bcyond cvcn Votans control.)
Pursuing thc thcmc ol thc nobility ol Grcck rcligion, Nictzschc cxplains that thc Grccks
sawthcir gods not, on thc Jcwish or Christian modcl, as mastcrs, but only |as| thc rccction,
as it wcrc, ol thc most succcsslul cxcmplars ol thcir own castc. Tcy saw thcm as rclativcs
(hc could havc pointcd out that thcy oltcn intcrbrcd with mortals), as an aristocracy that
rcprcscntcd an idcal, not an antithcsis to thcir own naturcs.
+6
Tc Grccks saw thcmsclvcs
and thc gods as two castcs, living sidc by sidc, onc noblcr and mighticr, and onc lcss noblc,
but both somchow bclong togcthcr in thcir origins and arc ol one spccics, thcy havc no
nccd to bc ashamcd ol onc anothcr.
+
Tis is how Grcck sculpturc is to bc undcrstood:
thc statuc in thc tcmplc honours man and god togcthcr, honours, as wc might put it, man
as god.
+8
Grcck rcligion is, thcn, a humanistic rcligion, it is thc rcligion ol Michclangclos
bigmusclcd (as opposcd to l Grccos nonmusclcd) hcrocs, thc rcligion ol thc Sovict
glorications ol soldicrs and workcrs.
Noticc that lympian rcligion is unmctaphysical. Tc gods do not inhabit a supcrnat
ural world but livc sidc by sidc with us in onc world. !n Te Birth of Tragedy Nictzschc
claims that thc loundations ol art and community, myth and morality, arc ncccssarily and
inscparably intcrtwincd, adding that rcligious myth is what constitutcs thc unity ol a com
munity and culturc, thc noblc corc ol |a| . . . pcoplcs charactcr.
+
Tc lympian myth, by
comprising a panthcon ol rolc modcls (modcls whosc alltoohuman qualitics allow onc to
idcntily with, rathcr than bcing intimidatcd by thcm), showcd thc Grccks what it was to
bc a propcr Grcck, what was thc right way to livc.
Tis Vagncrian thcmc is rcarmcd in Human. Vithout thc sharcd rcligion rst
articulatcd by Homcr, thcrc would havc bccn no Grcccc:
Tc grcatcst lact in thc cultivation ol Grcccc rcmains that Homcr bccomc panHcllcnic so
carly . . . For Homcr, by ccntralising, madc cvcrything lcvcl and dissolvcd thc morc scrious
instincts lor indcpcndcncc . . . All grcat spiritual lorccs cxcrcisc . . . a rcprcssivc ccct, but it
makcs a dicrcncc whcthcr it is Homcr or thc 8iblc . . . that tyranniscs ovcr mankind.
+o

!t is tcmptingly ncat to rcprcscnt Nictzschcs turn to positivism as an armation ol prcciscly thc

Socratism condcmncd in Te Birth of Tragedy. 8ut this, it can nowbc sccn, is an ovcrsimplication.
For whcrcas Socratism arms thc adcquacy ol scicncc to satisly cvcry human nccd it can know
and cvcn corrcct bcing (p. +: abovc) Nictzschcs positivism rcjccts that. Nictzschcs positivism
is not scicntism.
Human, ll-Too-Human

:&
Nictzschc argucd in Te Birth that Socratism thc vicw that nothing othcr than sci
cncc is nccdcd lor a ourishing lilc killcd myth in ancicnt Grcccc and is doing so again
in modcrnity. Sincc community can cxist only through sharcd, rcligious myth, Socratism
is thc causc ol modcrnitys loss community. !n Human, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc con
tinucs to valuc a living scnsc ol community
++
as much as hc did in Te Birth, continucs
to vicw thc motlcy cultural chaos ol modcrnity as somcthing to bc ovcrcomc. Givcn this,
as wcll as his unswcrving admiration ol thc Grccks, it is clcar that what hc wants in his
highcr culturc is somcthing modcllcd on thc rcligion ol thc Grccks a rcligion that, though
unmctaphysical, pcrlorms thc task hc bclicvcs only rcligion can pcrlorm: that ol crcating
and prcscrving community. !t is worth obscrving that Nictzschcs conccption ol what a
rcligion should do cxactly matchcs thc sociologist milc urkhcims conccption ol what
a rcligion is. urkhcim dcncs rcligion as a unicd systcm ol bclicls and practiccs rcla
tivc to sacrcd things . . . which unitc in onc singlc moral community . . . all thosc who adhcrc
to thcm.
+:
For Nictzschc, too, moral community is prcciscly what rcligion is conccrncd
with.

Nictzschc writcs, art has taught us lor thousands ol ycars to look upon lilc in any ol its lorms
with intcrcst and plcasurc, and to cducatc our scnsibilitics so that wc at last cry |in Gocthcs
words| lilc, howcvcr it may bc, is good .
+
Vhat hc has in mind, hcrc, is Apollonian
art, art which tcachcs us to nd joy, not bchind, but rathcr in thc natural world. Tis
suggcsts that although mctaphysical art is cxpcllcd lrom thc highcr culturc, Apollonian art
rcmains.
Tis, indccd, is rcally demanded, il a Grcck lorm ol rcligion is to bc prcscrvcd. For as
both history and, as wc havc sccn, Te Birth tcll us, art and rcligion arc ncccssarily and
inscparably intcrtwincd. Nictzschc makcs this clcar thc lollowing ycar in ssorted Opinions
and Maxims, publishcd as an appcndix to Human, ll-Too-Human. Art, hc says, ought to
bc dcdicatcd to signposting thc luturc. Tc artist is not rcquircd to draw up a blucprint
lor a world in which nations and socictics would prospcr bcttcr that is thc thinkcrs,
Nictzschcs, task. Rathcr, hc will
cmulatc thc artists ol carlicr |Grcck| timcs who imaginativcly dcvclopcd thc cxisting imagcs
ol thc gods and imaginati.ely de.elop a bcautilul imagc ol man, hc will sccnt out thosc cascs
in which, in thc midst ol our modcrn world and rcality and without any articial withdrawal
lrom or warding o ol this world, thc grcat and bcautilul soul is still possiblc, still ablc to
cmbody itscll in thc harmonious and wcllproportioncd, thus acquiring visibility, duration
and thc status ol a modcl, and in so doing through thc cxcitation ol cnvy and cmulation,
hclp crcatc thc luturc.
+
Tc good poct ol thc luturc will, Nictzschc adds, dcpict only reality, hc will avoid thosc
supcrstitious, hallmcndacious, ladcd subjccts metaphysical subjccts, in othcr words
lavourcd by pocts ol thc past. 8ut hc will dcpict by no mcans cvcry rcality! Hc will dcpict
a sclcct rcality!
+
Tc crcation ol rolc modcls thc monumcntal gurcs ol thc sccond
Untimely Meditation rcquircs, in a word, thc illusionistic powcrs ol Apollonian art, thc
simultancous highlighting ol thc noblc and vciling ol thc ignoblc (lying in thc intcrcsts ol
a highcr truth).
:&&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tis right in thc midst ol thc positivist rcvolt against Vagncrian romanticism rcturns
us to Vagncr, to thc communitycollccting artwork ol thc carly Vagncr, ol thc idcal
Vagncr as rcprcscntcd in !agner at Bayreuth. !n thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod, Nictzschc is
quitc cxplicit that his brcak with Vagncr is by no mcans absolutc: nc should ncvcr lorgct,
hc writcs, that in thc sccond hall ol thc ninctccnth ccntury admittcdly not prcciscly in thc
way ol good and insightlul pcoplc Vagncr brought art into consciousncss as an important
and magniccnt phcnomcnon.
+6
And again: !l only Vagncr would think othcrwisc about
things: as it is, it is up to us to bc bcttcr Vagncrians than Vagncr.
+
Globalization
N
ictzschc obscrvcs, with his oltcn startling insight into thc luturc, that though princcly
dynastics and thcir allics scck to articially prcscrvc national hostilitics, transport and
inlormation tcchnology is slowly but incxorably abolishing national dicrcnccs, is produc
ing a mixcd uropcan man. Vc should, hc says, wclcomc this proccss and not bc alraid to
proclaim oncscll simply a good European.

Not mcrcly wclcomc, but bc prcparcd to cxtcnd

thc proccss to global proportions: wc must prcparc thc way lor that still distant statc ol
things in which thc good uropcans will comc into posscssion ol thcir grcat task: thc di
rcction and supcrvision ol thc total culturc ol thc carth.
+8
Vhy do wc nccd, rst, thc
coming into bcing ol a unitary uropcan culturc and, sccond, thc globalization ol that
culturc so that thc uropcan community bccomcs a global community:
nc considcration conccrns cconomic activity. Sincc thc (now as thcn) lashionablc thc
ory ol lrcc tradc is navc, a dcgrcc ol planning ol world cconomic activity, thc sctting ol
ccumcnical goals, is ncccssary to bcst contributc to thc rcquircmcnts ol mankind.
+
(nc
can cxtcnd thc thought to global warming, not to mcntion thc nancial mcltdown ol :oo8
. Sincc thc problcm is global only global coopcration can solvc it.) Nictzschcs ovcrriding
conccrn, howcvcr, is thc abolition ol war.
Tc drcam ol cnduring global pcacc gocs back at lcast to thc Roman mpirc, to thc Pax
Fomana. Kant drcamt ol it in a pamphlct dcsigncd to show thc way to a Pcrpctual Pcacc
among Nations, thc 8ritish mpirc drcamt ol a Pax Britannica, and altcr thc First Vorld
Var (supposcdly thc war to cnd all wars) thc drcam would lcad to thc crcation ol thc
Lcaguc ol Nations and thcn thc Unitcd Nations.
!ntcnsicd by his cxpcricnccs on thc killingclds ol thc FrancoPrussian war, Nictzschc
sharcs this drcam ol world pcacc an anity with Christianity, and in particular with thc
spirit ol Christmas, which, wc notcd, hc ncvcr lost: thc ycarning lor a timc whcn all mcn arc
to sharc thc cxpcricncc ol thosc shcphcrds who saw thc hcavcns brightcn abovc thcm and
hcard thc words: on carth pcacc, good will toward mcn . Such a timc has not yct comc,
hc adds, bccausc it is still the age of the indi.idual , ol individual pcoplc and nations.
+o

HH . Nictzschc always spcaks ol thc uropcan as thc objcct ol his local conccrn, but hc mcans
what wc now mcan by thc Vcst. Hc writcs, uropc compriscs much morc tcrritory than gco
graphical uropc . . . Amcrica cspccially bclongs to it, insolar as it is thc daughtcrland ol our cul
turc. n thc othcr hand thc cultural conccpt uropc docs not includc all ol gcographical uropc.
!t includcs only thosc pcoplcs and cthnic minoritics who posscss Grcck, Roman, Jcwish and Chris
tian culturc as thcir common past (VS :+).
Human, ll-Too-Human

:&
Vhy docs thc drcam ol pcrpctual pcacc rcquirc global community, a unicd global cul
turc: 8ccausc, Nictzschc sccms to arguc, lcaving asidc impcrialism (which a lortiori will
comc to an cnd il uropc takcs ovcr thc dircction ol thc total culturc ol thc carth), thc
ground ol warlarc is militarization, which is bascd on paranoia bctwccn nations, which in
turn prcsupposcs an absolutc distinction bctwccn thcm and us. Varlarc is lundamcntally,
Nictzschc sccms to say, a clash ol civilizations. nly, thcrclorc, a global culturc cxprcssing
itscll in somc lorm ol world govcrnmcnt can ocr a hopc ol dcmilitarization, which is thc
only possiblc mcans to rcal pcacc.
++
l coursc, il world pcacc did brcak out, thcrc would bc a problcm ol what to do with
humanitys innatc aggrcssion and its nccd lor thosc carthquakc shuddcring|s| ol thc soul,
thc thrills, cxcitcmcnts, and sublimc cxpcricnccs ol warlarc. Tis is a problcm lor culturc
warlarc always rcprcscnts thc hibcrnation ol culturc.
+:
Tc cultural solution, as wc know,
is thc sublimation ol bad into good ris, warlarc into compctition (pp. +o+ abovc).
Tis can takc morc or lcss productivc lorms. Undcr thc Pax Fomana thc Romans took up
animal baiting, gladiatorial combat and thc pcrsccution ol Christians, whcrcas prcscntday
nglishmcn, who sccm on thc wholc to havc givcn up warlarc, go in lor pcrilous journcys
ol discovcry, navigations, mountain climbing cxtrcmc sports.
+
Te Problem of Free Will
!
s Nictzschcs highcr culturc rcally highcr: !s it onc in which wc rcally would livc morc
ourishing livcs than wc do now: !n many rcspccts ! think wc would. Two crucial issucs,
howcvcr, nccd to bc raiscd. Can human lilc rcally ourish without thc bclicl in lrcc will,
and can it ourish without bclicl in somc kind ol mctaphysics, or as ! prclcr to say, tran
sccndcncc:
Vhat would lilc bc likc without thc bclicl in lrcc will, without thc bclicl that wc pos
scss lrccdom, in thc radical scnsc Nictzschc discusscs: Nictzschc suggcsts that lrcc will is
nothing morc than a piccc ol bad propaganda, a ction invcntcd by pricsts in ordcr to bc
ablc to makc us lccl sinlul. 8ut whilc this may bc onc routc to thc idca, it is hardly thc only
onc. JcanPaul Sartrc makcs radical lrccdom thc hcart ol his phcnomcnological dcscrip
tion ol thc lilcworld, thc worldundcrstanding in which human bcings livc and movc and
havc thcir cvcryday bcing, and hc is lar lrom bcing a pricstly typc. Sartrc sums up his vicw
ol thc ccntrality ol radical lrccdom in thc slogandcnition ol xistcntialism: cxistcncc
bclorc csscncc. Vc comc into cxistcncc with no prcdctcrmincd csscncc or charactcr.
Vithin thc limits imposcd by biology and history (! cannot choosc to bc a pro baskct
ball playcr il ! am vc loot vc or an astronaut il ! am born into thc thirtccnth ccntury),
what our charactcr will bc is cntircly dcpcndcnt on our own, undctcrmincd choicc. And
onc might wcll lccl that Sartrc is right: that cxistcncc without at lcast thc possibility ol rad
ical sclldctcrmination would bc unbcarablc, that a lilc condcmncd, lrom thc bcginning, to
imprisonmcnt in a prcdctcrmincd charactcr would not bc worth living. Tc lact that, cvcn
in this postrcligious agc, wc cling so strongly to thc lor Nictzschc illusion ol lrccdom
suggcsts this to bc so.
Nictzschc addrcsscs this problcm in Te !anderer and His Shado. (dcstincd to bc incor
poratcd into an cxpandcd Human, ll-Too-Human in +886). nly conluscd thinking, hc
suggcsts, rcndcrs thc abandonmcnt ol lrcc will thrcatcning. Pcoplc nd it so bccausc thcy
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lall into !slamic latalism, thc rcication ol latc as a powcr against which wc may strugglc
but which will always bc too powcrlul lor us. Fromthis thcy dcrivc thc dcmoralizing conclu
sion that all action is lutilc sincc how thc luturc will bc is alrcady sct in concrctc. Corrcctly,
Nictzschc points out that this is an crror. !t is an crror bccausc
you yourscll, poor lcarlul man, arc thc implacablc moira |latc| cnthroncd cvcn abovc thc
gods that govcrn all that happcns, you arc thc blcssing and thc cursc and in any cvcnt thc
lcttcrs in which thc strongcst lics captivc, in you thc wholc luturc ol man is prcdctcrmincd:
it is ol no usc lor you to shuddcr whcn you look at yourscll.
+
ctcrminism, in othcr words, docs not rcndcr oncs actions lutilc sincc thosc actions belong
to thc proccss that crcatcs thc luturc. Vc cannot bc opprcsscd by latc as an cxtcrnal lorcc
bccausc wc arc, as it wcrc, on thc insidc ol latc. Tc qucstion ariscs, howcvcr, as to who
wc arc. !l ! am latc, thcn, rathcr than idcntilying myscll with a bricl tcmporal span as
! normally do, ! havc to idcntily myscll with thc cntirc history ol thc univcrsc and with
its cntirc luturc. Tc abandonmcnt ol lrcc will docs not ncccssarily rcndcr lilc worthlcss.
8ut it docs rcquirc a radically ncw undcrstanding ol pcrsonal idcntity a transccndcncc ol
thc normal undcrstanding ol thc cgo. As wc shall scc, thc maturc Nictzschc acccpts and
cclcbratcs this ncw undcrstanding.
On Mans Need for Metaphysics
A
s Nictzschc rccogniscs in discussing thc drcam ol immortality cvokcd by 8ccthovcns
music (p. :+ abovc), thc mctaphysical nccd is abovc all thc nccd lor somc kind ol
comlort in thc lacc ol our primal tcrror, dcath. Tc assurancc ol dcaths nonnality, ol
continucd cxistcncc in somc mctaphysical rcalm, is thc solution to thc problcm ocrcd
by almost all rcligions. Nictzschc thus conlronts a prcssing problcm: how is thc rational,
postmctaphysical socicty to dcal with our nccd lor comlort in thc lacc ol dcath:
Nictzschcs trcatmcnt ol this problcmis unsatislactory. nc stratcgy is to ignorc cvadc
thc topic as lar as possiblc. Unlikc Te Birth of Tragedy, which laccd thc qucstion ol dcath
hcadon, onc has to look hard to nd thc topic cvcn mcntioncd in Human. Vhcn it is
touchcd on, thc trcatmcnt is gcncrally bricl, shallow, and cvasivc (as in, lor cxamplc, thc
discussion ol cuthanasia abovc).
nly supcrstition, Nictzschc claims, lcads us to think ol dcath as a vcry important thing
(in a lcttcr to von Gcrsdor hc calls it thc grcatcst triviality in thc world),
+
as thc crossing
ol a bridgc ol trcmcndous signicancc.
+6
8ut this suggcstion that thc only rcason wc nd
dcath important is that wc bclicvc it thc crossing ol a bridgc lrom onc world to anothcr is
quitc wrong. Vhcthcr or not wc bclicvc in an altcrlilc, dcath is ol trcmcndous importancc
because it is the end of life and because our most fundamental, biologically programmed, impulse is
the .ill to life. cath is, thcrclorc, thc dcnial ol our most lundamcntal dcsirc. Vithout somc
comlort in thc lacc ol its incscapability, without lcarning, somchow, to dic what Martin
Hcidcggcr calls thc good dcath, our livcs (as, in thc pcriod ol thc Untimely Meditations,
Nictzschc was willing to admit), will bc llcd with rcprcsscd anxicty in thc lacc ol which
thcy cannot lully ourish. As obscrvcd carlicr, Nictzschc thinks that rcligion altcrs our
Human, ll-Too-Human

:&,
scnsibility with rcspcct to human anguish whcrcas what wc should bc doing is rcmoving
its causc (p. :8 abovc). Tc nccds catcrcd lor by rcligion, hc claims, arc not immutablc:
thcy can bc .eakened and exterminated.
+
8ut not dcath. cath, and our abhorrcncc ol it,
is immutablc. !t is, thcrclorc, essential to altcr our primal scnsibility towards it in somc way.
Vhat Human should havc donc was to scarch lor a non-metaphysical modc ol altcration.
Tat it docs not is a dccicncy, onc that will bc rcmcdicd in latcr works.
v~v: :nvvv
The Nomad
15
Te Wanderer and His Shadow
T
nv ~vvv~v~xcv ol Human, ll-Too-Human in May, +88, coincidcd with a yct
lurthcr dctcrioration ol Nictzschcs hcalth which, thc prcvious March, had rcachcd
such a statc that hc was nally rclcascd lrom all tcaching obligations to thc gram
mar school. His hcalth cannot havc bccn improvcd by a wcird lcttcr lrom thc lormcrly
admircd Sicglricd Lipincr (p. : abovc) virtually dcmanding to run thc lilc ol his dcarly
bclovcd,
+
which Nictzschc rightly dcscribcd as an unbclicvablc impcrtincncc.
:
Ncithcr
can his hcalth havc bccn improvcd by thc rcactions to his radically ncw linc ol thinking.
Reception of Human, All-Too-Human
N
ictzschcs ncrvousncss conccrning thc books rcccption was cntircly justicd. About
thc only positivc rcsponsc camc lrom 8urckhardt, who, dclightcd that Nictzschc was
hcalcd ol Vagncr, who had always ocndcd his classical tastc, callcd thc work a sublimc
book.

!n Russia thc book was banncd outright. Much morc scrious, howcvcr, was thc
8ayrcuth rcaction, about which hc had bccn most ncrvous.
Schmcitzncr rcportcd that Vagncr claimcd to havc rcad only a lcw pagcs in ordcr not
to upsct thc dclightlul imprcssion lclt by |Nictzschcs| carlicr works.

8ut this did not stop

himissuing a countcrblast in thc Scptcmbcr cdition ol thc Bayreuther Bl atter: though Nictz
schc is not mcntioncd by namc, his articlc, cntitlcd Tc Public and Popularity, hcld up to
ridiculc a book supposcdly callcd Menschliches und Unmenschliches |Tc Human and !nhu
man|. Cosimas rcaction was morc vicious: shc blamcd R cc A thumbing through a lcw
signicant scntcnccs wcrc cnough and ! laid thc book asidc . . . Much accounts lor thc sad
book! Finally !sracl camc into it in thc lorm ol r. R cc, vcry smooth, vcry cool, simul
tancously captivatcd and subjugatcd by Nictzschc, in truth, howcvcr, outsmarting him, a
microcosm ol thc rclation ol Judca and Gcrmany. lizabcth notcs that Cosimas rcaction
was rcprcscntativc ol thc Vagncr circlc: thc antiScmitcs startcd thc thcory that R cc was
thc cvil Scmitic principlc which had divcrtcd Nictzschc, thc honcst Aryan visionary, into

:
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
vcrbal hairsplitting. And thcn shc adds, in onc ol hcr occasional ashcs ol insight, insight
into thc lundamcntally constructivc naturc ol thc book, that pcoplc cntircly ovcrlookcd thc
warm undcrcurrcnt ol humanity in thc book a currcnt dircctly opposcd, as lizabcth
sccs it, to R ccs arid vicws.

vcn thosc not givcn to antiScmitism saw thc work as thc product ol R ccs balclul
inucncc. Rcinhardt von Scydlitz complaincd to Nictzschc that cvcrything is much too
r ccal in thc book (this is thc probablc origin ol thc tcrmr ccalism),
6
and Rohdc complaincd
that hc lclt transportcd lrom a hot bath (thc hcat ol Nictzschcs romantic pcriod) into an
iccroom. Hc complaincd that Nictzschcs soul had bccn rcplaccd by R ccs and wcnt on
to asscrt that thc lack ol accountability Nictzschc proposcs implicd moral complaccncy,
and that cgoism is somcthing Nictzschc himscll strivcs against and so cannot gcnuincly
cndorsc.

vcn Nictzschcs lormcrly dcvotcd studcnt Adoll 8aumgartncr, son ol his good
lricnd Maric, loathcd thc book, loathcd, as hc saw it, its attcmpt to rcducc thc complcxity
ol thc human hcart to a lcw lormulas.
Malwida von Mcyscnbug did not likc thc book cithcr, but cxprcsscd hcr dislikc in a dccp
and prophctic way: You will go through many phascs in your philosophy, shc wrotc, sincc
unlikc R cc, you arc not born to analysis: you nccd to crcatc artistically and though you
strain against it, your gcnius will lcad you to thc samc thing as Te Birth of Tragedy, only
with no morc mctaphysics . . . Unlikc R cc you cannot usc thc scalpcl to lay apart lcgs and
arms and say, thus is thc human bcing put togcthcr.
8
Malwidas prcdiction, ! shall arguc, is prcciscly whcrc Nictzschcs philosophy cnds thc lun
damcntal position ol Te Birth of Tragedy, minus mctaphysics. Malwida, howcvcr, sharcd
in thc univcrsal scnsc that Human was cxccssivcly inucnccd by R cc. Nictzschc tricd to
pass o thc accusation with a jokc, writing to R cc to congratulatc him on his ncw author
ship.

!n lact, though, as ! (and lizabcth) havc suggcstcd, thcrc is a constructivc spirit in

thc work that is in lundamcntal contrast to R ccs, as it sccms to mc, ncgativc cast ol mind.
Lou Salom c, who, as wc shall scc, was in a bcttcr position to comparc R cc with Nictzschc
than anyonc clsc, makcs csscntially this judgmcnt too. R cc, shc says, was a cold, undcvi
ating, lucidly logical, scicntic thinkcr whosc brusquc oncsidcdncss was thc oppositc ol
Nictzschcs artistic, philosophical and rcligious wcalth ol spirit. (!ntcrcstingly, shc adds
that R cc had thc kccncr mind ol thc two, which is probably corrcct: tcchnical philosoph
ical analysis, ! havc alrcady obscrvcd, was not Nictzschcs strong suit.)
+o

As soon as thc scmcstcr cndcd, Nictzschc lclt 8ascls hcat and humidity lor Grindclwald,
high in thc 8crncr bcrland at thc loot ol thc igcr and Vcttcrhorn. Hc dcspcratcly
nccdcd to rccovcr lrom thc appalling strain ol trying to lccturc amidst rcpcatcd attacks ol
hcadachcs, cyc pain, and vomiting togcthcr with thc anguish ol not bcing ablc to do his rcal
work. ! am o, hc wrotc Maric 8aumgartncr at thc cnd ol July, +88, to thc mountains,
to thc highcst solitudc, o, !d likc to say, to myscll
++
o, in othcr words, to thc rcal task
that constitutcd his rcal scll. Unlortunatcly thc thrcc wccks in Grindclwald did nothing
lor his hcalth. Vriting homc to cxprcss his dclight that his mothcr had nally bccn ablc
to buy thc Naumburg housc shc had bccn rcnting, +8 Vcingartcn, hc obscrvcd that bcing
scvcn thousand lcct abovc sca lcvcl had donc nothing lor his hcalth, so that hc had bccomc
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:
almost suspicious ol mountain air.
+:
vidcntly hc had bccn tcsting somc thcory to thc
ccct that thin mountain air would improvc his condition. Sincc it had not workcd, hc
dcsccndcd to !ntcrlakcn, a mcrc ltccn hundrcd lcct abovc sca lcvcl, whcrc hc rcmaincd lor
scvcral wccks.
8ack in 8ascl in midScptcmbcr lor what would provc to bc thc nal scmcstcr ol his aca
dcmic lilc, Nictzschc movcd to a ncw apartmcnt, ++ 8achlcttcn Strassc, in an unlashion
ablc, scmirural suburb right on thc outskirts ol town, which hc chosc in ordcr to maintain
his mcdicinal rcgimcn ol long, solitary walks. !t was hcrc that hc complctcd thc rst ol thc
two works hc cvcntually publishcd as \olumc !! ol Human, ll-Too-Human.
Assorted Opinions and Maxims
F
inishcd at thc cnd ol cccmbcr, +88, this appcndix to thc work lor lrcc spirits
appcarcd in March ol thc lollowing ycar. As suggcstcd by thc rathcr wcak titlc and
by thc lact that it was publishcd as an addcndum to Human, ll-Too-Human, this is a lairly
random collcction ol bits and picccs that did not nd thcir way into thc main work. Sincc
! havc alrcady discusscd many ol thc morc important scctions ol thc work ! shall bc bricl.
!n gcncral tcrms ssorted Opinions sharcs thc samc thcorctical outlook as thc main work:
rcjcction ol thc mctaphysical, naturalism and univcrsal causal dctcrminism with thc con
scqucnt undcrstanding ol thc individual as, in a striking imagc, nothing but a poor wavc
in thc ncccssary wavcplay ol bccoming,
+
a mcrc ripplc in thc grcat occan ol causcs and
cccts. Hcncc, as bclorc, lrcc will is rcjcctcd only vanity prcvcnts us acknowlcdging thc
unlrccdom ol thc will
+
and, with it, moral rcsponsibility: il anything wcrc to bc accoun
tcd a sinncr it would havc to bc, not thc wavc, but rathcr thc cntirc wavcplay ol bccom
ing.
+
As bclorc, Nictzschc appcars still to arm psychological hcdonism a virtuc, hc
says, bccomcs xcd in our charactcr only to thc cxtcnt that its cxcrcisc is cxpcricnccd as
plcasurablc.
+6
Vithin this lramcwork Nictzschc ocrs a misccllany ol obscrvations many ol which
rcprcscnt advicc on how to cultivatc lrccspiritcdncss. For cxamplc: dont bclicvc anything
you rcad in thc papcrs,
+
it is bcst il onc has an inncr rc that rcndcrs both art and winc
unncccssary,
+8
thc individual who lollows convcntional morality outvotcs himscll ,
+
and
so on. Somc ol thc aphorisms havc an autobiographical avour: as alrcady notcd, thc rcmark
that psychological obscrvcrs arc bashlul bccausc thcy know that as soon as pcoplc noticc
thcir inclination thcy will bc takcn lor spics and traitors providcs insight into his own social
rcscrvc, commcntcd on by many acquaintanccs.
nc signicant changc in ssorted Opinions is thc disappcarancc ol what ! callcd thc
macho morality ol arming thc valuc ol thc scicntic obscrvation ol human naturc,
whatcvcr its conscqucnccs lor human lilc. Nictzschc now says that thc utility ol thc uncon
ditional scarch lor truth is so clcar that wc arc obligcd to acccpt thc minor harm it occa
sionally causcs.
:o
!n othcr words, though hc is still advocating that truth bc pursucd uncon
ditionally, thc rcason sccms to bc that, as a general policy, it bcst promotcs thc ourishing
ol human lilc. Nictzschc now appcars, thcrclorc, to rcjcct thc idca that truth is a highcr
valuc than lilc, to acccpt that thc qucst lor knowlcdgc must justily itscll in thc court ol
lilc.
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Anothcr dcparturc lrom Human is thc obscrvation that it is a mistakc to takc psycho
logical obscrvations as absolutc, sincc thcy arc in lact only approximatcly truc and oltcn
valid lor only a dccadc.
:+
As, ! suspcct, docs thc dcparturc lrom macho morality, this
appcars to mark thc bcginning ol Nictzschcs distancing himscll, intcllcctually spcaking,
lromR cc. Vhcrcas thc lattcr, with his blcakly Schopcnhaucrian outlook, prcscnts his black
obscrvations on human naturc as ctcrnally valid, Nictzschcs constructivc and morc optim
istic spirit holds out thc possibility ol thc rcmoval, or at lcast transguration, ol thc dark
sidc ol humanity.
Ieaving Basel
A
s +88 drcw to a closc, Nictzschcs hcalth bccamc so bad that lor thc rst timc in his
carccr hc bcgan to canccl univcrsity lccturcs. And not at all bcnccial to his physical
condition was thc lact that, by now, thc tcnsion bctwccn prolcssion and calling, bctwccn
taskmastcr and goddcss and lovcr, was constantly at thc lront ol his mind.
::
n top ol
cvcrything clsc, hc lcll on somc black icc and dcvclopcd an inlcctcd ngcr, which provcd
dicult to hcal.
Tc bcginning ol thc lollowing ycar saw rcpcatcd attacks ol hcadachcs and vomiting,
onc attack lasting ninc days, with his cycs rcduccd to a condition ol ncarusclcssncss. As a
rcsult, hc dcvclopcd a violcnt, as hc callcd it, 8asclophobia.
:
Vith its altcrnation bctwccn
lrcczing cold and humid hcat, it was 8ascl, hc dccidcd, that had dcprivcd him ol his hcalth
and would, il hc staycd thcrc much longcr, claim his lilc.
:
!n March, too scarcd to makc his usual movc to thc high Alps thcy lookcd likc a
snowcovcrcd gravc, hc scribblcd on a postcard to vcrbcck
:
hc attcmptcd a spa curc
in Gcncva. 8ut thcrc was no improvcmcnt. lizabcth saw him whcn hc rcturncd to 8ascl
and rccalls a brothcr shc hardly rccogniscd, a wcary man, prcmaturcly agcd. Vith solid
common scnsc, shc attributcd his condition not to thc 8ascl climatc but to his dictary
asccticism: hc livcd cntircly on lruit, rusks |Z.ieback|, vcgctablc soups spccially madc lor
invalids, and cold roast mcat, prcparcd lor him cach day by a dclicatcsscn. Tcrc is no
doubt my brothcr was trying at this timc to imitatc iogcncs . . . hc wantcd to nd out
thc minimum rcquircd to satisly a philosophcrs wants.
:6
(Rccall Nictzschcs claim that hc
nccdcd lcss lood than othcr pcoplc (p. :6 abovc).)
!n thcsc circumstanccs, dcprcsscd and lccling ablc to usc his cycs only twcnty minutcs
a day, hc nally dccidcd hc had to rcsign his prolcssorship. 8ascl and thc job wcrc killing
him: Ergo: cademia derelinquenda est.
:
Accordingly, on May :, +8, hc dictatcd a lcttcr
to thc chairman ol thc univcrsitys govcrning council asking to bc rclicvcd ol all lurthcr aca
dcmic rcsponsibilitics. Tc rcqucst was supportcd by his ophthalmologist, Prolcssor Schicss,
and by a Prolcssor Massini, a pathologist, both ccrtilying him as incapablc ol continuing
in his position. Tc rcqucst was grantcd and, with thc unwavcring gcncrosity 8ascl had
shown him through thick and thin, hc was grantcd a pcnsion ol onc thousand lrancs pcr
annum. Tis would soon bc supplcmcntcd by thc citys \oluntary Acadcmic Association
(lor which, rccall, hc had dclivcrcd, inter alia, thc Future of Our Educational Institutions
lccturcs). 8oth pcnsions wcrc to run lor an initial pcriod ol six ycars, which guarantccd
him twothirds ol his rcgular univcrsity salary. For thc rcst ol his sanc lilc, thc pcnsions
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:
(latcr cxtcndcd bcyond thc six ycars) would bc administcrcd lor him, in 8ascl, by thc laith
lul vcrbcck.
St. Moritz
A
rmcd with his pcnsion, just adcquatc lor his mcagrc nccds, Nictzschc put into ccct
thc longharbourcd plan ol rcmoving to thc spa and curc rcsort ol St. Moritz, at thc
northcastcrn cnd ol thc ngadinc vallcy, whcrc hc staycd lrom Junc :+ to Scptcmbcr +6.
Vith a chain ol lakcs strung along its lcngth, thc ngadinc is, at :,ooo mctrcs, thc highcst
ol Switzcrlands alpinc vallcys. Tc town itscll was, howcvcr (thcn as now), too crowdcd
and too cxpcnsivc, so hc took a room in a privatc housc about an hours walk lrom thc town
ccntrc.
Nictzschc immcdiatcly lclt in tunc with thc vallcy which, lrom now until his nal
collapsc, would bc thc ncarcst hc would cvcr comc to a homcland. ! havc now takcn pos
scssion ol thc ngadinc, hc wrotc vcrbcck on arrival, and am, as it wcrc, in my clcmcnt,
quitc wondrous. ! am rclatcd to this landscapc.
:8
Hc lovcd thc walking tracks through thc
lorcsts as il laid out spccially lor my almostblind scll and callcd thc air (probably
corrcctly) thc bcst in uropc.
:
Hc continucd to lollowthc sclldoctoring, ascctic practiccs
ol thc ancicnt philosophcrs, as lizabcth had obscrvcd him doing in 8ascl: My rcgulation
ol thc day and way ol living and cating, hc wrotc vcrbcck in July, would not shamc thc
sagcs ol antiquity: cvcrything vcry simplc yct a systcm ol o oltcn vcry dclicatc consid
crations. 8ut to no avail: ! am just as sick hcrc as cvcrywhcrc clsc and havc bccn in bcd
lor thc past cight days. Hc was convinccd, noncthclcss, that St. Moritz is thc right placc
lor mc.
o
Health and Ipicurus
!
t was in St. Moritz that Nictzschc complctcd Te !anderer and His Shado. (thc titlc
dcrivcs lrom thc lact that thc work bcgins and cnds with a dialoguc bctwccn Tc Van
dcrcr and Tc Shadow.) nc projcctcd titlc was indccd Passagcs ol Tought in St. Mor
tiz, +8.
+
\irtually all ol it was writtcn in pcncil in six pockctsizcd notcbooks which
hc took with him on his walks. n Scptcmbcr ++ thc manuscript was scnt to \cnicc lor
K osclitz to makc a printrcady copy, and it appcarcd with Schmcitzncr on cccmbcr +8.
!t is important to notc that whcn it rst appcarcd it was not prcscntcd as in any way
conncctcd to Human, ll-Too-Human. Unlikc ssorted Opinions and Maxims, which had
Human, ll-Too-Human as thc main titlc on its titlc pagc and billcd itscll as an appcndix,
!anderer was prcscntcd as an cntircly indcpcndcnt work. nly in +886 was it combincd
with ssorted Opinions to lorm \olumc !! ol thc cxpandcd sccond cdition ol Human. Vhat
thc +886 inclusion indicatcs is that !anderer is a positivist work sharing thc samc anti
mctaphysical, naturalistic assumptions as its two prcdcccssors Nictzschc was conccrncd
at thc timc to dividc his past works into pcriods. 8ut what it disguiscs is that !anderer
constitutcs a signicant shilt in his conccption ol thc naturc and purposc ol philosophy
lrom that subscribcd to by Human.
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
To undcrstand this shilt, two lacts nccd cmphasising. Tc rst is thc truly appalling statc
ol Nictzschcs hcalth whilc hc was writing !anderer. To his Franklurt doctor, thc inlamous
iscr (pp. :o abovc), hc writcs,
My cxistcncc is a tcrriblc burdcn. ! would havc discardcd it long ago il it wasnt lor thc
most instructivc tcsts and cxpcrimcnts in thc spiritualmoral arca . . . prcciscly during this
pcriod ol illncss and almost total dcprivation this joy, thirsting lor knowlcdgc, raiscs mc to
hcights whcrc ! triumph ovcr martyrdom and hopclcssncss. n thc wholc !m happicr than
cvcr bclorc in my lilc: and yct! Constant pain lor scvcral hours a day, with a lccling closcly
rclatcd to sca sickncss during which ! nd it dicult to spcak. 8y way ol a changc, raging
scizurcs (thc last onc lorccd mc to vomit thrcc days and nights ! thirstcd altcr dcath.)
Cant rcad! nly scldom can ! writc! No contact with human bcings! Not ablc to listcn
to music! Solitudc and solitary walks, mountain air, milk and cgg dict. All inncr mcans ol
amclioration usclcss . . . My consolations arc my thoughts and pcrspcctivcs.
:
And in Ecce Homo hc rccords that during thc writing ol !anderer his hcalth rcachcd its vcry
lowcst point in his cntirc lilc:
!n +8 ! rclinquishcd my 8ascl prolcssorship, livcd through thc summcr likc a shadow in
St. Moritz and thc lollowing wintcr, thc most sunlcss ol my lilc, as a shadow in Naumburg.
Tis was my nadir: Tc Vandcrcr and His Shadow camc into cxistcncc during thc coursc
ol it. ! undoubtcdly kncw all about shadows in thosc days.

Tc sccond lact crucial to undcrstanding !anderer is that during thc pcriod ol its writ
ing, Nictzschc cxpcricnccd an cvcrincrcasing acction lor, and scnsc ol anity with, thc
Athcnian philosophcr picurus (+:o 8C). Mcntioncd only bricy in Human, ll-
Too-Human, and with no morc than rcspcct in ssorted Opinions and Maxims, picurus has
bccomc, by !anderer, onc ol thc grcatcst mcn who cvcr livcd.

Tc notcbooks and lcttcrs

ol thc pcriod arc lull ol warm rclcrcnccs to picuruss rcncd hcroism

and his gardcn

happincss.
6
(picurus owncd a gardcn in Athcns whcrc hc mct and taught his lollowcrs.
For this rcason his school bccamc known as Tc Gardcn.) !n thc lcttcrs and notcbooks ol
thc pcriod, Nictzschc scts himscll thc task ol rcncwing thc gardcn ol picurus,

ol living
philosophically in thc manncr ol thc picurcans.
8
Tough Nictzschc lccls an cspccial anity with picurus, it is not with picurus as
opposed to othcr philosophcrs ol thc ancicnt world but rathcr picurus as representati.e of
ancicnt philosophy in gcncral. Vhat cngagcs Nictzschc arc idcas common to all ancicnt
philosophcrs rathcr than thc dicrcnccs ol dctail bctwccn thcm. Vhat wc nd, thcrclorc,
is a mcrging or homogcnising ol ancicnt philosophy. Alrcady in Human hc suggcsts that thc
dicrcncc bctwccn Cynics (cxtrcmc Stoics, rathcr than cynics in thc modcrn scnsc) and
picurcans is mcrcly onc ol tcmpcramcnt,

whilc ssorted Opinions trcats picurus as,

along with thc Stoic pictctus, thc rcpository ol a singlc lost wisdom.
o
!n !anderer itscll,
thc Sophist Hippias is said to sharc this singlc wisdom,
+
as docs Socratcs, who, banishcd
to thc doghousc in Te Birth of Tragedy, undcrgocs an amazing rchabilitation in !anderer:
!l all gocs wcll, thc timc will comc whcn onc will takc up thc mcmorabilia ol Socratcs
rathcr than thc 8iblc as a guidc to morals and rcason . . . thc pathways ol thc most various
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:,
philosophical modcs ol lilc lcad back to him: at bottom thcy arc modcs ol lilc ol thc various
tcmpcramcnts, conrmcd and cstablishcd by rcason and habit, and all ol thcm dircctcd
towards joy in living and in oncs own scll.
:

Trcc lcaturcs ol ancicnt philosophy in gcncral and picuruss philosophy in particular arc
important to undcrstanding !anderer. First, as Picrrc Hadots wondcrlul Philosophy as a
!ay of Life

has rcccntly rcmindcd us, thc ultimatc point and justication ol philosophy
was, lor thc ancicnts, practical rathcr than thcorctical. Spccically, thc point ol philosophy
was to providc a body ol wisdom that dcmonstratcd how, by living philosophically, onc
could achicvc cudacmonia, happincss. All ancicnt philosophy was cudacmonic.
!n thc Hcllcnistic pcriod which is thc objcct ol Nictzschcs spccial attcntion (thc pcriod
bctwccn thc dcath ol Alcxandcr in : 8C and Romcs anncxation ol Grcccc in +6 8C),
all thc various schools ol philosophy, thc Cynics, Stoics, picurcans, Sccptics, and oth
crs, conccivcd ol happincss in a particular way: thcy thought ol it as, abovc all, ataraxia,
unshakcablc tranquillity, scrcnity, pcacc ol mind. Morc spccically pcrhaps on account
ol thc disordcrly condition ol thc timcs philosophy aimcd at discovcring thc wisdom ol
how to achicvc scrcnity in thc lacc ol an at bcst unccrtain, and usually hostilc, latc: how to
ovcrcomc advcrsity, how to rctain pcacc ol mind .hate.er happens.
Tc sccond important lcaturc ol ancicnt philosophy is that thc thcorctical is subscrvicnt
to thc practical, to thc goal ol achicving happincss. Tc vcry word philosophy tclls us
this: philosophy was (and, ! would suggcst, still ought to bc) philo-sophia, lovc ol wisdom,
not philo-theoria, lovc ol thcory. Tis docs not at all mcan that thcory was irrclcvant to
philosophy and its goal. picurus bclicvcd, lor cxamplc, that our world is but onc ol a scrics
ol worlds crcatcd in an innitc void and that mcditation on this lact rcduccd thc ability ol
human aairs to upsct our pcacc ol mind. !t docs, howcvcr, mcan that thcorctical qucstions
with no possiblc rclcvancc to human happincss arc not a part ol philosophy, propcrly so
callcd.
Tc third important lcaturc common to all ancicnt philosophcrs is a kind ol asccticism.
!n ordcr to guarantcc happincss, no mattcr how hostilc oncs latc, all thc Hcllcnistic philos
ophcrs proposc vcrsions ol thc samc stratcgy. Sincc pain is thc nonsatislaction ol dcsirc,
onc is adviscd to givc up, or at lcast achicvc dctachmcnt lrom, all dcsircs which arc (a)
unncccssary and (b) unccrtain in thcir lullmcnt: lor cxamplc, thc dcsirc lor wcalth, powcr,
or lamc.
Tus, picurus, in particular, though bclicving, likc thc Nictzschc ol thc positivist pcriod,
that human bcings both do and should pursuc plcasurc as thc highcst goal, advocatcs two
sorts ol modcsty as thc paths to a lilc ol guarantccd plcasurc (Lathe biosas! Livc mod
cstly! was his motto). nc should bc modcst, rst, in thc gratication ol oncs scnsuous
appctitcs: joy ol thc spirit and soul in placc ol lrcqucnt indulgcncc in . . . scnsual plcasurcs
is Nictzschcs dcscription ol picuruss rccommcndation.

And onc should bc modcst,

sccond, in thc scnsc ol withdrawing lromsocial ambition, living privatcly in a gardcn rathcr
than publicly in thc markct placc: A littlc gardcn, gs, littlc chccscs, thrcc or lour good
lricnds, thcsc wcrc thc scnsuous plcasurcs ol picurus, commcnts Nictzschc.

Although
picurus advocatcs a kind ol asccticism as thc path to a pcacclul and plcasant lilc, it is
csscntial to distinguish his asccticism cudacmonic asccticism, onc might call it as
a mcans to a plcasant lilc lrom asccticism as an cxprcssion ol Schopcnhaucrian world
dcnial.
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
l coursc, to livc in this philosophical manncr is not casy sincc it rcquircs both scll
disciplinc, thc disciplining ol thc passions by rcason, and scllknowlcdgc, knowlcdgc ol
what passions and appctitcs onc rcally has. As Nictzschc puts it in thc notcbooks, a happy
lilc rcquircs that wc sct grounds in thc placc ol habits, intcntions in thc placc ol drivcs,
goals which, in turn, rcquirc knowlcdgc in thc placc ol bclicl .
6

!t is now possiblc to scc thc conncction bctwccn thc two lacts that providc thc csscntial
background to !anderer: Nictzschcs hcalth and thc picurcan turn. Hcllcnistic philosophy,
wc havc sccn, was cudacmonic, was about achicving scrcnity in thc lacc ol advcrsity. 8ut
advcrsity was just what Nictzschc laccd: his appalling bodily torturc,

rcachcd, wc havc
sccn, its worst point in +8. His own bodily condition was, othcr words, precisely thc kind
ol hostilc latc Grcck philosophy was dcsigncd to ovcrcomc. !t madc hima paradigmcasc lor
trcatmcnt by picurcan thcrapy. Givcn thc dccp knowlcdgc ol ancicnt philosophy lodgcd
in his mind sincc his days as a philologist, it was almost incvitablc that hc would turn to
somconc likc picurus.
!n his youth Nictzschc lound consolation lor sucring in rcligion. !n his Vagncrian
pcriod hc lound it in quasircligious art, hc was, hc rccalls, a vcry artnccdy man.
8
8ut
ncithcr thc comlorts ol rcligion nor thosc ol art wcrc any longcr availablc to him in +8.
Morcovcr, his sucring had bccomc acutc in a way that thc rcsourccs ol ninctccnthccntury
mcdicinc had shown thcmsclvcs powcrlcss to amclioratc. Givcn, thcn, that rcligion, art, and
mcdicinc had all lailcd, spiritual, philosophical sclldoctoring rcmaincd his only option.

Tc notcbooks lor +8 arc complctcly cxplicit that this is what occurrcd in thc pcriod
during which !anderer camc into bcing. Sincc thc consolations ol Christianity arc bccom
ing an antiquity, hc writcs, thc mcans ol comlort providcd by ancicnt philosophy comc
oncc again to thc lorc with a rcncwcd radiancc.
o
And again, spcaking in a dircctly pcr
sonal way somc ol thc cntrics in thc notcbooks arc as much diary cntrics as skctchcs ol
philosophical thoughts ! nccd thc boxcs ol salvcs and mcdicinc bottlcs ol all thc ancicnt
philosophcrs,
+
which lcads to thc sclldircctcd injunction, 8ccomc ancicnt!
:
l coursc, Nictzschcs conccrn is not just lor himscll. His appropriation ol thc stylc and
much ol thc contcnt ol ancicnt philosophy lor thc purposc ol sclldoctoring is intcndcd to
bc cxcmplary, to communicatc to othcrs how thcy, too, may cngagc in sclladministcrcd
thcrapy, whatcvcr thcir own particular lorm ol advcrsity. thcrwisc thcrc would havc
bccn no point in allowing !anderer to cmcrgc lrom thc privacy ol thc notcbooks. !n thc
Scptcmbcr ++ lcttcr to K osclitz accompanying thc manuscript to bc madc printrcady, hc
writcs:
! am at cnd ol my th ycar, midlilc and so cncirclcd by dcath.

8ccausc ol my hcalth !
must think ol suddcn dcath . . . and so ! lccl likc an old man, but also bccausc ! havc donc
my lilc work . . . 8asically ! havc put my obscrvation ol lilc alrcady to thc tcst: many will
do that in thc luturc. My spirit had not bccn cowcd by prolongcd and painlul sucring,
indccd ! sccm morc chccrlul and bcncvolcnt than cvcr bclorc. Vhcrc havc ! got this ncw
condition lrom: Not lrom pcoplc, who havc mostly, with a lcw cxccptions, irkcd mc. Rcad
this ncw manuscript through, dcar lricnd, and ask yourscll whcthcr you nd any tracc ol

A ltccnthccntury hymn contains thc linc dedia .ita in morte sumus, in thc middlc ol lilc wc arc
in dcath, or, in Luthcrs translation, cncirclcd by dcath.
Te !anderer and His Shado.

::
sucring or opprcssion. ! think you wont nd any, and this is a sign ol thc hiddcn powcrs
in this outlook, not wcakncss and cxhaustion.

Having succcsslully tcstcd thc hiddcn powcrs ol picurcan philosophy on himscll, hav
ing achicvcd happincss in spitc ol a tcrriblc latc hc dcscribcs in thc lcttcr to iscr (p. :8
abovc),

hc now wants to makc thcm availablc to his rcadcrs : ! scc thc sucring oncs tak
ing to thc mountain air ol thc ngadinc (i.c., to thc hcalth spa ol St. Moritz), hc writcs.
And continucs, ! too scnd my paticnts into my mountain air,

in othcr words into thc

hcroicidyllic

mood ol picuruss philosophy.

6
Te Wanderer and His Shadow
T
urning to Te !anderer and His Shado. itscll, and vicwing it against thc abovc back
ground, it bccomcs impossiblc to miss how thoroughly it is imprcgnatcd by picurcan
philosophy.
Tcrc is, rst ol all, an cxplicit armation and appropriation ol thc picurcan con
ccption ol thc goal ol philosophy as cudacmonia, pcrsonal happincss. Tis pcrsonal ori
cntation makcs !anderer a vcry dicrcnt work both lrom its positivist prcdcccssors and
lrom his maturc works, which, though conccrncd with human wcllbcing in a gcncral
scnsc, pay littlc or no attcntion to thc tcchniqucs ol individual happincss. Nictzschc
writcs,
!l wc arc scnsiblc, thc only thing that nccd conccrn us is that wc should havc joy in our
hcarts. Alas somconc addcd, il wc arc scnsiblc thc bcst thing wc can do is to bc wisc.

Givcn, in othcr words, that happincss docs not grow on trccs, it has to bc workcd lor and
cultivatcd undcr thc guidancc ol philosophia, ol thc philosophcrs wisdom. Morcovcr, though
thcy arc not, as wc shall scc, idcntical, Nictzschcs conccpt ol happincss at lcast includcs
picurcan ataraxia as a crucial ingrcdicnt. Tus, as wc havc sccn, joy in thc hcart, quicting
ol thc hcart, thc idyllic mood, and picurus gardcn happincss, as wcll as soothing ol thc
soul,
8
arc all cpithcts that ncccssarily apply to a happy pcrson.

Tat thc point ol philosophy is to providc happincsspromoting wisdom cxplains thc prcs
cncc ol much ol !anderers contcnt which, il onc approachcs thc work with a purcly thco
rctical paradigm ol philosophy in mind, should not bc thcrc. A grcat dcal ol thc work, that
is to say, has nothing to do with thc big qucstions ol mctaphysics, cpistcmology, or cvcn
cthics, but is, rathcr, quitc cxplicitly, Lebens.eisheit, lilcwisdom, or, as wc might now say,
lilccoaching. Nictzschcs obscrvations as a lilc coach arc ol two basic sorts: advicc on how
to promotc happincss in dcaling with oncscll, and advicc on how to do so in dcaling with
othcrs.

Noticc that in thc lcttcr to isncr hc dcscribcs his thoughts and pcrspcctivcs as consolations,
positivc plcasurcs. A thcmc in Hcllcnistic philosophy is that sincc a hostilc latc cannot dcprivc onc
ol thc lilc ol thc mind, intcllcctual dcsircs, sincc thcy arc not unccrtain ol satislaction (somc ol
thcm, at lcast), arc cxcmpt lrom thc rcquircmcnts ol cudacmonic asccticism.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc ovcrall instruction with rcspcct to dcaling with oncscll is to bccomc a good ncigh
bour to closcst things, to cxpcricncc peace all around me and good.ill to all things closest to
me.

Tc contrast, hcrc, is with thc lurthcst things ol Christian mctaphysics: hcll, hcavcn,
dcath, and judgmcnt.
6o
Sincc thc ncarcst things pcrtain to dict and hcalth, it is likcly that
Nictzschc is inucnccd, hcrc, by ninctccnthccntury Gcrman matcrialism (which hc kncw
through his +866 rcading ol Fricdrich Langcs History of Materialism (pp. 8o abovc)).
Tc spirit ol Gcrman matcrialism is summcd up in Fcucrbachs lamous rcmark that man is
what hc cats: morc lully, !l you want to improvc pcoplc thcn givc thcm bcttcr lood instcad
ol dcclamations against sin. Man is what hc cats.
Pcoplc just dont rcalizc, Nictzschc lamcnts, that longcr cggs tastc bcttcr, that thundcr
storms arc bcnccial lor thc bowcls, or that spcaking or listcning intcntly at mcaltimcs is
harmlul to thc digcstion. Pcoplc lail to attcnd to thcsc humblc, cvcryday things that, cumu
lativcly, arc ol crucial importancc sincc almost all our physical and psychological lrailtics
stcm lrom this lailurc ol attcntion:
Not knowing what is bcnccial to us and what is harmlul . . . in thc division ol thc day, in lor
how long and with whom wc cnjoy social intcrcoursc, in prolcssion and lcisurc, command
ing and obcying, lccling lor art and naturc, cating, slccping and rcccting, bcing unkno.l-
edgeable in the smallest and most e.eryday things and lailing to kccp an cyc on thcm this is
what translorms thc carth lor so many into a valc ol tcars.
6+
!n thc notcbooks, undcr thc hcading Tc octrinc ol Ncarcst Tings, hc includcs pur
posc ol thc day (dividcd into pcriods), lood, company, naturc, solitudc, slccp, cmploymcnt,
cducation . . . usc ol mood and atmosphcric conditions, hcalth, rctrcat lrom politics.
6:
Usc
ol mood is pcrhaps cxplaincd by thc rcmark in Nictzschcs ncxt book, Da.n, that pcacc
ol soul dcpcnds on thc mood ol our domcstic cnvironmcnt:
6
altcr a hcctic day dcaling
with thc complcxitics ol thc modcrn world onc nccds, pcrhaps, to rcturn to a simplc, spa
cious, coolcolourcd homc cnvironmcnt, as Alain dc 8otton suggcsts in Te rchitecture of
Happiness.
As to dcaling with othcrs, navigating thc mincclds ol socicty, Nictzschc ocrs himscll
and us inter alia thc lollowing. Sincc thc postman is an agcnt ol rudc intrusions into oncs
solitudc, onc should opcn oncs lcttcrs only oncc a wcck and takc a bath altcrwards.
6
(An
updatcd vcrsion would bc thc occ wisdom that adviscs onc to avoid opcning oncs cmails
rst thing and, morcovcr, to do a grcat dcal ol dclcting, so as not to allow othcr pcoplc
to dominatc oncs day.) nc should try to bc a truc listener, that is, locus on listcning to
what is said rathcr than on constructing oncs rcply.
6
nc should avoid thosc who arc
cmbittcrcd by coming homc cmptyhandcd altcr a hard days work.
66
nc should (this
comcs lrom Hcsiod) rcturn borrowcd gain in cxtra mcasurc so that, simultancously, thc
lcndcr is graticd by thc protability ol his act and onc cxpungcs thc humiliation ol having
had to bc a borrowcr in thc rst placc.
6
nc should bcar in mind that a man who has just
bccn grcatly honourcd and has just catcn is at his most gcncrous.
68
And so on.

For Te !anderer, thcn, thc aim ol philosophy is cudacmonia. Tc sccond way in which it
both arms and appropriatcs picurcan philosophy is in thc cxclusion lrom philosophy ol
angclsonapinhcad qucstions, qucstions that havc no practical rclcvancc to our livcs:
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:
picurus, thc soulsoothcr ol latc antiquity, had that wondcrlul insight, which is still today
so rarcly to bc discovcrcd, that to quictcn thc hcart it is absolutcly not ncccssary to havc
solvcd thc ultimatc and outcrmost thcorctical qucstions. Tus to thosc tormcntcd by lcar
ol thc gods it is sucicnt to say, !l thc gods cxist thcy do not conccrn thcmsclvcs with us,
instcad ol indulging in lruitlcss . . . disputation ovcr thc ultimatc qucstion ol whcthcr thc
gods do in lact cxist.
6
picurus argucd that thc gods, il thcy cxistcd, could takc no intcrcst in human aairs sincc
that would disturb thc blisslul condition that bclongs to thc vcry conccpt ol what it is to
bc a god. (Gods ncvcr go to horror movics.) So wc do not nccd to sucr lrom lcar ol
divinc wrath: il gods cxist thcy arc not intcrcstcd in us and il thcy do not cxist thcy arc not
intcrcstcd in us cithcr. Tc moral Nictzschc dcrivcs is that wc should dcvclop indicrcncc
to thcorctical qucstions whosc answcrs can makc no dicrcncc to our livcs:
! mcan thc qucstions: what is thc purposc ol man: How can hc bc rcconcilcd with
God: . . . Just as littlc arc wc conccrncd with thc qucstions ol thc philosophical dogmatists,
whcthcr thcy bc idcalists or matcrialists or rcalists. Tcir objcct, onc and all, is to compcl
us to a dccision whcrc ncithcr laith nor knowlcdgc is nccdcd . . . |lor| a lull and cxccllcnt
human lilc.
o
Nictzschc concludcs thc passagc by admitting thcrc is a rcalm ol darkncss bcyond thc
closcst world, thc world ol naturc, but says that it is somcthing wc should not bothcr our
hcads about. Hc admits oncc again, in othcr words, thc possibility that thc closcst world
might bc, as Kant claimcd, a world ol mcrc appcarancc bcyond which lics a rcality in itscll
ol a quitc dicrcnt charactcr. 8ut sincc Kantianism would makc absolutcly no dicrcncc to
our livcs cvcn il it wcrc truc, wc do not nccd to rcad thc Critique of Pure Feason.
Likc picurus, howcvcr, Nictzschc rccogniscs that thcorctical knowlcdgc is by no mcans
irrclcvant to philosophy, that it can bc an important routc to pcacc ol mind. Tus, parallcling
picurus advicc to achicvc impcrturbability by mcditating on thc vanishing insignicancc
ol human aairs in thc vastncss ol spacc and timc, Nictzschc adviscs us to cngagc in mock
ing laughtcr at humanitys trcating itscll as thc goal and purposc ol cxistcncc. Hc adviscs
us to bccomc likc thosc astronomcrs to whom thcrc is somctimcs givcn a horizon that
rcally is lrcc ol thc carth, |and who| givc us to undcrstand that thc drop ol life in thc uni
vcrsc is without signicancc lor thc total charactcr ol thc trcmcndous occan ol bccoming
and passing away. Such a longdistancc vicw ol things cnablcs us to undcrstand how our
traditional scllaggrandizcmcnt makcs us likc thc ant in thc lorcst |who| imagincs that it
is thc goal and objcctivc ol thc lorcst.
+
Vhat Nictzschc is pointing to hcrc is thc thcra
pcutic bcnct ol thc postmctaphysical, positivist horizon: by abandoning thc idca ol thc
world as a mcrc stagc sct lor thc playing out ol thc human drama undcr Gods watchlul
and wrathlul cyc, wc scc scllaggrandizing man as thc comcdian ol thc world,
:
as, in thc
languagc Sartrc borrows lrom Te Birth of Tragedy, absurd.

And this hclps us to cut our

troublcs down to sizc, hclps us achicvc ataraxia.
Attainmcnt ol thc astronomcrs horizon on human aairs is, ol coursc, somcthing
which comcs and gocs. Hcncc, to prcscrvc tranquillity, it will nccd constant rcpctition as
a kind ol mcditativc practicc or spiritual cxcrcisc, spiritual gymnastics, as Nictzschc calls
it.

Anothcr such cxcrcisc is mcditation upon dcath. Tc lact ol its incvitability, ought, says
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Nictzschc, to introducc into cvcry lilc a prccious, swcctsmclling drop in lcvity |leichtsinn
litcrally lightncss ol mind|.

Tis again sccms to mc a thcrapcutic usc ol Sartrcan

absurdity: knowing that dcath will incvitably puncturc all our projccts, that thc mcrc wavc
in thc vast occan ol bccoming that wc arc (p. : abovc) will soon bc no morc, should
ovcrcomc obsession our disposition to bccomc obscsscd with, lor instancc, occ politics.
Spiritual hcalth, Nictzschc is suggcsting, rcquircs that wc carry thc absurd, and so a kind
ol Stoic dctachmcnt, always in thc back ol our minds.
l coursc, thc thrcat to scrcnity ol spirit comcs lrom only onc sourcc: dcsirc and cmo
tion, thc passions. So, lor Nictzschc, as lor picurus, scrcnity rcquircs sclldisciplinc, thc
ovcrcoming ol thc passions
6
by rcason, thc disciplining ol oncs soul into rigorous adhcr
cncc to a rational lilc plan. picurus, wc havc sccn, advocatcs thc quasiascctic climination
ol all unncccssary dcsircs that arc unccrtain ol lullmcnt, and so docs Nictzschc:
To satisly oncs ncccssary rcquircmcnts |oncs needs| as complctcly as possiblc oncscll, cvcn
il only impcrlcctly, is thc road to freedom of the spirit and person. To lct othcrs satisly many
ol oncs rcquircmcnts . . . is a training in unfreedom. Tc sophist Hippias, who . . . himscll
produccd cvcrything hc worc, within and without, rcprcscnts, in this, thc road to thc highcst
lrccdom.

Scllmastcry is, ol coursc, casicr said than donc. Hcncc, in addition to spiritual cxcrciscs
such as adopting thc astronomcrs pcrspcctivc and mcditating on mortality, Nictzschc
rccommcnds thc rcgular practicc ol sclldcnial:
Te most needful gymnastic. Alack ol scllmastcry in small things brings about a crumbling
ol thc capacity lor it in grcat oncs. vcry day is ill cmploycd, and a dangcr lor thc ncxt
day, in which onc has not dcnicd oncscll somc small thing at lcast oncc: this gymnastic is
indispcnsablc il onc wants to prcscrvc oncscll in thc joy ol bcing oncs own mastcr.
8
l coursc, scllmastcry cannot bc achicvcd without scllknowlcdgc, and so accuratc psy
chological obscrvation is as highly valucd in !anderer as it was in its positivist prcdcccssors.
Now, howcvcr, Nictzschcs account ol thc valuc ol such obscrvations takcs a dccisivc stcp
away lromthc malicc ol r ccalism, lromR ccs bclittling contcmpt and scorn (pp. :6, :6
abovc) lor human naturc, as wcll as lrom thc macho idca that thc unconditional pursuit ol
scicntic truth is an cnd in itscll. Tosc whosc disscction ol morality can bc approvcd ol
and thcy should ncvcr bc morc than a small minority do so not as an cnd in itscll, nor out
ol sadistic glcc in hitting thc black, but only lor thc sakc ol bcttcr knowlcdgc, bcttcr judg
mcnt, bcttcr living.

Unlikc thc trivial and cynical moralists who want to show, bchind all
apparcnt grcatncss ol soul, a paltrincss similar to thcir own (onc can scc that, cvcn il Lou
Salom c had not comc bctwccn thcm, a brcak bctwccn Nictzschc and R cc was incvitablc),
moralists such as himscll do not deny the existence ol grcat and purc statcs ol thc soul, ol
truly good mcn and womcn, but scck rathcr to explain thosc statcs by cxhibiting thcir
origins and complcxity.
8o
!n othcr words, Nietzsches psychological obscrvations on human
cxccllcnccs arc dcsigncd, not to dcbunk, but rathcr to providc depth-psychological analyses.
Tcsc arc important bccausc il wc arc to cultivatc and mastcr our passions and so achicvc
nc and happy statcs ol thc soul, it is important that wc ovcrcomc all lalsc scntimcntality,
that wc achicvc a clcarcycd undcrstanding ol what thosc statcs rcally consist in. As all thc
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:
ancicnt philosophcrs insistcd, only il onc knows oncscll can onc hopc to bccomc cithcr
good or happy.
Building Walden Two
N
ictzschc would not, ol coursc, bc Nictzschc il his philosophy wcrc an cxact rcpctition
ol picurus. Tc crucial rcspcct in which hc dcparts lrom thc picurcan injunction to
livc modcstly is his ongoing conccrn lor thc rcgcncration ol culturc, his mission to build
not by dircct political action but by thc quict cxcrcisc ol smallscalc spiritual lcadcrship
a ncw socicty. Posscssing a lilcunilying task, a lilcdcning mcaning, is, as wc know,
an csscntial ingrcdicnt ol happincss as Nictzschc conccivcs it, and cultural rcgcncration
through thc writing ol his books is his own lilctask. Tis grandcur ol ambition that is, in
a broad scnsc, political sccms to mc somcthing likc thc oppositc ol picurcan inconspicu
ousncss, ol picuruss rccommcndcd inncr cmigration lrom politics.

Nictzschc writcs,
thc man who has ovcrcomc his passions has cntcrcd into posscssion ol thc most lcrtilc
ground, likc thc coloniscr who has mastcrcd thc lorcsts and swamps. To so. thc sccds ol
good spiritual works in thc soil ol thc subducd passions is thcn thc immcdiatc urgcnt task.
Tc ovcrcoming is only a means not a goal: il it is not so vicwcd, all kinds ol wccds and
dcvilish nonscnsc will quickly spring up in this rich soil now unoccupicd, and soon thcrc
will bc morc rank conlusion that thcrc cvcr was bclorc.
8+
Tis, ! think, is a criticism ol picurus: he is thc onc who vicws a rational mastcry ol thc
passions along thc guidclincs supplicd by his philosophy as an cnd rathcr than a mcans. Hc
is thc onc who lails to scc that happincss rcquircs a goal othcr than itscll. Happincss has
to bc morc than picurcan ataraxia, it dcmands a lilcdcning task. !ndccd, thcrc cannot
bc ataraxia in thc abscncc ol a lilcdcning task. Nictzschcs own task is building a ncw
culturc, building Valdcn Two, as ! call it.
8y way ol constructing a blucprint lor Valdcn Two, !anderer both claboratcs on thcmcs
alrcady introduccd in Human and introduccs somc ncw and startling idcas ol its own. !
bcgin with thc lormcr.

Economics. Tc ncw world, wc know, will bc onc in which thc dangcrs ol thc machinc
culturc arc avoidcd. !n thc prcscnt agc wc havc lost thc pridc in production charactcristic ol
thc cralt cconomy and wc havc lost thc besto.ing of distinction on indi.iduals that a purchasc
uscd to constitutc. Vorkcrs arc rcduccd to an anonymous and impcrsonal slavcry. So not
paying too high a pricc lor thc allcviation ol labour, rcstoring thc workcrs jobsatislaction,
will bc a dcsidcratum.
8:
Tcrc is an ccho, hcrc, ol Nictzschcs ncarcontcmporary Villiam
Morris. Tough an implacablc opponcnt ol socialism, rcmarks such as thcsc showNictzschc
to bc by no mcans unsympathctic to all strands ol ninctccnthccntury socialism. Tcy also

picurus taught in Mytilcnc, Lcsbos, but bccausc his philosophy challcngcd prcvailing orthodoxy,
hc was thrcatcncd with a chargc ol impicty and had to cc in dangcr ol his lilc. Tis convinccd him
that it was bcttcr to havc nothing to do with politics, cvcn indircctly.
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
show, as lar, at lcast, as !anderer is conccrncd, thc crroncousncss ol thinking that only thc
wcllbcing ol thc cxccptional individual has any valuc lor him.
Nictzschc arrivcs at this samc conclusion by appcaling to capitalist scllintcrcst. !n sctting
wagc lcvcls, thc cxploitation ol thc workcr will bc avoidcd sincc that makcs himlcss ccicnt
and will producc a class alicnatcd lrom socicty as a wholc and thcrcby social unrcst.
8
(Tc
+88 workcrs uprising was, rccall, a living mcmory lor Nictzschc.)
n thc othcr hand, Platos and thc socialists intcntion ol abolishing privatc propcrty is
bascd on thc lack ol propcr knowlcdgc ol human naturc. Such an abolition is a mistakc sincc
pcoplc arc diligcnt in pursuit only ol what thcy can own, and diligcnt in thc carc only ol what
thcy do own. Noncthclcss, sincc a largc gap bctwccn rich and poor causcs cnvy and social
unrcst, thc conccntration ol cnormous wcalth in privatc hands will bc avoidcd. 8usincsscs,
in particular banks, that gcncratc such wcalth will bc statcowncd.
8
Tis passagc makcs two
things clcar: that, at lcast in !anderer, Nictzschcs antisocialism is in lact anticommunism,
and that thc socialdcmocratic idcal ol partial nationalisation ol thc mcans ol production
and cxchangc is somcthing hc actually endorsed.
nc last stipulation: sincc, in thc lrcc markct, products arc judgcd, not by cxpcrts, but
only by consumcrs, who can go only on appcaranccs, a strong consumcr protcction agcncy
will bc nccdcd to maintain thc quality ol products.
8
rt and Character. !n gcncral tcrms, thc art and lilc ol Nictzschcs ncw world will bc
classical rathcr than romantic in both mood and dcsign.

All grcat art and cvcry man ol

moral conscqucncc, Nictzschc asscrts, posscsscs thc oppositc ol thc romantic (Vagncrian)
dcsirc to show morc lccling than onc actually has. Grcatncss likcs to arrcst . . . lcclings on
thcir coursc and not allow thcm to run quitc to thcir conclusion. Tc modcsty ol grcatncss
rcquircs lcclings to prcscnt thcmsclvcs as morc sobcr than thcy arc.
86
Arcadia, to rcpcat,
is a Poussin landscapc populatcd with Hcllcnic hcrocs.
8
!ar and Peace. Sincc, as wc know, thcrc is no lrcc will, wrath and punishmcnt arc logical
sins which, onc day, will bc rcturncd to thc animal world lrom which thcy camc. 8ut wc
havc thc capacity to transccnd thcsc sins, so that onc day thcy will withcr away.
88
(Tis is
why ! call this scction 8uilding Valdcn Two 8. F. Skinncrs !alden T.o, too, drcams
ol thc dcmisc ol angcr. Noticc that Nictzschcs vicw that lcgitimatc punishmcnt cxilc,
imprisonmcnt is a mattcr ol rcminding thc transgrcssor ol thc advantagcs ol community
hc has lorlcitcd by harming it
8
rcscmblcs Skinncrs laith in opcrant conditioning.)
Spcaking ol hostility bctwccn nations, Nictzschc says that thc socallcd armcd pcacc
in which onc has, not an army, but a dclcncc lorcc, is no rcal pcacc at all, bccausc by
dcmonising thc ncighbour it crcatcs thc sccds ol luturc warlarc. Truc pcacc, thc timc whcn
wc can truly say that thcrc is on carth pcacc, goodwill to all mcn,
o
will only bc achicvcd
whcn thc strongcst nation voluntarily disarms, undcrstanding that it is bcttcr to pcrish
than to livc in mutual hatc and lcar.
+
(Nictzschc would havc supportcd thc Campaign lor
Nuclcar isarmamcnt.)
l coursc, human aggrcssion, as wc know, can ncvcr bc wholly cradicatcd. So hcrc wc
must lcarn lrom Grcck prudcncc, lrom thc Grccks institution ol gymnastic and artistic

A lcttcr to R cc writtcn in Scptcmbcr +8 contains an amusing commcnt on Nictzschcs own

romantic pcriod: On my rst .e Books. ncc ! thought, A and /My wisdom stands within,/Now
! think no morc so:/ nly thc ctcrnal Ah! and h!/My youth stands within (KG8 !!. 8). Tc
vc books arc, ol coursc, Te Birth of Tragedy and thc lour Untimely Meditations.
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:
contcsts by mcans ol which thc drivc lor victory and cmincncc could bc dischargcd without
impcrilling thc political ordcr.
:
Aggrcssion must bc sublimatcd. Good ris in placc ol bad
ris. Tc Vorld Cup in placc ol Vorld Var.
Women
T
hc aspccts ol Nictzschcs Valdcn Two discusscd so lar arc, to somc dcgrcc, lamiliar
lrom Human, ll-Too-Human. Vhat is ncw, howcvcr, and calls lor a rcconsidcration
ol thc popular picturc ol Nictzschc as, lrom start to nish, a virulcnt antilcminist, indccd
misogynist, arc his rcmarks about womcn.
Somc quotations: Many a woman has thc spirit ol sacricc and can no longcr cnjoy
lilc whcn hcr husband rcluscs to sacricc hcr.

Vhat womcn now think ol thc malc

mind can bc divincd lrom thc lact that whcn thcy adorn thcmsclvcs |put on a lacc|, thc
last thing thcy havc in mind is to cmphasisc thc intcllcctual qualitics ol thcir lacc. Tcy
prclcr to prcscnt an appcarancc ol lustlul scnsuality and mindlcssncss . . . Tcir conviction
that mcn arc tcrricd ol intcllcctual womcn is so rm that thcy arc cvcn rcady to dcny
thcy havc any sharpncss ol mind and dclibcratcly imposc on thcmsclvcs a rcputation lor
shortsightedness

(ol bcing a dumb blondc in nccd ol a guiding malc hand). Vhat womcn
privatcly say among thcmsclvcs, howcvcr, is stupid as a man. And that indccd is whcrc
stupidity bclongs: stupidity is, in woman, thc un.omanly.

Propcrly rcad, thcsc kinds ol rcmarks sccm to mc not only to hit thc bullscyc but also to
bc cxtrcmcly sympathctic to thc plight ol womcn in ninctccnthccntury, patcrnalist socicty.
Morc prcciscly, thcy strikc mc as rcmarkably empathetic a quality many noticcd as onc ol
thc salicnt lcaturcs ol Nictzschcs pcrsonality. Tcir butt is not womcn but thc malc cul
turc which lorccs thcm into dcvalucd rolcs. And, consistcnt with his battlc to havc womcn
admittcd to 8ascl Univcrsity (p. ++ abovc), hc clcarly sccs womcn as at the .ery least as
intcllcctually giltcd as mcn so that thcir bcing dcbarrcd lrom using thcir intclligcncc is
a tragic wastc with rcspcct to thc projcct ol building a bcttcr, morc intclligcntly dcsigncd,
world. !t is not, thcn, surprising that, as wc shall scc, most ol thc company hc chosc lor
himscll during thc last dccadc ol his sanity was lcmalc.
Altcr rcading through thc manuscript ol !anderer in prcparation lor making thc print
rcady copy, K osclitz, as was his habit at thc timc, suggcstcd somc altcrations:
You writc, Tc domcstic animal which undcrstood how to crcatc itscll a right within
humanity is thc woman. Tc comparison ol womcn with domcstic animals is unworthy
and unphilosophical, woman arc as littlc animals as mcn arc womcn. Vomcn havc, partic
ularly in intcllcctual mattcrs, advantagcs which mcn could do wcll to cmulatc.
6
Nictzschc rcplics:
Many thanks lor picking mc up on that. ! do not wish to prcscnt thc appcarancc ol dimin
ishing womcn and havc cut out thc wholc passagc. Vhat is truc is that, originally, only mcn
wcrc hcld to bc human bcings . . . thc rccognition ol womcn as human bcings was a grcat
moral advancc. My or our vicw ol womcn should not bc brought into contact with thc
word domcstic animal. ! was judging according to |thc travcl writcr, Sir Hcnry \ccl|
Huntlcys dcscription ol thc situation ol womcn in primitivc tribcs.

:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhcn wc comparc this with Schopcnhaucrs vicw, morc typical ol thc agc, that
womcn arc qualicd to bc thc nurscs and govcrncsscs ol our carlicst childhood by thc vcry
lact that thcy arc thcmsclvcs childish, triing, and shortsightcd |shortsightcdncss again!|,
in a word, arc all thcir livcs grown up childrcn, a kind ol intcrmcdiatc stagc bctwccn thc
child and thc man, who is thc human bcing in thc rcal scnsc,
8
wc can scc that thc cxchangc actually docs considcrablc crcdit to both mcn. l coursc,
thc vicw that Nictzschc was antilcminist, indccd antiwoman, is by no mcans without
grounds in his latcr philosophy. Soon wc shall havc to attcnd to thc qucstion ol what it was
that altcrcd his vicws on thc womcns qucstion.
Is Nietzsche a Democrat?
V
ill dcmocracy bc part ol Nictzschcs Valdcn Two: \arious rcmarks in !anderer
might sccm to suggcst that it will.
Nictzschc most oltcn uscs dcmocracy to rclcr to a cultural phcnomcnon: thc lcvclling ol
cvcryonc down to thc lowcst cultural dcnominator, thc crcation ol a mass culturc. cmo
cratization ol this sort hc always opposcs. 8ut with rcspcct to dcmocracy as a political systcm
!anderer has a dicrcnt attitudc. Tus, commcnting on thc growth ol political dcmocracy
in thc uropc ol his day, hc obscrvcs, rst, that it is incvitablc, sincc cvcn thc opponcnts ol
dcmocracy, thc spirits ol |rcactionary| rcvolution, havc to cmploy dcmocratic mcthods and
thcrcby strcngthcn dcmocratic institutions. Sccond, hc sccms to say that this is a desirable
dcvclopmcnt sincc thc political dcmocratization ol uropc is onc ol thosc trcmcndous
prophylactic measures which arc thc conccptions ol modcrn timcs through which wc scp
aratc oursclvcs lrom thc Middlc Agcs and which providc thc loundations on which thc
wholc luturc can salcly bc built. Tc rcason dcmocracy providcs a prophylactic loundation
lor thc luturc is that it makcs it impossiblc lor thc lruitlul clds ol culturc again to bc dc
stroycd ovcrnight by wild and scnsclcss torrcnts. !n cstablishing dcmocratic institutions wc
crcct stonc dams and protcctivc walls against barbarians, against pcstilcnccs, against physical
and spiritual ensla.ement.

Again, cmocratic institutions arc quarantinc arrangcmcnts

to combat that ancicnt pcstilcncc, lust lor tyranny, as such thcy arc vcry usclul and vcry
boring.
+oo
Tis is a dclcncc ol dcmocracy Churchillian in its orthodoxy: lor all its lailings,
dcmocracy is a bastion against tyranny.
8clorc wc dccidc, howcvcr, that Valdcn Two will bc a dcmocratic statc, !anderers
rcmarks nccd to bc sct against a long and complcx discussion cntitlcd rcligion and gov
crnmcnt in scction : ol Human, ll-Too-Human. !n bricl, thc argumcnt, hcrc, is this.
Tc traditional, tutclary (i.c., patcrnalistic, nondcmocratic) statc was csscntially dcpcn
dcnt on rcligion lor two things: validation ol thc lcgitimacy ol thc rulcr (thc divinc right
ol kings) and validation ol thc lot ol thc rulcd. ivinc authorisation madc thc traditional
statc an objcct ol rcvcrcncc and so a powcrlul lorcc lor social ordcr. Tc arrival ol dcmocracy,
howcvcr, is draining it ol such rcvcrcncc bccausc it is now thc pcoplc who arc bccoming
thc solc sovcrcign powcr. cmocracy thus constitutcs thc decay of the state. Tough this
thrcatcns social anarchy it nccd not bc vicwcd with absolutc horror, sincc history shows
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:,
humanitys lccundity in crcating ncw lorms ol social organisation. !t might bc, lor cxamplc
(anothcr ol Nictzschcs prcscicnt momcnts), that thc traditional busincss ol thc statc will
bc translcrrcd to privatc contractors. Noncthclcss, this gcncral laith in a viablc humanity
lollowing thc collapsc ol thc dcmocratic statc docs not mcan wc should activcly scck to .ork
lor its dcath. n thc contrary, wc must hopc that it survivcs lor somc timc yct. And, ol
coursc, !anderer tclls us why: thc collapsc ol thc dcmocratic statc may wcll lcad to tyranny
(to Hitlcr and Mussolini).
!t is not that casy to dctcrminc just what Nictzschcs vicw ol dcmocracy is during thc
positivist pcriod. Somc things arc, howcvcr, clcar. Tc dcmocratic statc is not thc bcst lorm
ol thc statc sincc it constitutcs thc dccay ol thc statc. !t is only thc bcst lorm for no. sincc,
givcn thc currcnt statc ol human naturc, its disappcarancc would likcly lcad to tyranny. As
wc shall scc, a qucstion that cxcrciscs Nictzschcs latc philosophy is what (at lcast somc)
human bcings would havc to bc likc lor thc rcplaccmcnt ol dcmocracy by a dicrcnt kind
ol statc, not to bc its rcplaccmcnt by tyranny: Vhat would conditions havc to bc likc lor
thc dcath ol dcmocracy to bc a blcssing rathcr than a cursc:

Tc most insightlul rcaction to !anderer camc lrom Rohdc who, rccall, had bccn appallcd
by Human, ll-Too-Human. Tc book, hc wrotc Nictzschc, causcs pain to anyonc who
knows what sucring lics bcncath its calm spirit, but rcally wc should all bc plcascd that
your shadow convcrsation raiscs you so high and lar abovc all pcrsonal things, bcstow
ing on thc rcadcr, as it docs, so many cxcmplary victorics ovcr sickncss.
+o+
To vcrbcck
Rohdc wrotc that thc R ccncss has bccomc lcss dogmatic . . . Nictzschc looks about him
scll morc lrccly and wins back his own bcing which |in Human| hc supprcsscd through a
lorccd lrccspiritcdncss . . . to a considcrablc dcgrcc Nictzschc has ovcrcomc thc cold wind
ol R ccism that succccdcd thc hcat ol Vagncrism.
+o:
Tcsc rcmarks sccm to mc basically
corrcct.
Naumburg, Riva, Venice, Marienbad, Stresa
V
ith thc approach ol thc autumn ol +8, Nictzschcs thrcc months in St. Moritz
camc to an cnd. !nucnccd, pcrhaps, by thc various doctors who had adviscd him to
abandon his pcrvcrsc habit ol challcnging thc cold, hc dccidcd that thc cold ol thc ngad
inc wintcr would bc as bad lor his hcalth as thc hcat ol thc 8ascl summcr. Hc dccidcd,
in othcr words, that what was particularly bad lor his hcalth was extremes ol climatc. And
so bcgan a pattcrn that would rcmain with him lor thc nal ninc ycars ol his sanity: high
mountain vallcys in summcr, warmcr placcs at sca lcvcl in wintcr. Tough by thc lollow
ing ycar hc would scarch out thcsc warmcr placcs on thc Frcnch and !talian Rivicras, lor
thc momcnt thc (marginally) warmcr placc was Naumburg, whcrc hc would stay until thc
middlc ol Fcbruary, +88o. n Scptcmbcr + hc caught thc train to Chur, whcrc hc mct
up with lizabcth thcy discusscd Gcorgc liots Middlemarch,

which shc was in thc

!t had appcarcd vc ycars carlicr in +8. nc assumcs it was alrcady in Gcrman translation sincc
lizabcth ccrtainly could not rcad nglish.
:,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
middlc ol rcading and lrom thcrc thcy travcllcd on to Naumburg, whcrc thcy arrivcd on
Scptcmbcr :o.
Nictzschcs projcct in Naumburg was what hc callcd a rational . . . wintcrcurc pro
grammc. Tc idca bchind thc curc was thc advicc that would bc givcn by his ncxt book,
Da.n, that thc bcst curc lor physical and spiritual dcprcssion is
a grcat dcal ol slccp litcral or mctaphorical. Tcn onc will rccovcr oncs morning. Tc apogcc
ol thc wisdom ol lilc (Lebens.eisheit) consists in knowing how to lall aslccp in cithcr scnsc
at thc right timc.
+o
Vriting to vcrbcck on arrival in his wintcr station, hc says that thc chicl thought bchind
thc programmc is mctaphorical slccp: as much rcst as possiblc lrommy constant inncr work,
rccupcration lrom myscll, such as ! havc not had lor ycars.
+o
nc rccalls !mmcrmannss
advicc that hc would lccl bcttcr il hc bccamc morc stupid(p. ++ abovc). r Shakcspcarcs
about knitting up thc ravcllcd slccvc ol carc.
Undcr thc inucncc ol his own, picurcan philosophy, Nictzschc had bcgun to plan thc
rccovcry ol his hcalth and spirits thc prcvious July. At that timc thc plan had bccn to rcnt
lrom thc city a room in a towcr in thc city wall right by his mothcrs housc at thc cnd
ol thc Vcingartcn strcct. Tcrc hc would supplcmcnt his incomc by tcnding thc ncarby
orchard and vcgctablc gardcn during thc spring and summcr months. Tc plan, in othcr
words, was to dwcll quitc litcrally in picuruss gardcn. n July :+ hc askcd his mothcr to
inlorm thc city authoritics that hc would lormally commit himscll to rcnting thc room lor
six ycars at (thc vcry modcst) scvcntccnandahall talcrs pcr ycar. Tc vcgctablc gardcning,
hc continucd,
is just what ! want and is in no way unworthy ol an aspirant wisc onc. You know that !
ycarn cvcr morc strongly lor a simplc and natural lilcstylc, thcrc is no othcr curc lor my
hcalth. Rcal work which takcs timc and makcs onc tircd without straining thc hcad is what
! nccd. id not lathcr oncc say that ! would bccomc a gardcncr:
+o
Nictzschcs plan, in short, was to takc his own picurcan advicc to livc unobtrusivcly, to
livc, lor thc timc bcing at lcast, in a statc ol intcllcctual slccp. !n thc cnd thc plan camc to
nothing bccausc thc room was rcntcd to somconc clsc. And in thc cvcnt, Nictzschc, who
could no morc givc up on his task than hc could y, was rcally somcwhat rclicvcd to gct
out ol thc rcntal contract (which, inter alia, lorbadc him to hang up washing in thc towcr
room or to opcn a tavcrn thcrc).
+o6
Nictzschcs hcalth did not improvc in Naumburg. !n lact, with thc onsct ol wintcr cold,
it rcachcd its ultimatcly lowcst point. !n January, +88o hc wrotc thc alrcadyquotcd lcttcr
to r. iscr (p. :8 abovc) itcmising thc altcrnation bctwccn pain and nausca and scizurcs
so violcnt that hc somctimcs lost consciousncss. At thc samc timc, striking a hcroic, pi
curcan posc, hc inlormcd Malwida ol his immincnt dcmisc:
Tis will no doubt bc my last |lcttcr|! For thc tcrriblc and unrclcnting martyrdoms ol my lilc
makc mc thirst lor thc cnd, according to ccrtain symptoms, it sccms that thc saving brain
strokc is closc cnough to grant mc hopc. As lar as torturc and dcprivation arc conccrncd,
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:,:
my lilc during thc past lcw ycars can mcasurc up to that ol any ascctic . . . Ncvcrthclcss !
havc attaincd much during thcsc samc ycars towards thc purilying and polishing ol my
soul and ! no longcr nccd cithcr rcligion or art to that cnd . . . ! bclicvc ! havc lulllcd my
lilcs work . . . No pain has bccn ablc to scducc mc into bcaring lalsc witncss against lilc, life
as I kno. it, nor should ! cvcr bc ablc to do so.
+o
cath, howcvcr, turncd out to bc lcss immincnt than hc thought. And so hc bcgan to
rccct, oncc morc, on thc rclation bctwccn climatc and hcalth. Naumburg, indccd northcrn
uropc in gcncral, hc dccidcd, was vcry bad lor him. Accordingly, on Fcbruary +, hc sct
o lor Riva, on thc northcrn shorc ol Lakc Guarda, in thc TrcntinoAlto Adigc rcgion ol
northcrn !taly. Ncstling at thc loot ol thc snowstrcakcd olomitcs, Riva was an oasis ol
trccs and owcrs. Tc spacious grounds ol his hotcl, thc Sccvilla (today thc H otcl du Lac
ct du Parc), cxtcndcd to thc shorc ol thc lakc. Nictzschc had now cntcrcd what was to bc,
lor thc rcst ol his sanity, his nomadic homcland. Tough hc was rcgularly on thc movc and
oltcn likcd to posc as a homclcss wandcrcr, lrom now on hc was rcally, as hc indccd saw
himscll, in thc propcr scnsc, a nomad:
+o8
onc, that is to say, who, though mobilc, is mobilc
in a dcncd pattcrn and within a dcncd spacc. !n Nictzschcs casc, apart lrom occasional
cxcursions clscwhcrc, mostly busincss or duty trips to Lcipzig or Naumburg, his spacc was
dcncd, in thc north, by thc southcrn vallcys ol thc Swiss Alps, and, in thc south, by thc
sca, cithcr thc Adriatic (\cnicc) or thc Mcditcrrancan (Gcnoa and Nicc).
!n Riva, Nictzschc bcgan work on thc notcs that would bccomc Da.n. 8ut altcr a
month ol cold, wct wcathcr and no improvcmcnt in his hcalth, hc dccidcd on thc adoptcd
homc town ol his lricnd K osclitz, and movcd to \cnicc, whcrc hc would rcmain until thc
bcginning ol July. Hcrc, in thc ctcrnal qucst lor bcttcr hcalth, hc bcgan a vcry ncccssary
cxpcrimcnt to scc whcthcr thc supposcdly mcdically dcprcssing climatc might not actually
bcnct his hcadachcs.
+o
(Vith its marshy lagoon, mosquitocs, and honcycomb ol dubious
canals, \cnicc was rcgardcd, throughout thc ninctccnth ccntury, as a placc whcrc onc casily
succumbcd to a latal inlcction.) For scvcral wccks hc staycd with K osclitz ncar thc Campo
San Canciano, in thc workingclass ncighbourhood ol Cannarcgio, at numbcr :6 on thc
narrow Callc Nuova. From thcrc hc movcd to his own apartmcnt not many blocks away
with a vicw onto San Michclc, \cniccs island ccmctcry.
Nictzschc lovcd \cnicc. Hc lovcd his spacious and clcgant apartmcnt, thc pcacclul dovcs
on St. Marks Squarc, thc opcnair cal cs whcrc hc discovcrcd !talian cocc to bc thc bcst
in thc world, thc warm carly summcr sun, thc dark allcys that shadcd his cycs, thc sca air
and sca bathing. Hc bcgan to slccp bcttcr than lor a long timc and his hcalth and appcar
ancc bcgan to improvc.
++o
Vork on Da.n continucd undcr thc provisional titlc LOmbra
di !enizia.
+++
Rclations with K osclitz wcrc not, howcvcr, without tcnsion. n thc onc hand, K osclitz
was ablc to writc to a lricnd that Nictzschc was a saint in thc most solcmn scnsc . . . hc is thc
only onc ol his typc on thc carth, thcrc has ncvcr bccn his sort on thc carth not will thcrc cvcr
bc again.
++:
8ut on thc othcr, hc wishcd hc could gct on with his own work as a composcr,
which, on account ol his rolc as Nictzschcs lricnd, amanucnsis, and gcncral spiritsraiscr,
had comc to a complctc halt. 8ut thcn hc would lambastc himscll as a complctc bastard
to bcgrudgc a littlc timc to this poor man who has only mc to lcan on. Yct hc could not
hclp tclling his lricnd that not only did Nictzschc wakc him up in thc small hours to writc
:,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
down somc idca that had just comc to him, but hc also dcmandcd at othcr timcs that hc
play Chopin or go bathing, with thc rcsult that oltcn, at night, ! rcaliscd !d donc nothing
lor myscll so that ! got angry and wishcd Nictzschc would go to thc dcvil.
++
Latcr on
hc wrotc in cxaspcration to thc samc lricnd, !vc spcnt scvcral wccks writing up a book
|Da.n| ol morc than two hundrcd pagcs lrom an almost illcgiblc manuscript produccd by
an almost blind man ask mc il my hcad hurts!
++
Nictzschcs lcttcrs show hc was not inscnsiblc to thc strain hc was placing on his lricnd.
!l only to savc thc lricndship, it thus bccamc impcrativc to lcavc \cnicc thought by July it
was in any casc bccoming too hot and mosquitoriddcn lor him. Having rcccivcd a rccom
mcndation lor thc 8ohcmian spa town ol Maricnbad (now Mari ansk c L azn c in thc Czcch
Rcpublic), hc dccidcd to spcnd July and August thcrc, staying in thc Hotcl rmitagc. !t
was not, howcvcr, a good movc. Hc likcd ncithcr thc pcoplc nor thc stcak, thc wcathcr
was wct, and hc was ovcrcomc with nostalgia lor thc old Tribschcn days. Tc brcak with
Vagncr, hc wrotc K osclitz, was thc hardcst sacricc my path ol living and thinking has
dcmandcd ol mc. !n thc samc lcttcr (convcnicntly lorgctting thc 8rahms cpisodc), hc
bcgan thc lalsication ol his pcrsonal rclation with Vagncr that would pcrsist through all
his latcr accounts ol thc rclationship: a cross word has ncvcr bccn spokcn bctwccn us, hc
claimcd.
++
Surroundcd by a languagc hc did not undcrstand, Nictzschc lclt complctcly isolatcd in
Maricnbad. Tc only bright spot was thc lorcst and thc lact that pcoplc took him lor a
Polc.
++6
(Anothcr lantasy in his latcr writings is that hc was Polish.) A momcnt ol cxcitc
mcnt occurrcd whcn thc sounds ol digging camc lrom thc hotcls gardcn in thc middlc ol
thc night. Tc ncxt morning it turncd out that thc policc had dug up a machinc lor lorging
banknotcs and had cartcd thc hotcls owncr o to jail.
++
Among thc locals Nictzschc was
rclcrrcd to as thc sad prolcssor lrom Switzcrland, whilc lcllow rcsidcnts rcportcd him as
bcing cxtrcmcly silcnt and spcaking mostly only to childrcn.
++8
Altcr spcnding Scptcmbcr in Naumburg, hoping, no doubt, that a good dosc ol mothcr
lovc would cnablc him to rccovcr lrom thc miscry ol Maricnbad, hc travcllcd south oncc
morc, this timc to Strcsa, on thc southwcstcrn shorc ol Lakc Maggiorc, which, howcvcr, hc
lound not southcrly cnough, shivcring alrcady lrom thc lrosty brcath ol wintcr.
++
Hcrc
hc rcsumcd work on Da.n, thinking nowto rccyclc thc titlc, Ploughshare, originally planncd
lor Human, ll-Too-Human. Hc was lorccd to rcmain in Strcsa much longcr than hc
wishcd lrom ctobcr + to Novcmbcr 8 impaticntly awaiting thc arrival ol a trunk
his sistcr had scnt lrom Naumburg. A notc writtcn during this timc givcs an indication ol
thc mood brought on by thc windlcss, clammy mists ol autumnal Maggiorc:
nc gcts oldcr, and it is hard lor mc to bc quitc satiscd with a placc howcvcr lamous a
namc it may bcar. Tc anacmic bcauty ol thc Lago Maggiorc in latc autumn, a bcauty which
spiritualiscs all thc contours and makcs thc countrysidc almost a vision, docs not cnchant
mc, but spcaks to mc in a tonc ol inlcctious sadncss ! know such toncs clscwhcrc than in
naturc.
+:o
Finally thc trunk arrivcd and thc ncxt day hc was o to Gcnoa, whcrc hc had dccidcd to
spcnd thc wintcr.
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:,
Genoa, Recoaro, and Sils Maria
A
ltcr a lcw lalsc starts, Nictzschc scttlcd in thc Salita dclla 8attistinc 8, about twcnty
minutcs uphill walk lrom Gcnoas 8rignolc railway station. Hc dcscribcs thc walk to
lizabcth with his usual mathcmatical prccision:
Ycs thcrcs a lot ol walking! And climbing! For in ordcr to rcach my littlc garrct ! havc to
climb +6 stcps, and thc housc itscll is vcry high up in a stccp strcct ol palaccs.
+:+
Tis
strcct, bcing so stccp and cnding in a grcat ight ol stcps is vcry quict and thcrc is grass
growing bctwccn thc stoncs.
+::
Tc housc was wcll choscn, with plcasant lcllowlodgcrs and a sympathctic landlady,
Signora Scttima Stagnctti, who addcd to his culinary rcpcrtoirc (hc had, rcmcmbcr, lcarnt
to makc risotto in Sorrcnto) a Gcnocsc dish ol artichokcs and cggs.
+:
Tc housc was adja
ccnt to a woodcd park, thc \illcta incgro, with cxccllcnt walking paths that wound up
to a stunning vicw ovcr thc cntirc city and harbour. Tc only drawback was thc abscncc ol
hcating in his attic room. !n his quict backwatcr, hc camc to lccl so much at homc that
cvcryonc with whom my basic nccds bring mc into contact has a lricndly lacc and word
lor mc.
+:
His landlady conrmcd to lizabcth that hc was indccd on lricndly tcrms with
lcllow lodgcrs, rcporting that hc sharcd in thcir joys and sorrows to such a dcgrcc that hc
was known as il piccolo santo.
+:
Nictzschc was dctcrmincd to livc in solitudc and anonymity in Gcnoa to livc with
picurcan modcsty. Hc was, hc wrotc his publishcr, living philosophically.
+:6
ont tcll
anyonc whcrc ! am, hc rcpcatcdly cnjoincd his lcw corrcspondcnts:
All my corts |hc wrotc vcrbcck| arc dircctcd towards dcvcloping an idcalistic garrct
solitudc in which as much, much sucring has taught mc thc ncccssary and simplcst
dcmand ol my naturc nd thcir satislaction . . . For a good pcriod ol timc ! must livc without
company, in thc middlc ol a town whosc languagc ! dont undcrstand . . . ! livc as though
thc ccnturics wcrc nothing, without thinking ol thc datc or thc ncwspapcrs.
+:
Nictzschc was, in short, withdrawing into thc dccp solitudc (solipsism thcrapy, onc might
call it) that will bc rccctcd in Zarathustras tcnycar solitudc in a mountain cavc. R cc
had visitcd in Naumburg but, Nictzschc dccidcd, thc visit had bccn too stimulating. His
cort now was to rccovcr physical and mcntal harmony through thc climination ol cxtcrnal
stimuli:
! am again making thc attcmpt |hc wrotc homc| to discovcr a lilc that is harmonious lor
mc, and bclicvc it will also bc thc path to hcalth: all thc lilcpaths ! havc lollowcd to datc
havc simply lorlcitcd my hcalth. ! want to bc my own doctor and that mcans, lor mc, that !
havc to bc truc to thc dcpths ol myscll and no longcr listcn to anything alicn. ! cant put into
words how much good this solitudc docs mc. ont think it lcsscns my lovc lor you! Hclp
mc rathcr to kccp my anchoritccxistcncc a sccrct! nly in this way can ! advancc myscll
in cvcry scnsc (and in thc cnd pcrhaps also bc usclul to othcrs). Hcrc, this grcat, bustling
port city whcrc ovcr +o,ooo ships dock in a ycar it givcs mc pcacc and bcinglormyscll.
:,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
An attic with an cxccllcnt bcd: simplc, hcalthy lood, sca air, vital lor my hcad, cxccllcntly
pavcd paths, and, lor Novcmbcr, a lovcly warmth (lots ol rain, unlortunatcly).
+:8
Tough Nictzschcs hcalth was not as good as it had bccn in \cnicc, hc dcvclopcd an
intcnsc lovc ol Gcnoa. As thc homc city lrom which Columbus sailcd ovcr thc horizon to
discovcr thc ncw world, it camc to symbolisc his own scarch lor a ncw dawn lor Vcstcrn
culturc hc had by nowscttlcd on Da.n as thc titlc ol thc currcnt projcct. !n Te Gay Science,
also writtcn largcly in Gcnoa, thc city has its own scction whcrc it is cclcbratcd as thc homc
ol pcoplc who, in thcir thirst lor what is ncw, placcd a ncw world bcsidc thc old onc.
+:
Hc
lovcd thc baroquc palaccs on thc Stradc Nuova

vc minutcs walk lrom his lodgings, lovcd

thc combination ol compctitivc agonistic individuality with an ovcrarching unity ol
stylc that madc it compctition rathcr than chaos.
+o
Hc lovcd bcing ablc to walk six to
cight hours a day, thc brcvity ol thc wintcr (it lastcd only a month, hc claimcd), and bcing
ablc to sit or lic almost cvcry day on rcmotc rocks by thc sca likc a lizard in thc sun, quict
and cngagcd in advcnturcs ol thc spirit.
++
And hc dcvclopcd a mystical lovc lor Gcnoas
sca as an occasion lor absorption into thc panthcistic totality ol things:
Hcrc is thc sca, hcrc wc can lorgct thc city . . . Now all is still! Tc sca lics thcrc palc and
glittcring, it cannot spcak. Tc sky plays its cvcrlasting silcnt cvcning gamc with rcd and
ycllow and grccn, it cannot spcak. Tc littlc clis and ribbons ol rock that run down into
thc sca . . . nonc ol thcm can spcak. Tis trcmcndous mutcncss which suddcnly ovcrcomcs
us is lovcly and drcadlul, thc hcart swclls at it . . . ! bcgin to hatc spccch, to hatc cvcn think
ing, . . . sca, cvcning! . . . You tcach man to ccasc to bc man! Shall hc surrcndcr to you:
Shall hc bccomc as you arc now, palc, glittcring, mutc, trcmcndous, rcposing abovc himscll:
xaltcd abovc himscll :
+:
8y March ol +88+ Da.n was basically nishcd and thc manuscript scnt to Schmcitzncr.
!ts prcsiding spirits, hc writcs K osclitz, arc my thrcc Gcnocsc guardian angcls, Columbus,
Mazzini, and Paganini.
+
As a placc to mcct to dcal with thc prools, hc and K osclitz
dccidcd upon Rccoaro, about hallway bctwccn Gcnoa and \cnicc. Nictzschc arrivcd thcrc
on May lor a twomonth stay.
Sct in thc olomitcs cast ol Lakc Garda, Rccoaro was yct anothcr spa rcsort. Nictzschc
was ablc to takc thc lamous Rccoaro watcrs (nowavailablc in bottlcs). Tc two lricnds staycd
in thc Albcrgo Trc Garolani, an clcgant yct unprctcntious hotcl not lar lrom thc Fonti
Ccntrali. Tcy must havc had acccss to a piano bccausc hcrc, lor thc rst timc, Nictzschc
gaincd a propcr knowlcdgc ol K osclitzs music, spccically his comic opcra, Joke, Cunning,
Fe.enge. Hc is a composcr ol thc rst rank without pccr among all living composcrs (i.c.,
supcrior to Vagncr), hc dccidcd. Vith its chccrlulncss, gracc, inwardncss and grcat rangc
ol lccling lrom harmlcss lun to innoccnt sublimity,
+
K osclitzs music was, hc asscrtcd,
prcciscly thc music to which my philosophy bclongs.
+
As in most othcr placcs, Nictzschcs hcalth did badly in Rccoaro. Tc thundcrstorms
causcd by thc collision ol warm, Adriatic air with thc cool air ol thc Alps upsct him, as

Pctcr Paul Rubcns was so struck by thc bcauty ol thc Strada Nuova that in +6:: hc publishcd
a twovolumc collcction ol architcctural drawings ol its palaccs callcd I Palazzi di Geno.a. Now
callcd thc \ia Garibaldi, thc Strada Nuova is a Vorld Hcritagc sitc.
Te !anderer and His Shado.

:,
did thc lack ol lorcst shadc lor his cycs. 8y July hc was sucring his awlul scizurcs cvcry
day. And so hc dccidcd to rcturn to thc ngadinc. A nightmarc journcy ol misscd train
conncxions, lrom which hc nccdcd a wcck to rccovcr, brought him to St. Moritz. Hcrc,
thc impossibly high priccs and a chancc rccommcndation lrom a local inhabitant com
bincd to scnd him onwards and upwards to thc tiny larming villagc ol Sils Maria. Hcrc hc
lound a rclativcly chcap room abovc a groccry shop in a simplc, twostory housc convc
nicntly abutting a pinc lorcst, owncd by thc local mayor, Hcrr urisch. Tus, on Monday,
July , +88+, Nictzschc discovcrcd thc placc that was to bccomc, morc than anywhcrc clsc,
thc hcart ol his spiritual homcland.
16
Dawn
P
iniisnvb ix July +88+, Da.n (or Daybreak) was a Gcnoa book. Tough hc had
bcgun thc prcparatory skctchcs a ycar and a hall carlicr in Riva, and had continucd
thcm in \cnicc and Strcsa, thc book itscll camc into bcing in Gcnoa: Almost cvcry
scntcncc was thought, was tracked do.n, among thc conlusion ol rocks ncar Gcnoa.
+
!t is
thc concluding work ol Nictzschcs positivist pcriod.
A Book for Slow Readers
A
s with Human, ll-Too-Human, Da.n is oncc again, clcarly, a book that is addrcsscd
to lrcc spirits, potcntial and actual. !t is addrcsscd to a company ol thinkcrs, to, that
is, wc advcnturcrs and birds ol passagc |!ander. ogel|,
:
wc who rcsist currcnt customs and
convcntions and so arc dcnounccd by thc mainstrcam as criminals, lrccthinkcrs, immoral
pcrsons and put undcr thc ban ol outlawry |!ogelfreiheit|.

As in Human, Nictzschc scnscs

thc gathcring ol a movcmcnt ol lilcrclorm: at thc prcscnt timc . . . thosc who do not rc
gard thcmsclvcs as bound by cxisting laws and customs arc making thc rst attcmpts to
organisc thcmsclvcs and thcrcwith to crcatc lor thcmsclvcs a right.

Tis movcmcnt hc
wishcs to cncouragc and guidc, cvcn though, with thc collapsc ol thc old morality, it may
makc thc coming ccntury a dangcrous onc in which it will bc ncccssary to carry guns.

At
prcscnt, hc obscrvcs, thcrc arc in uropc pcrhaps tcn to twcnty million pcoplc who no
longcr bclicvc in God, so thcy should givc a sign to onc anothcr in ordcr to bccomc
an organizcd powcr in uropc.
6
Sincc this discussion takcs placc undcr thc hcading, in
hoc signo .inces (in this sign you will conqucr Constantinc was rclcrring to thc cross),
Nictzschc probably mcans sign quitc litcrally: wc lrcc spirits should idcntily oursclvcs to
cach othcr with, as it wcrc, a countcrcross, somc kind ol lapcl badgc or logo. (Promcthcus
brcaking lrcc ol his chains, pcrhaps, which was uscd on thc covcr ol thc rst cdition ol Te
Birth of Tragedy.)
Sincc Da.n is lor lrcc spirits always thc cxccption rathcr than rulc, rcmcmbcr onc can
cxpcct it to bc a book intcndcd lor, oncc again, thc lcw. Tis shows up in thc rcmarks on
:,&

awn

:,
marriagc. Nictzschc is clcarly in lavour ol marriagc in general, sincc brccding, i.c., cugcnics,
is a major part ol his hopc lor thc luturc: hc wants, lor cxamplc, an intcrbrccding ol Jcwish
toughncss and intclligcncc with thc idcalism and lcadcrship qualitics ol thc bcst ol thc
uropcan aristocracy.

8ut on thc othcr hand Da.n is dccply sccptical about thc suitability
ol marriagc lor his primary audicncc.
8
Tc implication sccms to bc that whilc somc lrcc
spirits will marry, givcn that thc brccding ol cxccllcnt human bcings ol thc luturc must
rcquirc procrcation by cxccllcnt human bcings ol thc prcscnt, Nictzschcs lcw and primary
disciplcs will, likc himscll, rcmain unmarricd. r so hc thinks.
Vhat kind ol a work is Da.n: How is it intcndcd to bc uscd: Tc book, says Nictzschc,
is not lor rcading straight through or rcading aloud, but lor dipping into, cspccially whcn
out walking or on a journcy, you must bc ablc to stick your hcad into it and out ol it again
and again and discovcr nothing lamiliar around you.

!t is intcndcd, in othcr words, not as

a theoretical treatise but as a spiritual resource likc, lor cxamplc, thc 8iblc. Tis idca ol a tcxt
lor mcditation and rumination rathcr than instant consumption is rclcrrcd to in thc +886
Prclacc to thc works sccond cdition. Tc book, Nictzschc writcs, is only lor slow rcading,
it must bc rcad lento. To this cnd, and to combat thc pcrspiring hastc ol thc prcscnt
agc which wants to gct cvcrything donc at oncc, hc dclibcratcly writcs, hc says, in a way
dcsigncd to rcducc to dcspair thc hurricd rcadcr.
+o
Tc rclcrcncc is to thc condcnsation ol
thought into shortcr and longcr aphorisms so that undcrstanding bccomcs a mattcr ol slowly
puzzling out. Tc intcndcd rcsult is that thc book should bccomc as vibrantly alivc lor thc
rcadcr as it was lor its author. Tc samc gocs, ! think, lor its apparcnt lack ol structurc. vcn
morc than Human, it givcs thc appcarancc ol bcing writtcn in a strcamol consciousncss: thc
vc books havc no titlcs and thcrc is no obvious rcason why onc stops and anothcr starts.
8ut ! think this is motivatcd in thc samc way as is thc aphoristic stylc: thcrc is a structurc,
but onc has to .ork to nd it, work thc wrong kind ol rcadcr, thc hasty onc, will not put in.

So Da.n is a tcxt lor mcditation. Not, howcvcr, in thc astcrn scnsc ol putting thc
intcllcct out ol action, but rathcr thc oppositc: thc basis lor thc work is thc usc, cvcn thc
passionatc usc, ol rcason. Nictzschc commcnts on thc intoxication with thc ncwly dis
covcrcd art ol rcasoning that spcaks through cvcry linc ol Platos dialogucs, and dcplorcs
thc glorication ol antircason in how philosophy is donc today.
++
(Tc contcmporary
attack on logoccntricism would not cngagc his sympathy.)
Happiness
N
ictzschc writcs that whilc Gcrman morality, lor cxamplc, Kants catcgorical impcrativc
(Act only on that maxim which you can will to bc a univcrsal law), is a morality ol
unconditional obcdicncc, thc morality ol antiquity was uttcrly dicrcnt:
All thosc Grcck thinkcrs, howcvcr varicd . . . sccm, as moralists, likc a gymnastics tcachcr
who says to his pupil, Comc lollow mc! Submit to my disciplinc! Tcn pcrhaps you will
succccd in carrying o thc prizc bclorc all Hcllcncs.
+:

Tat bcing said, thcrc may also bc an clcmcnt ol making a virtuc out ol ncccssity. Largcscalc
structurc is somcthing Nictzschcs ncgraincd scnsibility was ncvcr good at, a scnsibility attuncd,
as hc put it, to quartcrtoncs (KG8 !!!. 6o).
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhat was thc prizc: Nictzschc tclls us that whcn philosophy bccamc mattcr ol public com
pctition in thc third ccntury 8C thcrc was a prcmium on appcaring happy in ordcr to dis
combobulatc thc opposition. Tc rcsult (by a kind ol rcvcrsc causation) was that cvcntually
onc became happy.
+
Hc mcntions thc Cynics, whosc main compctitors wcrc thc Stoics, thc
picurcans, thc Aristotclians, and thc Platonists. Tc prizc, thcn, lor which thcy compctcd
was happincss. As wc know, all thc Hcllcnistic schools agrccd that thc point ol philosophy
was to achicvc happincss.
Following thc Hcllcnistic modcl, as hc did in Te !anderer and His Shado., Nictzschc
conccivcs ol Da.n as tcaching a spiritual gymnastics, a soulthcrapy thc aim ol which is
happincss. Tc purposc ol thc book, hc says, is simply to translatc into rcason a strong and
constant drivc, a drivc lor gcntlc sunlight, bright and buoyant air, southcrly vcgctation, thc
brcath ol thc sca.
+
Vrittcn in Gcnoa, thc book, Ecce Homo suggcsts, is inluscd with thc
gcnius loci, thc southcrn happincss that is thc spirit ol thc placc. Tc rcsult is that it contains
no malicc (nonc ol R ccs sadistic joy in hitting thc black).

Rathcr, likc its author, it lics

in thc sun, round, happy, likc a scabcast sunning itscll among thc rocks.
+
So thc book
expresses happincss. And sincc happincss is inlcctious it promotes happincss.
l coursc, thc happincss that is to bc rcstorcd to us is what has long bccn dcnicd undcr
thc gloomy skics ol Christianity. Tat is why thc book is callcd Da.n ! prclcr Da.n
to Daybreak as a translation ol its titlc sincc it calls to mind dawn ol a ncw agc. Tc sun
is bcginning to shinc (Sunrise would bc anothcr possiblc translation ol Morgenr ote) altcr a
long abscncc. Actually, sincc thc books motto tclls us that thcrc arc so many dawns that
havc not yct brokcn, it is not a singlc ncw agc Nictzschc is looking lor but an indcnitc
scrics ol ncw agcs, cach rising abovc thc othcr,
+6
an asccnding scrics ol ncw dawns.

awn, thcn, is not a thcorctical trcatisc but a spiritual thcrapy aimcd, likc thc philosophics
ol antiquity, at happincss. Tc spirit ol picurus prcsidcs ovcr Da.n as it did ovcr its
prcdcccssor. Tis cxplains why roughly a third ol its aphorisms havc no thcorctical con
tcnt at all but arc, rathcr, cxcrciscs in lilcwisdom,
+
vcry concrctc picccs ol advicc on
thc art ol living, on how to livc a happy lilc, such as gct plcnty ol slccp and dont trust
attcrcrs.
!t also cxplains Nictzschcs suggcstion that thc right philosophy lor onc individual may
bc dicrcnt lrom thc right onc lor anothcr. Just as onc mcdical rcgimcn will not suit all
paticnts, so philosophics, whilc containing, pcrhaps, clcmcnts that arc bcnccial to all,
will nccd to vary lrom pcrson to pcrson. As thc ancicnt world bclicvcd, thc qucstion ol
which philosophy bcst suits onc will ultimatcly bc a mattcr ol individual tcmpcramcnt.
+8

Tis claim sccms to mc truc: thc malicc (though not thc tastc lor dcpth psychology) ol Human
rcally has disappcarcd. !n thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod Nictzschc nally rcaliscs what is lunda
mcntally wrong with R ccs and La Rochcloucaulds tastc lor thc dark sidc. Up to now thcrc havc
bccn gloricrs and vilicrs ol man but both procccdcd lrom thc moral standpoint. La Rochclou
cald and thc Christians both lound mankind ugly: this is a moral judgmcnt, a dicrcnt kind ol
morality was unknown! Vc howcvcr rcgard man as bclonging to naturc which is ncithcr cvil nor
good (KSA 6 |8:|). Tc vcnom bchind R ccs psychological obscrvations and thc dcspair
that markcd his charactcr comcs, Nictzschc now sccs, lrom thc lact that, though hc has rcjcctcd
Christian mctaphysics, hc had not bccn ablc to lrcc himscll lrom Christian morality. His psycho
logical obscrvations arc cxpcricnccd and prcscntcd as cxposing thc dark in human naturc only via
an implicit subscription to a Christian conccption ol thc light.
awn

:,,
Fundamcntally, claims Nictzschc, a philosophy is nothing but an instinct lor a pcrsonal
dict, dicrcnt philosophics bcing cxprcssions ol dicrcnt pcrsonal drivcs. For this buttcr
y uttcring high on thc rocky sca coast . . . a philosophy could no doubt bc lound: though
it would not bc my philosophy.
+
Te Teoretical Framework
A
s ! cmphasiscd in thc last chaptcr, thc picurcan conccption ol thc goal ol philosophy
as happincsspromoting wisdom rathcr than knowlcdgcpromoting thcory by no
mcans cxcludcs thcory lrom philosophy. All it cxcludcs is irrclcvant thcory, thcory lor thc
orys sakc. !n Da.n thcrc is a clcar thcorctical loundation.
First, thc work cmphatically rcjccts Kantian/Schopcnhaucrian idcalism. Vhat Plato and
Schopcnhaucr wantcd to discovcr bchind thc socallcd vcil ol appcaranccs docs not cxist.
!t is, Nictzschc writcs, simply nothing.
:o
Tc thing in itscll is thus abolishcd. Tcrc is only
onc world, not two. Morcovcr, this world is cmphatically thc world ol naturc, in particular,
arwins naturc. (Tough ncvcr mcntioncd by namc, arwin sccms to havc rcturncd to
lavour in Da.n: lor thc momcnt thcrc is no attcmpt to rcpcat Human, ll-Too-Humans
lccblc attcmpt to rclutc him.) Tus Nictzschc obscrvcs, approvingly, that thc apc nowstands
grinning bclorc thc portal to thc supposcdly divinc origins ol man:
:+
arwin dcmolishcs
thc mctaphysical by showing thc humanalltoohuman (or rathcr animalalltooanimal)
origins ol man. And hc obscrvcs that anyonc studying cvolution now knows that vision
was not thc intcntion bchind thc crcation ol thc cyc, rathcr . . . vision appcarcd only altcr
chancc (random mutation) had put thc apparatus togcthcr. A singlc instancc ol this kind,
Nictzschc continucs, and purposcs lall away likc scalcs lrom thc cycs!
::
Naturalism thcn rcigns in Da.n: thcrc is only thc onc world ol naturc, and thc human
bcing is nothing morc than an organism that has cvolvcd within it. And rationalism rcigns,
too: rcason, and morc spccically natural scicncc, is thc authoritativc way to nd out about
this onc world.
:
As in Human, Nictzschc takcs it as obvious that naturalism cntails causal dctcrminism
and that dctcrminismin turn cntails thc abscncc ol lrcc will: thcrc arc no actions pcrlormcd
ol a lrcc will, hc asscrts bluntly.
:
Tis in turn cntails thc abscncc ol moral rcsponsibil
ity.
:
(From this abscncc hc concludcs, as bclorc, that wc should no morc punish pcoplc lor
brcaking thc law than wc punish thcm lor bcing sick. Criminals indccd are mcntally sick
and should thcrclorc bc rcgardcd as cascs lor treatment rathcr than punishmcnt.)
:6
Tc nal clcmcnt in Da.ns thcorctical lramcwork is psychological cgoism: !l only thosc
actions arc moral which arc pcrlormcd lor thc sakc ol anothcr and only lor his sakc . . . thcn
thcrc arc no moral actions.
:
And, though it is lcss promincnt than in Human, it sccms
that Nictzschc still adhcrcs to thc hcdonistic vcrsion ol cgoism. Tis is suggcstcd in various
placcs,
:8
but thc strongcst cvidcncc is that though thc will to powcr almost makcs its rst
signicant appcarancc in Nictzschcs writings, what hc actually talks about is thc will not
powcr but rathcr to thc feeling ol powcr |Machtgef uhl | in othcr words a lormol plcasurc.
:
!n a word, thcn, thc thcorctical lramcwork ol Da.n consists in thc samc thrcc axi
omatic doctrincs that wc rst mct in Human: naturalism, dctcrminism, and psychological
cgoism/hcdonism. Tis is what makcs it scnsiblc to rcgard Da.n as bclonging, still, to
Nictzschcs positivist pcriod.
cc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Critique of Christian Metaphysics
A
s in Da.ns positivist prcdcccssors, Nictzschc ocrs no dircct argumcnt lor abolishing
thc thing in itscll, lor naturalism. Hc docs, howcvcr, indircctly support it through a
critiquc ol Christian supcrnaturalism, an csscntial prcludc, hc bclicvcs, to thc dawn ol a
ncw happincss. As bclorc, somc ol thc criticisms arc gcncalogical in charactcr, cmploying
thc historical mcthod (p. :). Tis mcthod, hc says, rcplaccs thc attcmpt to tacklc rcligious
bclicl hcadon by proving thc noncxistcncc ol God: in thc past onc sought to provc that
thcrc is no God today onc indicatcs how thc bclicl that thcrc is a God could arise and
how this bclicl acquircd its wcight and importancc, a countcrprool that thcrc is no God
thcrcby bccomcs supcruous.
o
!n othcr words, by showing thc causcs ol bclicl in God to
bc somcthing quitc othcr than sound rcasons onc shows it to bc not lalsc but rathcr
irrational, unworthy ol bclicl.
Nictzschcs inquiry conccrns thc carlicst origins ol Christian bclicl. Tc qucstion ariscs,
thcrclorc, as to how that inquiry is rclcvant to currcnt bclicvcrs. Howcvcr suspcct thc
grounds ol our anccstors bclicls, could not currcnt bclicvcrs basc thcir bclicl on much
bcttcr grounds: ! think Nictzschcs discussion has to bc undcrstood in conjunction with
Humans rcmark that ncarly cvcryonc who adopts a rcligion docs so unrccctivcly in thc
way in which, in wincdrinking countrics, onc grows up drinking winc.
+
!n a lamily such
as Nictzschcs, lor cxamplc, you arc simply born into a gcography ol carth, hcavcn, and
hcll as you arc born into thc landscapc ol Saxony. Rcligious, likc political, bclicl is usually
inhcritcd rathcr adoptcd on thc basis ol rcasons. Tis bcing so, it bccomcs rclcvant to look
at what kind ol cpistcmological authority Christianitys rst bclicvcrs had. For implicitly,
as with a mcssagc passcd back along a column ol soldicrs, thc modcrn bclicvcrs grounds
lor bclicl can bc no bcttcr than thosc ol thc original bclicvcrs. !n lact, howcvcr, whcn wc
look at thcsc grounds wc scc that thcy havc no cpistcmological authority at all.
Tc 8iblc, lor instancc, that supposcdly divincly inspircd sourcc ol inlalliblc truth, was
actually cobblcd togcthcr by Paul, out ol hatrcd lor thc Jcwish law. Frustratcd by his inability
to lull thc law on account ol thc alltoohuman in his naturc, this lanatical and torturcd
soul invcntcd, as it wcrc, a ncw gamc with a ncw sct ol rulcs, in ordcr to dcstroy thc old law.
vcn il it wcrc still possiblc to sin, hc madc it no longcr possiblc to sin against thc Jcwish
law.
:
Similarly, thc rcason Christianity sprcad so rapidly through thc Roman mpirc, clbow
ing asidc all rival rcligions, had nothing to do with thc powcr ol truth or cvidcncc. !t sprcad,
rathcr, as onc might put Nictzschcs point, on account ol ccctivc markcting tcchniqucs.
!ts prosclytiscrs

(i.c., salcs pcoplc), by cngaging in dramatic salcs tcchniqucs such as

voluntary martyrdom,

loolcd thcir audicnccs into acccpting thc tripartitc gcography ol

hcavcn, carth, and hcll, and so wcrc ablc to procr both a stick and a carrot: thcy wcrc
ablc to tcrrily with thrcats ol ctcrnal damnation lor unbclicvcrs and scducc with prom
iscs ol ctcrnal bliss lor thc laithlul.

!n thc notcbooks Nictzschc adds that Christianity

sprcad in an cpidcmic ol panic bccausc it has bccn prophcsicd that thc world would cnd
vcry soon.
6
!n gcncral, thcn, thc powcr ol Christianity has ncvcr had anything to do with
truth. From thc point ol vicw ol rcason and truth, it has, rathcr, a pudenda origo (shamclul
origin)

in Pauls rcvcngc and in thc dcploymcnt ol sophisticatcd markcting tcchniqucs.

!n a word, Christianity is a conjob.
awn

c:
!n Human, Nictzschc proudly prcscntcd thc historical mcthod as his solc mcthod ol cri
ticising mctaphysical bclicl. 8ut now hc admits that thcrc arc no scicntic mcthods which
alonc lcad to knowlcdgc.
8
!n linc with this mcthodological pluralism, wc nd him dcploy
ing othcr mcthods ol criticism two additional mcthods, ! shall suggcst. Tis is actually
ncccssary sincc thc historical approach will dcal with ncithcr (a) thc born again Christian
who docs not rcly on tradition but has had a convcrsion cxpcricncc nor (b) thc reecti.e
Christian thc Christian who has rcasoncd his way to bclicl via thc thought, lor cxamplc,
that sincc thc world cxhibits intclligcnt dcsign it must havc a dcsigncr, or thc thought that
something must havc causcd thc big bang. !t is not, that is, in cvcry instancc truc that thc
historical mcthod rcndcrs thc nccd lor a countcrprool that thcrc is no God . . . supcruous.
Tc rst supplcmcntary critical mcthod Nictzschc dcploys is what might bc callcd
intcrnal antithcology, thc hunt lor contradictions within Christian dogma. Nictzschc
poscs, lor cxamplc, thc rhctorical qucstion: il, as thc doctrinc ol original sin holds, wc arc
thoroughly contcmptiblc, how could anyonc, and in particular God, lovc us as hc is sup
poscd to:

Again, how, Nictzschc asks, could a wholly loving and wholly powcrlul God
lail to makc his intcntions clcar, howcould hc allowthousands ol ycars ol disputc as to what
thosc intcntions arc: ocs hc not look morc likc a cruel than a loving god:
o
Morc important
than thcsc pinpricks, howcvcr (to which any skillul Jcsuit would producc a rcady rcsponsc
without raising a swcat), arc Nictzschcs rcmarks dircctcd, not likc thc historical mcthod
to thc origins, but rathcr to thc unhcalthy consequences ol Christian bclicl: lcar and guilt.
So, with rcgard to lcar, Nictzschc obscrvcs that Christianity blots out thc sun: thc truc
bclicvcrs lilc is rcndcrcd pcrmancntly gloomy by lcars ol hcll. How much supcruous
cruclty procccds lrom thosc rcligions which invcntcd sin.
+
And, again, on thc thcmc
ol cruclty and lcar, hc claims that Christianity turns thc dcathbcd into a torturc cham
bcr.
:
Tcrc is a palpablc clcmcnt ol autobiography, hcrc: rccall what ! callcd thc gothic
undcrtonc (pp. 8 abovc) to his mcmorics ol his lathcrs church in R ockcn.
Nictzschcs discussions ol dcath during thc positivist pcriod can appcar tritc. nc nccds,
howcvcr, to rccognisc that, lor him, thc lact that scicncc has rcconqucrcd thc idca ol dcn
itivc |endg ultig| dcath,

thc lact that modcrn thought has disposcd ol thc immortality ol

thc soul, is a gcnuinc libcration lrom thc lcar ol hcll and damnation, a lcar still gcnu
incly cxpcricnccd by many ninctccnthccntury bclicvcrs. Kant callcd God, lrccdom, and
immortality thc postulatcs ol practical rcason, thc ncccssary prcsuppositions ol morality.
Nictzschc dcnics cach ol thcm and cach dcnial is a libcration.

Along with mortal lcar, thc othcr ccct ol Christian bclicl is guilt, irrcdccmablc guilt, thc
bad conscicncc

about our incscapablc condition as natural, animal bcings. Aphroditc and

ros, divinitics in thc ancicnt world, arc turncd into diabolical hobgoblins by Christianity
a dcmonizing ol rcgularly rccurring lcclings that is yct anothcr act ol appalling Christian
cruclty.
6
!n addition, whilc thc Grccks had thc conccpt ol gcnuinc mislortunc, Christianity,
with its just God, turns cvcry mislortunc into a punishmcnt.

Critique of Christian Morality

N
ictzschc vicws Christianity as a packagc dcal: thc mctaphysics and thc morals arc
inscparablc. Tc lormcr, God, lrccdom, and immortality, constitutc thc backdrop ol
c:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
punishmcnt and rcward without which thc commandmcnts ol Christian morality makc no
scnsc. Following Schopcnhaucr, hc thinks that Kants idca ol a categorical impcrativc
a command divorccd lrom any associatcd punishmcnt or rcward makcs no scnsc: com
mandmcnts makc scnsc only as thc prcscription ol mcans to dcsircd cnds,
8
thc cnds, lor
cxamplc, ol attaining ctcrnal bliss and avoiding ctcrnal tormcnt. Noncthclcss, old habits
dic hard. Although Christian mctaphysics is dying ol its own accord, its morality, to which
wc havc ovcr so many gcncrations bccomc habituatcd, livcs on and, by dcmanding ol us
impossiblc standards ol virtuc, dcstroys our scllcstccm. !t nccds, thcrclorc, an indcpcn
dcnt critiquc.

Schopcnhaucr claimcd that his own cthics capturc thc csscncc ol Christian cthics, and
Nictzschc agrccs. Tus, sincc Schopcnhaucr rcduccs virtuc to thc singlc quality ol altruism,
which, combincd with pcssimism, turns into Mitleid (thc word mcans both pity and com
passion), Nictzschc sccs pity as thc hcart ol Christian cthics. Conccrning pity hc makcs,
basically, two points: rst that it is rcally disguiscd cgoism, and sccond that it in lact harms
rathcr than hclps its rccipicnt.
As wc havc alrcady sccn, Nictzschcs psychological cgoism commits him to thc vicw that
il compassionatc action is conccivcd as action pcrlormcd lor thc sakc ol anothcr and only
lor his sakc
o
it ncvcr occurs. Socallcd compassion is in lact al.ays motivatcd by oncs
own intcrcsts rathcr than thc intcrcsts ol anothcr. Tc intcrcst Nictzschc idcntics most
promincntly is in thc lccling ol powcr. !n giving alms or visiting thc poorhousc ! cxpc
ricncc thc plcasant lccling ol supcriority.
+
Tcrc arc, howcvcr, othcr intcrcsts apparcntly
compassionatc action can scrvc. !l, lor cxamplc, without thinking about it ! lcap in to savc
a drowning man, unconsciously ! am thinking ol my own honour.
:
Vhy docs Nictzschc takc thc claim that Schopcnhaucrian altruism docs not cxist to bc
important: For, ! think, two rcasons. First, sincc ought implics can

sincc wc cannot
bc undcr an obligation to do, or bc, somcthing unlcss wc can do, or bc, it psychological
cgoism, il truc, libcratcs us lrom thc dcmands ol Christian morality. Sccond, bccausc thc
kinds ol acts which a morality ol compassion cncouragcs us to pcrlorm, acts ol apparent
compassion, harm thc rccipicnts ol thosc actions.
Acts ol pity harm thcir rccipicnt in two ways. First, just as thcy producc thc plcasant
lccling ol powcr in thc piticr, so thcy producc an unplcasant lccling ol powcrlcssncss and
inlcriority in thc piticd.

Tc notcbooks rcnc this point in an insightlul way, obscrving

that wc can only hclp thc ncighbour in that wc locatc him in a class (paticnt, prisoncr,
bcggar, artist, child) and thus humiliatc him: thc individual cant bc hclpcd.

Sccond, pity as an cmotion blocks thc pcrlormancc ol gcnuincly bcncvolcnt acts. Nictz
schc considcrs, rst, thc Schopcnhaucrian saint who cmpathiscs with thc sucring ol thc
wholc world (p. 8 abovc). Such cmpathy, hc says, would dcstroy us: wcrc wc rcally to
cmpathisc with all ol sucring Alrica, wcrc wc to takc all that sucring on board as dc
mandcd by thc philosophy ol pity, wc would cxpcricncc a psychological collapsc that would
rcndcr us incapablc ol gcnuincly bcncvolcnt action
6
unhingc all thc wings ol thc soul,
as hc put it in Te Birth of Tragedy.
,
vcn on a lcss univcrsal lcvcl, says Nictzschc, Mitleid
will paralysc . . . thc hclplul hand. Tc Jcws, whosc charity is morc ccctivc than that ol

Tis point is actually takcn lromSchopcnhaucr, who holds, as wc saw, that it is univcrsal compassion
which produccs thc transition lrom virtuc to asccticism, lrom lovc to worlddcnial. Tc dicrcncc
is that whilc Schopcnhaucr thinks this a good thing, Nictzschc thinks thc oppositc.
awn

c
othcr nations, arc particularly not givcn to wccpy cmotionalism.
8
Tc surgcons scalpcl will
shakc il hc starts wccping ovcr thc condition ol thc paticnt: only whcn onc knows about
thc othcrs sucring without oncscll sucring can onc act lor his sakc, likc thc doctor.

Tis sccond linc ol criticism makcs it apparcnt that Nictzschc docs not in lact dcny
that thc cmotion ol pity/compassion occurs. Tis is vcry surprising sincc it appcars to bc
incompatiblc with thc psychological cgoism in which hc prolcsscs to bclicvc. Hc trics to
dcal with this problcm by saying that whcn wc havc thc lccling ol sympathy or cmpathy
(thc lattcr word, hc obscrvcs, bcttcr dcscribcs what Schopcnhaucr is talking about),
6o
it is mislcading to call thc Leid |sucring| wc may cxpcricncc Mit-leid |litcrally with
sucring| lor it is undcr all circumstanccs a sucring which hc who is sucring in our
prcscncc is lrcc ol: it is our own, as thc sucring thc othcr lccls is his own. 8ut it is only
this suering of our o.n which wc gct rid ol whcn wc pcrlorm dccds ol pity.
6+
So supposc ! givc moncy to thc bcggar, this timc not (or not solcly pity, Nictzschc obscrvcs,
is a richly polyphonous phcnomcnon)
6:
to acquirc a lccling ol supcriority but bccausc it
pains mc to scc you sucring. !n this casc, Nictzschc claims, ! act to rclicvc my pain.
Tis, surcly, is conluscd. !l ! had no dcsirc lor your wcllbcing, il ! was complctcly indil
lcrcnt to thc wcllbcing ol anyonc but myscll, thc sight ol your sucring would not causc
mc pain and so thcrc would bc nothing lor mc to scck to rclicvc. Vhat cmcrgcs, thcrclorc,
though Nictzschc rcluscs to admit it, is that, oncc hc gcts down to thc dctails ol human
cmotional lilc, thc psychological cgoism to which hc is thcorctically committcd in lact col
lapscs. !l thcrc arc gcnuinc lcclings ol compassion on which wc somctimcs act, psychological
cgoism cannot bc truc.
So what valid points cmcrgc lrom Da.ns critiquc ol morality ol pity: First, that acts ol
apparent compassion arc in rcality oltcn cgoistic in thcir primary motivation: in particular,
thcy arc oltcn aimcd at lccling supcrior to thcir victims. Sccond, gcnuinc bcncvolcncc will
only bc hindcrcd by gushy lcclings ol sympathy. cctivc lovc is, as onc might put it, tough
lovc. Tc problcm, though, with thc intcndcd univcrsality ol Nictzschcs critiquc ol Chris
tian morality is that a thoughtlul Christian would havc littlc diculty in agrccing with both
thcsc points. And what this suggcsts is that thc targct Nictzschc actually hits with his nov
clists ncgraincd and subtlc insight is not, in lact, Christian morality as such but rathcr
thc kind ol middlcclass, drawingroom woman who, Phariscclikc, congratulatcs hcrscll
on hcr good works and nc lcclings, on hcr bcautilul soul.
6
Tc notcbook rcmark, Not
to bc ablc to look at blood is that moral:
6
sccms to bc so targctcd. !l this is truc thcn
what Nictzschc rcally targcts, somctimcs consciously, somctimcs not, is moral narcissism, a
phcnomcnon as ickcns, too, was acutcly awarc all too prcvalcnt in bourgcois, \ic
torian socicty. Vhat hc attacks is thc thirst lor appcaring morally excited at all costs
6
(an
appcarancc contcmporary postmodcrnism oltcn cultivatcs to disguisc its lack ol substancc).
Tc attack is ccctivc and lcgitimatc. 8ut it is onc that would surcly bc cndorscd by any
thoughtlul Christian.
Te Counter-Ideal to Christianity
N
ictzschc wants us to rcjcct, wc havc sccn, not only Christian mctaphysics but also that
part ol Christianity which still survivcs, its morality. Vc arc to rcjcct thc Christian
c,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
worldvicw in its totality. And, as wc know, wc arc to rcplacc it with a worldvicw whosc
prcsuppositions

arc naturalism, dctcrminism (with thc conscqucnt dcnial ol lrcc will and
moral rcsponsibility), and psychological cgoism. 8ut how arc wc to livc within such an
outlook: Vhat ncw way ol living arc wc lrcc spirits to adopt in placc ol thc old, Christian
way:
First ol all, wc must bccomc cthical cgoists. !l, that is, psychological cgoism is truc, thcn
sincc, as obscrvcd, wc can only bc obligatcd to do what wc can do, wc must adopt a moral
codc that is a lrank cndorscmcnt ol acting out ol scllintcrcst.
ught, howcvcr, docs not mcrcly cntail can, it also cntails can not. Nictzschc rccog
niscs this: thc chicl commands ol any moral codc rcvcal whcrc, lrom thc point ol vicw
ol thc survival and thriving ol a community, its chicl failings havc bccn.
66
(Zarathustra
obscrvcs that a pcoplcs moral codc rcvcals what is nccdlul and dicult lor thcm.)
6
nly
thc Jcws, thc bcst hatcrs in thc world, could havc invcntcd thc commandmcnt to lovc oncs
cncmy.
68
So thcrc has to bc somcthing Nictzschc thinks wc ought to do which, cvcn givcn
thc truth ol psychological cgoism, wc can lail to do. Vhat wc can lail to do is to rccognisc
whcrc our truc intcrcsts lic. A grcat dcal ol Da.n is dcvotcd, thcrclorc (as was thc convcr
sation in Pisa with !sabclla von Prahlcn (p. :o abovc)), to cstablishing thc naturc ol our
truc scllintcrcst, thc charactcr ol enlightened cgoism.
Self-Creation
T
hc rst rcquircmcnt ol acting out ol cnlightcncd scllintcrcst is that thcrc bc a scll. 8ut
a scll a unitary scll as opposcd to a chaos ol conicting dcsircs is not a birthright.
!t is not somcthing to bc disco.ered but rathcr, in a ccrtain scnsc, nccds to bc created. !n thc
notcbooks ol thc pcriod, Nictzschc writcs that
its a myth to supposc that wc will nd our truc scll by lcaving bchind this or that or
lorgctting it. Tat way wc nd oursclvcs back in thc innitc. Rathcr, wc havc to makc
oursclvcs, havc to givc lorm to all clcmcnts that is thc task. Always a sculptor! A pro
ductivc human bcing! Not through knowlcdgc but through practicc, and so bccomc a |rolc|
modcl oursclvcs! |Scll| Knowlcdgc is at bcst a mcans.
6
Tcrc is, howcvcr, a problcm with this injunction to scllcrcation, namcly, a ncw kind ol
way in which Nictzschc at lcast appcars to arguc lor thc abscncc ol lrcc will. Hc appcars,
that is (and has oltcn bccn takcn), to arguc along thc lollowing lincs. Vc havc no rcal idca
what thc truc causcs ol our actions arc sincc thcy happcn bclow thc lcvcl ol consciousncss.
Hcncc wc arc as littlc rcsponsiblc lor our actions as wc arc lor our drcams.
o
Mostly, wc

Da.ns subtitlc, Toughts on thc !orurteile ol Morality, is gcncrally translatcd as Toughts on thc
Prcjudiccs ol Morality. Howcvcr, sincc !or-urteile litcrally mcans prcjudgmcnt, Prcsuppositions
or Prcconccptions ocr thcmsclvcs as altcrnativc translations. Tis ccrtainly is thc bcst translation
ol thc notcbooks rcmark that Somconc lor whom thc usual prcsuppositions |ol morality| dont
bcgin to sound paradoxical has not rccctcd cnough (KSA |:|). !l wc think ol thc subtitlc
in this way thcn thc structurc ol Da.n bccomcs morc pcrspicuous. Tc work is an attack on thc
prcsuppositions ol Christian morality God, lrccdom, and immortality with thc intcntion ol
rcplacing thcm with his own prcsuppositions which hc would not want to call prcjudiccs.
awn

c
lack cvcn thc languagc to dcscribc thosc causcs words such as hatc, lovc, and dcsirc
only dcscribc extreme statcs, not thc mild and intcrmcdiatc statcs that usually govcrn our
actions.
+
Hcncc somconc who thinks that his willing causcs his actions is as much in crror
as somconc who says ! will thc sun to risc and thcn, whcn it docs, thinks his willing has
causcd it.
:
At rst glancc thcsc and othcr passagcs sccm to rcducc us to mcrc passcngcrs riding on
thc shouldcrs ol our unconsciousncsscs, mcrc obscrvcrs ol our livcs. 8ut this cannot rcally
bc what Nictzschc mcans. nc rcason is that it would bc an armation ol !slamic latalism,
alrcady idcnticd as an crror (p. :68 abovc). Anothcr rcason is thc thcmc ol scllcrcation
itscll, thc lact that, as wc arc about to scc, Nictzschc actually allows us a considcrablc dcgrcc
ol control ovcr who wc arc to bc and hcncc what wc do.
So thc abovc rcmarks arc, ! think, to bc rcad as prcccdcd by an implicit mostly or
typically and so cnding up making a Frcudian (or Schopcnhaucrian or La Rochcloucaul
dian) point: mostly wc havc littlc or no undcrstanding ol thc vipcrs ncst ol drivcs and
cmotions that arc insidc us, mostly what wc tcll oursclvcs about our motivcs has as littlc to
do with thc rcal causcs ol our actions as it has to do with thc rcal causcs ol thc rising ol thc
sun. Tc point ol thc rcmarks is rcally, thcn, ! think, to dene a task: il wc arc to takc control
ol our livcs il wc arc to bc sclvcs rathcr than lailcd sclvcs (or cxsclvcs) a prccondition
is, as picurus cmphasiscd, to know oncscll , to undcrstand our own naturcs through
prcciscly thc kinds ol uninching, unscntimcntal, psychological obscrvations prcscntcd by
thc La RochcloucauldSchopcnhaucrR cc tradition. Da.n complains, lor cxamplc, that
sincc, typically, wc do not attcnd to what our drivcs rcally arc, thc qucstion ol which oncs
arc to bc strcngthcncd by nutrition, and which allowcd to withcr through lack ol it, is lclt
to chancc.

Supposc wc do achicvc a good dcgrcc ol scllknowlcdgc, comc to a good undcrstanding ol

thc drivcs that opcratc within us. Howshould wc thcn procccd in our task ol scllcrcation:
How, indccd, can wc procccd: Vhat, asks Nictzschc, givcn thc truth ol dctcrminism, arc
wc at libcrty to do:
nc can, hc writcs in a crucial passagc,
disposc ol oncs drivcs likc a gardcncr and, though lcw know it, cultivatc thc shoots ol
angcr, pity, curiosity, vanity as productivcly and protably as a bcautilul lruit trcc on a
trcllis, onc can do it with thc good or bad tastc ol a gardcncr and, as it wcrc, in thc Frcnch
or nglish or utch or Chincsc lashion, onc can also lct naturc rulc and only attcnd to
a littlc tidyingup hcrc or thcrc, onc can, nally, without paying any attcntion to thcm at
all, lct thc plants grow up and ght thcir ght out among thcmsclvcs . . . all this wc arc at
libcrty to do: but how many know wc arc at libcrty to do it: o not thc majority belie.e
in themsel.es as in complctc fully-de.eloped facts: Havc not thc grcat philosophcrs put thcir
scal on this prcjudicc with thc doctrinc ol thc unchangcability ol charactcr:

Tough this might sccm a critical rclcrcncc to Schopcnhaucr, who makcs a big paradc ol
his doctrinc ol thc unchangcability ol charactcr, it is, in lact, a rcpctition ol his vicw ol
acquircd charactcr. Nictzschc talks, lor cxamplc, ol scllsculpting or scllgardcning (scll
landscaping, onc might say) as a mattcr ol allowing undcsirablc drivcs to withcr by rcmoving
oncscll lrom placcs and company which stimulatc thcm.

Tis, word lor word, is what

Schopcnhaucr says with rcspcct to acquiring what in thc world is callcd charactcr.
6
c&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
8ut, onc might objcct, docs not Nictzschcs commitmcnt to dctcrminism and thc dcnial
ol lrcc will commit him prcciscly to denying this libcrty ol scllcrcation or, lcss mislcad
ingly, scllcultivation: Not so. All that dctcrminism cntails is that .hether or not I am going
to be the gardening type of person and .hat kind of gardening person I might be is already deter-
mined: that onc desires to combat thc vchcmcncc ol a drivc, docs not stand within our powcr,
nor . . . thc choicc ol mcthod, nor . . . thc succcss or lailurc ol this mcthod.

Noncthclcss,
sincc Nictzschc clcarly ad.ocates scllmastcry
8
through scllcultivation and disappro.es ol
lctting thc plants grow up and ght thcir ght out among thcmsclvcs (thc Platonic thcmc
that you cant do anything until you makc yourscll onc man runs through all his thinking),
hc prcsupposcs that his rcadcrs will bc prcdctcrmincd as gardcning typcs, so that rcading
his book will act as a stimulus that activatcs thcir horticultural disposition.

And this is a
rcasonablc prcsupposition, sincc il thcy wcrc not thcy would not bc rcading thc book. Tcy
would not, at lcast, bc thc pcrlcct rcadcrs lor whom that rcading would bc a signicant
cvcnt.
8o
Continuing thc gardcning thcmc, Nictzschc cmphasiscs thc potcntially mislcading
charactcr ol thc phrasc scllcrcation. Tc idcal condition ol thc soul, hc says, is lruit
lulncss, spiritual prcgnancy, bcing prcgnant with somc idca or dccd (thc charactcr ol
which ! shall shortly discuss). 8ut as with litcral prcgnancy, scllmaking is a mattcr ol
bringing lorth (as a sculptor brings lorth thc gurc slumbcring in thc marblc), a lact
which ought to blow to thc winds all prcsumptuous talk ol willing and crcating.
8+
So
it is a mistakc to think ol Nictzschcan scllcrcation as a mattcr ol crcating, likc God,
cx nihilo. Scllcrcation is, to rcpcat, scllcultivation.
Nictzschc (lrom childhood, wc havc sccn, a dcvotcc ol thc Protcstant work cthic)
cmphasiscs that scllcultivation is a mattcr ol hard .ork. nc ol his morc tclling com
plaints against (somc) Christians is that thcy arc spiritually lazy, want to avoid thc burdcn
ol thc dcmands ol morality by nding a shortcr routc to pcrlcction: onc bornagain lcap
to salvation is thc routc takcn by thc cxhaustcd and dcspairing.
8:
Tough hc kncw him at
bcst by hcarsay, this may bc intcndcd as a critiquc ol Kicrkcgaards lcap ol laith.
!t is not just Christians, howcvcr, who lail to put in thc hard yards. vcn scllprolcsscd
cgoists practisc a mcrc pscudocgoism sincc whatcvcr thcy say about thcir cgoism, thc
grcat majority noncthclcss do nothing lor thcir cgo thcir wholc lilc long sincc thcy actually
havc no cgo. Tcy act, rathcr, lor thc sakc ol a socially constructcd ction which thcy
mistakc lor thcmsclvcs.
8
Glossy magazincs, lor cxamplc, tcll mc that what ! rcally want is
last cars, last womcn, goll, and shing. And so ! dcvotc all my cncrgics to rctiring at lorty
so ! can cnjoy doing what I want to do. Sadly, howcvcr, ! quickly nd out that last cars,
last womcn, goll, and shing arc boring, thc rcason bcing that nonc ol thcsc manulacturcd
dcsircs arc to bc lound among thc dcsircs ! rcally havc.
Nictzschc idcntics six modcs ol working on oncscll, ol pruning thosc aspccts ol oncs
naturc onc wishcs to dcny cxprcssion: onc can dcny a drivc gratication so it cvcntually
withcrs (giving up smoking, lor cxamplc), rcstrict its cxprcssion to ccrtain limitcd timcs
and placcs (carnivals, ancicnt and modcrn),
8
ovcrindulgc it so as to gcncratc disgust (risky,
Nictzschc points out, bccausc thc horscridcr oltcn brcaks his ncck), associatc thc drivc
with somc painlul thought, as whcn thc Christian associatcs thc idca ol thc dcvil with
scx (avcrsion thcrapy), build up a rival drivc by constant gratication, and nally, likc thc
ascctic, onc can wcakcn thc wholc bodily systcm so that all drivcs, including thc onc to bc
dcalt with, arc dcprivcd ol vchcmcncc.
8
awn

c
Tcsc arc techniques ol scllcultivation. Furthcr tcchnical advicc (this bccomcs much morc
promincnt in Nictzschcs ncxt book, Te Gay Science) is to lcarn lrom artists how to cultivatc
oncs charactcr, particularly with rcspcct to oncs wcakncsscs: thosc drivcs, that is to say,
which do not t into thc mastcrplan ol thc scll. !l wc cannot gct rid ol thcm thcrc arc
bound to bc somc indcliblc drivcs, Nictzschc suggcsts wc should lcarn to dcploy |thcm|
likc an artist. Vc should study 8ccthovcn, lor instancc, and lcarn to imitatc his usc ol
thc coarsc, obstinatc, impaticnt clcmcnts in his naturc to highlight, makc us ravcnously
hungry lor, his virtucs.
86
Anothcr stratcgic usc ol wcakncsscs is to humanizc our charactcrs:
wc may, Nictzschc suggcsts, allow a littlc lolly to show in ordcr to stop oursclvcs bccoming
too pcrlcct, too unapproachablc.
8
8ut what should wc do with tcchniqucs such as thcsc: Vhat principlc should guidc
thcir dcploymcnt: Tc most gcncral principlc is that onc should organisc oncs lilc around,
idcally, a singlc dcning drivc. As Te !anderer and His Shado.obscrvcs (cchoing C czanncs
instruction to thc paintcr always to discovcr thc cubc, conc, and sphcrc in naturc), land
scapcs do not plcasc unlcss thcy posscss bcncath all thcir multiplicity, a simplc gcomctrical
shapc. And thc samc, Nictzschc now suggcsts, is truc ol human bcings. A plcasing char
actcr and lilc will havc a mathcmatical substratum.
88
As in thc casc ol Napolcon and thc mankind ol antiquity, thc idcal shapc ol a lilc (thc
pyramid, wc shall discovcr, is thc idcal shapc ol thc soul) is a straight linc: a singlc drivc
workcd through to thc cnd with pcrlcct consistcncy, with thc rcsult that oncs lilc bccomcs
thc invcntivc claboration and variation on a singlc motil .
8
Multiplicity in unity
o
is thc
watchword ol all Nictzschcs thought about socicty and thc soul: Malwida von Mcyscnbug
rccords him tclling hcr that ol all livcs, it was that ol Mazzini which hc cnvicd most, this
absolutc conccntration on a singlc idca |!talian unication| which burnt likc a powcrlul
amc within thc individual.
+
So onc should bccomc thc onc man ol Platos Fepublic
rathcr than a ickcring (as Plato calls it, dcmocratic) chaos in which somctimcs onc drivc
assumcs dominancc and somctimcs anothcr. 8ut how: Vhat kind ol charactcr should oncs
lilcdcning motil havc:
Lct us rccall that thc lundamcntal goal ol awn is happiness: to roll away thc dark clouds
ol Christianity so as to rcvcal a sunlit landscapc. Vhat Nictzschc wants to do is show his
rcadcrs, in a word, how to bc happy. l coursc, his ultimatc conccrn is lor thc culturc as a
wholc our culturc is to bccomc a happy, or at lcast happicr, culturc through thc corts ol
his rcadcrs and thcir succcssors. For thc momcnt, howcvcr, ! should likc to sct that conccrn
to onc sidc. Tat bcing donc, thc qucstion bccomcs: what kind ol lilcdcning principlc
will lcad to personal happincss:
Te Paradox of Happiness
N
ictzschc issucs a warning conccrning this qucstion: insofar as thc individual is sccking
happincss, onc ought not to tcndcr him any prcscriptions as to thc path to happincss:
lor individual happincss springs lrom oncs own unknown laws, and prcscriptions lrom
without can only hindcr it.
:
Tc conditions ol individual happincss, likc thc conditions
ol individual hcalth, arc so variablc that no gcncral prcscription can bc givcn. Howcvcr,
though Nictzschc givcs no concrctc rccipc lor happincss, hc docs say quitc a lot ol a morc
abstract charactcr about how to bc happy.
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc cluc to thc dircction ol his thinking is thc rcmark that sacricing yourscll lor thc
luturc ol humanity is actually no sacricc at all but rathcr a positivc cnhanccmcnt ol happi-
ness.

Vhat hc is rclcrring to hcrc is thc socallcd paradox ol happincss, bricy touchcd

upon carlicr: cxpcricncc shows that aiming dircctly at happincss is countcrproductivc, that
prcciscly thc pursuit ol happincss is what puts happincss out ol rcach. (cspcratc housc
wivcs arc pcrmancntly miscrablc.) Tc rcason lor this is that happincss is a byproduct
ol passionatc cngagcmcnt in somc activity other than thc pursuit ol happincss, an cngagc
mcnt which dcmands that, not happincss, but rathcr thc goal ol this activity bc thc locus ol
oncs attcntion. Happincss, Nictzschc is pointing out (corrcctly, it sccms to mc), can only
bc pursucd indircctly sincc it is, in philosophical jargon, an cpiphcnomcnon ol passion
atc commitmcnt to somcthing clsc: ol doing wcll or at lcast hopclully somcthing onc
considcrs important. Tat this is Nictzschcs point comcs out vcry clcarly in an alrcady
quotcd passagc lrom Zarathustra. Nictzschcs altcr cgo says, Vhat docs happincss mattcr
to mc . . . ! am striving altcr my work, to which his animals rcply but arc you not basking
in a skybluc lakc ol happincss: which lorccs Zarathustra, ruclully amuscd that thc animals
havc divincd his sccrct stratcgy, to admit that hc is.

Happincss is a byproduct ol work.

8ut just what kind ol work: 8clorc answcring this qucstion, ! should likc to digrcss lor a
momcnt to attcnd to an apparcnt conict implicit in Nictzschcs conccption ol happincss
as outlincd in thc prcvious chaptcr but not thcrc addrcsscd.
Te Heroic-Idyllic
!
n discussing The !anderer and His Shado., ! suggcstcd that thc Nictzschc ol thc latc +8os
should bc vicwcd in rclation to thc Hcllcnistic philosophcrs ol lilc, abovc all picurus.
Tc goal ol thcir wisdom was thc achicvcmcnt ol a happincss in which thc main ingrcdicnt
was ataraxia, scrcnity. As ! obscrvcd, much ol this Hcllcnistic conccption ol happincss
rcappcars in !anderer: wc arc cncouragcd, lor cxamplc, to mcditatc on thc incvitability ol
dcath and our vanishing insignicancc in thc innity ol spacc and timc in ordcr to clcvatc
oursclvcs abovc thc scriousncss ol human aairs, to scc such scriousncss as comic, and so
prcscrvc pcacc ol mind (p. :8 abovc). This Hcllcnistic conccption ol happincss is cvcn morc
promincnt in thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod. Tcy spcak, lor cxamplc, ol thc thrccloldncss
ol joy as consisting in clcvation (abovc human scriousncss), illumination (thc cnjoymcnt
ol intcllcctual plcasurcs, prcsumably), and pcacc (ol mind). 8cst ol all, though, is a lourth
thing: thc thrcc in onc, thc trinity ol clcvation, illumination and pcacc gathcrcd togcthcr
in a unity.

A littlc latcr, rcturning to thc idca ol clcvation, hc writcs that hc is tcmptcd to

namc thc lccling |ol spiritual| . . . oating and ying as thc highcst good.
6
Tc problcm,
though, with all thcsc ataraxiaccntrcd dclincations ol happincss is that thcy look vcry pas
sivc, scarccly compatiblc with thc idca ol passionatc commitmcnt to a causc. Thcy do not look
compatiblc with Zarathustras work, nor with Nictzschcs own passionatc commitmcnt to
thc rcgcncration ol Vcstcrn culturc. !s thcrc not, thcn, a contradiction conccalcd within
Nictzschcs conccption ol happincss, a contradiction bctwccn thc passivc and thc activc:
Contrary to appcaranccs, ! think thc answcr is that thcrc is not. Anothcr notc lrom thc
!anderer pcriod, rclcrring to thc summcr landscapc around St. Moritz, rccords that
thc cvcning bclorc last ! was so absorbcd into a Claudc Lorrainclikc rapturc that cvcntually
! brokc into hcavy wccping. Tat ! should still bc allowcd to cxpcricncc this! ! ncvcr kncw
awn

c,
that thc carth could display such a thing, ! thought thc good paintcrs had invcntcd it. Tc
hcroicidyllic is now thc discovcry ol my soul.

Tc thcmc ol this notc rcappcars in thc alrcadyquotcd !anderer passagc cntitlcd Et in

rcadia ego, Arcadia bcing thc pastoral paradisc ol classical mythology. Hcrc Nictzschc
says that his idca ol paradisc is a Poussin or Claudc Lorrainc landscapc populatcd by
Hcllcnic hcrocs. Hc adds that his idcal is a lccling which, likc thcirs, is at onc and thc
samc timc hcroic and idyllic.
8
Vhat hcs rclcrring to is thc sccmingly paradoxical com
bination ol pastoral landscapcs with hcroic onc might also say cpic dramas on thcmcs
typically takcn lromGraccoRoman mythology. So, lor cxamplc, whilc thc dominant mood
ol a Claudc painting is onc ol scrcnity, and thc dominant sccnc is a pastoral paradisc thc
gurcs arc usually dwarlcd by naturc thc subjcct mattcr is indicatcd by startling titlcs such
as Mcrcury Stcaling Apollos xcn, Tc Rapc ol uropa, Tc Trojan Vomcn Sctting
Firc to thc Flcct, and so on.
An anticipation ol thc hcroicidyllic is to bc lound in Human, ll-Too-Human, whcrc
Nictzschc spcaks ol thc artists and philosophcrs vision ol happincss as a kind ol scrcnc
agitation, a kind ol activc oating.

Vhat this indicatcs, ! think, is that Nictzschcs

hcroicidyllic is closc to what Martin Hcidcggcr callcd Gelassenheit |rclcascmcnt|, a
scrcnity that is simultancously activc, thc kind ol scrcnity that gocs with thc mastcry ol
any kind ol art or cralt. Nictzschc rclcrs to it in Beyond Good and E.il as thc ncccssity, thc
cortlcss ow, thc abscncc ol conscious choicc, which cvcry artist rccogniscs as charactcr
izing his highcst crcativc momcnts.
+oo
Tink, lor cxamplc, ol thc conccrt violinists scrcnc
rclaxation that is yct at thc samc timc an intcnscly conccntratcd, suprcmcly skillul statc.
Nictzschc is, ! think, quitc right: scrcnity and activity including hcroic activity arc not
oppositcs, but capablc ol combination in a singlc statc.
Benevolent Egoism
T
o rcturn lrom this digrcssion, thc qucstion that laccs us is this: Vhat kind ol work,
what kind ol task hcroic or othcrwisc should dcnc thc lilc that has happincss
as a byproduct: 8clorc answcring it, lct us bricy rcvicw thc stratcgic situation. Ncga
tivcly, wc havc sccn, Nictzschc wants to abolish thc old, Christian morality ol compassion,
unsclshncss, putting othcrs rst, ol looking away lrom oncscll whilc bcing lynxcycd
lor thc distrcss ol othcrs.
+o+
Provocativcly, as hc will lor thc rcst ol his carccr, hc habitually
rclcrs to this as, simply, morality. (To distinguish it lrom othcr uscs, this usc ol thc word
has bccn usclully dubbcd morality in thc pcjorativc scnsc.)
+o:
!n its placc hc advocatcs
cgoism acting cxclusivcly out ol scllintcrcst. 8ut docs this not amount to thc abolition
ol, not mcrcly morality in thc pcjorativc scnsc, but morality as such: Soon, Nictzschc will
bcgin to call himscll provocativcly an immoralist. 8ut, onc nccds to ask rathcr urgcntly,
docs not his avocation ol cgoism makc him not just polcmically but really an immoralist,
an immoral thinkcr:
Vhat is morality: A moral codc is, Nictzschc points out, nothing othcr . . . than obcdi
cncc to custom.
+o
(Sincc Sittlichkeit, morality, comcs lrom Sitte, custom, this, in Gcrman,
is almost a tautology.) Tc point ol customis thc wcllbcing ol thc moral community social
utility, Nictzschc calls it.
+o
8ut docs this not actually demand somcthing likc morality
morality in thc pcjorativc scnsc: !s not Nictzschcs clcvation ol cgoism to a lilcguiding
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
principlc prcciscly an invitation to moral chaos and social collapsc: Can wc not, indccd, in
thc spirit ol works such as Alan 8looms Te Closing of the merican Mind, scc thc moral
collapsc ol thc prcscnt agc thc agc in which our public, communal spacc has bccn atomiscd
into My Spacc and thc solidarity ol lricndship dissolvcd into thc cgoistic manipulations
ol nctworking as at lcast partially attributablc to thc inucncc ol Nictzschcs validation
ol cgoism:
Nictzschc is cxtrcmcly anxious to rcjcct thc chargc that his lorm ol cthical cgoism lcads
to social collapsc, to thc disappcarancc ol action posscssing communal utility. Hc wants,
indccd, to show that, altcr a pcrhaps dicult pcriod ol transition, socicty as a wholc will bc
better o, will bc a happicr socicty, il it lollows his prcscription than it was undcr thc old,
Christian codc ol sclcss pity. For this rcason hc cmphasiscs that
it gocs without saying that ! do not dcny unlcss ! am a lool that many actions callcd
immoral |undcr thc Christian codc| ought to bc avoidcd and rcsistcd, and many callcd
moral ought to bc donc and cncouragcd but . . . for other reasons than hitherto.
+o
Many, that is, ol thc socially bcnccial actions pcrlormcd and validatcd by Christian mor
ality will continucd to bc pcrlormcd undcr thc ncw cgoistic morality but lrom dicrcnt
motivcs. Vhy should this bc so: Vhy should thc Nictzschcan cgoist nd himscll promot
ing thc wcllarc ol thc community as a wholc:
Tc basic shapc ol Nictzschcs answcr is, it sccms to mc, cncapsulatcd in his vicw ol scx:
what a bcncvolcnt arrangcmcnt it is, hc commcnts, that thc onc pcrson by doing what
plcascs him givcs plcasurc to anothcr pcrson.
+o6
!n a lcttcr to K osclitz hc rcmarks that
nc stops loving oncscll propcrly whcn onc stops practicing lovc ol thc othcr on account
ol which onc is adviscd not to stop thc lattcr (in my cxpcricncc).
+o
And, in thc notcbooks,
cvidcntly rcpcating a popular jinglc, hc says wc should ncvcr to lorgct that Making joylul
makcs you joylul yourscll |Freude machen selber Freude macht|.
+o8
Vhat Nictzschc wants to show is that thc kind ol lilclocus that is nccdcd lor oncs
own happincss is also onc that promotcs thc longtcrm wcllbcing ol thc community as a
wholc. Vc might call this thc coincidcncc rcquircmcnt. Vhat is to bc shown is that thc
enlightened pursuit ol oncs own happincss coincides with thc promotion ol thc happincss ol
thc community as a wholc, that onc is not involvcd (in todays ghastly jargon) in a zcrosum
gamc but in, rathcr, a winwin situation.
Nictzschc makcs it clcar that at lcast some lorms ol cgoismsatisly thc coincidcncc rcquirc
mcnt. Hc idcntics his own guiding mission, thc lilcdcning task which Horst Huttcr
calls his ministry to thc world,
+o
as that ol bcing an cducator ol humanity to a bcttcr
luturc,
++o
a doctor ol thc spirit (or soul)
+++
ministcring to thc conluscd and troublcd con
dition ol thc prcscnt agc.
++:
(Hc was proud and dclightcd whcn hc hcard, in +8, ol a
Hungarian noblcwoman in \icnna (Frcuds city, ol coursc) who was using his works lor
thc purposc ol counsclling pcoplc cast into turmoil by rcligious doubt.)
++
!n what is clcarly
an idcaliscd dcscription ol his o.n psychological condition, hc dcscribcs what hc calls an
idcal sclshncss that is bascd on dcning oncs lilc in tcrms ol this kind ol mission. !n
lcttcrs hc calls it holy sclshncss.
++
!dcal sclshncss, thc highcst lorm ol happincss, is,
hc says, spiritual prcgnancy. !t consists in a statc ol consccration . . . ol pridc and gcntlc
ncss . . . a balm which sprcads . . . onto rcstlcss souls. !t is a mattcr ol bcing prcgnant with an
awn

::
idca and continually to watch ovcr and nurturc and kccp our soul still, so that our lruit
lulncss shall come to a happy fullment . . . for the benet of all .
++
(Noticc thc idyllichcroic
combination, hcrc, ol oncs mission with a kind ol Madonnalikc scrcnity.)
Vhat Nictzschc hcrc calls prcgnancy, prcgnancy, in his own casc, with his culturc
rcgcncrating writings, is what, in anothcr scction, hc calls bcing ovcrlull so that onc wants
to bc cmpticd.
++6
Tc samc idca appcars in a scction which dcscribcs thc rst ccct ol
happincss as thc feeling of po.er, a lccling which wants to express itself .
++
(Tis is a lccling
sharcd by many crcativc pcoplc. !ris Murdoch, lor instancc, writcs in a lcttcr to a lricnd, !
lccl, cvcn at thc lowcst momcnt, such cndlcss vitality within mc, a vitality shc dcscribcs as
joy.)
++8
Nictzschc rclcrs to this prcgnancy as ideal sclshncss, rst, ! think, bccausc it is
to rcprcscnt thc kind ol happincss his choscn rcadcrs thc lrccspiritcd hcralds ol thc ncw
culturc arc to aim at but, sccond, bccausc it satiscs thc coincidcncc rcquircmcnt. Hc, and
thc disciplcs hc hopcs to attract, will nd thcir and Murdochs joy in thinking and
acting, ovcrowing, giving birth, lor thc bcnct ol all.
Nictzschc rccogniscs, ol coursc, that thcrc is anothcr kind ol sclshncss.

Vhcrcas idcal
or holy sclshncss is ovcrlull and wants to bc cmpticd is giltgiving this othcr kind
is hollow and wants to bc lull
++
is hungry in thc languagc ol Zarathustra. !n lcttcrs it
is associatcd with cats. To Lou Salom c hc writcs, Vhat ! hatc most in mcn is that cat
cgoism that cant lovc any morc, which is committcd to nothing: worsc than any othcr
cvil.
+:o
Tc rcal challcngc, thcrclorc, to his vicw that cnlightcncd cgoism coincidcs with
promoting thc bcnct ol all is to show that thc hollow sclshncss which takes rathcr than
gi.es, which looks at cvcrything with thc cyc ol a thicl
+:+
is unenlightened. Vhy should
thc labulously wcalthy drug baron, thc pricst ol pcrvcrtcd scxual tastcs, or thc nihilistically
mindcd tcrrorist, providcd thcy arc clcvcr cnough not to gct caught, not bc satislying thcir
own (admittcdly nonstandard) bcst intcrcsts:
Tough Nictzschc docs not makc his answcr to this qucstion immcdiatcly apparcnt it is,
! think, or at lcast should bc, thc lollowing. Nictzschc says that cducators such as himscll
nd thcir dignity in thcir own cycs and in thc cycs ol thosc thcy rcspcct in thc task ol thcir
lilc.
+::
And as wc havc sccn, hc spcaks with immcnsc pridc ol thc statc ol bcing prcgnant
with an idca that will bcnct humanity as a wholc. !t is in this state of consecration, hc
says, that onc should livc.
+:
Vhat this says, ! think, is that human bcings arc (lor rcasons
it would not bc dicult to cxplain sociobiologically) just so constituted as to achicvc scll
rcspcct only il thcy rcgard thcmsclvcs, in somc way or othcr, as making a contribution to
thc wcllbcing ol socicty as a wholc. (Abraham Maslow intcnds, ! think, a similar point
in attributing to us a lundamcntal nccd lor scllcstccm.) nc sign ol this is thc lact that
drug barons, tcrrorists, and somctimcs, pcrhaps, cvcn pcrvcrtcd pricsts, il thcy arc not out
andout psychopaths, try to rationalisc thcir actions in tcrms ol bcnct to othcrs: thc drug
baron docs it all lor thc lamily, thc tcrrorist docs it to wipc Tc Grcat Satan o thc lacc
ol thc carth, thc pricst (likc Platos Lysias) may claim that, undcr thc guidancc ol ros, his
wandcring hand is also a cducating hand. Nictzschcs point, ! think, is that il onc rcally docs
rccognisc thc guiding thcmc ol oncs lilc as dcstructivc, il onc rcally docs dcnc oncscll as,
lor cxamplc, a femme fatale, a wrcakcr ol marriagcs and dcstroycr ol thc happincss ol othcrs,

Sclsh action is action in which (to bc bricl ), in pursuing my own intcrcsts, ! harm thc intcrcsts ol
anothcr. Strictly, thcrclorc, that can bc no such thing as bcncvolcnt sclshncss. Vhat Nictzschc
is rcally talking about is bcncvolcnt selfinterest. 8ut hc uscs sclsh, ! think, as a provocation that
is ol a piccc with his rcjcction ol morality.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thcn in oncs hcart ol hcarts onc cannot but dcspisc oncscll. Just likc Nictzschcs Christian,
thc hollow cgoist livcs his lilc undcr thc gloomy skics ol thc bad conscicncc.
!l this is thc corrcct rcading ol Nictzschcan cgoism thcn what cmcrgcs, oncc again, is thc
lundamcntally communitarian charactcr ol his philosophy. Nictzschc says that onc ol thc
major plcasurcs ol bcing a thinkcr, a doctor ol thc spirit such as himscll, is that onc satiscs
oncs nccd to cxpcricncc thc lccling ol powcr through thc cxcrcisc ol a conccalcd domin
ion ovcr thc community.
+:
Tis is bccausc, howcvcr littlc thcy may rcalisc it, practical
pcoplc takc thcir undcrstanding ol thc palatablcncss ol things lromwc thinkcrs.
+:
As al
rcady notcd, practical pcoplc arc too absorbcd in action to bc ablc to think about goals and
valucs: onc should ncvcr ask a bankcr thc purposc ol his activity. valuation ol goals is
thc provincc ol thc .ita contemplati.a.
+:6
!n an unobvious way, thcrclorc, thinkcrs such as
Nictzschc arc thc spiritual lcadcrs ol thc community, thc hiddcn philosophcr kings. Not
cvcryonc can cxcrcisc that kind ol powcr, ol coursc. 8ut cvcryonc can, in a way that ts thcir
cxpcrtisc and station in lilc, contributc to thc wcllbcing ol thc community as a wholc and
in that way sccurc scllrcspcct and thcir own kind ol lccling ol powcr: thcir own happincss,
in othcr words. !n thc cnd, thcrclorc, Nictzschcs portrait ol his own idcal sclshncss is an
idcal not just lor his targct audicncc ol contcmplativc, spiritual lcadcrs, but lor cvcryonc.
Concrete Advice
!
havc cmphasiscd that thc goal ol Da.n is to providc Lilcwisdom spccically, advicc
on how to livc a happy lilc. 8ut ol coursc thc advicc wc havc rcccivcd so lar has bccn vcry
abstract: crcatc (landscapc) yourscll as a unitary scll that is govcrncd by a lilcdcning
lundamcntal projcct which bcncts thc community as a wholc. Many scctions, howcvcr
scctions which nd Nictzschc at his most aphoristic arc conccrncd to givc quitc concrctc
advicc on how to bc happy advicc that may bc morc or lcss rclcvant to individual cascs.
Tis counsclling can bc arrangcd undcr thrcc hcadings: carc ol scll, navigating thc world ol
othcrs, inucncing othcrs.
Care of Self. Undcr this hcading wc arc told, lor cxamplc, to avoid social cnvironmcnts
whcrc wc can ncithcr rcmain silcnt nor spcak ol what rcally mattcrs to us
+:
(oltcn thc
problcm with oncs inlaws), and that wc nccd plcnty ol solitudc to cscapc thc malicc ol
littlc pcoplc
+:8
(occ politics:). thcr scctions show how Nictzschcs conccrns intcrscct
with thosc ol psychothcrapy and yoga. Hc obscrvcs, lor cxamplc, that chronic sickncsscs
ol both body and soul usually arisc not lrom a singlc traumatic cvcnt but lrom bad habits
cngagcd in ovcr a long pcriod. Shallow brcathing, lor instancc, can lcad to lung inlcctions
lor which thc only curc is to rcgularly lic on thc oor brcathing dccply lor a quartcr ol an
hour with a clock which chimcs thc quartcr. Along similar lincs, il onc lccls at odds with
oncs cnvironmcnt onc should rccct whcthcr it is not oncs own habits that arc to blamc. !n
both cascs thc curc is bound to bc a slow onc.
+:
Again, slccp, both litcral and mctaphorical,
is thc bcst curc lor dcprcssion: thc apogcc ol thc wisdom ol lilc consists in knowing how
to lall aslccp in cithcr scnsc at thc right timc.
+o
As wc saw, this was thc advicc that lay
bchind thc Naumburg towcr projcct ol +8 (p. :o abovc).
Na.igating Society. A numbcr ol scctions point to laccts ol human naturc against which
onc nccds to bc on guard to avoid harm. For cxamplc: onc pat and thc dog is all ovcr you
likc any othcr attcrcr.
++
Too much scx dcvclops a habit in young wivcs that will lcad thcm
awn

:
into scrious tcmptation latcr on whcn thcir husbands grow old or inrm.
+:
Voman is our
cncmy lrom a man who spcaks so to othcr mcn thcrc spcaks an immodcratc drivc which
hatcs not only itscll but its mcans ol satislaction.
+
(Tis illustratcs wcll thc acrostic quality
ol somc ol Nictzschcs aphorisms. nc had to think quitc hard to gct thc point which is,
surcly, that thc misogynist is rcally in thc grips ol thc Christian dcmonization ol scxual
dcsirc: an intcrcsting obscrvation in vicw ol Nictzschcs own rcputation lor misogyny.) A
lanatical prosccutor bclicvcs in all innoccncc that thc assailant ol a crimc and a criminal
must ol ncccssity bc ol good charactcr or count as such and so hc . . . discloses himscll
+

as, prcsumably, somconc with good rcason to doubt that hc has a good charactcr. (nc
might think ol thc lccdinglrcnzy that occurs whcncvcr thc hiddcn sin ol a public gurc is
uncovcrcd.) ont bothcr arguing with old philosophcrs sincc thcy arc intcrcstcd not in a
gcnuinc intcllcctual challcngc but in crccting a tcmplc.
+
Ho. to Make Friends and Inuence People. Tc maxims in thc rst two catcgorics can bc
ol intcrcst to anyonc. 8ut thosc in this third catcgory arc, ! think, spccically intcndcd lor
Nictzschcs targct audicncc, thc lrcc spirits who will bccomc thc cducators ol tomorrow.
To thcsc Nictzschc ocrs, lor instancc, thc lollowing. A man ol rank docs wcll to havc a
courtcous mcmory ol othcrs, to rcmcmbcr only thc good things about thcm, lor that kccps
thcm in a statc ol plcasant dcpcndcncc.
+6
(Tc politicians gilt ol rcmcmbcring cvcryoncs
namc and thc grcat timc you had last timc you saw thcm.) Again, to bccomc thc prophct
and miraclc workcr ol oncs agc to bccomc a guru onc must livc apart so that thc bclicl
nally ariscs that mankind cannot gct on without us because .e oursel.es quite clearly can gct
along without mankind.
+
Te Status of the Teoretical Framework
!
havc cmphasiscd that, lollowing thc Hcllcnistic modcl, thc ultimatc goal ol Da.n is
practical wisdom rathcr than thcorctical knowlcdgc. 8ut as wc havc sccn, adopting thc
right thcorctical outlook adopting thc basic assumptions ol naturalism and positivism
Nictzschc takcs to bc an csscntial prccondition ol gcnuinc happincss, ol achicving prac
tical wisdom. Tis raiscs thc qucstion ol thc cpistcmological status ol Da.ns thcorctical
lramcwork.
vcry claim to knowlcdgc is, says Nictzschc, at bcst a !ersuch, an cxpcrimcnt or
attcmpt.
+8
Tis suggcsts that his own thcorctical lramcwork naturalism, causal dctcrm
inism, psychological cgoism hc rcgards as itscll no morc than an cxpcrimcnt, somcthing
hc docs not count as ccrtain knowlcdgc. Tis imprcssion is conrmcd by Da.ns cmphasis
that all our attcmpts at knowlcdgc arc conncd by an horizon (constitutcd, obviously, ` a
la Kant, by thc ltcrs ol our minds) which rcprcscnts a prison lrom which thcrc is abso
lutcly no cscapc, no backway or bypath into thc real .orld! !l our horizons wcrc dicrcnt
thc world would disclosc itscll in a dicrcnt way to us. From this it lollows that all our
socallcd knowlcdgc is crror.
+
Such a conclusion, ol coursc, by no mcans lollows il by crror Nictzschc mcans lalsc
hood. Lct our worldpicturc bc cvcr so subjcctivcly constitutcd and dicrcnt lrom thc
worldpicturc ol othcr cognitivc bcings, still, it might bc thc casc that, unlikc, say, thc ants
world picturc, ours just happcns to corrcspond to thc way thc world rcally is. Nictzschc
rccogniscs this in thc notcbooks: Tc possibility that thc world is similar to thc world that
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
appcars to us is not rulcd out by this admission ol subjcctivc lactors.
+o
Actually, howcvcr,
as wc havc alrcady sccn, Nictzschc virtually ncvcr uscs crror to mcan lalschood. Tc word
is rathcr uscd, likc Vagncrs !ahn (p. ++ abovc), to mcan gocs bcyond what wc havc
cvidcncc lor, lacks an cpistcmological guarantcc ol truth.
Somctimcs Nictzschc is tcmptcd to scc thc incscapability ol crror as nauscating: somc
timcs hc nds thc Gcnoa sca (a mctaphor lor thc innitudc ol rcality) malicious in its mutc
rclusal to spcak to him and bcgin|s| to hatc spccch and cvcn thinking, hcaring bchind
cvcry word thc laughtcr ol crror, ol imagination, thc spirit ol dclusion |!ahn|.
++
8ut this
is just a passing mood. Morc typically, hc nds thc incscapability ol crror, our inabil
ity dcnitivcly to capturc thc sca ol rcality in thc spidcrs nct ol human knowlcdgc,
+:
cxciting:
!n thc midst ol thc occan ol bccoming wc awakc |human consciousncss ariscs| on a littlc
island no biggcr than a boat, wc advcnturcrs and birds ol passagc |!ander. ogel |, and look
around us lor a lcw momcnts: as sharply and inquisitivcly as possiblc, lor how soon may a
wind not blow us away . . . and thus wc livc a prccarious minutc ol knowing and divining,
amid joylul bcating ol wings and chirping with onc anothcr, and in spirit wc advcnturc out
ovcr thc occan, no lcss proud than thc occan itscll.
+
Rcally, it is bcttcr that wc cannot cscapc lrom crror sincc othcrwisc thcrc would bc no
possibility ol advcnturc, ol thc joy ol travclling. A world in which wc wcrc crrorlrcc, in
which wc wcrc grantcd Gods supposcd intcllcctual intuition (knowlcdgc unmcdiatcd by
any mcntal ltcrs) ol rcality, would bc unbcarably claustrophobic. !n Te Birth of Tragedy
Nictzschc quotcs Gotthold Lcssings rcmark that thc scarch lor truth mcans morc than thc
truth itscll,
+
and this, ! think, rcmains his prcdominant scntimcnt.
Noticc that his insistcncc on thc incscapability ol crror can bc groundcd in two dil
lcrcnt ways. His point might bc that wc can ncvcr havc complctc justication in claim
ing that a particular proposition corrcsponds to rcality, or it might bc that thc idca ol
an intcrprctationindcpcndcnt rcality makcs no scnsc, so that thc vcry idca ol corrcspon
dcncc bctwccn thought and rcality is a mistakc. Tc choicc, as wc might put it, is bctwccn a
Kantian and a postmodcrnist vicw: thc lormcr is an cpistcmological thcsis which dcnics
thc possibility ol lully justifying claims to know somcthing to bc truc, thc lattcr is a thcsis
in mctaphysics (or pcrhaps philosophical logic) which dcnics thc vcry possibility ol truth.
!t is prctty clcar lrom thc rcmarks quotcd alrcady that Nictzschc is not not yct, at
lcast a postmodcrnist. Tcrc is a rcality out thcrc a real .orld , as Da.n says without a
hint ol irony to which, lor all wc know, our worldpicturc might morc or lcss accuratcly
corrcspond.
+
thcr rcmarks lrom thc notcbooks makc it clcar that Nictzschcs locus is on
cpistcmology rathcr than mctaphysics. For cxamplc: what is ncw about our currcnt vicw ol
philosophy is thc conviction . . . that wc dont know thc truth. All prcvious mcn posscsscd
thc truth, cvcn thc sccptics.
+6
Rcmarks such as thcsc sccm to prcsupposc that, howcvcr
inacccssiblc, thcrc is such a thing as thc truth.
Nictzschcs insistcncc on thc incscapability ol crror has crcatcd thc hoary qucstion ol his
supposcd scllrclutation: il hc docs not claim his philosophy to bc true, why should wc bc
intcrcstcd in it: 8ut this sccms to mc a nonproblcm oncc its rcaliscd that crror docs not
mcan lalschood. Nictzschcs point, surcly, is just thc point V. \. Quinc madc a hundrcd
ycars latcr conccrning thc thcoryladcnncss ol obscrvation, thc horizonbound charactcr
awn

:
ol all human knowlcdgc. Vc can ncvcr, says Quinc, do bcttcr than occupy thc standpoint
ol somc thcory or othcr, thc bcst wc can mustcr at thc timc.
+
8y bcst thcory Quinc mcans thcory ol maximum powcr: thc thcory that cxplains and
prcdicts thc maximumnumbcr ol cxpcricnccd phcnomcna in thc most ccicnt manncr. 8ut
what docs Nictzschc mcans by bcst thcory: Vhy docs hc think that his own thcorctical
lramcwork is a bcttcr thcory than any ol its rivals: Vhy, in particular, docs hc think thc
positivist worldvicw a bcttcr thcory than thc Christian or morc gcncrally, mctaphysical
worldvicw it sccks to rcplacc:
nc answcr hc might givc is in tcrms ol thc conscqucnccs ol thc two worldvicws: whcrcas
thc Christian worldvicw makcs us dcprcsscd and passivc with rcspcct to thc condition ol
our world, thc positivist worldvicw makcs us optimistic and activc. Nictzschc has, howcvcr,
pointcd out cnough timcs that thc happincssmaking propcnsity ol a bclicl has nothing to
do with its truth, and has donc so with sucicnt scorn, to makc onc think that hc cares
about truth and bclicvcs his cxpcrimcnt in knowlcdgc, il not ncccssarily thc nal word, is
at lcast morc likcly to bc truc than its Christian rival. How might hc havc wishcd to arguc
that:
Rccall my suggcstion, at thc bcginning ol Chaptcr +, that what imprcsscs Nictzschc
about thc positivist outlook ol his agc thc outlook that, up until thc mid+8os, hc had
bccn rcsisting was its tcchnological powcr and cxplanatory ccicncy: railways, thc tclc
graph, thc tclcphonc, as wcll as arwins dcmonstration ol thc rcdundancy ol thc God
hypothcsis. Tc positivist worldvicw ocrcd a thcory ol thc world ol incrcdiblc powcr and
ccicncy in comparison with that which had prcccdcd it. And that, surcly, onc can imaginc
Nictzschc saying, is somc kind ol cvidcncc ol truth. Crcaturcs, that is to say, who arc radi
cally mistakcn about thc naturc ol thc world tcnd to dic out bclorc rcproducing. Convcrscly,
thosc whosc powcr ovcr thcir cnvironmcnt cnablcs thcm to survivc and thrivc arc probably
closc to thc truth.
17
Te Gay Science
Iirst Summer in Sils Maria
T
nv viniic~:iox ol Da.n coincidcd, almost cxactly, with Nictzschcs arrival, on
July , +88+, in Sils Maria, whcrc hc would rcmain until ctobcr +. Tis cstablishcd
thc pattcrn lor thc rcst ol his lilc. Savc lor +88:, during which normal lilc was disruptcd, as
wc shall scc, by thc traumatic cvcnts ol thc Salom c aair, cvcry ycar until his nal collapsc
at thc cnd ol +888 hc would spcnd roughly thrcc summcr months in Sils.
Tc (still) small villagc ol Sils Maria is locatcd on a ncck ol land bctwccn Lakc Sils
and Lakc Silvcrplana in thc uppcr ngadinc \allcy at a hcight ol :,ooo mctrcs. Abovc thc
vallcy, sccmingly in cvcry dircction, towcr thc Alps, thc loot ol Mount Corvatsch, thc most
brcathtaking ol all, a mcrc tcn minutcs walk lrom thc villagc. Nictzschc lcll in lovc with
Sils at rst sight: with thc grandcur ol thc sccncry, thc hard and simplc lilc ol thc pcasants,
thc thoughtlul shadc ol thc lorcsts, thc turquoisc clarity ol thc lakcs, thc lcvcl walking paths
around thcm, thc tranquil silcncc brokcn only by cow and churchbclls, and thc scnsc ol
thc mctaphysical, ol bcing abovc and bcyond thc aairs ol thc world.
Shadcd by a r trcc outsidc its small, solitary window and pancllcd in dark, light
absorbing pinc, Nictzschcs room on thc sccond oor ol thc urisch housc, lit only by
a solitary spirit lamp, was dark and unhcatcd (scc Platcs :+, ::). !t was hcrc that, cvcry
day at vc, Nictzschc would risc, wash his cntirc body in cold watcr, and think lor an hour,
bclorc brcaklasting on two raw cggs, brcad rolls, tca, and anisccd rusks at sixthirty. Trcc
or morc hours ol wcathcr and hcalth pcrmitting walking and thinking wcrc lollowcd
by lunch consisting ol stcak and macaroni with an occasional glass ol bccr. Always thc
samc, it was takcn in thc Alpcnrosc Hotcl, a hundrcd mctrcs lrom his lodgings, and always
at clcvcnthirty, to avoid thc midday rush. Following anothcr thrcc or lour hours walk
ing, thc cvcning mcal was takcn at sixthirty and consistcd again cvcry day thc samc
ol tca, two raw cggs, and (two staplcs ol thc local pcasant dict) polcnta and anisccd rusks.
Nictzschc appcars to havc catcn absolutcly no lruit or vcgctablcs during this summcr, which
must havc had an appalling ccct on his always suspcct digcstion. !n thc cvcnings, as had
:&

Te Gay Science

:
bccn his practicc in Gcnoa, hc sat quictly in thc dark lrom scvcn to ninc, conscrving, so hc
bclicvcd, his spiritual powcrs. And so to bcd.
+
Nictzschc callcd Sils his rcscucplacc, thc placc whcrc it is quict in a way ! havc ncvcr
bclorc cxpcricnccd and all thc o conditions ol my poor lilc arc lulllcd . . . an uncxpcc
tcd and uncarncd gilt.
:
n thc lacc ol things this was a pcculiar judgmcnt sincc hc had
alrcady dccidcd that clcar skics lor months on cnd wcrc an absolutc rcquircmcnt ol his
hcalth

clcar skics day altcr day would bc thc vcry last thing to cxpcct in thc notori
ously moody high mountains. And indccd this rst summcr in Sils was a summcr ol con
stant cloud. July was hot, with rcgular thundcrstorms. Nictzschc was convinccd that atmo
sphcric clcctricity brought on his scizurcs, so it is no surprisc that cach storm laid him low
with a dcbilitating attack ol hcadachcs and nausca. August was cxtrcmcly cold, cvcn by
ngadinc standards, and in his unhcatcd room hc bcgan to sucr lrom chilblains. Scptcm
bcr was cqually bad, with thc days altcrnating bctwccn rain, thundcrstorms, and snow.
Vriting homc, Nictzschc commcntcd that in Sils thc snow docs not start to mclt until
Junc and can still lall in July and August, so that many a wintcr day in Gcnoa is warmcr
than a summcr day in Sils.

Far lrom any ccntrc ol civilization, hc rcvcrtcd to his prac

ticc ol scnding shopping lists to his mothcr. Among othcr supplics, hc askcd hcr to scnd
Gcrman sausagc, thc wick lor a spirit lamp, a brush and comb, cakc, and a nccdlc and thrcad
(cvidcntly hc could scw as wcll as cook). Abovc all, howcvcr, hc rcqucsts warm glovcs and
socks,

and whcn thc lattcr do not arrivc writcs again, pitcously, !m so cold: socks! Lots ol
socks!
6
Nictzschc continucd his corts at sclldoctoring, convinccd both that thc root ol his
troublcs lay in a hardtodiagnosc condition ol thc brain and that hc kncw morc about his
condition than any doctor.

Hc also bclicvcd that thc kcy to amcliorating his condition lay

in thc cccts ol climatc on hcalth cvcry ncw placc, hc wrotc lizabcth, is a ncw hcalth
cxpcrimcnt.
8
Hc rcad Picrrc Foissacs On Meteorology, which, dcspitc its titlc, was actually
a study ol thc cccts ol such things as air prcssurc and atmosphcric clcctricity on thc human
body, but lound, to his rcgrct, that thc scicncc was still in its inlancy.

cspitc (or bccausc ol ) his strict daily rcgimcn, his hcalth rcmaincd as bad as cvcr. ltcn
days would pass during which nausca would allow him to cat nothing at all.
+o
Tc wholc
summcr, hc wrotc K osclitz at thc cnd ol Scptcmbcr, dcath lookcd ovcr my shouldcr: thcrc
had bccn only tcn bcarablc days, thc attacks bcing as bad as thcy had cvcr bccn in 8ascl
(whcrc, ol coursc, thcy had lorccd him to givc up his prolcssorship).
++
!n spitc ol its lack ol succcss, Nictzschc continucd to bclicvc in his sclldoctoring: pcoplc
will say that ! havc bccn a good doctor and not just lor myscll, hc addcd, rclcrring to thc
justappcarcd Da.n.
+:
Vhat hc mcans is that in scttling in Sils his doctoring ol thc spirit
has bccn a grcat succcss. As picurcan philosophy tcachcs, bodily sucring is thc kind ol
hostilc latc thc spirit can risc abovc, cvcn wclcomc into a productivc lilc: Tcrc arc many
ways ol bccoming strong and ol making strong wingbcats: austcrity and pain bclong hcrc,
arc mcans that bclong to thc cconomy ol wisdom, hc writcs Maric 8aumgartncr.
+
Vhat
mattcrs is spiritual hcalth and that, Nictzschc nds, thrivcs in Sils. Vriting to his mothcr
to comlort hcr on thc dcath ol thc niccst ol thc chlcrs his unclc Tcobald, who had
committcd suicidc by throwing himscll into thc Sallc, hc says, turning to himscll, that ncvcr
was thcrc a man to whom thc word dcprcsscd applicd lcss . . . ! havc wcighticr mattcrs to
considcr than |bodily| hcalth.
+
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Enter Eternal Return
T
hcsc wcighticr mattcrs wcrc ol coursc philosophical thoughts. Givcn that thcsc wcrc
bubbling away, nothing clsc in thc nal analysis mattcrcd. And bubbling thcy wcrc.
Now, my good lricnd, hc wrotc K osclitz on August + (anticipating in a somcwhat dis
turbing way somc ol thc bchaviour that markcd his nal brcakdown),
thc August sun is abovc us, thc ycar passcs by, it is bccoming quictcr and morc pcacclul on
thc mountains and in thc lorcsts. Toughts havc climbcd abovc my horizon ol a kind ! havc
ncvcr bclorc sccn ! cannot spcak ol thcm. . . thc intcnsity ol my lcclings makc mc shivcr
and laugh . . . walking ycstcrday ! . . . wcpt not scntimcntal tcars but tcars ol jubilation, and
as ! wcpt ! sang and talkcd nonscnsc, llcd with a ncw vision that ! havc had in advancc ol
all othcr human bcings.
+
Tc thoughts ol which hc rcluscs to spcak (calling to mind thc way in which Jcws do
not pronouncc thc namc ol God) arc thosc containcd in thc mastcr thought ol thc ctcrnal
rcturn ol thc samc:

thc thought that thc cntirc history ol oncs lilc and thc cosmos will
rcpcat itscll, do.n to the .ery last detail, throughout all ctcrnity. Tc thought, in othcr words,
that timc is a circlc. tcrnal rcturn is thc ccntral topic ol Tus Spoke Zarathustra and, as !
notcd, was rcgardcd by Nictzschc as thc most important thought that cvcr camc to him. !t
is onc ol thc two kcy thcmcs thc othcr is thc will to powcr that constitutc thc hcart ol
his maturc philosophy. Hcrc, thcn, at thc bcginning ol August, +88+, wc arc standing on
thc cusp bctwccn thc cnd ol Nictzschcs positivist pcriod and thc bcginning ol his maturity.
Nictzschc rccalls thc arrival ol his thought ol thoughts in Ecce Homo:
thc basic conccption |ol Zarathustra|, thc idca ol thc ctcrnal rcturn, thc highcst lormula ol
armation that can possibly bc attaincd, bclongs to August ol thc ycar +88+. !t was jottcd
down on a piccc ol papcr with thc inscription: 6ooo lcct bcyond man and timc. ! was that
day walking through thc woods bcsidc thc lakc ol Silvaplana. ! stoppcd bcsidc a mighty
pyramidal block ol stonc |scc Platc :| which rcarcd itscll up not lar lrom Surlci. !t was
thcrc that this thought camc to mc.
+6
!n latcr ycars, Nictzschc would lall silcnt whcn walking with a companion past thc pyra
midal stonc (thirty minutcs walk lrom Sils), as il cntcring a holy prccinct. Tc arrival ol
thc thought had, lor him, thc charactcr ol a visitation.
Rclying on mcmory, Nictzschc, as usual, misquotcs himscll. Vhat hc actually wrotc in
his notcbook was: a hcading, Te Feturn of the Same: Sketch, lollowcd by vc numbcrcd
points, lollowcd by thc subscript, 8cginning ol August in SilsMaria, 6ooo lcct abovc sca
lcvcl and much highcr still abovc all human things!, lollowcd by a long commcnt on thc
lourth ol thc vc points.
+
Tc notc is cryptic to thc point ol unintclligibility it is no
surprisc that in thc lcttcr to K osclitz hc rclcrs to himscll as spcaking nonscnsc at thc timc
ol writing it. Scvcral rclativcly clcar points do, howcvcr, cmcrgc.

Nictzschcs word lor rcturn, !iederkunft, posscsscs a ccrtain rcligious aura. Christians spcak ol
thc !iederkunft ol Christ, thc sccond coming. Latcr on, ! shall suggcst an important continuity
bctwccn ctcrnal rcturn and thc Christian picty ol Nictzschcs youth.
Te Gay Science

:,
Tc rst is that at no point is thc truth ol ctcrnal rcturn asscrtcd. Tc lorm ol thc discus
sion sccms to bc: suppose thc ctcrnal rcturn wcrc truc, what would bc thc cxistcntial con
scqucnccs ol rccognising that truth: And hcrc hc sccms undccidcd. n thc onc hand hc
thinks that an attitudc ol indicrcncc might arisc: sccing that thcrc was no ultimatc point
or mcaning to lilc, no last judgmcnt, no cntry into paradisc cithcr hcavcnly or carthly, in
gcncral no cnd ol history, onc might comc to rcgard lilc as nothing but an absurd gamc.
Vhcthcr Nictzschc rcgards this as a good or bad thing is unclcar. n thc onc hand, hc
talks ol acsthctically cnjoying thc gamc, which rccalls what, in discussing Te !anderer
and His Shado., ! callcd thc thcrapcutic usc ol thc absurd (pp. :88 abovc): mcditating
on thc pointlcssncss ol our cxistcncc as a spiritual gymnastic in ordcr to rclicvc strcss, to
attain picurcan clcvation abovc lilc and thus pcacc ol mind. 8ut on thc othcr hand, hc
says that thc truth ol ctcrnal rcturn would raisc thc qucstion ol whcthcr wc still want to
livc. A quitc dicrcnt rcsponsc to ctcrnal rcturn, howcvcr, is what hc calls thc ncw wcight
ol gravity with rcspcct to which our crrors and habits acquirc innitc importancc. Tis
sccms to suggcst thc rcsponsc to ctcrnal rcturn suggcstcd in Milan Kundcras Te Incredible
Lightness of Being: wcrc onc to comc to bclicvc that whatcvcr onc did ncxt would bc rcpcatcd
throughout all ctcrnity thc rcsult would bc to attach incrcdiblc importancc wcight, grav
ity to cach and cvcry action onc pcrlormcd. !l onc rcspondcd this way to ctcrnal rcturn
thc ccct would bc to climinatc all cowardicc, compromisc, and cvasion. nc would bcgin
to livc with incrcdiblc intensity.
Tc pcculiar thing, howcvcr, about thcsc various possiblc rcsponscs to thc ctcrnal rcturn
rccordcd in thc notc writtcn by thc pyramid is that nonc ol thcm givc any idca ol why
ctcrnal rcturn should bc thc highcst lormula ol |lilc| armation. 8ccoming indicrcnt
to lilc looks morc likc lilc denial, whilc dcciding to livc oncs lilc with cxtrcmc intcnsity
is compatiblc with both thc armation and dcnial ol lilc. (nc might think it would bc
bcttcr ncvcr to havc bccn born yct dccidc that, having bccn born, onc might as wcll makc
thc most intcnsc job ol living as possiblc.) Tc actual contcnt ol thc notc, in short, givcs no
cluc as to why ctcrnal rcturn should bc associatcd with lilcarmation.
nc possibility is that only many months latcr did thc conncxion bctwccn ctcrnal rcturn
and lilcarmation occur to Nictzschc. ! am, howcvcr, morc inclincd to think that, though
it docs not appcar in thc notc itscll, thc association had, in lact, occurrcd to him by August,
+88+. Tc causc, ! suspcct, was his discovcry ol Spinoza.

Somctimc in Junc +88+, somc instinct
+8
told Nictzschc that hc nccdcd to nd out about
thc grcat scvcntccnthccntury PortugucscJcwishutch philosophcr 8aruch Spinoza. As a
conscqucncc, and with his usual pcnchant lor taking a short cut via thc sccondary litcraturc,
hc wrotc to vcrbcck at thc bcginning ol July asking him to post to Sils \olumc ! ol Kuno
Fischcrs History of Modern Philosophy, thc volumc dcaling with Spinoza. (Tis was thc samc
sixvolumc work hc had uscd in +866 to gain a working knowlcdgc ol Kant.) 8y July o hc
had bccomc an ccstatic Spinozist:
! am complctcly astoundcd |hc wrotc vcrbcck|, complctcly cnrapturcd! ! havc a lorcrun
ncr. And what a lorcrunncr! ! kncw Spinoza hardly at all . . . !t is not only that his wholc
tcndcncy is likc minc to producc through knowlcdgc thc most powcrlul acct but also
that in vc ccntral points ol this massivc and solitary thinkcr ! discovcr myscll in his tcach
ing: hc dcnics lrccdom ol thc will, purposc, a moral ordcr to thc world, thc uncgoistic,
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
cvil . . . !n sum, my aloncncss which oltcn, likc bcing on high mountains, robs mc ol brcath,
is now at lcast a twoncss.
+
Spinoza was a panthcist. God is not a scparatc worldcrcator but rathcr just is thc world.
God and naturc arc simply dicrcnt aspccts ol onc and thc samc totality. Tis is why a
Spinozist must dcny cvil: il thc world is divinc thcrc can bc no cvil in it. Tc point ol
Spinozas philosophy, cmbodicd in his grcat book callcd, simply, Ethics, is to cnablc onc to
achicvc happincss through lovc ol a divinc world.
Sincc boyhood, Nictzschc had lovcd thc ninctccnthccntury Amcrican mystic and Uni
tarian Ralph Valdo mcrson. Hc was rcrcading mcrson during this rst summcr in Sils.
Tc titlc pagc ol thc rst cdition ol Te Gay Science, on which hc was now working, contains
thc lollowing quotation lrom mcrson: To thc poct and thc sagc, all things arc lricndly
and sacrcd, all cxpcricnccs protablc, all days holy, all mcn divinc. Tis is thc panthcistic,
worldarming vision ol a Spinozist thc instinct that lcd him to Spinoza may, indccd,
havc bccn thc scnsc ol him as mcrsons lorcrunncr.
n July o, +88+, thcn, Nictzschc dcclarcd himscll a Spinozist. !mmcdiatcly thcrcaltcr
at thc bcginning ol August thc thought ol ctcrnal rcturn camc to himbcsidc thc pyramid.
!t sccms rcasonablc to assumc, thcrclorc, that Spinozamcrson panthcism was vcry much
in his mind as thc thought ol ctcrnal rcturn camc to him. !l wc makc this assumption
it bccomcs, lor thc rst timc, clcar just why ctcrnal rcturn desiring thc ctcrnal rcturn
should bc thc highcst lormula lor thc cxprcssion ol thc highcst possiblc lovc ol lilc. For il
all things arc (somchow) protablc, holy, divinc thcn, ol coursc, onc wants nonc ol thcm
cvcr to go away. And that is what, il truc, ctcrnal rcturn would sccurc. Morc accuratcly,
what it would sccurc is thc ncarcst approximation to pcrmancnt prcscncc that is possiblc in
a world whcrc timc and transitorincss arc incscapablc.
Second Winter in Genoa

n ctobcr :, with wintcr closing in, Nictzschc rcturncd to his old quartcrs in Gcnoas
Salino dclla 8attcstinc, whcrc hc would rcmain until thc cnd ol March, +88:. Altcr
rccovcring lrom thc uncomlortablc downhill trip, hc scnt a postcard to vcrbcck tclling
him ol his dclight in bcing
oncc morc in my city . . . thc most unmodcrn that ! know and yct bustling with lilc its
complctcly unromantic and yct thc oppositc ol vulgar. And so ! shall livc on undcr thc
protcction ol my local guardian angcls, Columbus, Paganini and Mazzini who togcthcr arc
vcry good ambassadors lor thcir city.
:o
Columbus, thc discovcrcr ol ncwhorizons and dawns, is an obvious hcro lor Nictzschc, and
Mazzini, wc alrcady know, Nictzschc admircd lor his monomania thc subordination ol
his cntirc lilc to thc singlc idca ol !talian unication. 8ut why should that (somc suspcctcd
dcmonically inspircd) magician ol thc violin, Niccol ` o Paganini, bc a Nictzschcan hcro:
Nictzschc was at this timc bccoming morc and morc cnrapturcd by K osclitzs music.
Hc admircd K osclitz lor turning against thc Vagncrian stylc ol composition. His (Pctcr
Gasts) comic opcra, Joke, Cunning, Fe.enge, Nictzschc bclicvcd, was a work ol such bright
chccrlulncss
:+
as to justily calling himthc ncwMozart.
::
Vhat Carlsbad |mincral watcr|
Te Gay Science

::
is lor thc sick stomach, hc writcs, K osclitz is lor a sick spirit.
:
Tis, prcsumably, thc
rcplaccmcnt ol hcavy, Gcrmanic, mctaphysical, northcrn scriousncss by southcrn brightncss
and clcgancc, is what hc admircd in Paganinis light, cvcn lrivolous, displays ol violinistic
virtuosity. Hc rclcrs to this tastc lor lightncss in thc prclacc to Te Gay Science: what wc
convalcsccnts nccd, hc writcs, is not thc thcatrical scrcamol passion . . . thc wholc romantic
|Vagncrian| uproar and tumult but rathcr a mocking, light, ccting, divincly untroublcd,
divincly articial art that, likc a bright amc, blazcs into an uncloudcd sky.
:
Tough his hcalth still lclt much to bc dcsircd, Nictzschc nowdccidcd that ! can livc only
on thc sca. !n Gcnoa thcrc was a human possibility ol living with his condition, whcrcas in
ngadinc, Maricnbad, Naumburg and 8ascl my lilc was that ol a torturcd animal.
:
ncc
again hc bcgins to takc a kccn intcrcst in !talian cooking: Gcrman Stollen is, hc claims, but
a palc imitation ol Gcnoas pane dolche (a kind ol Christmas cakc madc with hcavy, swcct
brcad dough).
:6
Hc appcars to havc shiltcd rooms in his boarding housc, lor now hc has a
vcry bright room with a high cciling which is good lor my mood. And also lor rcading:
his cycs arc gctting so wcak that hc oltcn stumblcs and brcaks things, which makcs him
rclicvcd that Gcnoas largc, at paving stoncs providc a salc surlacc on which to walk.
:
His
cycs arc so bad, in lact, that his handwriting has bccomc illcgiblc cvcn to himscll and so hc
takcs scrious stcps to acquirc a typcwritcr.
:8
(Tc rst commcrcially succcsslul typcwritcr
was invcntcd in +86, thc rst Rcmington appcarcd in +8.)
As 8ccthovcns dcalncss lorccd him to givc up listcning to music and turn to his own,
inncr, rcsourccs, so Nictzschcs hallblindncss dccidcd him to gct rid ol his books, which
hc scnt to bc storcd with !da vcrbccks mothcr in Zurich: what do hallblind animals
nccd with books: hc askcd.
:
Vith thc abandonmcnt ol rcading, thc writing ol Te Gay
Science conccivcd at this stagc as books 6 to +o ol Da.n
o
procccdcd apacc.
Carmen, St. ]anuarius, R ee, and Sarah Bernhardt
N
ictzschcs hopcs that thc movc to Gcnoa would producc bcttcr wcathcr than thc miscr
ablc summcr in Sils Maria wcrc disappointcd. vcn at sca lcvcl, thc closing months
ol +88+ wcrc unusually cold, wct, and miscrablc. 8ut thcn, at thc cnd ol Novcmbcr, thcrc
was somcthing to chccr about:
Hurrah lricnd! |hc wrotc K osclitz| nally somcthing good again, an opcra lrom Francois
8izct (who is that:): Carm en |sic| . . . witty, strong, hcrc and thcrc proloundly moving. An
authcntic Frcnch talcnt lor comic opcra, not at all disoricntcd by Vagncr, a truc pupil ol
H|cctor| 8crlioz. ! had not thought that somcthing likc this was possiblc! !t sccms that
thc Frcnch havc a bcttcr approach to dramatic music. And thcy havc a hcad start ovcr thc
Gcrmans in onc csscntial point: with thcm passion is nowhcrc ncar as draggcd out (as lor
cxamplc all thc cmotions arc in Vagncr).
+
Tc lollowing month hc attcndcd anothcr pcrlormancc and simultancously hcard that thc
composcr hc had only just discovcrcd was, in lact, dcad. (8izct dicd in +8 at thc agc ol
thirtysix, shortly altcr thc rst pcrlormancc ol Carmen.) Hc was dcvastatcd:
!t was a dccp blow |hc wrotc K osclitz| to hcar that 8izct is dcad. ! hcard Carmen |sic| lor a
sccond timc and again ! had thc imprcssion ol a novclla ol thc rst rank, likc somcthing
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
by M crim cc.

So passionatc and so gracclul a soul! For mc this work is worth a journcy to

Spain a complctcly southcrn work . . . badly ill in thc mcantimc, but rccovcrcd through
Carmen.
:
Nictzschc was lucky cnough to hcar thc stunning C clcstinc GalliMari c in thc titlc rolc, thc
singcr who had madc thc rolc hcr own in thc opcras rst pcrlormancc. Vhat hc likcd was
Carmens hot, thisworldly, southcrn scnsuality, thc pcrlcct oppositc ol (looking at things
through Nictzschcs cycs) Vagncrs mctaphysical lugubriousncss a lugubriousncss that
rcachcs its pcak in Parsifal, about to rcccivc its rst pcrlormancc.

Tc bcginning ol +88: brought a dramatic changc in thc wcathcr. !t bccamc and

rcmaincd
likc spring: alrcady in thc mornings onc can sit outsidc cvcn in thc shadc without lrcczing.
No wind, no clouds, no rain! An old man told mc that thcrc had ncvcr bccn such a wintcr
in Gcnoa. Tc sca calm and sunk dccply into itscll. Tc pcachtrccs arc blossoming! . . . !
scc thc soldicr in thc lightcst lincn suits, ! myscll wcar thc samc on my walks, as in summcr
in thc ngadinc.

Tough thc local lruit growcrs lcarcd that a suddcn lrost would dcvastatc thc crop, thc carly
spring pcrsistcd, so that by thc lollowing month Nictzschc was rcgularly swimming in thc
sca.

Tc January wcathcr (as wcll as somc lan mail lrom 8altimorc)

6
transportcd him
into a statc ol bliss: ! bcgin and cnd cvcry day with thc qucstion Vas thcrc cvcr such good
wcathcr: !ts as il madc lor my naturc, lrcsh, purc mild. So much so that hc dccidcd to
dcdicatc thc lourth, and originally nal, book ol Te Gay Science to thc month, cntitling it
St. Januarius, thc saint altcr whom thc month is namcd.
Januarius was an carly Christian martyr. A vial supposcd to contain his blood is kcpt in
thc Cathcdral in Naplcs, which Nictzschc visitcd during his stay in Sorrcnto. n ccrtain
lcast days it is said miraculously to bccomc uid again. Nictzschc bcgins book !\ with a
pocm:
You .ho .ith your lances burning
Melt the ice sheets of my soul
Speed it to.ards the ocean yearning
For its highest hope and goal:
E.er healthier it rises
Free in fate most amorous: -
Tus your miracle it prizes
Fairest Januarius.
Genoa, January ::.
!n a word, with thc mclting ol thc wintcr icc, Nictzschc lccls his own blood bcginning to
ow again. A ncw lormula lor worldarmation comcs to him, thc idca ol amor fati lovc
ol latc, ol e.erything that has happcncd and bccomcs his Ncw Ycars rcsolution.

To add to thc cxcitcmcnt, R cc arrivcd on Fcbruary lor a vcwcck visit, accompanicd by

a anish typcwritcr, which, howcvcr, had bccn damagcd in transit. !t was rcpaircd by a local

Tc librctto .as, in lact, by M crim cc, takcn lrom his novclla ol thc samc namc.
Te Gay Science

:
craltsman and Nictzschc uscd it to writc thirtccn lcttcrs. 8ut nding it both aggrcssivc and
tcmpcramcntal, likc a small animal hc was rclicvcd rathcr than annoycd whcn, towards thc
cnd ol March, it gavc up thc ghost. Largc and chunky, it was, in any casc, hardly consistcnt
with his itincrant lilcstylc.
R cc rcportcd to lizabcth that hc had ncvcr sccn Nictzschc looking so wcll or in such
high spirits sincc thcir rst mccting in 8ascl in +8:.
8
Tc day altcr his arrival Nictz
schc took him down to thc bcach whcrc thcy lay in thc warm sun likc a couplc ol sca
urchins.

A grcat dcal ol laughtcr and high jinks though Nictzschc blamcd thcm lor thc
onsct ol onc ol his attacks lcad to him scnding K osclitz a typcwrittcn bunch ol silly dittics
such as
Glattes Eis ein Paradeis |in propcr Gcrman Paradies|
F ur Den der gut zu tanzen .eiss
(roughly, Smooth icc a paradicc |sic|/ For hc who is in dancing wisc).
o
nc ol thc sca urchins outings was to scc thc lamous Sarah 8crnhardt. Tcy hit a bad
night, howcvcr:
Vc attcndcd thc rst pcrlormancc. Altcr thc rst act shc collapscd as il dcad. Altcr an
cmbarrassing hour ol waiting, shc playcd on but in thc middlc ol thc third act brokc a
blood vcsscl on stagc. !t madc an unbcarablc imprcssion particularly sincc shc was playing
that kind ol a sick pcrson (|thc consumptivc hcroinc ol | la dame aux camellias by umas
thc youngcr) Noncthclcss shc had a trcmcndous succcss thc lollowing night and thc night
altcr, which convinccd Gcnoa that shc was thc lcading living artist Shc rcmindcd mc in
appcarancc and manncr ol Frau |Cosima| Vagncr.
+
(Tc collapsc obviously did 8crnhardt no lasting damagc, sincc shc did not dic until March
+:. 8orn just a wcck altcr Nictzschc shc outlivcd him by a quartcr ol a ccntury.)
Anothcr urchinlikc cscapadc was a thrccday visit to Montc Carlo at thc bcginning ol
March. Puritanical as cvcr, and anyway appallcd by thc pricc ol cvcrything on thc Frcnch
Rivicra, Nictzschc had nothing to do with thc casino, but R cc, a compulsivc gamblcr in thc
ostoycvskian mould, did. Tough Nictzschc claimcd, writing to his mothcr, that R cc at
lcast didnt losc
:
hc must in lact havc lost hcavily, sincc whcn hc lclt to visit Malwida von
Mcyscnbug in Romc hc had to borrow thc train larc lrom Nictzschc.
n a morc scrious lcvcl, R ccs visit clcarly turncd Nictzschcs mind to scicntic mat
tcrs, sincc in March hc wrotc K osclitz ol his admiration lor Copcrnicus and Rogcr 8osco
vich,

thc two grcatcst opponcnts ol how things look to thc untutorcd cyc. 8oscovich,
hc continucs, has thought atomic thcory through to its ultimatc conclusion, which is that
mattcr docs not cxist. Consistcntly thought out, that is, physics lcads to thc conclusion
that nothing cxists but lorcc

gravity, clcctromagnctism, and so on.

Rogcr 8oscovitch (+++8) was a almatian monk, mathcmatician, and astronomcr. Nictzschc
rst borrowcd his Philosophiae Naturalis Teoria (p. +8 abovc) lrom thc 8ascl univcrsity library in
+8, but rcrcad it on a numbcr ol subscqucnt occasions, as part ol his programmc ol making up
lor thc abscncc ol natural scicncc lrom his Plorta cducation.
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Messina
A
t thc cnd ol March, +88:, Nictzschc suddcnly lclt Gcnoa lor Mcssina in Sicily, whcrc
hc spcnt thc rst thrcc wccks ol April. Tc dcparturc was abrupt and disruptcd his
cstablishcd pattcrn ol sccking thc high mountains as soon as thc wcathcr startcd to bccomc
warmcr. Nothing is known about Nictzschcs stay in Mcssina, apart lrom lour bricl post
cards, on onc ol which hc quotcs Homcrs dcscription ol Sicily as thc cdgc ol thc world
and thc placc whcrc happincss dwclls.

Tc apparcntly surprising choicc ol Mcssina,

togcthcr with thc dcarth ol concrctc inlormation about his timc thcrc, is thc ccntrcpiccc
ol thc thcsis ol Joachim Kohlcrs Zarathustras Secret: Te Interior Life of Friedrich Nietzsche,
that thc sccrct ol Nictzschcs intcrior lilc is that hc was (Shock! Horror! . . . 8ook salcs!!)
gay.

Tcrc was, it appcars, a colony ol gay artists in Taormina, not lar lrom Mcssina.
Unlortunatcly lor Kohlcrs thcsis, thcrc is not a shrcd ol cvidcncc that Nictzschc cvcr
visitcd Taormina. Tat hc cnjoycd waking up with thc sight ol palm trccs through thc
window and lound thc Mcssina locals lricndly is about all wc know about his stay in Sicily.
Still thc qucstion rcmains, il it was not to indulgc his intcrior sccrct, why did hc go thcrc:
Curt Janz suggcsts that thc sccrct magnct was thc prcscncc ol thc Vagncrs in Sicily,
that Nictzschc hopcd, accidcntally on purposc, to bump into thcm. (Tcy had bccn thcrc
but had, in lact, lclt by thc timc hc arrivcd.) Tcrc is, howcvcr, no cvidcncc lor this hypoth
csis, cithcr. And actually, it sccms to mc, thcrc is no rcal mystcry about Nictzschcs visit to
Mcssina sincc his lcttcrs ocr a pcrlcctly plausiblc account ol his motivcs.
Vhat nccds to bc rcmcmbcrcd is thc uttcr ccntrality ol hcalth to Nictzschcs lilc, thc lact
that hc rcgardcd cvcry placc hc staycd in as a hcalth cxpcrimcnt, togcthcr with thc lact
that thc prcvious summcr in Sils thc wcathcr had bccn tcrriblc.
6
To vcrbcck hc wrotc
lrom Mcssina, rcason has triumphcd: altcr last summcr in thc mountains turncd out so
badly and thc proximity ol clouds was always conncctcd with a worscning ol my condition,
all that rcmaincd to try was to scc what a summcr by thc sca would achicvc.

!t is not
that hc abandoncd thc mountains that is surprising, but rathcr, givcn his bclicl that only
clcar skics clcarcd his hcad, that hc cvcr wcnt thcrc in thc rst placc. A subsidiary motivc
rcmcmbcring that his pcnsion was barcly cnough to livc on was thc astonishing chcapncss
ol thc priccs
8
in thc impovcrishcd South.
Still, Gcnoa was on thc sca, too, so why not stay thcrc: 8ccausc, ! suspcct, hc thought
that by going still lurthcr south hc would obtain cvcn clcarcr skics. Tc prcvious summcr hc
had writtcn vcrbcck lrom Sils that sincc clcar skics lor months on cnd wcrc an csscntial
condition ol his hcalth hc would probably bc lorccd to cmigratc lrom uropc

to scttlc
in, pcrhaps, Mcxico.
o
Hcaring in March, +88: thrcc wccks, that is, bclorc lcaving lor
Mcssina that lizabcths lricnd and luturc husband, 8crnard F orstcr, was planning to
lound a colony in South Amcrica, and combining this ncws with thc ongoing drcam ol a
monastcry lor lrcc spirits, lcd him to lantasizc about lounding a colony in thc Mcxican
high country.
+
Tc Sicilian hcalth cxpcrimcnt did not, howcvcr, work. Altcr thrcc wccks Nictzschc
was drivcn out by his grcatcst cncmy, thc Sirocco
:
hardly somcthing that would havc
dctcrrcd somconc nally ablc to indulgc his hiddcn sccrct! Rclcvant too, howcvcr, is thc
lact that, whilc in Mcssina, hc rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom R cc inlorming him that a young,
brilliant, and bcautilul Russian woman was in Romc, staying with Malwida and dcspcratc
Te Gay Science

:
to mcct him

Lou Salom c. Nictzschcs rcsponsc to this summons is, wc shall scc, yct
anothcr blow to thc hiddcn sccrct hypothcsis.
Idylls from Messina
V
hilc in Mcssina Nictzschc complctcd a sct ol cight pocms, Idylls from Mes-
sina,

which hc publishcd in Schmcitzncrs ncw journal, thc Internationale Mon-

atschrift, in May, +88:. Hc had bccn bccoming incrcasingly alicnatcd lrom Schmcitzncr
and suspcctcd that his housc journal was intcndcd to bc Vagncrian, nationalistic, and anti
Scmitic. (Hc was right in +88 it rcccivcd thc subtitlc Magazinc lor Gcncral Combat
against thc Jcws.) Hc had, noncthclcss, bccn plcasantly surpriscd by thc cosmopolitan tonc
ol its rst cditorial. Contrary to Schmcitzncrs intcntion, 8runo 8aucr talkcd about thc nccd
to ovcrcomc national rivalrics and cstablish a unitcd uropc as our spiritual homcland.
Amazcd to scc how harmonious with my thought thc cditorial was, Nictzschc dccidcd
hc had misjudgcd thc journal and so gavc Schmcitzncr his pocms.

! shall makc a lcw

commcnts on thc morc intcrcsting oncs.
Prince !ogelfrei (Princc Frccasa8ird or Princc utlaw thc word has both mcanings)
is a cclcbration ol, rst, ight, ying with and at thc invitation ol a bird lar out abovc thc
sca, lorgctlul ol goal, harbour, lcar, praisc, and blamc. !t rccalls thc notcbooks inclination to
rcgard oating and ying, picurcan clcvation, as thc highcst good.
6
!t also cclcbratcs
timc o lromthc tough busincss ol thinking: whcrcas stcp by stcp thinking oltcn stumblcs,
oating cortlcssly on thc wind is much morc joylul. And nally, whilc thc thinking rcquircs
solitudc, to sing in solitudc is stupid.
Song of a Goatherd. Tc lovcsick poct lics in bcd sick in his stomach whilc shc danccs
ovcr thcrc in light and noisc. Shc promiscd to sncak o with mc. ! wait likc a dog but
thcrc is no sign ol hcr. Shc licd. ocs shc run altcr cvcryonc just likc my goats: Vhcrc is
hcr silkcn skirt: How curlcd up insidc and poisonous thc waiting ol thc lovcr. Lovc con
sumcs mc likc a scvcnth hcll/! cat almost nothing/Goodbyc onions |sic|. nc is tcmptcd
to scc this as an instancc ol Nictzschcs startling gilt ol sccond sight (or, altcrnativcly, his
disposition to act out litcrary rolcs) lor it rccounts, quitc prcciscly, thc tragic talc ol his lovc
lor Lou Salom c that is just about to bcgin.
Te Little !itch. Shc spcaks: As long as !vc still a prctty littlc bodicc /!ts still worth
bcing pious/nc knows God lovcd a prctty woman/Particularly thc prctty oncs/Hc will
surcly lorgivc thc dutilul littlc monk/Tat hc likc many a monk likcs to bc with mc./Hc
is oltcn likc thc grcying tomcat/Rilc with jcalousy and want/ . . . vcryonc will lorgivc mc.
Tc song ol a irt who is likcly to advcrtisc morc than shc will dclivcr, again a prcccho ol
Lou as Nictzschc camc to cxpcricncc hcr.
Te Nocturnal Mystery. Ncithcr opium not thc good conscicncc will bring thc poct slccp,
so hc gocs down to thc warmbcach whcrc hc nds a man (himscll, it would sccm) and a boat
and puts out to sca. nc hour, or pcrhaps two/ r was it a ycar:/ Suddcnly all my thought
and mind/ sank into an ctcrnal samcncss/ And an abyss without limits/ pcncd up. And
yct nothing happcncd. Tcrc was no blood. Vc wcrc slccping, slccping all, so wcll, so
wcll. A drcam, it sccms, cmbodying Frcuds occanic lccling, dissolution ol individuality,
absorption into thc All.
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Bird Judgement. To rclrcsh myscll/! rcccntly sat undcr dark trccs/! hcard ticking, a solt
ticking/clicatcly as il lollowing bar and mcasurc./! got angry grimaccd a bit/8ut nally
gavc up/Until ! myscll, likc a poct, spokc in ticktock too.//! kcpt making vcrscs/Syllablc
by syllablc thcy hoppcd out/Until ! had to laugh, laugh a quartcr ol an hour./You a poct:
You a poct:/Arc you so sick in thc hcad: /Ycs good sir, you arc a poct/Tus spokc thc
woodpcckcr. A scllundcrmining pocm to nish thc sct on a lighthcartcd notc.
!n +88 Nictzschc publishcd a rcviscd vcrsion ol thc Idylls as an appcndix to thc sccond
cdition ol Te Gay Science, cntitling thc collcction Tc Songs ol Princc ! ogelfrei. !n Ecce
Homo hc rccalls that thcsc songs, composcd lor thc most part in Sicily, call to mind quitc
cxplicitly thc Provcncal conccpt ol gaya scienza, that union ol minstrel, knight and free spirit
that was charactcristic ol thc culturc ol mcdicval Provcncc.

Tat thc pocms arc writtcn

by a lrccasabird minstrcl makcs clcar thc nccd to nish on a lighthcartcd notc.
Te Gay Science
L
a gaya scienza was thc subtitlc or pcrhaps a translation ol thc titlc ol Nictzschcs
ncxt book, Te Gay [or JoyfulJ Science. Conccrning thc titlc itscll Nictzschc says thc
lollowing:
For most pcoplc, thc intcllcct is an awkward, gloomy, crcaking machinc that is hard to start,
whcn thcy want to work with thc machinc . . . thcy call it taking mattcrs seriously . . . and
whcrc laughtcr and gaicty arc to bc lound |thcy supposc that| thinking is good lor nothing
that is thc prcjudicc ol this scrious bcast against all gay scicncc. Vcll thcn, lct us provc it
a prcjudicc.
8
Tinking can bc lun, scrious lun!
As wc saw, Nictzschc bcgan thc lourth and (originally) nal book ol thc work in January
+88:. !t was almost nishcd by thc timc hc lclt Mcssina on about April :+, but work was
thcn intcrruptcd by thc cvcnts that will bc narratcd in thc ncxt chaptcr. Tc book was
complctcd in Naumburg bctwccn May +8 and Junc + with thc hclp ol lizabcth: shc
dictatcd thc manuscript to a bankrupt Naumburg busincssman, who madc a printrcady
copy, with Nictzschc looking on and intcrrupting whcrc ncccssary.

Sincc 8raucrs cditorial

in thc Internationale Monatschrift had tcmporarily rclicvcd Nictzschcs disquict conccrning
his publishcr, it appcarcd with Schmcitzncr at thc cnd ol August. 8ook \ was addcd much
latcr, in +88, and savc lor glancing rclcrcnccs will not bc discusscd in this chaptcr.
Te Main Argument
T
he Gay Science is about cvcrything undcr thc sun. Tcrc is, howcvcr, a ccntral argumcnt
which, in spitc ol its aphoristic lormulation, is rcmarkably, cvcn rigorously, systcmatic.
8clorc turning to this main argumcnt, howcvcr, as with all Nictzschcs works, thc rst
qucstion that nccds to bc raiscd is: lor whom is thc book writtcn:
!n thc Prologuc to Zarathustra, as wc shall scc, thc cponymous hcro bcgins his mission
to thc world by sctting up a soap box in thc markctplacc and prcaching thc supcrman
Te Gay Science

:
as thc mcaning ol thc carth. Tc audicncc, sccing nothing but a ranting buoon, laugh
at him. Altcr much soul scarching this lcads Zarathustra to thc conclusion that hc nccds
to conduct his mission in a dicrcnt way, spccically, that hc nccds to nd a ncw way ol
communicating his mcssagc. Tc insight comcs to him that hc should spcak not to thc
pcoplc but to companions.
6o
Tis, in part, is autobiography. Nictzschcs rst vc books, thc 8ayrcuth works, wcrc
writtcn lor thc (ol coursc litcratc) world at largc, wcrc contributions to thc culturc wars
ol thc timcs. And somc ol thcm wcrc indccd, wholly or in part, rants thc Summons
to thc Gcrmans, lor cxamplc, thc rcason thc Vagncr Socicty dccidcd it was usclcss (pp.
+ abovc). 8y Human, ll-Too-Human, wc havc sccn, hc had givcn up writing lor
thc pcoplc at largc, writing now, cxplicitly, lor lrcc spirits alonc. Tcsc rcmain thc targct
audicncc in Te Gay Science. Vc, hc says, drawing himscll and his choscn rcadcrs into an
intimatc circlc, do not wish to conlorm to currcnt morcs but wish to bccomc individuals
who arc ncw, uniquc, who givc thcmsclvcs laws.
6+
Tough hc wants disciplcs, thcy must
bc lrccspiritcd cnough to say No cvcn to him: disciplcs who cannot do so hc wishcs on
his cncmics.
6:
ncc morc, thcn, wc havc a book lor lrcc spirits, a book lor that samc sclcct
audicncc ol Nictzschcs lricnds
6
as havc bccn all his books sincc Human, ll-Too-Human.
! turn now to thc main argumcnt hc addrcsscs to thcm.
Te Gay Sciences ccntral argumcnt can bc dividcd, it sccms to mc, into thrcc stagcs. First,
it dcvclops a gcncral account ol what it is to bc a thriving culturc or pcoplc, a gcncral
thcory ol cultural hcalth. Tis, thc thcory ol cultural cvolution which, as wc saw, madc
its rst, cmbryonic appcarancc in thc third ol thc Untimely Meditations, rcccivcs a morc
dctailcd statcmcnt in Gay Science than in any othcr work. Sccond, it uscs thc gcncral thcory
to diagnosc and display thc unhcalthy condition ol thc prcscnt agc. Finally, it dcrivcs lrom
thc gcncral thcory an account ol thc dircction in which our culturc must movc il it is to
rccovcr its hcalth. Tis outlinc ol a luturc world is thcn ocrcd as thc idcal whosc rcalisation
is to constitutc thc lilcdcning mission ol thc lrcc spirits lor whom thc book is writtcn.
Cultural Evolution
T
hc background to thc gcncral thcory ol cultural hcalth is arwinism, Nictzschcs
sccondhand knowlcdgc ol which was rst dcrivcd, as wc saw, lrom his rcading ol
Langcs History of Materialism(pp. 8o abovc). Lilc in gcncral, hc writcs, is to bc dcncd
as thc continual shcdding ol somcthing that wants to dic, ol, that is, thc old and wcak.
6
!t
is, in othcr words, thc survival ol thc ttcst in a compctitivc and, at lcast potcntially, hos
tilc cnvironmcnt. Nictzschc applics this thcory to human socicty, which makcs him a social
arwinist: hc rcgards human socictics as organisms subjcct to thc samc laws as organisms
in gcncral.
All organisms, including human individuals and human socictics, aim to bc victorious in
thc strugglc to survivc: thc instinct to do whatcvcr lavours thc prcscrvation ol thc human
racc . . . constitutcs thc csscncc ol our spccics.
6
Nictzschc idcntics two main conditions a
hcalthy community must satisly in ordcr to bc t lor survival. Tc rst is what hc calls a
univcrsally binding . . . laith,
66
somctimcs also morality or custom. !t is such a laith that
constitutcs thc community as a community, ordcrs thc rclations bctwccn individuals in such
a way as to cnablc thc social organism to lunction as an ccicnt survival machinc. For that
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
rcason, thc loss ol such a laith, a laith to which thc grcat majority subscribc, constitutcs
thc grcatcst dangcr that hovcrcd and still hovcrs ovcr humanity.
6
Vithout thc social gluc
ol a communal laith a socicty loscs its capacity lor collcctivc action and bccomcs ripc lor
dcstruction, cithcr through intcrnal disintcgration or through colonization by a morc suc
ccsslul socicty.
Tc principal mcans by which thc community or hcrd
68
prcscrvcs conlormity to
communal laith consist in morc or lcss crudc lorms ol social ostracism. Vhat makcs this
ccctivc is thc individuals basic nccd lor community. vcn thc strongcst pcrson . . . lcars
a cold look or a snccr on thc lacc ol thosc among whom hc has bccn brought up. Vhat
is hc rcally alraid ol: Growing solitary.
6
Nictzschc calls this thc hcrd instinct in thc
individual.
o
Tc hcrd instinct has thus two aspccts. n thc part ol thc community it is
thc instinct to cxcrt prcssurc on thc individual to conlorm. And on thc lattcrs part it is thc
instinct to givc in to that prcssurc.
Tc basic ccct ol a laith or morality is to turn individuals into lunctions
+
or instru
mcnts
:
ol thc community. For thosc who arc, by naturc, hcrdtypcs, this docs thcm no
harm. 8ut lor othcr, rarcr, individuals this is not thc casc: thcir dcvclopmcnt into thc kinds
ol pcoplc thcy potcntially arc is latally harmcd il thcy succumb to thc hcrd instinct. And
paradoxically, thc community, too, is harmcd thcrcby.
Communal laith, communal morality, cnsurcs thc durability ol a community and du
rability is a rstrankcd valuc on carth.

8ut somctimcs its powcr to do so bcgins to dimin

ish. Tc rcason is changc, changcs in thc human and natural cnvironmcnt in which thc
community nds itscll. (Traditional notions ol propcrty, thc right, lor cxamplc, to do any
thing onc wishcs with oncs land, including cutting down its trccs, might bccomc, in thc
agc ol global warming, positivcly damaging to thc wcllbcing ol thc community.) nviron
mcntal changc dcmands changc in communal morality, dcmands thc communitys capacity
to mutatc with rcspcct to its lundamcntal laws ol agrccmcnt. !n a arwinian world thc
law is: mutatc or dic.
Tc agcnts ol such mutation arc thc nonhcrd typcs, thosc who rcsist thc prcssurc to
conlorm to currcnt norms, lrcc thcmsclvcs lrom thc chains ol currcnt morality: thc lrcc
spirits. Tc cclcbratcd uropcan capacity lor constant transformation dcpcnds on such
malcontcnts. China, on thc othcr hand, Nictzschc claims, is a country in which largcscalc
discontcnt bccamc cxtinct ccnturics ago, and with it thc capacity lor changc.

(Hcncc, prc
sumably, its history ol colonisation and cxploitation by uropcan powcrs, and latcr Japan.)
Frcc spirits may bc ol cithcr sccond or rst rank.

Tc lormcr simply say No to cur

rcnt convcntions but livc livcs that arc othcrwisc without signicancc. Tc lattcr, Nictzschcs
truc rcadcrs, arc thc sccd bcarcrs ol thc luturc, thc spiritual colonizcrs and shapcrs ol ncw
statcs and communitics,
6
thc Columbustypcs who discovcr ncw lands and horizons.
Tc csscntial dicrcncc bctwccn thc two is bctwccn crcation and dcstruction. Vhcrcas
thc lormcr simply transgrcss currcnt norms, thc latcr, by crcating ncw namcs and valu
ations,

crcatc ncw lilcpossibilitics to wcigh against thc old oncs.

8
Tough many ol
thcsc will lall by thc waysidc through lack ol inucncc, social utility, or both, thc com
munitys bcst hopc ol succcsslully adapting to a ncw cnvironmcnt in which its old laiths
and customs no longcr work is that onc ol thcsc ncw lorms ol lilc will both bccomc inu
cntial and bc just what it nccds to survivc and oncc morc thrivc. (Tc ccccntric who knits
his own swcatcrs, rcluscs to drivc a car, ncvcr ics, and has his own clcctricitygcncrating
windmill suddcnly nds himscll, pcrhaps, translormcd lrom wcirdo into rolc modcl: in
Te Gay Science

:,
Nictzschcs languagc, hc is rccogniscd as an Argonaut ol thc idcal and hcrald ol thc grcat
hcalth.)

As alrcady obscrvcd, Nictzschcs ccntral insight is that both thc hcrd instinct and lrcc
spiritcdncss arc csscntial to a thriving community. Tc lormcr binds individuals togcthcr
as an adaptivc unity capablc ol collcctivc, in particular scllprcscrving, action. Tc lattcr
which in a hcalthy community must bc posscsscd only by a minority
8o
prcparcs lor thc day
whcn communal laith will nccd to mutatc in ordcr to rcmain adaptivc. Nictzschcs insight,
thcn, an insight which somc might rcgard as tragic, is that a hcalthy socicty cxists al.ays
in a statc ol dynamic tcnsion. Morc or lcss opcn and morc or lcss acutc tcnsion bctwccn
thc lorccs ol rclorm and rcaction docs not rcprcscnt a tcmporary, social mallunction but
is, rathcr, an csscntial condition ol communal hcalth. Tcrc is no paradisc at thc cnd ol
history in which all conict will bc washcd away. Vc must rcconcilc oursclvcs to thc ctcrnal
rccurrcncc ol war and pcacc.
8+
Te Way We Are Now
T
hc sccond stagc in Nictzschcs ccntral argumcnt is to apply this gcncral thcory to our
currcnt condition. Tc most ccntral lact about Vcstcrn modcrnity is thc dcath ol
God rst ocially announccd in Te Gay Science.
8:
From onc point ol vicw this abandon
mcnt ol Christian bclicl is to bc wclcomcd with opcn arms. For Christianity produccd an
unhappy humanity. Unlikc thc Grccks, who gildcd and dcicd all things human,
8
Chris
tianity produccd (as many pictorial rcprcscntations ol our cxpulsion lrom thc Gardcn ol
dcn makc clcar) a humanity lundamcntally ashamcd ol itscll.
8
And this madc us not
only unhappy but also dangcrous. 8y tcaching us scllhatrcd, it disposcd us to hatclul action
towards othcrs.
8
Tis is thc lamiliar aspcct ol Nictzschcs rcaction to thc sccularisation ol uropcan socicty.
Lcss oltcn noticcd, howcvcr, is his kccn scnsc ol thc do.nside ol Gods dcath. Vhatcvcr its
dccicncics, Christianity did providc a univcrsally binding laith that prcscrvcd uropcan
culturc lor two thousand ycars. 8ut now it has gonc, lcaving us in a laithlcss condition. !n
thc modcrn Vcst, whcrc lrcc spirits (ol thc sccond rank) havc bccomc thc rulc rathcr than
thc cxccption, thc lack ol a socially binding laith mcans that it is with littlc condcncc
that onc may spcak ol thc luturc ol humanity.
86
!n 8ook Fivc, lorcsccing thc dcath ol
God as lcading to thc collapsc ol our cntirc uropcan morality, Nictzschc sccms to havc
a prcmonition ol thc twcnticth ccnturys world wars and cvcn ol nuclcar war.
8
Modcrnity, thcn, is in a statc ol dccay, corruption: thc old laith has gonc, lcaving us with
a chaos ol sccondrank lrcc spirits cach pursuing a privatc cgotism. Yct thcrc is no rcason to
bccomc cntircly downcast, lor among thc lrcc spirits thcrc arc likcly to bc thc sccdbcarcrs
ol thc luturc: corruption, altcr all, is just a rudc word lor thc autumn ol a pcoplc.
88
Vhat
kind ol luturc should wc hopc lor lrom thcsc sccdbcarcrs:
!n thc lamous passagc in which thc madman (who is, ol coursc, lar lrommad) announccs
not only that God is dcad but also that wc modcrns havc murdcrcd him with our human
and natural scicnccs, hc gocs on to say that wc must atonc lor thc dccd.
8
Tc gcncral thcory
ol cultural hcalth cxplains this immcdiatcly: what wc must atonc lor is thc dcstruction ol
our communityprcscrving laith. And thc only way wc can do that is by providing a ncw
laith, onc that will both bc adaptcd to thc conditions ol modcrnity and will producc a
happicr brccd ol humanity than its Christian prcdcccssor. Tis is thc task Nictzschc assigns
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
to his choscn rcadcrs. Sincc a ncw laith can only comc lrom crcativc lrcc spirits, Nictzschcs
madman is inlorming thc choscn oncs ol thcir lundamcntal task in lilc.
8ut what arc wc supposcd to undcrstand by laith: How closc to thc traditional rcligious
mcaning ol thc word is what hc has in mind: And what contcnt docs hc havc in mind lor
thc ncw laith that is to rcplacc thc dcad laith ol Christianity: To answcr thcsc qucstions wc
nccd to turn, oncc morc, to Nictzschcs gazc into his hopcdlor luturc.
Nietzsches Future
N
ictzschcs madmcn says that thc only way wc can atonc lor thc dcstruction ol Chris
tianity is by thc construction ol ncw lcstivals and sacrcd gamcs.
o
Tis points to two
lcaturcs ol thc hopcdlor luturc. First, that Nictzschcs usc ol laith is not at all lar rcmovcd
lrom rcligion, whcrc thc hcart ol any rcligion is takcn to bc thc lcstivc gathcring ol a com
munity in a sacrcd placc in armativc rccollcction ol its conccption ol thc right way to
livc. Sccond, that thc ncw laith will bc inspircd by Grcccc lor thc sacrcd gamcs arc, ol
coursc, thc lympics, thc lcstivc occasion dcdicatcd to Zcus.
!n short, thcrclorc, wc havc rcturncd yct again to thc rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy thcmc and
to thc Vagncrian ideal. Tough thc thought that Vagncrs own art might rcdccm thc Vcst
is by now, ol coursc, complctcly rcjcctcd thc last thing wc nccd is thc art ol intoxication, ol
hashishsmoking and bctclchcwing
+
thc Vagncrian qucst to rcdccm thc Vcst lrom its
currcnt dccadcncc through a rcanimation ol thc Grcck lcstival rcmains Nictzschcs guiding
star, as it will until thc cnd ol his thinking.
:
Vhat wc know, thcn, is, rst, that thc luturc socicty lor which Nictzschcs sclcct band
ol rcadcrs arc to work will (likc, in this rcspcct, thc Christian socicty ol thc past) nd its
unilying hcart in a ncw laith, a laith that will bc a union ol rcligion and morality and bc
ccntrcd upon thc sacrcd lcstival. And sccond, thc rclcrcncc to thc Grccks as a guiding idcal
tclls us that, though thc ncw rcligion may havc structural and institutional similaritics to
thc mcdicval Church, in tcrms ol contcnt it will bc uttcrly dicrcnt: in placc ol Christian
vilication, it will bc a cclcbration ol thc human that will hclp crcatc a humanity that is
oncc again lrcc lrom guilt and scllhatrcd. 8oth thcsc points arc summcd up in a cryptic
but important notcbook cntry ol thc pcriod:
!nsolar as wc dont nccd morality any morc wc dont nccd rcligion cithcr. Tc ! lovc |thc
Christian| God thc only old lorm ol thc rcligious is translormcd into thc lovc ol an
idcal has bccomc crcativc purc GodMcn. Morality is ncccssary: lor what should wc
act, and act wc must: Vhatcvcr wc havc donc wc must cvaluatc . . . Morality is a condition
ol lilc, You should.

(Noticc that this notc dcploys rst thc pcjorativc (p. o abovc) and thcn thc nonpcjorativc
scnsc ol morality.)

Furthcr claboration ol thc hopcdlor rcligious lcstival occurs in Te Gay Sciences discussion
ol art. Alluding to thc lact that virtually all art prior to thc modcrn pcriod was morc or lcss
immcdiatcly rcligious art, Nictzschc writcs:
Te Gay Science

:
Vhat do all our art ol artworks mattcr il wc losc that highcr art, thc art ol lcstivals!
Formcrly, all artworks wcrc displaycd on thc grcat lcstival road ol humanity as commcm
orations ol high and happy momcnts. Now onc uscs artworks to lurc poor, cxhaustcd and
sick human bcings to . . . a littlc intoxication and madncss.

Tc art ol thc luturc must, thcn, bc associatcd with thc ncwlaith. Sincc thc artists ol whom
Nictzschc approvcs constantly glorily thcy do nothing clsc, thcy hclp crcatc thc laith ol
thc luturc.

Roughly spcaking, as thc Apollonian artists ol Grcccc gloricd thcir gods and
hcrocs and thc Christian artists thcir saints and martyrs, so thc art ol thc luturc will crcatc
picturcs onc can livc by,
6
rolc modcls who will collcctivcly cmbody thc ncw laith. As wc
saw Nictzschc putting it in Human, ll-Too-Human (p. :6 abovc), thc art ol thc luturc
will imaginativcly dcvclop a bcautilul imagc ol man, which it will clcvatc to thc status ol
a modcl, and in so doing, through thc cxcitation ol cnvy and cmulation, hclp crcatc thc
luturc.
Te Gay Science placcs grcat cmphasis on thc powcr ol art: its solt powcr, its powcr to
crcatc lccling, thought, and action not by cocrcion but by attraction. Somctimcs this powcr
is a mattcr ol suspicion: thc pocts tcll many lics but gct away with it on account ol thc
powcr ol poctic rhctoric to disablc rcason.

vcrwhclmingly, though, Nictzschcs vicw is

that thc powcr ol art is an csscntial ingrcdicnt in thc cstablishmcnt ol thc ncw lcstival.
Abovc all thc rphic powcr ol music:
! am thirsting lor a mastcr composcr said an innovator to his disciplc who can lcarn my
thoughts lrom mc and hcrcaltcr spcak thcm in his languagc: in that way ! will bcttcr pcn
ctratc into pcoplcs cars and hcarts. Vith toncs onc can scducc pcoplc into cvcry crror and
cvcry truth: who could rclutc a tonc: So you would likc to bc considcrcd irrclutablc: said
his disciplc. Tc innovator rcplicd: ! wish lor thc sprout to bccomc a trcc. For a tcaching
to bccomc a trcc, it has to bc bclicvcd lor a good whilc, lor it to bc bclicvcd, it has to bc
considcrcd irrclutablc . . .
8
Tc rcason thc ncw laith and lcstival is csscntially dcpcndcnt on thc powcr ol art in
gcncral and music in particular is not hard to nd. Sincc God is dcad, sincc lcar ol hcll and
hopc ol hcavcn no longcr cxist, thc morality that crcatcs and prcscrvcs a community can no
longcr dcrivc its powcr and authority lrom a supcrnatural judgc and moralitycnlorccr. So
thc morality ol thc ncw laith must nd a ncw sourcc ol authority. No longcr ablc to basc
itscll on thc hard powcr ol thrcat and rcward, it must turn to solt powcr powcr without
cocrcion thc powcr ol art.
Nictzschcs notion ol a ncw laith sustaincd and cmpowcrcd by (in Vagncrs still cntircly
appropriatc languagc) thc artwork ol thc luturc, a laith and art which rcplaccs Christian
dcnigration ol thc human with Grcck dcication, sounds vcry abstract. 8ut actually it vcry
much anticipatcs thc spirit ol thc carly twcnticth ccntury. To gain a notion ol a laith and
art inspircd by somcthing likc Nictzschcan idcas onc only has to think ol thc glorication
ol soldicrs, workcrs, and larmcrs in thc Sovict art ol thc carly twcnticth ccntury thc
laith in qucstion incorporating thc cvcntual arrival ol thc communist utopia, a laith which
also inspircd Fcrnand Lcgcrs monumcntal swimmcrs and cyclists. r, to changc laiths,
onc might think ol Lcni Riclcnstahls Aryanhumanityglorilying lms ol thc Nurcmbcrg
lcstival and thc sacrcd gamcs ol +6.

(Tough thc Nazi appropriation ol Nictzschc was

:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
an abysmal pcrvcrsion ol his thought, onc nccds, noncthclcss, to acknowlcdgc thc gcnuinc
similaritics and continuitics bctwccn him and thcm, lor othcrwisc it bccomcs incxplicablc
how and why thc appropriation occurrcd.)

As wcll as a communal laith, lct us rccall, a hcalthy socicty (unlikc Nazism) also harbours,
nurturcs cvcn, thc countcrvailing lorcc ol (crcativc) lrccspiritcdncss, so that, as thc old
laith bccomcs nonadaptivc, it posscsscs at lcast thc hopc ol modilying its way ol lilc in
ordcr to mcct altcrcd conditions. Tis gcncratcs thc sccond aspcct ol Nictzschcs vision ol
a hcalthicr luturc.
Scction : ol Te Gay Science sums up thc critiquc ol modcrnity wc havc sccn running
through all Nictzschcs prcvious works. Tc Amcricans, Nictzschc rcccts, abovc all
strivc lor gold, and thcir brcathlcss hastc in working . . . is alrcady sprcading to thc old
uropc . . . Alrcady onc is ashamcd ol kccping still, long rccction almost givcs pcoplc a
bad conscicncc. nc thinks with a watch in hand, as onc cats lunch with an cyc on thc
nancial pagcs . . . all lorms arc bcing dcstroycd by thc hastc ol thc workcrs . . . onc no longcr
has timc and cncrgy lor ccrcmony . . . morc and morc it is work that gcts all good conscicncc
on its sidc, thc dcsirc lor joy alrcady calls itscll thc nccd to rccupcratc . . . onc owcs it to
oncs hcalth that is what onc says whcn caught on an cxcursion in thc countrysidc. Soon
wc may wcll rcach thc point whcrc onc cannot givc in to thc dcsirc lor a .ita contemplati.a
|contcmplativc lilc| (that is, taking a walk with idcas and lricnds) . . .
+oo
Tc last linc is thc punch linc. For thc most scrious dangcr poscd by Amcrican hastc is thc
dcstruction ol contcmplation.
Tc rcason this is thc grcatcst dangcr is that it is thc contcmplativc typcs ol human bcing
(in othcr words, thc crcativc lrcc spirits) who crcatc thc possibility ol a ncw luturc:
Highcr human bcings distinguish thcmsclvcs lrom thc lowcr by . . . thoughtlully sccing and
hcaring immcasurably morc . . . Tc highcr human bcing . . . calls his naturc contcmplativc
and thcrcby ovcrlooks thc lact that hc is also thc actual poct and ongoing author ol lilc. To
bc surc, hc dicrs grcatly lrom thc actor ol this drama, thc socallcd man ol action, but hc
is cvcn lcss likc a mcrc spcctator and lcstival visitor in lront ol thc stagc. As thc poct, hc
ccrtainly posscsscs .is comtemplati.a |contcmplativc powcr| . . . but thc samc timc and abovc
all .is creati.a |crcativc powcr| which thc man ol action lacks, whatcvcr appcaranccs and
univcrsal bclicl may say. !t is wc, thc thinkingrcccptivc oncs, who rcally and continually
makc somcthing that is not yct thcrc: thc wholc pcrpctually growing world ol valuations,
colours, wcights, pcrspcctivcs, scalcs, armations and ncgations. Tis pocm that wc havc
invcntcd is constantly intcrnaliscd, drillcd, translatcd into csh and rcality, indccd into thc
commonplacc, by thc socallcd practical human bcings (our actors) . . . but wc havc crcatcd
thc world . . .
+o+
Tis vision ol thc contcmplativc, crcativc lrcc spirit as thc playwright who crcatcs thc script
wc othcrs thcn livc out sounds thc vcry Gcrman thcmc ol geistige F uhrung |spiritual lcad
crship|, ol bcing thc spiritual shcphcrd ol thc hcrd.
+o:
Contrary to appcaranccs, thc rcal
lcadcrs arc thosc among us who arc thinkcrs rathcr than actors but arc yct (lar lrom bcing
hcadinthcclouds prolcssors) rcccptivc to thc rcalitics ol thcir world. Tc rcal lcadcrs, in
Te Gay Science


othcr words, arc thosc who arc, in thc broadcst possiblc scnsc ol thc word, philosophcrs.
Truc lcadcrship, Nictzschc plausibly holds, is spiritualintcllcctual lcadcrship: in Zarathus-
tras bcautilul words, thoughts that comc on dovcs lcct dircct thc world.
+o
Changcs
to common valuations and opinions happcn through individuals powcrlul, inucn
tial . . . who announcc . . . thcir hoc est ridiculum, hoc est absurdum |this is ridiculous, this is
absurd|.
+o
Hcncc a thcmc that gocs back to thc +8: lccturcs, On the Future of Our Edu-
cational Institutions (scc pp. +: abovc) il wc kill thc spiritualintcllcctual lilc by, lor
cxamplc, turning univcrsitics into mcrc training schools lor thc lilc ol work, thcn wc kill thc
possibility ol thcrc bcing cducators who will lcad us towards a morc succcsslul rcsponsc to
thc changing world wc nd oursclvcs inhabiting.

To avoid this latc, our ncw culturc must

bc organiscd so as to combat hastc and thc ovcrvaluation ol work, production, and prot.
!t must bc organizcd so as to lostcr thc contcmplativc lilc lor thosc who arc suitcd to it.
Architccturc and gardcning, lor cxamplc, must nurturc contcmplation:
nc day, and probably soon, wc will nccd somc rccognition ol what is missing primarily
in our big citics: quict and widc, cxpansivc placcs lor rccction placcs with long, high
ccilingcd arcadcs lor bad or alltoosunny wcathcr |as in Gcnoa or Turin|, whcrc no shouts
or noisc lrom carriagcs can pcnctratc . . . a wholc complcx ol buildings and sitcs that would
givc cxprcssion to thc sublimity ol contcmplation and ol stcpping asidc . . . Vc want to havc
us translatcd into stonc and plants, wc want to takc walks in us whcn wc stroll through thcsc
hallways and gardcns.
+o

Nictzschcs luturc socicty valucs spiritual lcadcrship. 8ut lcadcrship, or what hc will call
rankordcring, is a principlc that pcrmcatcs all aspccts ol social lilc lor cxamplc, rcla
tions bctwccn mcn and womcn. To this cnd hc gocs to considcrablc lcngths to makc thc
point that thc corrclativc ol lcadcrship, subordination, is not thc samc as opprcssion. Nictz
schcs undcrlying thcsis, hcrc, is thc obvious truth that pcoplc arc dicrcnt, that thcrc is
no such thing as hcalth |or happincss| as such, that onc pcrsons mcat may bc anothcrs
poison.
+o6
Somc pcoplc dcrivc joy lrom lcadcrship, but in many othcrs thcrc is a drivc
to submit which rcsults in thcir cxpcricncing a positivc joy in bccoming a lunction ol
somconc clsc.
+o
Many womcn, lor cxamplc, cxhibit
a surplus ol strcngth and plcasurc in wanting to bccomc a lunction, thcy prcss towards and
havc thc most dclicatc scnsc lor all placcs whcrc prcciscly thcy can bc a lunction. Hcrc
bclong thosc womcn who turn thcmsclvcs into somc lunction ol a man that is cspccially
wcakly dcvclopcd in him, and to that cxtcnt bccomc his pursc, or his politics, or his so
ciability.
+o8
(Almost ccrtainly, hc is thinking, hcrc, ol Cosima Vagncr. n hcaring ol Richards dcath hc
wrotc hcr that shc could bc proud ol having madc cvcry sacricc lor him.)
+o
l coursc,
thc csscntial condition ol a nonopprcssivc rclation ol lcading and lollowing is that thc

!mplicit in Nictzschcs philosophy ol cducation is, ! think, a plca lor thc lunding ol what wc would
now call blucsky rcscarch in thc broadcst scnsc ol thc phrasc. bviously, il all rcscarch is ticd to
currcnt goals, thcrc is no possibility ol opcning up ncw goals, cithcr tcchnical or cultural. Talcntcd
rcscarchcrs nccd to bc allowcd to lollow thcir noscs whcrcvcr thcy may lcad.
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lcadcrs should lcgitimisc thcmsclvcs in thc cycs ol thc lcd. Tus, whcrcas thc lactory owncr
is mostly sccn by his workcrs as nothing but a cunning bloodsucking dog ol a man, thc
military lcadcr is oltcn trcatcd with rcspcct. Tc crucial point is that thc lcadcr should havc
somc kind ol nobility, should appcar to bc ol a highcr racc than thc lcd. Tc masscs arc
basically prcparcd to submit to any kind ol slavcry providcd that thc supcriors constantly
lcgitimizc thcmsclvcs as highcr, as born to command, through rcncd dcmcanour.
++o
Nictzschcs cxamplcs, hcrc, may bc dubious. Tc rcason talcntcd womcn ol Nictzschcs
timc usually madc thcmsclvcs a mans lunction almost always lay, not in an innatc dis
position to lollow rathcr than lcad, but simply in thc lact that, dcnicd lormal cducation
and so thc possibility ol an indcpcndcnt incomc, thc culturc ol thc timc lclt thcm no othcr
choicc. Yct thc point Nictzschc is making, that subordination is not thc samc as opprcs
sion, is surcly corrcct. Tc captain ol thc lootball tcam (mostly) docs not opprcss thosc hc
lcads, and ncithcr docs thc lcadcr ol a string quartct. (Tat Michcl Foucault thinks that
subordination always implics opprcssion suggcsts that hc ncvcr playcd lootball or bclongcd
to a string quartct.) Tat Nictzschcs luturc socicty will contain lcadcrs and lollowcrs ol all
sorts in provocativc languagc mastcrs and slavcs is not in itscll an objcction to it. And
hc may in lact bc right that a socicty with a rank ordcring is typically happicr than onc
without. As Alcxis dc Tocqucvillc pointcd out in his obscrvations on Amcrica a point
latcr rccyclcd by Alain dc 8otton whcn oncs station in socicty is oncs station lor lilc onc
is at lcast lrcc ol status anxicty.
Life as an Artwork
M
any ol thc morc cclcbratcd passagcs ol Te Gay Science discuss individual rathcr than
social lilc which has givcn risc to thc widcly acccptcd intcrprctation ol Nictzschc
as an clitist and individualistic philosophcr conccrncd with thc wcllbcing ol a lcw, sclcct
individuals but unconccrncd with thc wcllbcing ol socicty as a wholc.
Tcrc is no dcnying that thc work contains a strong individualistic clcmcnt: much ol
thc timc Nictzschc is conccrncd to tcll his choscn rcadcrs not what kind ol luturc socicty
to work lor but how to livc lulllcd, happy livcs hcrc and now. At thc samc timc, howcvcr,
it nccds to bc rcmcmbcrcd that his choscn rcadcrs arc thc crcativc lrcc spirits, thc potcntial
sccdbcarcrs and coloniscrs ol thc luturc. Tis is why hc strcsscs thc uniqucncss ol his rcad
crs, why hc says, to rcpcat, that wc want to bccomc ncw, uniquc, incomparablc,
+++
i.c.,
cmbodimcnts ol ncw, and potcntially communitysaving, lilc lorms. (Had hc bccn writing
a scllhclp book lor that grcat majority whosc happincss is bcst scrvcd by bccoming instru
mcnts ol communal morality hc would havc omittcd all talk ol uniqucncss.) So thcrc must
bc a conncxion bctwccn thc advicc to his rcadcrs on how to bccomc happy and thc com
munal conccrns that arc ultimatcly most important to him.
Tc conncxion, ! think, lics in thc idca ol cxcmplication or modclling an idca which
undcrlics Nictzschcs pcrsistcnt dcsirc to sct up a colony lor lrcc spirits (as wcll as, in
many cascs, undcrlying thc gcncral attcmpt by ninctccnthccntury Gcrmans to sct up lit
cral colonics in laraway placcs). Nictzschcs choscn rcadcrs arc, that is, prcparatory human
bcings whom hc calls signs ol a highcr lorm ol human cxistcncc. Hc says and hcrc wc
scc, oncc morc, his anity with thc lilcrclorm movcmcnt (pp. :6 abovc) that thcy
must bccomc human bcings with thcir own lcstivals, thcir own working days, thcir own
Te Gay Science


pcriods ol mourning . . . morc lruitlul, happicr human bcings.
++:
Tcy must also posscss
a scllsucicncy that ovcrows and communicatcs to mcn and things.
++
Vhat this
amounts to, ! think, is thc idca that just as art glamoriscs and so cmpowcrs ncw lilc lorms
by cxciting cnvy and cmulation (p. :6 abovc), so too will thc livcs ol thc crcativc lrcc
spirits. Tcy will bccomc our cducators, inspirational rolc modcls ol thc ncw culturc. 8ut
ol coursc thcy can only do that il thcy radiatc a manilcst hcalth and happincss. (nc might
think, hcrc, ol how thc alai Lamas own radiant pcrsonality is by lar thc bcst advcrtisc
mcnt lor his tcaching.) !n short, thcn, thc discussion ol individual happincss is, ! think,
intcgratcd altcr all into Nictzschcs ovcrriding social conccrns. Tc happincss cxcmplicd
by his choscn prcparatory human bcings is an important mcans ol bringing thc ncwculturc
into cxistcncc. How, thcn, arc Nictzschcs choscn rcadcrs to bccomc happy:

As wc saw in thc prcvious chaptcr, thc scll is not somcthing wc simply discovcr. Rathcr it
has to bc crcatcd: not crcatcd lrom scratch, but crcatcd by sculpting, pruning, gardcning,
or landscaping thc sct ol drivcs which are things wc simply discovcr oursclvcs to havc
(pp. o abovc). !n ordcr, thcrclorc, to bccomc a happy pcrson wc havc rst to sculpt
thc pcrson wc arc to bc. Da.n, as wc saw, ocrcd somc advicc on scllsculpting. Te Gay
Science claboratcs on its account. Tc hcart ol what it adds is thc idca ol making oncs lilc
into an artwork.
To sculpt oursclvcs into gcnuinc pcrsons, Nictzschc writcs, wc must lcarn lrom artists
but bc wiscr than thcy arc. For whcrcas thcir dclicatc powcrs usually stop whcrc art cnds
and lilc bcgins stcrcotypically, grcat artists livc mcssy livcs wc want to bccomc pocts ol
our livcs.
++
Vhat onc nccds to lcarn lromartists, and cspccially thosc ol thc thcatrc, is to scc oncscll
simplicd and transgurcd in ordcr to rccognisc thc hcro that is conccalcd in cvcryday
charactcrs. As a skillul novclist or playwright sclccts and displays cvcnts so as to build
up a cohcrcnt and bclicvablc portrait ol thc charactcr who is thc works hcro (lizabcth
8cnnctt, Hcnry \), so wc nccd to tcll oursclvcs thc story ol our lilc in such a way as to rcvcal
thc hcro that wc dccidc to bc. To do this, wc nccd to lcarn lrom artists how to obscrvc
oursclvcs lrom a distancc as somcthing past and wholc, lor othcrwisc wc arc nothing but
lorcground.
++
Mostly, that is, wc arc so closc up to our livcs that wc miss thc wood on account ol thc
trccs. Particularly in bustling modcrnity, our livcs rush lrom onc incidcnt to thc ncxt thc
rcport that was supposcd to bc on thc managcrs dcsk last wcck, thc brcaklast quarrcl with
oncs spousc, oncs childs bad bchaviour at school, thc ovcrdralt at thc bank, thc shopping
nccdcd lor dinncr, thc train lor which onc is alrcady latc with thc rcsult that thcy arc
nothing than a succcssion ol incidcnts with no ovcrarching thcmc. To bccomc a cohcrcnt
scll wc nccd lcss action and morc rccction: lor a timc, at lcast wc nccd thc .ita contemplati.a
(pp. :6o, +: abovc).
A concrctc cxamplc makcs Nictzschcs thought casicr to grasp. Lct us imaginc Gauguin,
a succcsslul Paris stockbrokcr but also a paintcr. His lilc is a miscrablc and conluscd jumblc
ol incidcnts dcvoid ol ovcrall cohcrcncc. To dctcrminc who is to bc thc hcro ol his lilc,
hc nccds to distancc himscll lrom all its incidcnts, lcarn thc art ol putting |himscll | on
thc stagc,
++6
and dccidc on his lilc story. Hc has (to simplily lor thc sakc ol illustration)
two options. According to thc rst story hc is a paintcr ol gcnius who, through a cowardly
attachmcnt to bourgcois comlorts and constraints, has so lar lailcd to livc thc lilc hc rcally
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
wants, has lailcd to livc up to thc Nictzschcan injunction to bccomc who you arc.
++
A
sccond story (thc onc that in rcal lilc, ol coursc, hc rcjcctcd) is that hc is a brilliant manip
ulator ol nancial markcts who has bccn making himscll miscrablc with romantic dcsircs
lor thc bohcmian lilc ol a paintcr lor which hc has a minor but unrcmarkablc talcnt. Noticc
that cach story tclls Gauguin ho. to go on. Tc rcsult ol committing himscll to onc story
or thc othcr lcads to cohcrcnt and dccisivc action. Tc conscqucncc ol lailing to makc any
choicc is to rcmain a victim ol circumstancc, to rcmain a mcrc locus ol incidcnts rathcr than
an authcntic, tangiblc pcrson.
l coursc, bcing a litcrary hcro is not cvcrything. Lady Macbcth, Richard !!!, and Lcar
arc all hcrocs in thc scnsc ol bcing ccntral charactcrs, but sincc thc aim is to bccomc a
happy pcrson, somcthing morc than bccoming a cohcrcnt scll is rcquircd. nc nccds to like
thc lilc onc had dccidcd to narratc, thc pcrson onc has dccidcd to bc.
Likc, ol coursc, is much too wcak a word lor Nictzschc. For him, to lully match up to
thc idcal ol happincss onc must lo.e oncs lilc, lovc it ecstatically, lovc, indccd, e.erything
about it. Nictzschcs Ncw Ycars rcsolution lor +88:, which, as notcd, bcgins 8ook !\ ol
Te Gay Science, rcads:
! want to lcarn morc and morc how to scc what is ncccssary in things as bcautilul. mor
fati |lovc ol latc|: lct that bc my lovc lrom now on! ! do not want to wagc war against
uglincss . . . Lct looking away bc my only ncgation! . . . somc day ! want only to bc a Ycs
saycr!
++8
Sincc all thc lacts in oncs lilc arc ncccssary in thc scnsc that, bcing past, thcy arc unal
tcrablc, idcal happincss consists in loving absolutcly cvcrything that onc had donc and had
happcncd to onc. And what this mcans sincc cvcn a singlc ncgation is a lailurc ol amor
fati is, in a word, that onc nccds to bc ablc to lovc thc ctcrnal rcturn. Supposc, Nictzschc
asks, a dcmon wcrc to whispcr in your car that
this lilc as you now livc it and havc livcd it you will havc to livc oncc again and innumcrablc
timcs again, and thcrc will bc nothing ncw in it, but cvcry pain and cvcry joy and cvcry
thought and sigh and cvcrything unspcakably small or grcat in your lilc must rcturn to
you cvcn this spidcr and this moonlight bctwccn thc trccs, and cvcn this momcnt and !
myscll,
would you throw yourscll down and gnash your tccth and cursc thc dcmon or, on thc con
trary, could you say, You arc a god and ncvcr havc ! hcard anything morc divinc:
++
nly
il you arc capablc ol thc lattcr rcsponsc, according to Nictzschcs stringcnt critcrion, do you
match up to thc idcal ol happincss.
How on carth could anyonc lovc e.erything in thcir lilc: Surcly, though most ol us
would bc willing to livc thc broad outlinc ol our livcs oncc again, wc can all think ol cpi
sodcs thc dcath ol a child, thc brokcn marriagc, thc timc onc lccturcd lor a wholc hour,
only rcalising at thc cnd that oncs zip was undonc wc would rathcr cxcisc lromour sccond
lilc: Surcly wc can all rcmcmbcr things in our livcs wc would rathcr, in our sccond lilc, ccn
sor out, ncgatc:
nc thing wc nccd to lcarn lrom thosc pianists who arc (likc himscll ) mastcrs ol impro
visation, says Nictzschc, is thc ability to incorporatc what in most hands would bc a bad
Te Gay Science


mistakc into thc bcauty ol thc wholc.
+:o
Vc must, that is, havc thc cxibility to modulatc
our lilcnarrativc in thc lacc ol ncw cxigcncics. At any point in our livcs wc must, that is,
dcploy our skill in intcrprcting and arranging cvcnts our litcrary skill in constructing
thc hcro ol our livcs to cnablc us to discovcr, as it wcrc, a pcrsonal providcncc running
through thcm. Vc nccd to bc ablc to show how
cvcrything that bclalls us continually turns out lor thc bcst. vcry day and cvcry hour lilc
sccms to want nothing clsc than to provc this proposition again and again, bc it what it
may bad or good wcathcr, thc loss ol a lricnd, a sickncss, slandcr, thc abscncc ol a lcttcr,
thc spraining ol an anklc, a glancc into a shop, a countcrargumcnt, thc opcning ol a book,
a drcam, a lraud it shows itscll immcdiatcly or vcry soon to bc somcthing that must not
bc missing,
+:+
as, in othcr words, an csscntial part ol a lilcnarrativc wc can wish to rccur lor cvcr and
cvcr. l coursc, narrating oncs lilc so that thcrc is nothing onc would prclcr to bc without
is casicr said than donc. 8ut thc onc Nictzschc linc known to almost cvcryonc what docs
not kill mc makcs mc strongcr
+::
indicatcs onc important tcchniquc: wc nccd to havc
turncd, or bc condcnt wc will turn, a traumatic cvcnt into a lcarning or, in somc othcr
way, growth cxpcricncc.
Tis thcn dcsiring thc ctcrnal rcturn, i.c., amor fati is Nictzschcs idcal ol happincss.
Guiding our attcmpt to sculpt our livcs into a unitary scll is thc rcquircmcnt that cvcrything
that happcns to us cvcrything wc remember happcning to us turns out lor thc bcst. l
coursc, lcw il any ol us match up to thc idcal Nictzschc himscll did not, not at lcast in
January, +88:, sincc amor fati was mcrcly his Ncw Ycars resolution. Tat, howcvcr, is no
criticism ol thc idcal: it is thc naturc ol idcals that pcoplc almost always lall short ol thcm.
Nictzschcs thought, prcsumably, is that thc lcwcr thc cpisodcs in our livcs which rcmain
as undigcstcd traumas, thc closcr wc comc to thc idcal, thc happicr wc bccomc.
Reality, Truth, and Knowledge
A
numbcr ol passagcs in Te Gay Science conccrn thc traditional, big thcorctical qucs
tions ol what thcrc is and what wc can know. nc passagc, lor instancc, though crit
ical ol many aspccts ol his philosophy, rclcrs to Schopcnhaucrs immortal |i.c., timclcssly
truc| doctrinc ol thc intcllcctuality ol intuition . . . and thc instrumcntal naturc ol thc intcl
lcct.
+:
All our cxpcricncc is ltcrcd through thc intcllcct, ltcrcd in a way that is gcarcd
is instrumcntal to practical cnds. Schopcnhaucr thought thcrc was just onc cnd, namcly
survival, but Nictzschc is morc sophisticatcd: hc rccogniscs that wc havc many drivcs and
that cach ol thcm prcscnts a oncsidcd vicw ol rcality,
+:
a oncsidcd pcrspcctivc
+:
on
thc world: thc building that shows up to thc condcmncd man as thc housc ol dcath may
show up to thc criminologist as a school lor crimc and to thc architcctural historian as a
nc cxamplc ol latcninctccnthccntury Gothic.
Nictzschc rcjccts thc idca that bchind thc various ways in which thc world appcars lics, as
an unknown X, a thing in itscll .
+:6
Kantian idcalism is dcnitivcly rcjcctcd. ur various
worldappcaranccs arc not drcams: thcy arc not lalsc prcscntations ol rcality in thc way
that drcams arc lalsc prcscntations. 8ut ncithcr, on thc othcr hand, can wc privilcgc any

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
onc pcrspcctivc as uniqucly truc, particularly not that ol thc sobcr scicntic rcalist who
claims that bclorc |natural scicncc| alonc rcality stands unvcilcd.
+:
Tcrc is no pcrspcctivc
on thc world that uniqucly capturcs thc truth about it.
Tis lcavcs us with two possiblc ways ol undcrstanding Nictzschcs position. Tc rst
possibility is that hc subscribcs to what in thc last chaptcr ! callcd postmodcrnism: wc
havc numcrous world intcrprctations scrving dicrcnt practical purposcs, but thc idca that
any ol thcm could corrcspond to rcality makcs no scnsc. ur world intcrprctations cannot
bc lalsc to rcality, but ncithcr can thcy bc truc to it. Tc sccond possibility, which ! shall
call plural rcalism,
+:8
is that Nictzschc, likc Spinoza, thinks ol rcality as multiaspcctcd,
so that dicrcnt pcrspcctivcs rcvcal truly rcvcal dicrcnt aspccts ol it. ach ol thcm
rcvcals a truth though nonc rcvcals the truth. Tc building bclorc mc may bc thc housc ol
dcath and a school lor crimc and a nc cxamplc ol ncoGothic architccturc. l coursc, thcrc
arc somc things thc building almost ccrtainly is not: an alicn scttlcmcnt or a lm sct, lor
instancc. Howwould wc rulc thcsc dcscriptions to bc lalsc: Nictzschc spcaks ol thc sublimc
consistcncy and intcrrclatcdncss ol all knowlcdgc,
+:
which suggcsts thc lollowing idca. Tc
pcrspcctivcs ol thc condcmncd man, thc criminologist, and thc architcctural historian all
cohere with cach othcr: collcctivcly thcy hclp build up a cohcrcnt and roundcd picturc ol thc
objcct. 8ut thc idca that it is a lm sct or an alicn scttlcmcnt almost ccrtainly fails to cohcrc
with this rclativcly roundcd picturc. And so wc should dccidc that it is vcry probably lalsc.
Te Gay Sciences discussion ol truth and knowlcdgc takcs placc on a lcvcl ol high mcta
phor which makcs it hard to dccidc whcthcr it subscribcs to postmodcrnism or plural rcal
ism. My own inclination is to rcad Nictzschc as a plural rcalist, though it is possiblc that
hc was, at this stagc, not cntircly clcar in his own mind as to what his position was. Tc
issuc will rccur whcn wc comc to discuss thc Genealogy of Morals writtcn ncar thc cnd ol his
carccr. Sincc our chicl intcrcst is in his nal position ! shall dclcr lurthcr discussion until
thcn.
nc nal point. Tc lorcgoing discussion ol truth and knowlcdgc has thc appcarancc ol
bcing disconncctcd lromwhat ! callcd thc main argumcnt, thc discussion ol thc lrcc spirits
rolc in promoting cultural hcalth. 8ut this, ! think, is not at all thc casc. For rcmcmbcr
that thc rolc ol thc lrcc spirit is to promotc cultural changc by providing ncw namcs and
valuations lor things.
+o
Tis is what, lor instancc, cnvironmcntal scicncc docs: what was
prcviously a lorcst as wcll as a supply ol timbcr acquircs thc ncw namc carbon sink,
an acquisition that powcrlully altcrs our valuation ol and bchaviour towards it. Cultural
changc, in othcr words, happcns through shilts in pcrspcctivc. Tis makcs it trcmcndously
important to Nictzschc to insist that our acccss to thc world is pcrspcctival, indccd that thcrc
arc indcnitcly many possiblc pcrspcctivcs on it.
++
Vcrc things to bc othcrwisc cultural
changc would bc impossiblc.
18
Te Salom e Aair
Iou Salom e

x ov about April :6, +88:, in St. Pctcrs 8asilica, Romc, Nictzschc kcpt an
appointmcnt with a young Russian who, bcautilul and brilliant, was to bc thc
causc ol thc most traumatic cvcnts ol his lilc and a signicant changc in his intcl
lcctual outlook. Tc mccting had bccn arrangcd by Paul R cc, who sat in a ncarby pcw,
prctcnding to rcad somc notcs but actually, lor rcasons that will bccomc apparcnt, kccp
ing a sharp cyc on procccdings. Tough thc Mcssina pocms suggcst thc intimation that its
coursc might not bc cntircly smooth, thcy also suggcst that Nictzschc was alrcady in lovc
with lovc, was rcady to bc rcscucd lrom his lilc ol solitudc. And so hc grcctcd hcr with an
ccho ol Fomeo and Juliet almost ccrtainly prcparcd bclorchand: what stars, hc askcd, havc
brought us hcrc togcthcr: (!n thc just complctcd Gay Science hc says larcwcll to Vagncr
with thc thought that dicrcnt stcllar orbits havc drawn thcm apart:
+
hcrc hc suggcsts thc
rcvcrsc.)
Tc rccipicnt ol this portcntous introductory linc was Lou Salom c (scc Platc :), at
twcntyonc clcvcn ycars youngcr than R cc and sixtccn ycars youngcr than Nictzschc.
Lou was thc daughtcr ol a 8altic Gcrman who, in thc proGcrman atmosphcrc ol latc
ninctccnthccntury St. Pctcrsburg (both Tsars Nicholas ! and Alcxandcr !! had Gcrman
wivcs and mothcrs), had riscn to thc rank ol gcncral in thc Tsars army. Shc lovcd hcr
handsomc lathcr as much as shc dctcstcd hcr anxiously bossy mothcr, Louisc, who, though
ol mainly Russian blood, was also, likc R cc, ol part Hugucnot dcsccnt.
8orn into a masculinc houschold thc youngcst ol six siblings, shc had vc cldcr
brothcrs Lou dcvclopcd charactcristics intclligcncc, rcsolutcncss, couragc, and clar
ity ol purposc that wcrc rcgardcd as mannish by thc standards ol thc day. Hcr mothcr,
whom shc lrcqucntly cxaspcratcd, callcd hcr stubborn and dctcrmincd to gct hcr own way
in cvcrything. R cc rclcrrcd to hcr as thc highcommanding Fr aulcin Lou, and Nictzschc
dcscribcd hcr as sharpcycd as a caglc and couragcous as a lion, though at thc samc timc
vcry maidcnly.
:
K osclitz callcd hcr hcroic ol charactcr, with a lacc takcn lrom ancicnt
Romc.

,
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
8orn into thc rcvolutionary timcs ol thc libcration ol thc scrls, Lou was dctcrmincd on
hcr own libcration lrom thc childrcnchurchkitchcn rolc that was thcn thc almost invari
ablc dcstiny ol womcn. Abovc all, shc was dctcrmincd to ovcrcomc thc dcnial to womcn
ol all but an clcmcntary cducation. Subjcct to carly rcligious doubts, shc rcluscd conrma
tion into thc Gcrman Rclormcd church, much to thc disappointmcnt ol hcr dying lathcr.
To compcnsatc, shc startcd attcnding scrmon dclivcrcd by thc ultralibcral Hcndrik Gillot,
pastor ol thc utch Rclormcd church in St. Pctcrsburg. Mcsmcriscd by his modcrniscd
thcism, shc lound in it an antidotc to thc incipicnt athcism ol thc Russian intclligcntsia.
At thc agc ol cightccn shc pcrsuadcd him to acccpt hcr as a pupil. As wcll as Frcnch and
Gcrman litcraturc, hc taught hcr astcrn rcligion and philosophy.
Gillot was twcntyvc ycars hcr scnior, with two daughtcrs ol almost hcr own agc. Tis
did not prcvcnt him lrom lalling in lovc with hcr, ocring to lcavc his wilc, and proposing
marriagc. Lou rcluscd. Tis cstablishcd thc pattcrn lor much ol thc rcst ol hcr lilc. Almost
cvcry man shc had any scrious contact with wantcd to marry hcr (or at lcast gct hcr into
his bcd), whcrcas what shc wantcd lrom thcm was intcllcctual stimulation without strings.
Lous passionatc dcsirc to cnjoy thc samc indcpcndcncc as mcn lcd hcr to rclusc cvcry
marriagc ocr. Shc kncw that marriagc cntailcd scx, which, in an agc without rcliablc con
traccption, cntailcd childrcn, which cntailcd imprisonmcnt in thc traditional lcmalc rolc.
!n hcr mcmoirs shc rccalls tclling R cc that hcr lovclilc was closcd lor thc duration ol |hcr|
lilc, a dccision to which shc was impcllcd by hcr complctcly unbridlcd thirst lor lrccdom.
vcn though, altcr passing out ol Nictzschcs lilc, shc cvcntually did marry thc linguist Carl
Fricdrich Andrcas (who in thc coursc ol thcir stormy cngagcmcnt stabbcd himscll in thc
chcst, just missing an artcry) shc did so only on thc condition that thc marriagc rcmaincd
cclibatc.
!n +88o, showing symptoms ol possiblc consumption, shc was allowcd, accompanicd by
hcr mothcr, to cscapc thc harsh Russian wintcr. Tcy scttlcd in Zurich whcrc shc gaincd pcr
mission to audit lccturcs on Hcgcl, Hinduism, Conlucianism, and thc prcSocratic Grcck
philosophcrs at thc Univcrsity. agcr to mcct Malwida von Mcyscnbug, whosc Memoirs of
a Female Idealist had madc hcr a hcroinc to womcn ol Lous cast ol mind, shc arrivcd in
Romc in Fcbruary, +88:, still chapcroncd by hcr mothcr. Shc bcgan to attcnd Malwidas
salon at thc \ia Polvcricra 6, hcld in hcr drawingroom, which lookcd out onto thc Colos
scum. Vhcn R cc arrivcd back lrom visiting Nictzschc in Gcnoa, having gamblcd away all
his moncy in Montc Carlo (p. : abovc), hc sccmcd rathcr dashing and lrccspiritcd
in comparison with, in Lous cycs, thc rathcr stuy, middlcagcd ladics ol Malwidas
circlc.
Nietzsche in Rome
!
nitially, R ccs intcrcst in Lou sccms to havc bccn purcly intcllcctual. !nsolar as hc thought
ol hcr in any dicrcnt way, hc sccms to havc had Nictzschc rathcr than himscll in mind.
A lcttcr (now lost) writtcn during his rst wcck in Romc causcd Nictzschc to rcply lrom
Gcnoa on March :+:
!l thcrc is any point, grcct thc Russian girl lor mc. ! havc bccn lusting |l ustern| altcr this
kind ol soul. !ndccd !m soon going on thc hunt lor it in vicw ol what ! havc planncd lor
Te Salom e air

,:
thc ncxt tcn ycars ! nccd it. 8ut marriagc is a complctcly dicrcnt mattcr ! could at most
agrcc to a twoycar marriagc, and this only in rclation to what ! havc to do in thc ncxt tcn
ycars.

Tis suggcsts that R cc rccommcndcd Lou as both an intclligcnt amanucnsis and as a pos
siblc luturc marriagc prospcct. Nictzschcs airy raising ol thc possibility ol taking hcr on as
a tcmporary, parttimc lovcr would soon havc catastrophic conscqucnccs.
Amonth latcr, on April :o, R cc proposcs a thrccway rathcr than a twoway rclationship.
Tc Russian, hc says, is
an cncrgctic, incrcdibly smart crcaturc with thc most pcculiar, cvcn childlikc, charactcr
istics . . . ! givc talks about my book |probably Te Genesis of Conscience| which hclps mc a
grcat dcal, sincc thc audicncc includcs thc young Russian who misscs nothing. Shc cvcn,
in an cxtrcmcly annoying lashion, appcars to know what will bc coming up ncxt, and what
thc purposc ol it all is.

Vhat shc wants, hc rcports, is that thc thrcc ol thcmshould livc togcthcr lor a ycar (chastcly
ol coursc), possibly in Gcnoa, with an oldcr woman, pcrhaps Malwida, on sitc lor thc sakc
ol propricty:
6
ccctivcly, a monastcry lor lrcc spirits, a rccrcation ol Sorrcnto about which
Lou had, ol coursc, hcard a grcat dcal. Latcr on, \icnna, and, still latcr Paris, rcplacc Gcnoa
as thc proposcd sitc. Malwida, howcvcr, kccn that lrccspiritcdncss should at thc samc timc
not givc risc to chcap gossip, was appallcd whcn shc hcard ol thc idca. !t is dangcrous to
tcmpt latc, shc told thcm prcscicntly, that way onc cxposcs oncscll to mishaps with thc
rcsult that what could rcmain purc, clcar and bcautilul both at thc timc and in rctrospcct,
turns discordant and turbid which is cxactly what happcncd.
Tc changc ol plan lrom a twosomc to a thrccsomc was ol coursc a rcsponsc to Lous
wishcs and ttcd vcry much with R ccs and Nictzschcs longstanding hopcs ol a Rcturn
to Sorrcnto, ol rccstablishing an intcllcctual communc. Vhat, howcvcr, R cc did not tcll
Nictzschc was that hc no longcr wishcd to ocr him Lou, as it wcrc, on a platc, sincc in thc
mcantimc hc had lallcn in lovc with hcr himscll. n thcir cvcning walks ` a dcux through
thc strccts ol Romc prior to Nictzschcs arrival (scandalous by thc standards ol thc day) his
dormant cmotional lilc had bccn arouscd. Trough hcr mothcr, hc proposcd marriagc. Lou,
ol coursc, gcntly rcjcctcd thc proposal, tclling him that scx was o and that thcy should livc
togcthcr as brothcr and sistcr. Tc lact, howcvcr, that R cc conccalcd his changc ol attitudc
mcant that thcrc was a notc ol dcccption lrom thc start. And it mcant, too, that hc and
Lou wcrc always onc stcp ahcad ol Nictzschc, that hc was, in lact, thcir dupc. Tcy nccdcd
him lor his intcllcctual rcpowcr but ncithcr ol thcm, lor thcir own, vcry dicrcnt rcasons,
wantcd him to lall in lovc with Lou.
Nictzschc arrivcd in Romc lrom Mcssina on or about April :. Altcr thc usual post
travcl collapsc hc was rcady lor his rst, as hc hopcd, historic cncountcr with Lou in St.
Pctcrs. Lou latcr rccordcd hcr rst imprcssions ol a man ol solitudc posscssing a dccp
inncr lilc. Hc struck hcr as vcry politc and givcn to social lormalitics and carclul drcss,
whilc displaying an almost lcmininc mildncss and bcncvolcnt cquanimity. From what a
man allows to bc visiblc, shc concludcd, turning Nictzschcs own words on himscll, onc
can wondcr what it is hc conccals.

,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vith thc samc cxtraordinary gauchcncss displaycd six ycars carlicr towards Mathildc
Trampcdach, Nictzschc dccidcd immcdiatcly on a (propcr rathcr than just twoycar) mar
riagc proposal. Knowing nothing ol R ccs lcclings, hc cntrustcd his bcst lricnd with thc
mission ol proposing on his bchall. A couplc ol days latcr, with onc imagincs acutc cmbar
rassmcnt, R cc rclaycd thc proposal to Lou. Shc ol coursc rcjcctcd hcr sccond ocr in a
month. Lctting Nictzschc down gcntly, shc pointcd out that marriagc would mcan thc loss
ol thc small pcnsion lclt hcr by hcr nowdcccascd lathcr lor hcr unmarried ycars, and hcncc
ol hcr nancial indcpcndcncc. Nictzschc appcars to havc acccptcd thcsc grounds. Sincc hc
could only just support himscll, hc was hardly in a position not to.
Te Mystery of Sacro Monte and the Whip Photograph
A
t thc bcginning ol May thc badly balanccd trio, togcthcr with Lous mothcr, Louisc,
sct o lor Luccrnc, brcaking thc journcy lor most ol thc rst wcck in rta San Giulio.
rta is a small pcninsula town jutting out into Lakc rta, ovcrlookcd by thc pcrpctually
snowcovcrcd Montc Rosa, just wcst ol Lakc Maggiorc in thc Picdmont provincc ol north
crn !taly. Tcy had idyllic wcathcr, madc boat trips around thc lakc and out to thc monastcry
island ol San Guilio and wcrc cnchantcd by thc singing ol thc nightingalcs. Nictzschc must
havc dclightcd in thc shadcd allcyways ol thc ancicnt town.
nc day, managing somchow to cscapc thc supcrvision ol both Louisc and R cc, Nictz
schc and Lou walkcd up Sacro Montc, a hill bchind rta dcdicatcd to St. Francis ol Assisi.
Sacro Montc (now a world hcritagc sitc) is so callcd lor thc dcvotional spiral ol twcnty
littlc chapcls that cncirclcs it. ach is a kind ol pccp show tclling a sccnc lrom thc lilc ol
St. Francis by mcans ol a livcly, thrccdimcnsional tablcau composcd ol lilcsizcd paintcd
tcrracotta gurcs. Hcrc, inspircd pcrhaps by thc saints call to authcnticity, somcthing ol
an intcnsc naturc occurrcd. Possibly Nictzschc rcvcalcd thc sccrct ol thc ctcrnal rcturn, to
which hc had just givcn dcnitivc lorm in Te Gay Science (p. 6 abovc). Possibly thcrc was
an cmbracc and possibly a kiss. Vhcn askcd many ycars latcr il Nictzschc kisscd hcr (by
which timc hc was a world star) Lou rcplicd, nonchalantly, that shc couldnt rcmcmbcr any
morc. Vhatcvcr it was that happcncd on thc hilltop had two conscqucnccs. First, Nictz
schc rcccivcd his own kind ol stigmata: his lovc ol bcing in lovc was translormcd into
rcal lovc: latcr on hc whispcrcd to Lou, Montc Sacro
8
thc most dclightlul drcam ol my
lilc, ! owc it to you.

And sccond, it madc thcir rcunion with thc othcr mcmbcrs ol thcir
party considcrably latcr than thc appointcd timc, with thc rcsult that, whcn thcy cvcntually
rcturncd, thcy lound Louisc angry and R cc sulking.
Lcaving rta, thc party agrccd to mcct again in Luccrnc a wcck latcr. Nictzschc madc
a dctour to 8ascl to catch up with thc vcrbccks. Tcrc hc spokc ol his dcsirc to cmcrgc
lromsolitudc and amazcd Franz with his apparcntly vibrant good hcalth. Vhilc in Luccrnc,
whcrc Nictzschc rcmaincd lrom May + to +6, hc and Lou madc a, lor him, nostalgic visit
to Tribschcn. Lou rccalls that lor a long timc hc sat silcntly on thc shorc ol thc quict lakc
lost in mclancholic mcmory. Slowly, hcad bowcd and scratching in thc solt, gravclly sand
with a stick, hc bcgan to spcak ol his days thcrc with Vagncr. And whcn hc lookcd up shc
saw that hc was crying.
Anothcr occasion on which Nictzschc managcd to havc Lou to himscll was in thc Lion
Gardcn, Luccrncs city park. According to Lou, lccling that R cc had donc a lcss than
Te Salom e air

,
convincing job, hc rcpcatcd thc marriagc proposal in pcrson, only to bc again rcjcctcd on
thc samc grounds as bclorc.
Vhilc in Luccrnc, thc trio visitcd thc photographic studio ol Julcs 8onnct, whcrc thc
inlamous whip photograph was takcn (Platc :). !t shows Lou standing in a small cart
drawn by R cc and Nictzschc as horscs and brandishing a whip madc out ol a sprig ol lilac.
Tc tablcau vivant was arrangcd by Nictzschc, whosc high spirits ovcrrodc R ccs lilclong
antipathy to having his photograph takcn. Vriting to R cc thrcc months latcr,
+o
Lou com
mcnts that whcrcas Nictzschcs lacc is totally inscrutablc, in photograph as in lilc, his is a
complctc givcaway. His cntirc charactcr, shc obscrvcs, is casily rcadablc lrom his lacc his
kccn powcrs ol obscrvation and intclligcncc lrom thc cycs and lorchcad, his wcary disdain
ol lilc lrom thc solt droop ol thc mouth. Tough shc is actually writing with rclcrcncc to
a dicrcnt photograph, thcsc obscrvations sccm pcrlcctly to t thc contrasting prcscnccs
ol thc two horscs in thc Luccrnc photograph. And thcy cxplain, all too acutcly, ! think,
why R cc hatcd bcing photographcd. (Nictzschcs lricnd Rcsa von Schirnholtcr obscrvcd,
cqually acutcly, that thc two horscs sccm to bc pulling in dicrcnt dircctions.)
Givcn thc lamous rcmark in Zarathustra o you go to womcn: ont lorgct thc whip
(p. bclow) thcrc havc bccn many spcculativc attcmpts to givc a sadistic cdgc to Nictz
schcs allcgcd misogyny. Givcn, howcvcr, that in thc Luccrnc photograph it is Lou who has
thc whip hand, such a linc ol intcrprctation sccms unpromising. Tc most scnsiblc intcr
prctation comcs lrom Curt Janz
++
who suggcsts that (particularly sincc thc photograph was
takcn but a hallhours walk lrom Tribschcn) thc allusion is probably to Fricka in Vag
ncrs Fing cyclc, who is litcrally cquippcd with a whip and a horscdrawn chariot as wcll as
almost always holding thc whip hand ovcr hcr husband, thc supposcdly suprcmc, but actu
ally scvcrcly hcnpcckcd god, Votan. Nictzschcs point, in arranging thc tablcau vivant, !
would suggcst, is to givc ironic cxprcssion to both his own and R ccs cnslavcmcnt to Lou. !l
this is truc it suggcsts that hc has, by now, caught onto thc lact that R ccs lcclings towards
Lou mirror his own but also that hc wrongly assumcs thcm to bc on an cqual looting
with hcr.
Underhand ealings

n May +6 thc visitors lclt Luccrnc lor various dcstinations: R cc to rcturn to his lamily
homc in Stibbc in northcrn Gcrmany and Lou to rcturn to hcr studics in Zurich.
Shc took with hcr a copy ol Schopenhauer as Educator, which Nictzschc had rccommcndcd
as an cxprcssion ol his lundamcntal stancc.
+:
Giving thcm only a couplc ol hours noticc
by tclcgram, Nictzschc dcsccndcd on thc vcrbccks in 8ascl lull ol high spirits. Sccm
ingly oblivious to thc disruption ol thcir livcs, hc kcpt thcm up until wcll altcr midnight
with animatcd chattcr. ncc again thcy wcrc astonishcd by thc hcalthy colour ol his skin
and gcncral appcarancc ol good hcalth. Two days latcr hc arrivcd at his mothcrs housc in
Naumburg, which would rcmain his basc until Junc :.
Casting asidc all obligations ol dcccncy, lct alonc ol bcst lricndship, R cc now bcgan a
subtlc, undcrhand, longdistancc battlc to win Lous hcart cntircly lor himscll. His lcttcrs
to hcr shilt to thc intimatc du, whcrcas Nictzschc ncvcr advanccd bcyond thc lormal Sie. !t
givcs mc grcat dclight to call you du, hc writcs hcr at thc cnd ol May. And hc tclls his dcar,
dcar Lu, a nicknamc hc invcnts lor hcr, that hc ycarns lor hcr sincc shc is thc only pcrson
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
hc lovcs in thc world. His mothcrs plan ol morc or lcss adopting hcr is a good idca, hc
writcs, bccausc il shc docs, whcn you arc with my lamily and myscll Nictzschc will grasp
all thc morc quickly that you wish to rcjcct thc idca ol bcing lor a long timc with him,
particularly .ith him alone. Hc tclls hcr that hc has not communicatcd thc adoption plan
to Nictzschc bccausc il hc hcars ol it hc is likcly to scc it as an manocuvrc to kccp you lrom
him (which ol coursc it was) and is liablc to bccomc agitatcd and angry. A momcntary
attack ol conscicncc that, in my rclations with Nictzschc, ! havc not bccn complctcly opcn
and honcst, particularly sincc a ccrtain young woman appcarcd lrom out ol thc bluc is dis
misscd with an appcal to thc ovcrpowcring dcmands ol lovc: 8ut quitc honcstly ! ncvcr
stood to him as ! do to you. Rcpcatcdly hc tclls Lou not to mcntion his moncy story
his gambling losscs in Montc Carlo. As ! suggcstcd carlicr, thcsc gavc him a ccrtain
ostoycvskian glamour in Lous cycs. 8ut thc point ol thc conccalmcnt (in lact Nictzschc
kne. about thc gambling losscs sincc hc had to lcnd R cc thc train larc to Romc (p. :
abovc)) is surcly to drawLou into a conspiracy ol naughty schoolchildrcn against Nictzschc,
cast into thc rolc ol sti and stuy schoolmastcr.
+
Mcanwhilc, lrom Naumburg, Nictzschc, too, bcgins to writc lovc lcttcrs to Lou. Morc
honourablc and much morc inhibitcd than R ccs, thcy arc at thc samc timc morc scll
dccciving. Vhcn ! am quitc alonc, hc writcs on May :, ! oltcn, vcry oltcn, spcak your
namc out loud with vcry grcat plcasurc. 8ut thc samc lcttcr commcnts gcncrously that
R cc is in all ways a bcttcr lricnd than ! amor can bc: takc good notc ol this dicrcncc!
+
Hc
adds that (sincc shc is bound to nd thc idca scandalous) hc has not brcathcd a word ol thc
proposcd m enage a trois to his mothcr.
+
To !da vcrbcck hc writcs that R cc and ! havc
the same feelings towards our bravc and honourablc lricnd . . . hc and ! trust cach othcr com
plctcly in this mattcr,
+6
which sccms to bc an attcmpt to convincc both !da and himscll
that (a) thc lricndship with R cc is undamagcd and (b) whilc ncithcr ol thcm is unawarc
ol Lous nubilc capacity to, as hc wrotc K osclitz, causc thc wild bcast in a man to pokc
its hcad out ol thc cagc |sic|,
+
thcy will both quitc ccrtainly kccp thc wild bcast rmly in
chcck in thc intcrcsts ol thc highcr lilc ol thc mind.
At thc cnd ol May, Nictzschcs cndcavour to prcscrvc thc ocial story that both hc and
R cc arc intcrcstcd solcly in a cclibatc monastcry lor lrcc spirits bcgins to lracturc. Lcarning
that Lou plans to travcl to 8crlin cn routc to R ccs lamily in Stibbc hc says that hc, too,
will go to 8crlin to mcct hcr in thc lorcstcd suburb ol Gruncwald (shadc lor his cycs, ol
coursc) sincc to bc lrank, ! dcsirc vcry much, to bc complctcly alonc with you as soon as
possiblc.

Solitarics such as myscll , hc continucs, must bccomc accustomcd slowly to othcrs,

cvcn thosc that arc most dcar to thcm.
+8
Anothcr suggcstion put lorward in thc samc
lcttcr lor bcingalonctogcthcrinthcwoods was thc Turingian villagc ol Tautcnburg,
not lar lrom Naumburg, with lizabcth on hand as chapcronc. And hc suggcsts \icnna
as a sitc lor thc thrcc ol thcm in thc autumn.
+
(Hc lavourcd thc intcllcctually advanccd
\icnna sincc, altcr putting thc nishing touchcs to Te Gay Science, his last book, hc
planncd to spcnd thc ncxt dccadc studying scicntic subjccts to rcmcdy thc gap in his Plorta

n Junc +6 hc did in lact makc a oncday dash lrom Naumburg to 8crlin, thc big city hc always
hatcd, in an unsucccsslul attcmpt to mcct up with Lou. Hc was appallcd that thc woods ol Grunc
wald wcrc lull ol littcr and daytrippcrs.
Te Salom e air

,
cducation.) Awcck latcr hc writcs, rclcrring to Da.n, which Lou was rcading and by which
shc was proloundly imprcsscd,
! too havc dawns around mc, nonc ol thcmprintcd. !t nowsccms to mc possiblc, somcthing
! havc ncvcr bclicvcd in, to nd a lricnd ol my dccpcst happincss and sucring as thc
goldcn possibility on thc horizon ol all my luturc lilc. ! am movcd whcncvcr ! think ol thc
bravc and dccply intuitivc soul ol my dcar Lou.
:o
Hcrc, clcarly, thc idca ol a twoycar marriagc is dcad and buricd. Nictzschc longs lor
a lilclong partncrship marriagc with Lou. Finally, it sccms to him, hc has lound his
Cosima.
Nietzsche in Tautenburg

n Junc : Nictzschc dccampcd to Tautcnburg, whcrc hc would rcmain until August

:. Tc villagc is ninc kilomctrcs cast ol Jcna and twcnty kilomctrcs southwcst ol
Naumburg, an hours walk lrom thc bcttcrknown villagc and castlc ol ornburg on thc
rivcr Saalc. Tautcnburg is a picturcsquc villagc ol (now as thcn) about oo inhabitants. !t
ncstlcs in a horscshoc ol woodcd hills bcncath thc protcctivc gazc ol thc towcr which is all
that is lclt ol thc lormcr Tautcnburg castlc lrom which thc villagc dcrivcd its namc. Sincc
thc rail linc along thc Saalc vallcy had bccn cxtcndcd to ornburg in +8, Tautcnburg was
just bcginning to bccomc known as a holiday dcstination whcrc thc city lolk ol Jcna could
brcathc thc purc lorcst air and rccupcratc lrom thc strcsscs ol urban lilc.
Tat Tautcnburg bccamc known as a placc to holiday was largcly duc to thc corts ol
thc cncrgctic and lorwardlooking pastor, Hcrmann St oltcn, who was kccn to ministcr to
thc bodily as wcll as thc spiritual nccds ol his countrymcn. To that cnd, hc startcd to takc
paying gucsts in thc vicaragc.
lizabcth, who had visitcd Tautcnburg prcviously, had bccn trying to gct Nictzschc to
adopt it as a summcr rctrcat lor a couplc ol ycars. According to hcr biography, shc lavourcd
it, and rccommcndcd it to hcr brothcr, on account ol thc shadc thc surrounding lorcst
ocrcd his cycs. 8cncath this attraction, howcvcr, lay a covcrt purposc. Shc and hcr mothcr
had thc idca that St oltcn would bc ablc to rcason with to Nictzschc on his own lcvcl and
thcrcby bring him back to thc straight and narrow ol Christian bclicl.
:+
Tc idca was not
quitc totally stupid in Lcipzig St oltcn had studicd not only thcology but also logic and
philosophy but hc, ol coursc, saw immcdiatcly that hc had nothing likc thc intcllcctual
rcpowcr nccdcd to combat Nictzschcs inlormcd and by now highly dcvclopcd critiquc
ol Christianity. Hc rctaincd noncthclcss a vcry good opinion ol Nictzschc as a pcrson,
rcmarking mcrcly that hc lound it impossiblc to grasp how so spiritual and richly cndowcd
a man could spout such poison in his writings. !t is clcar that in St oltcns gcncrous mind
thc man took prcccdcncc ovcr thc writings, sincc in Scptcmbcr ol +88: hc had Nictzschc
clcctcd an honorary mcmbcr ol thc Tautcnburg 8cautication Socicty
::
thc only honoric
titlc hc cvcr rcccivcd.
Tc 8cautication Socicty gurcs in Nictzschcs corrcspondcncc. !t has rcsolvcd, hc
proudly told lizabcth at thc bcginning ol July, to construct vc bcnchcs in and around
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc woods solcly lor his usc on his walks. Tcy arc to bc callcd collcctivcly Tc Gay Sci
cncc (hc was corrccting thc nal prools in Tautcnburg). 8y July ++ hc rcports that thc
bcnchcs arc in placc, though by now thcir numbcr is rcduccd to two. ! havc promiscd to
havc two plaqucs put on thcm. . . n onc will bc writtcn Tc cad Man. F. N. |Tc cad
Man was thc quaint namc ol thc part ol thc lorcst in which Nictzschc likcd to walk| on
thc othcr Tc Gay Scicncc. F. N. And hc asks his mothcr to havc thc plaqucs madc and
to scc that thcy arc nc and bcautilul, and somcthing that docs mc an honour.
:
Tcrc is somcthing odd about this wholc story.
:
Vhy should thc larmcrs who con
stitutcd thc main mcmbcrship ol thc Socicty trcat somconc who was at thc timc almost
complctcly unknown outsidc a vcry small circlc ol intcllcctuals as il hc wcrc a lamous
philosophcr: !t sccms most likcly that what actually happcncd was that Nietzsche origi
nally proposcd thc bcnchcs and badgcrcd thc socicty until a couplc wcrc crcctcd, and thcn
cmbcllishcd thc truth to imprcss his mothcr and sistcr.
Ilizabeth versus Iou
!
t was agrccd that, altcr a visit to 8ayrcuth, Lou would join Nictzschc in Tautcnburg,
chapcroncd by lizabcth. Unlikc R cc, Lou, and Vagncr (who had livcd, rcmcmbcr, in
opcn sin with Cosima in pious Switzcrland), Nictzschc carcd dccply about not bccoming a
topic ol uropcan gossip.
:
Tc bait hc uscd to cnticc Lou to Tautcnburg was thc ocr ol
bccoming hcr tcachcr, which would makc hcr his spiritual hcir, togcthcr with thc promisc
ol csotcric disclosurcs that appcarcd in nonc ol his books. Hc now had no option but to tcll
lizabcth ol thc proposcd visit, cxplaining to hcr that Lou was to comc to Tautcnburg lor
a cram coursc in prcparation lor thc planncd monastcry. !n midJuly hc lct K osclitz into
thc sccrct ol thc proposcd thrccsomc, trying to prcscrvc thc ocial story by adding that
K osclitz will plcasc do thc two ol us thc honour ol kccping thc conccpt ol a lovc aair lar
distant lrom our rclationship.
:6
n July : lizabcth mct up with Lou in Lcipzig to accompany hcr to 8ayrcuth lor
thc rst pcrlormancc ol Vagncrs Parsifal (conductcd on thc twcntysixth by Hcrmann
Lcvi). Kccping wcll clcar ol thc cvcnt itscll, Nictzschc noncthclcss madc an cxcursion lrom
Tautcnburg to Naumburg in ordcr to prcparc my sistcr a littlc lor Parsifal . !n May hc had
studicd thc piano rcduction. Hc told hcr, by way ol alcrting hcr to thc rcligiosity ol thc
work, that just this kind ol music ! wrotc as a boy whcn ! wrotc my ratorio (p. :8 abovc).
To K osclitz hc commcntcd that hc had playcd through his old work and had sccn that thc
idcntity ol mood and cxprcssion is cxtraordinary. nc passagc, in his ratorio, thc dcath
ol thc king, hc claimcd, is complctcly Parsilalcsquc. Hc was shockcd to rcalisc oncc again
how intimatcly rclatcd Vagncr and ! arc.
:
n August + hc rcportcd hcaring that thc old
magician has oncc again had a trcmcndous succcss and that lizabcth and Lou havc both
had a privatc invitation to visit Cosima.
:8
!n 8ayrcuth, lizabcth and Lou at rst prctcndcd to likc cach othcr and soon adoptcd
thc lamiliar du. Vithin a wcck, howcvcr, lricndship had collapscd into opcn warlarc. n
account ol hcr brothcrs dclcction, lizabcth was not cntircly pcrsona grata in 8ayrcuth. Shc
was, morcovcr, thirtysix, husbandlcss, poorly cducatcd, somcwhat dowdy and hobblcd by
a smalltown mcntality. Lou, on thc othcr hand, was young, bcautilul, and clcvcr, cntircly at
casc with thc intcrnational glittcrati asscmblcd lor thc occasion. ortlcssly, shc charmcd
Te Salom e air

,
thc malc mcmbcrs ol thc Vagncr cntouragc, gaining immcdiatc acccss to Vagncrs inncr
circlc. Vith thc paintcr Paul Joukowsky hc had bccn working on thc sccncry lor thc
production and had rcccntly nishcd a portrait ol Cosima shc irtcd and discusscd spir
itualism, with Hcinrich von Stcin, tutor to Vagncrs childrcn, shc discusscd philosophy,
displaying, according to Nictzschcs latcr lricnd Rcsa von Schirnholcr, astounding dialcc
tical virtuosity. (R cc had prcparcd hcr to combat von Stcins Schopcnhaucrian mctaphysics
by saying shc should dcploy thc positivist dictumthat all causcs havc to bc vcricd in cxpcri
cncc.)
lizabcth, dcspcratcly wishing to cscapc thc rcstrictions ol Naumburg and a bigotcd
mothcr, was consumcd by horricd jcalousy at thc lrcc and casy manncr ol a rival who
had waltzcd into 8ayrcuths inncr circlc, with which shc did not lccl at casc and to which
shc was not admittcd. Shc was horricd, too, by thc gossip Lou crcatcd by circulating thc
amusing whip photograph, with its suggcstion that shc had both mcn in hcr powcr. (Rcsa
von Schirnholcr, too, thought circulating thc photograph in poor tastc (scc p. 88 bclow).)
!n a lury lizabcth scnt hcr brothcr a tclcgram saying shc could managc thc scandalous girl
no longcr and was lcaving 8ayrcuth.
Part ol thc documcntation ol what happcncd ncxt is missing (dcstroycd, probably, by
lizabcth), but it is clcar that lizabcth providcd hcr brothcr with a damning account ol
Lous bchaviour in 8ayrcuth that would havc mixcd a littlc lact with plcnty ol ction. Vhat
sccms to havc cut him to thc quick was thc claim that, currying lavour with thc Vagncri
ans, Lou had bccn consistcntly scornlul ol thcir cncmy, Nictzschc. My sistcr has a hundrcd
storics ol Lous putting mc down in 8ayrcuth, hc wrotc latcr.
:
Tc rcsult was Nictzschcs
canccllation ol thc \icnna communc projcct
o
and somc maudlin muttcrings about a bird
having own past which, grasping at straws as thc loncly do, hc took to bc an caglc symbol
izing a highcr world, but which thc wholc world nowwants to provc to bc a dclusion. Tis
lcads on to morc gcncral rccctions on whcthcr it is bcttcr to bc dcludcd or undcludcd.
+
Rapidly, howcvcr, lovc ovcrcamc suspicion. Rccovcring lrom lizabcths poison, hc
rcplics on August to a (missing) lcttcr lrom Lou that thc bird hc took to bc an caglc
is an caglc. o comc to Tautcnburg as originally planncd, hc writcs, ! sucr too much
lrom having madc you sucr. Vc will bcar it bcttcr togcthcr.
:
She Said She Said He Said
S
omchow mattcrs wcrc patchcd up and thc Tautcnburg projcct put back on track. n
about August 6 Lou and lizabcth arrivcd togcthcr to spcnd thc night in Jcna with
lamily lricnds ol thc Nictzschcs, thc Gclzcrs, cn routc to Tautcnburg. Hcrc, howcvcr, a
violcnt argumcnt occurrcd.
Tc background to thc argumcnt is this. R cc had ccrtainly told Lou ol Nictzschcs pro
posal ol a twoycar marriagc concubinagc in thc languagc ol thc timcs. Nictzschc himscll
may havc rcpcatcd thc proposal in thc Lion Gardcn in Luccrnc, ocring it as a prcludc to
rcal marriagc. !t was, altcr all, not unknown in artistic circlcs ol thc timc thc Vagncrs had
givcn birth to Sicglricd in such a statc. R cc may also havc told Lou that Nictzschc had had
dcalings with prostitutcs during thc Sorrcnto pcriod. A lurthcr background point onc on
which both Nictzschc and Lou wcrc agrccd is that Nictzschc was an cgoist. !ndccd, sincc
Lou was proloundly imprcsscd by Da.n, which shc had just nishcd rcading, shc would
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
havc agrccd that shc too was onc (as was manilcstly thc casc) sincc a lundamcntal thcsis
ol that work is, ol coursc, that e.eryone is an cgoist (p. : abovc). Tc crucial qucstion is,
howcvcr: as just what kind ol cgoist did Lou scc Nictzschc: Vriting to him lrom Hamburg
thc month bclorc accompanying lizabcth to 8ayrcuth, shc says that
!vc undcrstood why pcoplc likc Malwida likc your work bcttcr than R ccs cvcn though
lrom hcr standpoint you say thc morc unpalatablc things. Vhcrcas R ccs cgoist . . . says to
himscll our only goal is a comlortablc, happy coursc ol lilc you say somcwhcrc il onc
must do without a happy lilc thcrc still rcmains thc hcroic onc.

Tcsc dccply dicrcnt

rcprcscntations ol thc cgoistic, which in a ccrtain scnsc givc cxprcssion to thc writcrs own
inncrmost drivc, mark thc dicrcncc. And thcsc dicrcnt outlooks would, il cmbodicd in
two dicrcnt pcoplc, stamp thc onc with thc lcaturcs ol R ccian cgoism and thc othcr with
thosc ol a hcro.

Tis shows that Lou had undcrstood Da.ns distinction bctwccn thc ovcrowing kind ol
as shc puts it hcrc hcroic cgoism that nccds to gi.e, and thc hungry cgoism that mcrcly
takes, as wcll as thc idcaliscd scllportrait implicit in thc work (pp. o+: abovc). Latcr
on, whcn disappointcd lovc turncd to hatc, Nictzschc will attributc to Lou a catcgoism
which cannot lovc any morc.

8ut Lou would ccrtainly havc vicwcd hcr own cgoism, hcr
nccd to achicvc cquality in a mans world to do thc important work shc lclt hcrscll capablc
ol, as bcing, as shc hcrc asscsscs Nictzschcs, ol thc giving, hcroic kind.
Tc quarrcl at thc Gclzcrs sccms to havc bccn startcd by lizabcth praising Nictzschc
as a saint and ascctic. Shc must havc ovcrdonc this thcmc (a rccction ol hcr own quasi
inccstuous posscssivcncss), sincc cvcntually Lous paticncc snappcd, causing hcr to spill thc
bcans about thc twoycar marriagc proposal. lizabcths account ol Lous ragc is containcd
in a lcttcr writtcn altcr thc cvcnt to hcr lricnd, Frau Gclzcr:
Vho rst draggcd our plan ol a communal houschold into thc dirticst mud, who rst
thought in tcrms ol marriagc: |Lou dcmandcd.| Tat was your brothcr! And to cmphasizc
it oncc morc, shc said: Ycs, it was your noblc, purcmindcd brothcr who rst had thc dirty
idca ol a concubinagc! And on it wcnt latc in thc cvcning.
Latcr on, in Tautcnburg, lizabcths lcttcr claims thc argumcnt sccms to havc simmcrcd
on lor somc wccks Lou said, ont think lor a momcnt that ! am intcrcstcd in your
brothcr or in lovc with him, ! could slccp in thc vcry samc room as him, without gctting
any wild idcas.
6
Tis claim has a strong ring ol truth sincc, by now, Lou must havc bccn
thoroughly lcd up with (lrom hcr point ol vicw) old mcn trying to gct hcr into bcd.
Tc othcr allcgation lizabcth claimcd Lou to havc madc at thc Gclzcrs is that Nictzschc
was an cgoist: according to hcr lcttcr to Frau Gclzcr an cgoist in thc grand |i.c., hcroic|
stylc, according to what shc told hcr mothcr, a common cgoist.

lizabcth, ol coursc, a
woman ol vcry littlc philosophical brain, would havc bccn quitc incapablc ol noticing thc
important distinction both Nictzschc and Lou drcw bctwccn thc dicrcnt spccics ol cgo
ism (a distinction which, in its own way, actually rcasscrts Christian moralitys distinction
bctwccn cgoism and altruism). 8ut it is cntircly possiblc that, awarc by now ol his morc
thanintcllcctual dcsigns on hcr, Lou prcciscly judgcd him in tcrms ol his own standards
and accuscd him ol lalling lrom his own hcroic idcal into a low, and vcry hungry, cgoism.
Te Salom e air

,,
Tc argumcnt in Jcna was brought to an abrupt halt by lizabcth bccoming so upsct that
shc succumbcd to an attack ol vomiting.
Iou in Tautenburg
A
mazingly, givcn this background and its undoubtcdly colourcd rcporting back to
Nictzschc shc |Lou| abuscd my wholc charactcr and will in Jcna, hc latcr wrotc
8

thc Tautcnburg projcct wcnt ahcad. Lou arrivcd with lizabcth on August to stay with
pastor St oltcn, a couplc ol minutcs walk lrom Nictzschcs lodgings. !n spitc ol thc di
culty ol thc situation shc staycd until August :6, +88:, thc vcry day on which Te Gay Science
appcarcd. Tat it assumcd its nal lorm undcr hcr gazc Nictzschc took as a good omcn.
Nictzschc and Lou wcnt lor long walks in thc lorcst shadc (pausing, no doubt, to sit
on thc lamous bcnchcs), cngagcd in intcnsc, philosophical discussions that lastcd many
hours, and wrotc aphorisms togcthcr. All ol thcsc activitics cxcludcd lizabcth. Most ol
thc timc thcy cscapcd hcr company complctcly, rcducing hcr to a chapcronc in namc only:
Lou rccords in hcr diary spcnding an cntirc day with Nictzschc:
Vc spcnt a bcautilul day alonc in thc quict, dark sprucc lorcst with squirrcls and thc
sunshinc ltcring through. lisabcth had gonc to visit thc ornburg |castlc| with somc
acquaintanccs. At thc villagc inn, whcn ! arrivc wcaring my cap and Nictzschc without
lizabcth, and whcrc onc sits undcr thc lindcn trccs with thcir big branchcs, thcy considcr
us to bclong togcthcr as much as do you and !.
Tc you rclcrrcd to, hcrc, is R cc. xtraordinarily, shc kcpt a dctailcd Tautcnburg diary
cxplicitly to contain his jcalousy. Unablc to prcvcnt this disruption to his plan lor kccping
hcr all to himscll, R cc had warncd hcr on August that cvcr sincc shc agrccd to go to
Tautcnburg Nictzschc had rcgardcd hcr as his bctrothcd.

Unbcknownst to Nictzschc,
thcrclorc, R cc was ablc to scc cvcrything that wcnt on in Tautcnburg, to assurc himscll
that thcrc was no hankypanky.
Tc diary,
o
with givcn its intcndcd rcadcr its brutally lrank objcctivity, providcs us
with snapshots ol lilc in Tautcnburg. Nictzschc, Lou rccords, continually droppcd by at
hcr lodgings and somctimcs kisscd hcr hand. Vhcn conncd to bcd (shc had a bad cough
and was, rcmcmbcr, suspcctcd ol consumption), hc would writc hcr littlc notcs or spcak
to hcr through thc bcdroom door. Nictzschc, shc writcs, is a man ol violcnt mood swings
and thcrc wcrc somctimcs stormy cmotions particularly carly on in hcr stay. (Nictzschc
himscll rccords that cvcry vc days or so wc havc a littlc drama.)
+
8ut also, shc rccords,
thcy had lots ol lun. To lizabcths outragc shc no doubt thought that spiritualism, along
with thc othcr world in gcncral, should bc takcn morc scriously thcy prctcndcd to hcar a
ghostly knocking as soon as Nictzschc cntcrcd hcr lodgings. And (anothcr jokc with, likc
thc whip photograph, notquitcplcasant undcrtoncs) Nictzschc dccoratcd a photograph
ol R cc with ivy lcavcs. Lou asscrts (corrcctly in my judgmcnt) a dccp intcllcctual anity
bctwccn Nictzschc and hcrscll wc oltcn takc thc words out ol cach othcrs mouth so
that thcir discussions somctimcs lastcd all day and into thc cvcnings, whcn Nictzschc would
covcr thc lamp with a rcd cloth to shicld his cycs. His growing rcspcct lor hcr intcllcct lcd
himto abandon cntircly his plan to bc hcr tcachcr, as Zarathustra tclls his disciplcs, hc told
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
hcr to crcatc indcpcndcntly and ncvcr bchavc likc a pupil. Somctimcs thcir communication
transccnds thc kind ol words that would bc intclligiblc to a third party as thcy look togcthcr
into thc abyss ol, onc may gucss, a Goddcscrtcd world.
!n spitc ol this dccp communion, Lou inlorms a no doubt rclicvcd R cc that thcrc is a
shadow bctwccn thcm. !n thc dccp rcccsscs ol our naturcs, shc writcs, wc arc worlds
apart. Nictzschcs naturc contains many a dark dungcon and hiddcn ccllar that docs not
surlacc in thc coursc ol a bricl acquaintancc, yct could contain his vcry csscncc. Tcsc
conccalcd ccllars, it occurs to Lou, mcan that somc day, wc could cvcn conlront cach othcr
as cncmics. nc might suspcct that what is going on hcrc is thc ovcrpsychoanalysing by
thc luturc Frcudian psychoanalyst ol a vcry simplc lact: Nictzschc wantcd to slccp with Lou
but Lou did not want to slccp with Nictzschc.
To Pain
Tc rcmarkablc thing about thc contact bctwccn Lou and Nictzschc is that thcy gcnuincly
wcrc, lor long pcriods ol timc, ablc to asccnd to thc rcalmol purc thought, to put all pcrsonal
passions asidc and rclatc to cach othcr as purc minds. Lou notcs in hcr diary Nictzschcs
capacity lor this kind ol clcvation: whcrcas, shc tclls R cc, you work with a clock in thc
hand, Nictzschc is, likc hcr, obscsscd with his work. vcry cmotion that is not rclatcd to
it appcars to him as a kind ol unlaithlulncss. You, shc continucs, do not havc your hcart
stuck in your brain and indissolubly conncctcd with it to thc samc dcgrcc as Nictzschc
thc cgoist in thc grand stylc.

Vhat, on thcsc occasions on which thcy transccndcd thc pcrsonal, did Nictzschc and
Lou talk about: !da vcrbcck commcnts that thc radical translormation ol Nictzschcs
stylc lrom thc witty aphorisms ol Te Gay Science to thc rcligious and prophctic modc ol
cxprcssion in Zarathustra, his ncxt work, was duc to his contact with Lou. Hc latcr told
my husband, shc rccalls, that rcligion was rcally thc only topic thcy discusscd.
:
Likc Nictzschc, Lou lost hcr laith in thc Christian God during hcr adolcsccncc. vcn
morc prccocious than hc, shc rcjcctcd not mcrcly Christian supcrnaturalismbut, as hcr diary
makcs clcar, mctaphysics in gcncral. 8y thc agc ol twcntyonc, shc had alrcady arrivcd at
thc positivistic outlook that was thc bond bctwccn R cc and Nictzschc. Troughout hcr
lilc shc continucd to dcscribc hcr loss ol God as a mislortunc, though onc that camc to
bc compcnsatcd lor by a dimlyawakcning ncvcr rclcnting and always prcscnt panthcistic
scnsc ol ctcrnal union with all that is.

!n Nictzschc shc lound thc samc scnsc ol loss and

thc samc scarch lor God: thc scarch lor a ncw god to ll thc placc lclt by thc dcath ol thc
old god. As ! havc alrcady indicatcd, Nictzschc, too, undcr thc inucncc ol Spinoza and
mcrson, was moving towards panthcism.

l coursc, lor cvcryonc ol this pcriod, thc paradigm ol thc cgoist in thc grand stylc was Vagncr.
Lou, it sccms to mc, is hcrc making thc insightlul point that in tcrms ol thc scalc ol his ambition
and his rcadincss to sacricc to it both himscll and thosc ncarcst and dcarcst to him, Nictzschc
is no lcss grand an cgoist than Vagncr. !n ccct, ! think, shc sccs that part ol hcr problcm with
Nictzschc parallcls his with Vagncr givcn thc tyrannical naturc ol gcnius, hc is thc grcat trcc
undcr whosc shadc nothing clsc can grow. Not only thc constant scxual tcnsion but also hcr nccd
lor intcllcctual autonomy showcd hcr thc nccd lor a brcak with Nictzschc. !n both rcgards shc saw
that R cc, a smallcr and mildcr man in cvcry way, was a morc satislactory companion.
Te Salom e air

:
Tc lundamcntal problcm lor any such movc is thc problcm ol cvil. !l thc totality ol
naturc is divinc, thc objcct ol ccstatic armation and rcvcrcncc, how is it possiblc that it
contains so much pain: Tis is just a rclormulation ol thc problcm conlrontcd by traditional
Christian thcology: il God is wholly good and wholly powcrlul, why docs hc allow so much
cvil in thc world: !n Christian thcology thc projcct ol providing a convincing answcr to this
qucstion is callcd thcodicy. And that, in csscncc, is Lou and Nictzschcs projcct.
At thc bcginning ol July, +88:, Nictzschc scnt K osclitz a pocm callcd To Pain, appar
cntly writtcn by himscll. !t bcgins:
Vho can cscapc you whcn you havc scizcd him/Vhcn you lastcn him with your scrious
gazc:/! will not cursc whcn you grip mc/! ncvcr bclicvc that you mcrcly dcstroy!/! know
that cvcry carthly cxistcncc must go to you/Nothing on carth is untouchcd by you./Lilc
without you would bc bcautilul/And yct cxpcricncing you has valuc./Ccrtainly you arc
no ghost ol thc night/You comc to warn thc spirit ol your powcr/Strugglc is what makcs
thc grcatcst grcat/Tc strugglc lor thc goal, on impassablc paths . . .

Two wccks latcr hc discloscs that thc pocm (which may havc bccn occasioncd by thc dcath
ol hcr lathcr) is not by him but by Lou. And hc adds that it bclongs to thc things that havc
a total powcr ovcr mc. ! havc ncvcr bccn ablc to rcad it without tcars, it sounds likc a voicc
that sincc my childhood ! havc waitcd and waitcd lor.

!n thc picty ol his childhood, as wc saw, Nictzschc praycd lor submission to Gods will:
May thc dcar Lord givc mc strcngth and powcr to carry out my intcntions and protcct mc
on my lilcs way. Likc a child ! trust in his gracc: Hc will prcscrvc us all, that no mislortunc
may bclall us. 8ut His holy will bc donc! All Hc givcs ! will joylully acccpt: happincss and
unhappincss, povcrty and wcalth, and boldly look cvcn dcath in thc lacc . . . (p. +8 abovc)
Vhcn, at thc bcginning ol +88:, hc hit upon amor fati (i.c., dcsiring thc ctcrnal rcturn) as
thc lormulation ol his lundamcntal goal (p. :: abovc) hc dcscribcd it as an cxprcssion ol
submission to God.
6
!n short, oncc hc had cast o thc shacklcs ol doctrinairc positivism,
his most lundamcntal problcm bccamc thc qucstion ol how to rccovcr thc rcligious attitudc
to lilc without backsliding into supcrnatural myths. Lous pocm gocs to thc hcart ol this
problcm: how is onc to adopt thc rcligious attitudc to lilc, to arm, lovc, rcvcrcncc it in
spitc ol all its pain and in thc abscncc ol any kind ol mctaphysical compcnsation: And it
ocrs onc kind ol path to a solution: pain is thc possibility ol growth. Vithout sucring and
strugglc thcrc can bc no victory, no grcatncss. Vhat, as Nictzschc puts it in +888, docs
not kill makcs onc strongcr. Tcrc was thcn, a dccp intcllcctual anity bctwccn Nictzschc
and Lou. At thc agc ol twcntyonc shc was alrcady occupicd with his lundamcntal problcm:
as shc put it in thc titlc ol hcr +88 novcl, thc problcm was thc Strugglc lor God,

morc
spccically thc strugglc to nd God in spite ol cvil, in spitc ol thc pain ol lilc.
Nictzschc dcscribcs this lundamcntal scnsc ol the problcmand the goal, this lundamcntal,
govcrning mood ol ycarning lor God that shapcs both his own and Lous thinking and
lccling, as musical. As shc lclt Tautcnburg, Lou gavc him anothcr pocm, thc Praycr to
Lilc, thc rst vcrsc ol which hc promptly sct to music lor voicc and piano

(track + on

A thinly disguiscd roman ` a clcl dcpicting hcr lilc with R cc and Nictzschc.
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc Vcb sitc lor this book). A couplc ol wccks latcr hc wrotc K osclitz that hc wantcd a
public pcrlormancc ol thc piccc in ordcr to scducc mcn to my philosophy.
8
Tc pocm
rcads
It is certain a friend lo.es a friend the .ay
Tat I lo.e you, enigmatic life
!hether you ga.e me joy or pain,
I lo.e you .ith your happiness and harm,
nd if you must destroy me,
I .rest myself painfully from your arms,
s a friend tears himself a.ay from a friends breast.
I embrace you .ith all my strength!
Let all your ames ignite my spirit,
nd me in the ardour of the struggle
To nd the solution to your riddle.
To li.e and think millennia!
Tro. your content completely into me:
If you ha.e no more happiness to gi.e me
!ell then gi.e me your pain.

vcn with all thc muddy watcr that had passcd undcr thc bridgc, lor thc rcst ol his lilc,
Nictzschc ncvcr lost his conviction that thc scnsc ol lilc as sacrcd, as somcthing to bc praycd
to in spitc ol all its pain, cxprcsscd in Lous pocm, capturcd thc csscncc ol his own spirit. !n
Ecce Homo hc rclcrs to his and hcr musical work in a ncw sctting ol +886 lor chorus and
orchcstra that hc rctitlcd Hymn to Life as cxprcssing thc grcatncss ol soul that undcrlics
Zarathustra.
o
Iamily Rupture

n August :, Nictzschc travcllcd homc to Naumburg. 8ut it must havc bccn with a
hcavy hcart. For, altcr wccks ol trying to smooth things ovcr, hc had nally to admit
that lizabcth had turncd into Lous mortal cncmy.
+
And givcn that shc was, in hcr own
way, as strongwillcd as Lou, and cndowcd with considcrablc skill in pctty intriguc, hc
must havc known that a radical collapsc in rclations with his lamily was incvitablc. Tough
lizabcth staycd on in Tautcnburg so that mamma shant scc my tcary cycs and to allow
Nictzschc to tcll mamma cvcrything himscll ,
:
shc in lact wrotc hcr mothcr, as Nictzschc
rcportcd to vcrbcck, that
in Tautcnburg shc has sccn my philosophy translatcd into lilc and is shockcd: ! lovc cvil
whilc shc lovcs thc good. !l shc was a good Catholic shcd go into a nunncry and do pcnancc
lor all that wickcdncss which will rcsult lrom it.

Shc also gavc hcr mothcr an ol coursc cmbroidcrcd account ol Lous allcgcd dcnigration
ol Nictzschc among his cncmics in 8ayrcuth and ol hcr displaying thc whip photo to
all and sundry. Tc rcsult was that, as hc concludcs his lcttcr to vcrbcck, ! now havc
Naumburg virtuc against mc

provincial, smalltown, pctitcbourgcois, convcntional,

Te Salom e air


lcgalistic, narrowmindcd morality. Mattcrs camc to a hcad whcn Franziska said shc would
ncvcr havc Lou in thc housc and callcd Nictzschc a disgracc to his lathcrs gravc. Tc
rcsult was that Nictzschc packcd his bag on Scptcmbcr 8 and lclt thc lollowing morning
lor Lcipzig whcrc, nding lodgings at Aucnstrassc :6, hc rcmaincd until Novcmbcr +.
Te Ind of the Aair
!
n spitc ol all that had happcncd, Nictzschc still rctaincd hopcs ol lorming a harmonious
trinity, a thrccinonc,

with Lou and R cc. Surcly, hc wrotc R cc, two acutc psycholo
gists such as thcmsclvcs would bc clcvcr cnough to managc any dicultics. And hc addcd,
combining an appcal lor sympathy with an assurancc ol thc platonic naturc ol his intcntions
towards Lou, that having lost a natural sistcr ! must bc givcn a morc than natural onc.
6
n ctobcr + Lou and R cc gavc in to his cntrcatics and paid a vcwcck visit to Lcipzig.
n thc cvcning ol thcir arrival Nictzschc arrangcd lor thcm to attcnd a s cancc (givcn thc
joking about ghostly knockings in Tautcnburg, it was probably intcndcd as light cntcr
tainmcnt), which thcy lound to bc obvious trickcry. Tc many unspokcn undcrcurrcnts,
howcvcr, cast a straincd and mclancholy mood ovcr thc visit. Lou probably thought mainly
ol avoiding Nictzschcs lust and lorcclul pcrsonality and thc lricndship bctwccn Nictzschc
and R cc was ccctivcly ovcr. Vhcn thc lattcrs Genesis of Conscience appcarcd thrcc ycars
latcr it was not dcdicatcd to Nictzschc though Nictzschc latcr claimcd hc had rcluscd thc
dcdication.
Noncthclcss, lip scrvicc was still paid on all sidcs to thc notion ol thc thrccinonc, thc
idca bcing, at Lou and R ccs dcparturc on Novcmbcr , that thcy would soon mcct up again
in somc agrccd city, though no longcr, sccmingly, to sct up housc togcthcr. n Novcmbcr
Nictzschc wrotc to his old amc, Louisc tt, asking hcr il shc would rccommcnd Paris
lor thc wintcr. 8ut it took him lcss than a wcck to admit to himscll that Lou and R cc had
ncvcr bccn scrious about thc idca and that hc had, in lact, bccn dumpcd. Abruptly, thcrclorc,
hc canccllcd all thoughts ol Paris, rcturning oncc morc to his practicc ol wintcring in thc
South.
n Novcmbcr : hc arrivcd, via 8ascl, in Gcnoa. Finding, howcvcr, his old lodgings
rcntcd hc movcd twcnty kilomctrcs castwards along thc coast to Portono, a charming
shing villagc ncstling at thc loot ol thc mountains around a horscshoc harbour. Nictzschc
lovcd thc villagc, obscrving that thc proud and calm balancc with which its mountains lall
into thc sca complctcs thc mclody ol thc gull ol Gcnoa thc modcl ol a pcrlcct cnding that
only mastcr composcrs can cmulatc.

Lodgings provcd cqually dicult to nd in Portono,

howcvcr, so hc cdgcd anothcr twcnty kilomctrcs castwards along thc coast to Rapallo, whcrc
hc arrivcd on about Novcmbcr :.
Aftermath
F
ollowing Nictzschcs appcarancc in 8ascl (on Novcmbcr +6), thc unlailingly sympa
thctic vcrbcck wrotc to Rohdc dcscribing thcir lricnds condition:
Tis summcr and autumn hc has cxpcricnccd thc worst timc ol his lilc, thc rcsult ol which
is that hc is now condcmncd to a ncw kind ol lonclincss that cvcn hc cant bcar. Following
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc cvcnts ol this summcr lonclincss is thc worst poison lor him. . . ! was powcrlcss to hclp
him. . . His hcalth has astonishingly rccovcrcd and is thc lcast ol his worrics . . . Vhat has
absolutcly shattcrcd him (ncxt to thc story ol thc scparation lrom thc Russian which in
thc circumstanccs is a blcssing) is thc complctc brcak with his lamily . . . his luturc is a vcry
dark placc.
8
vcrbcck did not cxaggcratc. Having lost thc lovc ol his lilc, his closcst intcllcctual com
panion, and a mothcr and sistcr to whom, lor all thcir laults, hc was visccrally attachcd,
Nictzschc now indulgcd in an orgy ol rccriminations. !n a scrics ol lcttcr skctchcs, somc
timcs to Lou and somctimcs to R cc (somc but not all ol which wcrc scnt), hc calls R cc a
wastrcl: an cxccptional naturc collapsing through lazincss and lack ol gcnuinc intcllcctual
commitmcnt,

a noblc naturc in dccay.

6o
His main abusc, howcvcr, is rcscrvcd lor Lou.
Hc dcscribcs hcr (allcgcd) slandcring and ridiculing ol his charactcr in 8ayrcuth, Jcna, and
Tautcnburg as thc uglicst way in which anyonc has cvcr actcd towards him in his cntirc
lilc
6+
which conrms thc succcss ol lizabcths attcmpts to poison his mind against hcr.
Hc calls hcr a cat,
6:
onc who practiccs, not his own holy sclshncss, but rathcr a cat
cgoism which cannot lovc.
6
!n placc ol lovc shc has a cunning scllcontrol whcn it comcs
to thc scnsuality ol mcn (shc is, in politc languagc, a manipulativc coqucttc) which shc
dcploys to satisly hcr powcrlul will.
6
Hc complains that hc gavc hcr Schopenhauer as Edu-
cator to show hcr his lundamcntal cast ol mind (p. abovc), which hc thought shc would
sharc, but discovcrs hcr to bc uttcrly supcrcial, lacking in rcspcct, gratitudc, picty, politc
ncss and wondcr.
6
You dont rcally think that thc lrcc spirit is my idcal hc adds.
66
Tc
lorcc ol this last rcmark is to contrast thc intcnsc, morally scrious idcalism dcmandcd by
Schopenhauer as Educator with thc idca that anything gocs. Tc accusation is, in a word,
nihilism: Lou tramplcs roughshod ovcr currcnt social convcntions (and pcoplcs hcarts)
without having anything to put in thcir placc: shc is a lrcc spirit ol thc worthlcss sccond
rank, light ycars away lrom thc crcativc rst rank (p. : abovc).
Somctimcs Nictzschc rcvcals howdccply his conccption ol thc propcrly dominant rolc ol
thc malc has bccn woundcd: hc writcs that hc has always dislikcd hcaring hcr voicc cxccpt
whcn you bcg
6
and that shc is a woman who bclongs on thc lowcst lcvcl ol humanity |i.c.,
is a slut| dcspitc hcr good brain.
68
!ntcrspcrscd with thc hatrcd, howcvcr, arc othcr moods: momcnts ol abjcct scllpity,
momcnts in which hc purports to bc abovc it all and momcnts in which hc attcmpts a
rcconciliation. Youll bc glad to bc rid ol mc lor a whilc, hc writcs R cc at thc cnd ol
Novcmbcr, and ! wish thc two ol you all thc bcst. 8ut, hc continucs, wc will all scc cach
othcr lrom timc to timc wont wc: ont lorgct that this ycar ! havc bccn suddcnly dcprivcd
ol |lizabcths| lovc and am thus in grcat nccd ol lovc.
6
Again: Lou, dcar hcart, do crcatc
a clcar sky abovc us, in othcr words makc cvcrything as it was bclorc. Just bclorc Christmas
hc tclls Lou and R cc hc can ncithcr slccp nor work, that hc has takcn a hugc dosc ol opium,
and that thcy must just rcgard him as a crazy pcrson drivcn hallmad by solitudc. Hc adds,
pathctically, that thcy arc not to worry too much il hc kills himscll .
o
n Christmas ay,
+88:, at thc samc timc as tclling his mothcr that shc must takc a quitc dicrcnt tonc with
him il shc wants him to opcn any morc lcttcrs lrom Naumburg,
+
hc writcs vcrbcck
that hc cannot slccp dcspitc thc strongcst slccping drugs and marching six to cight hours
a day. Tis bitc ol lilc, hc continucs, is thc hardcst ! havc cvcr had to chcw. And thcn
Te Salom e air


hc connccts thc Salom c aair in all its ramications with his philosophy. ! am, hc says,
going through all phascs ol scllovcrcoming. 8ut hc wondcrs whcthcr hc will bc ablc to
complctc thc proccss, whcthcr hc will bc ablc to swallow thc Salom c bitc ol lilc. And thcn
hc indicatcs what thc swallowing will consist in:
!l ! dont invcnt thc alchcmists art ol making gold lrom shit lrom this too ! am lost.
Hcrc ! havc thc bcst possiblc opportunity to provc that, to mc, all cxpcricnccs arc usclul,
all days holy and all mcn divinc!!!
:
All mcn divinc. My mistrust is at thc momcnt vcry
grcat. From cvcrything ! hcar ! am scorncd on all sidcs.

Swallowing, in othcr words, will consist, as Lous pocms indicatc, in nding a thcodicy
that will cmbracc cvcn thc storm ol which shc is thc cyc.
!n spitc ol his corts at scllovcrcoming, Nictzschc rcmaincd, as wc shall scc, lockcd
into thc pain ol thc Salom c aair until at lcast thc cnd ol +88. Rcconcilcd lor a timc with
lizabcth in midycar (communications with his lamily had, in lact, ncvcr bccn complctcly
scvcrcd) hc connivcd with hcr to gct Lou scnt back to Russia as an immoral pcrson.

id Lou rcally dcscrvc all this: Most Nictzschc scholars, womcn as much as mcn, surpris
ingly, think shc did. Curt Janz, lor instancc, rcgards Lou as almost a psychopath, somconc
who was awarc that shc causcd othcr pcoplc pain but nothing morc. Shc ncvcr achicvcd
a scnsc ol rcsponsibility or guilt. For dccp lovc and dutilul commitmcnt . . . shc had no
capacity.

8ut, onc might ask, who is so committcd at thc agc ol twcntyonc partic
ularly whcn thc objccts ol possiblc dutilul commitmcnt that kcpt thrusting thcmsclvcs
upon onc arc gctting on lor oncs lathcrs agc. nc ol Nictzschcs complaints is that Lou
has trcatcd him as il hc wcrc a twcntyycarold studcnt.

8ut how clsc, onc might ask,

could a twcntyycarold havc trcatcd him: Hcr dumping ol Nictzschc, and latcr ol R cc,
surcly rcprcscnt cxpcrimcntal bchaviour cntircly typical ol somconc hcr agc. 8oth Janz
and Nictzschc dcmand ol Lou an cmotional maturity bcyond hcr ycars.
Lcaving asidc thc lact that hcr suitors, Gillot, Nictzschc, and R cc, wcrc lrom hcr point
ol vicw, old mcn, Lous rclusal to slccp with any ol thcm was cntircly undcrstandablc. As
alrcady rcmarkcd, scx mcant thc likclihood ol childrcn and thus ol imprisonmcnt in thc
traditional lcmalc rolc. Morcovcr, shc sccms to havc bccn cntircly cxplicit about thc lact
that scx was o thc mcnu lor thc duration ol my lilc. Vas shc wrong, though, to rcmain in
thcir company, knowing ol thcir rcprcsscd lusts: Lou had thc mislortunc to livc in a world
in which cducation past thc agc ol lourtccn was almost cntircly a mans prcrogativc. nc
might wcll lccl, thcrclorc, that shc was cntitlcd to usc almost any mcans at hcr disposal in
ordcr to gain thc admission to thc world ol idcas hcr brilliant mind cravcd.
Vas shc rcally a cat cgoist, a takcr who ncvcr gavc: !n +8, at thc agc ol thirty
six, shc mct thc poct Raincr Maria Rilkc, who was ltccn ycars hcr junior. (!t was shc
who pcrsuadcd him to changc his namc lrom Rcn c to Raincr.) Vith him shc had hcr
rst, or at lcast rst truly satislying, scxual cxpcricncc. Tough Rilkc abandoncd hcr thrcc
ycars latcr to marry Clara Vcstho, shc rcmaincd his lricnd and corrcspondcnt lor thc
rcst ol his lilc, mothcring thc pcrpctual hypochondriac through to thc cnd. Lou was not
just a brilliant mind. Shc cvcntually discloscd hcrscll as, in many ways, a wondcrlul and
wondcrlully caring woman.
6
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv

Tc last word on thc Salom c aair should bc givcn to Schopcnhaucr. Vriting in +8, hc
obscrvcs that, ncxt to thc will to livc, scxual lust
shows itscll . . . as thc strongcst and most activc ol all motivcs, and inccssantly lays claim
to hall thc powcrs and thoughts ol thc youngcr portion ol mankind. !t is thc ultimatc
goal ol almost all human cort, it has an unlavourablc inucncc on thc most important
aairs, intcrrupts cvcry hour thc most scrious occupations, and somctimcs pcrplcxcs lor a
whilc cvcn thc grcatcst minds. !t knows how to slip its lovcnotcs and ringlcts cvcn into . . .
philosophical manuscripts,

onc ol which, wc shall shortly scc, was Zarathustra. Tis, ! think, is about all that nccds to
bc said. vcn (or pcrhaps cspccially) philosophcrs arc liablc to bchavc loolishly and badly
whcn thc wild bcast in man pokcs its hcad out ol thc cagc (p. abovc). !n his passion
lor Lou, Nictzschc bchavcd both loolishly and badly. Likc thc rcst ol us, hc was human
alltoohuman, as !da vcrbcck told him to his grcat displcasurc.
8
19
Zarathustra
Retreat to Rapallo
A
s ov:vx happcns, thc pain ol thc Salom c aair sprcad out to cngull thc placc
whcrc it happcncd. Nictzschc could bcar to bc in Gcrmany no longcr
+
and so, in
vcrbccks word, cd to !taly.
:
Scttling nally, as wc saw, in Rapallo at thc cnd
ol Novcmbcr, +88:, hc would rcmain thcrc until thc cnd ol Fcbruary ol thc lollowing ycar.
Hc lound an albcrgo dircctly on thc palmlincd watcrlront with chcap, oscason ratcs.
Prcdictably, his rcccntly vibrant hcalth now dcclincd to a point as low as it had cvcr
rcachcd. Sucring prolongcd attacks ol vomiting, hcadachcs, cyc pain, and insomnia hc
could only slccp with high doscs ol chloral hydratc

hc bccamc, oncc again, cxtrcmcly

dcprcsscd. Abovc all, his mothcrs words about his bcing a disgracc to his lathcrs gravc
wcnt round and round in his hcad, making thc barrcl ol a pistol a tcmpting thought.

nly
his mission, his ovcrriding commitmcnt to his main task, prcvcntcd him lrom taking thc
bcckoning cxit lrom an cxtraordinarily painlul lilc.

Local conditions did not hclp. Food in thc albcrgo was bad, and, lor thc normally mild
Gull ol Gcnoa, it was cxtrcmcly cold, thc wind lashing thc palms on thc promcnadc and
thc windows ol thc hotcl with grcy scaspray. Nictzschc blamcd not only Gcrmany but
also his unaccustomcd rcturn to sociability lor thc Salom c aair. For thc sakc ol his mcntal
and physical hcalth, hc dccidcd, hc had to rcturn to his hcrmits rcgimcn ol strict iso
lation.
6
8ut thc cold turncd isolation into alicnation. A cold room accts thc mood, hc
obscrvcd, producing a lccling ol worldalicnation, ol bcing an cxilc and wandcrcr.

Tis
is thc !interreise mood capturcd in thc lollowing ycar by his mcmorablc pocm, Farcwcll:
Tc crows caw/And makc thcir whirring ight to thc town:/Soon it will snow/Fortunatc
is hc who still has a homcland!/Now you stand stiy,/Looking backwards! how long
alrcady!/Vhat arc you, lool,/Flcd into thc world bclorc wintcr:/Tc world a gatc/To
a thousand wastclands, mutc and cold!/Vhocvcr has lost/Vhat you havc lost nds no
rcstingplacc./Now you stand thcrc, palc/Condcmncd to wintcrwandcring/Tat, likc
smokc,/Always sccks coldcr skics./Fly bird, croak/Your song to thc tunc ol a wastcland

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
bird!/Hidc, you lool,/Your blccding hcart in icc and scorn./Tc crows scrccch/and makc
thcir whirring ight to thc town:/Soon it will snow/Voc to him who has no homcland!
8
!n spitc ol this pall ol miscry, an uncxpcctcd brcak in thc wcathcr tcn clcar, lrcsh days in
January, +88 produccd, as it had in January ol thc prcvious ycar, a mood ol gratitudc: wc
sucrcrs, Nictzschc rcccts, arc vcry modcst |in our cxpcctations| and givcn to immodcratc
gratitudc.

!t was in this mood that, in thc tcn clcar days, hc produccd Part ! (originally
conccivcd as thc cntircty ol a work which cndcd up with lour Parts) ol his most lamous
book, Tus Spoke Zarathustra.
+o
Anti-anti-Semitism
T
hough nishcd in January, Zarathustra Part ! was not actually publishcd until thc cnd
ol August vcry slow by ninctccnthccntury standards. Tis was partly duc to thc
lact that Tcubncrs, thc Lcipzig rm Schmcitzncr had commissioncd to print thc work,
had a rush job ol printing hall a million hymn books, and had, morcovcr, it sccms, scri
ous rcscrvations about Zarathustras antiChristian contcnt.
++
Nictzschc cxpcricnccd this
as somcthing ol a dclcat, sincc hc had, by now, in a mood ol jocular scriousncss, acccpt
cd Antichrist as thc most accuratc dcscription ol its author and most succinct summary
ol its main point.
+:
Partly, howcvcr, thc dclay was also duc to Schmcitzncr himscll, to his
lrcqucnt abscnccs lrom thc occ on account ol his antiScmitic activitics as hcad ol thc
AntiJcwish Alliancc. Nictzschc was lurious. First thc Christian obstaclc stood in thc
way and now thc antiScmitic obstaclc. Vho, hc dcmandcd ol vcrbcck, will lrcc mc
lrom a publishcr, who thinks antiScmitic agitation morc important than publicising my
thoughts:
+
Tis marks thc bcginning ol Nictzschcs stridcnt antiantiScmitism. To undcrstand
what hc opposcd, howcvcr, it is important to rccognisc that, in thc ninctccnth ccntury,
thc mcaning ol thc word antiScmitic as notcd, it was rst coincd in +8 was rathcr
dicrcnt lrom its currcnt mcaning.
At thc bcginning ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, on account ol bcing rcgardcd, by both
rcligion and cthnicity, as a nonuropcan pcoplc, Jcws sucrcd many civil disabilitics:
dcbarrcd lrom voting and oltcn rcquircd to livc in dcsignatcd ghcttocs, thcy wcrc also
cxcludcd lrom many tradcs and prolcssions. Napolcon and latcr thc libcral impctus bchind
Gcrman unication gavc risc to a movcmcnt towards Jcwish cmancipation, towards thc
rcmoval ol all spccial rcstrictions and to trcating Jcws as lull citizcns ol thc Gcrman Rcich.
!t was as a countcrmovcmcnt to this libcral impulsc that, in thc +8os, thc antiScmitic
movcmcnt camc into bcing, with Schmcitzncr, lizabcths luturc husband 8crnard F orstcr,
and thc Christian socialist prcachcr Adoll St ockcr playing lcading rolcs.
!t is important to notc that it was this political movcmcnt (a movcmcnt bclonging, gcn
crally, to thc political Lclt rathcr than, as now, to thc Right) with its quitc spccic agcnda
towards which Nictzschc bccamc cvcr morc violcntly opposcd. His main objcction to it, as
hc bluntly told Schmcitzncr, was that it was a politics ol cnvy which thrcatcncd anarchic
disruption ol thc social ordcr: Sccn lrom a distancc, hc wrotc, antiScmitism looks likc
nothing othcr than thc ght against thc rich and thc cstablishcd middlc classcs lor thc sakc
ol bccoming rich.
+
Zarathustra

,
Sincc what Nictzschc opposcd was a political movcmcnt, his opposition was in principlc
compatiblc with thc harbouring ol cultural prcjudiccs against Jcws. (Tc classic cxponcnt
ol this compatibility was thc gay nglish mandarin and mcmbcr ol thc 8loomsbury group,
Harold Nicholson, who said, in +, ! loathc antiScmitism but ! do dislikc Jcws, and
habitually dcscribcd thcm as oily.) And though, by ninctccnthccntury standards, Nictz
schc was rcasonably lrcc lrom such prcjudiccs, hc was not cntircly so particularly in thc
immcdiatc wakc ol, as hc saw it, his bctrayal by his crstwhilc Jcwish lricnd Paul R cc. So,
lor cxamplc, in his notcbooks lor +88, onc nds thc claim that nc cant mistakc thc
dccp abscncc ol nobility in Christ, his Jcwishncss, thc good busincss dcal,
+
thc bargain
ocr bcing going without carthly happincss in lavour ol a hcavcnly onc a thousand timcs
grcatcr.
+6
Tis bcing said, howcvcr, it should bc notcd that, as wc havc sccn (p. : abovc)
and will scc lurthcr, in most rcspccts Nictzschc in his maturity was positivcly philoScmitic.
Nietzsche as Wagners Heir

n Fcbruary +, +88, Vagncr sucrcd a hcart attack in his hotcl, thc Palazzo \cn
dramin, on thc Grand Canal in \cnicc. Hc had rctrcatcd thcrc in ordcr to rccupcratc
altcr conducting Parsifal at thc sccond 8ayrcuth Fcstival in August ol thc prcvious ycar. Hc
dicd in Cosimas arms. Tc lollowing day Nictzschc rcad a bricl announccmcnt ol his dcath
in a Gcnoa ncwspapcr. Hc immcdiatcly sucrcd onc ol his attacks that put him in bcd lor
scvcral days. From his sickbcd hc wrotc Malwida that it had bccn cxtraordinarily hard lor
six long ycars to bc thc opponcnt ol somconc whom onc has honourcd and lovcd as ! lovcd
Vagncr, adding, howcvcr, that a dcadly insult had comc bctwccn thcm
+
a rclcrcncc,
as wc havc sccn, to Vagncrs claim that thc root ol his problcms was masturbation . . . with
indications ol pcdcrasty (p. : abovc).
Nictzschc wrotc an intcrcsting lcttcr ol condolcncc to Cosima to which, ol coursc, hc
rcccivcd no rcply: You havc livcd lor a goal and madc cvcry sacricc lor it, hc wrotc. vcr
and abovc thc man you discovcrcd his idcal, and this is somcthing which docs not dic,
which bclongs to you, bclongs to you lor cvcr.
+8
Tc distinction, hcrc, bctwccn Vagncrs
highcr scll, thc idcal hc strivcs to rcalisc his inncr truth and grcatncss, to borrow a phrasc
lrom Hcidcggcr and thc actual, wartsandall human bcing, is thc samc as that madc in
!agner in Bayreuth (p. :+8 abovc). !n thc +88 notcbooks hc uscs this distinction to jus
tily his opposition to Vagncr thc man: Vhocvcr has sccn somconcs idcal bccomcs his
implacablc judgc and at thc samc timc his bad conscicncc.
+
!n a lcttcr to K osclitz thc
samc dichotomy appcars as a distinction bctwccn thc young and thc old Vagncr: !n thc
cnd, Nictzschc writcs, it was thc agcd Vagncr against whom ! had to protcct myscll ,
:o
thc onc whosc crccp back to Christianity and thc church ! cxpcricnccd as a pcrsonal
insult,
:+
an insult and a bctrayal sincc thc mission that had bound thcm togcthcr had bccn
thc rcbirth ol Greek, not Christian, culturc. Conccrning thc authcntic Vagncr, Nictzschc
continucs,
! will still to a grcat cxtcnt bccomc his hcir. Last summcr ! rcaliscd that hc had takcn away
lrom mc all thc pcoplc |Rohdc, von Stcin, von Scydlitz, ctc.| in Gcrmany on whom it
makcs any scnsc to havc an inucncc, and hc bcgan to drag thcm into thc conluscd and
dcsolatc cnmity ol his old agc.
::
&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Vhat thcsc rcactions to Vagncrs dcath makc clcar a point which, bccausc it is almost
univcrsally dcnicd, ! havc bccn cmphasising lor somc timc is that though Nictzschc rcjccts
Vagncr thc alltoohuman man and artist, thc Vagncrian ideal is somcthing which, in
+88, hc still adhcrcs to. Tcy also makc clcar that, with Vagncrs passing, hc himscll, as
standardbcarcr lor that idcal, sccs it as his task to lcad thc highcr mcn ol his acquaintancc
back lrom Vagncr thc man to Vagncr thc idcal.
Troughout thc notcs ol thc +88os, Nictzschc ncvcr wavcrs lrom his dcmand that wc
bccomc bcttcr Vagncrians than Vagncr,
:
nor his support lor Vagncrs concciving ol
art as an important and magniccnt phcnomcnon,
:
concciving ol it as, not thc light
cntcrtainmcnt ol Franco!talian opcra, but a lcstival ol dccp signicancc. !n thc luturc,
Nictzschc writcs, thcrc will bc lcstivals in which thc many individual |artistic| invcntions
will bc unitcd in thc collcctivc artwork ol thc lcstival
:
lor which tcmplcs will nccd to
bc spccially constructcd.
:6
vcn in latc +886 Nictzschc still arms his adhcrcncc to thc
Vagncrian idcal. Rclcrring to thc lact that all thc world still accountcd him a mcmbcr ol
thc 8ayrcuth circlc, hc writcs to vcrbcck,
!t is wondcrlul how all thcsc lollowcrs ol Vagncr rcmain truc to mc. You know, ! think,
that today ! still bclicvc in thc idcal in which Vagncr bclicvcd as rmly as cvcr why
should it bc important that ! stumblcd ovcr thc many humanalltoohuman obstaclcs that
R|ichard| V|agncr| placcd in thc path ol his idcal:
:
Tcsc and othcr rcmarks, it sccms to mc, placc bcyond doubt thc lact that thc Vagncrian
idcal rcmaincd with Nictzschc to thc vcry cnd ol his thinking. From which wc can concludc
that somcthing likc thc original Vagncrian programmc thc rcdcmption ol Vcstcrn cul
turc through thc rcbirth ol thc Grcck, aidcd in a ccntral way by art and rcligion rcmains,
to thc cnd, thc ccntral commitmcnt ol Nictzschcs thinking about art, rcligion, and socicty.
Second Summer in Sils Maria
A
t thc cnd ol January, Nictzschc rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom Malwida inviting him lor a
prolongcd stay in Romc. As bait, shc ocrcd him a young woman, C ccilc Horncr, as
amanucnsis. 8ut sincc shc had also invitcd lizabcth, hcr rcal purposc was to godmothcr
a rcconciliation bctwccn brothcr and sistcr. Nictzschc prcvaricatcd, objccting to thc humid
climatc in Romc and insisting that his hcalth rcquircd proximity to thc sca. 8ut his rcal
rcason was that hc did not lccl ablc to lacc lizabcth, who had, hc wrotc K osclitz, dcclarcd
opcn war on him until such a timc as hc should havc abandoncd his coldhcartcd cgoism
and bccomc, oncc again, a good and truc pcrson.
:8
For thc timc bcing, thcrclorc, Nictzschc avoidcd Romc. !nstcad, on Fcbruary :, unablc
to stand conditions in Rapallo any longcr, hc movcd back into his old lodgings in Gcnoa.
Hc rcmaincd thcrc until May , on which day hc did, nally, dcpart lor a sixwcck visit
to Romc. Vhat occasioncd thc visit was a lcttcr lrom lizabcth toward thc cnd ol April
suggcsting thcy had takcn cvcrything much too tragically and that thcy should kiss and
makc up. Sincc thc alicnation lrom mothcr and sistcr causcd him tcrriblc anguish,
:
hc
wrotc conciliatory lcttcrs to both lizabcth and his mothcr and rushcd o to Romc whcrc,
according to lizabcth, thc status quo antc was almost immcdiatcly rccstablishcd.
Zarathustra

&:
Savc lor a wcck vainly scarching lor a summcr rcsidcncc lor Fritz in Southcrn !taly,
brothcr and sistcr staycd in Romc until Junc +, on which day thcy travcllcd togcthcr to
Milan and thcn partcd, shc to rcturn to Naumburg, hc to Sils Maria, whcrc hc arrivcd on
Junc +8, +88, lor a scvcnwcck visit.
Tough thc wcathcr in Sils was cxccptionally cold, with snow down to thc villagc, hc was
dclightcd to bc back in thc urischs housc, whcrc all, including littlc Adricnnc urisch,
grcctcd him almost as a rcturning nativc. Hc cnjoycd thc convcnicncc ol bcing ablc to buy
many ol thc things hc nccdcd in thc groccry shop on thc ground oor nglish biscuits,
corncd bccl, tca, and soap though hc still nccdcd and now that normal rclations had
bccn rcstorcd, rcccivcd rcgular lood parccls lrom homc containing itcms such as ham,
sausagc, and honcy (which somctimcs lcakcd in transit).
o
Sils lclt to Nictzschc likc homc. Hcrc, and nowhcrc clsc, hc wrotc von Gcrsdor,
is my propcr homcland and placc ol mcditation.
+
Hc ycarncd to build a tworoomcd,
woodcn dogkcnncl ol a housc on thc Chast c pcninsula that projcctcd into Lakc Sils.
:
Tcn
minutcs walk lrom his lodgings, Chast c was, hc bclicvcd, without cqual cithcr in Switzcr
land or in thc wholc ol uropc.

And hc hopcd that Sils would bc thc placc whcrc, as hc

wrotc at thc bcginning ol July, hc would onc day dic and bc buricd.

!n this idyllic mood hc complctcd, probably in thc rst tcn days ol July, thc nal dralt
ol Part !! ol Zarathustra, dcscribing it as justilying and giving ncw mcaning to thc wholc
ycar: thc cnlorccd idlcncss ol Romc, his attacks ol pain and slccplcssncss, and, abovc, all
his dccision to rcturn to his sourcc ol inspiration, thc ngadinc.

Continuation of the Salom e Aair

T
hc idyllic mood was not, howcvcr, to last. Movcd by an intimation that Lou and R cc
might bc going to thc ngadinc to scck a rcconciliation and implacablc in hcr hatrcd,
lizabcth wrotc a long lcttcr to R ccs mothcr abusing Lou as a manhuntcr disguiscd as an
intcllcctual, and hcr son as a lalsc lricnd and Mcphistophclcan gurc who had lcd Lou thc
slandcrs shc had pcrpctratcd on Nictzschc.
6
And an advanccd copy ol thc lcttcr shc scnt
to hcr brothcr.
Tough thc lcttcr consists ol nothing but uncorroboratcd abusc, it had a dccp ccct on
Nictzschc solcly on account, it would sccm, ol lizabcths rising to a lcvcl ol litcrary
cxccllcncc ncvcr bclorc achicvcd. (vidcntly hc lorgot his own obscrvation that thc pocts
lic too much.) Tc lcttcr, hc wrotc !da vcrbcck, (incidcntally a mastcrpiccc ol womans
litcraturc!) . . . gavc mc light |on thc situation| and what light! r. R cc stcps into thc lorc
ground.

Givcn his ncw insight, Nictzschc now wrotc to R cc, calling him a lalsc lricnd and
complctc cad, asscrting spccically that it was hc, R cc, who was thc origin ol thc asscrtion
that undcr thc mask ol idcalism Nictzschc had, with rcspcct to Fr aulcin Salom c pursucd
thc lthicst ol intcntions. (8ut (scc p. + abovc) Nictzschc had suggcstcd a twoycar
marriagc!) Tc lcttcr concludcs, ! would havc a strong dcsirc to givc you a lcsson in practical
morality with a couplc ol bullcts, but rcgrcts (using an antiScmitic slur) that such an
cngagcmcnt could only bc lor clcan hands not oily ngcrs.
8
Not contcnt with that, hc
wrotc an cqually abusivc lcttcr to Gcorg R cc tclling him what a crccp his brothcr was and
dcscribing Lou as a dricd up, dirty, monkcy with bad brcath and lalsc brcasts,

a lcttcr hc
&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
imagincd might lcad to a ducl (but who would ght a ducl with somconc thrccquartcrs
blind:). !n lact it lcd to nothing morc than a thrcat ol lcgal action il thc abusivc lcttcrs did
not ccasc. At thc samc timc hc wrotc a pompous lcttcr to Lous mothcr tclling hcr that my
sistcr and ! havc struck your daughtcr lrom our social calcndar.
o
!nitially, though draltcd,
thcsc lcttcrs wcrc not scnt. 8ut thcn, thrown into a panic by thc mistakcn bclicl that thc
R cc lamily wcrc coming to Sils (thcrc was a conlusion about namcs ol luturc arrivals in a
hotcl rcgistcr), hc rcd thcm o.
+
vcn as hc wrotc thcsc abusivc lcttcrs, Nictzschc had glimmcrs ol insight that hc was
bcing manipulatcd by lizabcth into lccling and acting against his own bcst intcrcsts
cunningly, shc claimcd to havc long shicldcd him lrom most ol thc rcal horror ol R ccs and
Lous bchaviour.
:
My sistcr wants hcr rcvcngc on that Russian, hc wrotc !da vcrbcck
this was thc attcmpt to havc Lou scnt back to Russia as an immoral pcrson thats all
right, but up to now thc victim ol cvcrything shc has instigatcd in this mattcr has bccn
myscll .

Mainly, howcvcr, hc rcmaincd a hundrcd pcr ccnt on lizabcths sidc. Up until

thc cnd ol July, +88, hc still asscrtcd lizabcths pcrlcct right to scck hcr rcvcngc on
Lou,

and that hc and his sistcr wcrc bcttcr lricnds than cvcr.

l coursc thc subtcxt to

all this was that lizabcth was lorcing him to choosc bctwccn hcr and Lou: thc pricc ol
hcr cnding thc war was his agrccmcnt to lully cndorsc hcr takc on thc wholc aair, thc
ncccssary prool that hc had rcturncd to bcing a good and truc pcrson.
8y midAugust, howcvcr, Nictzschcs doubts about lizabcths machinations, and about
thc way hc himscll has bchavcd undcr thcir inucncc, bcgin to gct thc uppcr hand. No
doubt hc has bccn licd to and misuscd and has had his honour bcsmirchcd, hc writcs his
cvcrsympathctic, but gcntly objcctivc, condantc !da vcrbcck, so that whcn his lricnds
dcmand satislaction on his bchall hc cannot complain:
! call it my sistcrs pcrlcct right. Tc downsidc is that all thcsc hostilc mcasurcs arc dircctcd
at pcrsons ! oncc lovcd and pcrhaps still lovc. !, at lcast, am prcparcd to drop thc wholc
busincss ol insult and disgracclul bchaviour towards mc at any momcnt.
6
Lou, hc adds, whatcvcr might bc said about hcr moral charactcr, is a spirit ol thc rst rank,
and cvcn R cc must havc somcthing good about him to havc carncd Malwidas good opin
ion during thc Sorrcnto ycar.

Tc ncxt lcttcr to !da gocs on to say that thc only pcrson

who lizabcth rcally damagcs is himscll, and that hc misscs Lou tcrribly sincc hc has ncvcr
talkcd philosophy so productivcly with anyonc clsc, and that, anyway, thc wholc aair is
so complicatcd (as thc rcadcr ol this book is by now likcly to agrcc) that its impossiblc
rcally to assign blamc to anyonc.
8
8y thc cnd ol August hc makcs thc crucial point to
K osclitz. Hc has, hc now rcaliscs, bccn lcd, by lizabcth, into a ncrvous lcvcr. His mind
had bccn conluscd. ! havc bccn wound up lor a wholc ycar into lcclings which ! had dis
avowcd and thought ! had ovcrcomc at lcast in thcir crudcr lorms: lcclings ol rcvcngc and
ressentiment.

Sincc, on a pcrsonal lcvcl, his dccpcst philosophy is thc drivc towards amor
fati and willing thc ctcrnal rcturn thc armation ol cvcrything, including thc Salom c
aair what hc bclatcdly sccs is that lizabcth has bccn manipulating him in thc dircction
diamctrically oppositc to that takcn by his philosophy: by, that is to say, thc idcal which is
his truc scll and which it is his task to bccomc.
n August :: Nictzschc madc thc short coach trip down thc ngadinc vallcy to Schuls
(or in Romansch, Tarasp) to spcnd thrcc days with thc cvcrloyal and lorbcaring vcrbcck.
Zarathustra

&
n thc rcturn journcy, as hc wrotc him on August :6, hc cxpcricnccd a truc hatrcd lor my
sistcr:
Vith hcr silcncc at thc wrong timcs and spcaking at thc wrong timcs shc has killcd thc
succcss ol my bcst scllovcrcomings: so that, in thc cnd, ! bccamc thc victim ol a ruthlcss
lust lor rcvcngc, whilc prcciscly my inncrmost modc ol thinking has rcjcctcd all rcvcngc
and punishmcnt.
o
Trcc days latcr hc wrotc lizabcth asking hcr not to mcntion thc Salom c aair
again.
+
And at thc bcginning ol +88, dcscribing Lou as thc most giltcd and rccctivc
ol all his acquaintanccs, hc bcggcd lizabcth to makc pcacc with hcr.
:
(!n vain liza
bcth pursucd hcr vcndctta against Lou long altcr his dcath.) At thc samc timc, hc wrotc
vcrbcck that lor thc sixth timc in two ycars hc has rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom his sistcr that
intcrruptcd my highcst and most blcsscd lcclings (lcclings which havc scldom appcarcd
on carth) with thc basc smcll ol thc alltoohuman. ! havc bccn lurious cach timc ovcr
thc dirty, abusivc way my sistcr has spokcn about Fr. Salomc . . . ! havc ncvcr lound a morc
giltcd rccctivc mind.

For a man whosc social lilc was, by now, conductcd almost cxclusivcly by lcttcr, Te Gay
Sciences advicc to takc a bath altcr rcading oncs mail was good advicc indccd.
Te Shadow of Bernhard I orster
T
hc approach ol wintcr lorccd Nictzschc to bring his stay in Sils to an cnd. !n spitc,
thcrclorc, ol his lcss than cordial lcclings towards his sistcr hc travcllcd, on Scp
tcmbcr , to Naumburg, whcrc hc would rcmain lor vc tcnsc wccks. Tc tcnsion was
partly causcd by mothcr and sistcr dcmanding, in unison, that hc should rcturn to univcr
sity work, and thcir complaints that hc no longcr mixcd with rcspcctablc pcoplc. Mainly,
howcvcr, thc tcnsion was causcd by thc looming shadow ol r. 8crnhard F orstcr, and hcrc,
lor oncc, mothcr and son lound thcmsclvcs on thc samc sidc.
8crnard F orstcr, a 8crlin highschool tcachcr, had bccn, sincc +88o, a lcadcr ol thc anti
Scmitic movcmcnt and, lollowing thc war against Francc, an ardcntly jingoistic Prussian
patriot. His hcrocs wcrc rnst Hassc and Adoll St ockcr. Hassc was a lormcr Prussian army
surgcon who hclpcd lound thc PanGcrman lcaguc, aimcd at promoting thc crcation ol
Gcrman colonics in Alrica, South Amcrica, and astcrn uropc. St ockcr was a lormcr
Prussian army chaplain who bascd his rabid antiScmitism on a vcrsion ol Christian social
ism which saw thc Jcws as incxtricably linkcd to thc cxploitation ol workcrs by modcrn
capitalism. F orstcr was also an admircr ol Vagncr (and ol Nictzschcs carly works). !n +88o
hc wrotc to Vagncr asking him to sign a pctition dcmanding that thc Gcrman chanccllor
takc stcrn mcasurcs to halt thc takcovcr ol thc 8crlin prcss and corruption ol cstablishcd
rcligious valucs by Jcwish plutocrats. To his crcdit, Vagncr rcluscd.
F orstcrs mothcr was a Naumburg acquaintancc ol Franziska and it was through hcr that
lizabcth and F orstcr bccamc acquaintcd, somctimc in +88:. cprivcd, now, ol thc ability
to makc hcr brothcr thc cmotional ccntrc ol hcr lilc, lizabcth was soon to nd a ncw
&,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
(and oppositc) ccntrc in F orstcr. Shc and F orstcr, shc inlormcd (thc surcly horricd)
K osclitz on onc occasion, gorgcd oursclvcs . . . on compassion, hcroic sclldcnial, Chris
tianity, vcgctarianism, Aryanism, southcrn colonics ctc. All this is vcry sympathctic to mc
and with thcsc notions ! nd myscll complctcly at homc.
!n thc autumn ol +88: F orstcr was involvcd in a bloody, antiScmitic brawl in thc strccts
ol 8crlin and lost his tcaching post as a rcsult. mbarrasscd, his collcagucs in thc Gcrman
Pcoplcs Party, which hc had hclpcd lound, cncouragcd himto abandon thc pollutcd atmo
sphcrc ol 8crlin lor a timc, and lurthcr thc noblc causc ol Gcrman racial purity by lounding
a modcl Aryan community in South Amcrica. !n Fcbruary, +88, thcrclorc, hc sct sail lor
South Amcrica, intcnding to nd a sitc lor a colony ncar thc Rivcr Platc.
Forstcr was, ol coursc, cvcrything Nictzschc loathcd. Franziska, howcvcr, rcalising lrom
thc lrcqucnt cxchangc ol lcttcrs that lizabcth had sct hcr sights on him, rcgardcd him
with cqual disapproval. Partly shc lcarcd thc disappcarancc to South Amcrica ol hcr only
daughtcr, and partly, though not lrcc hcrscll lrom cultural antiScmitism, shc considcrcd
that a strcctbrawling, politically antiScmitic agitator lcll bcncath thc minimum standard
ol rcspcctability.
Tc morc, howcvcr, that Nictzschc and his mothcr attackcd, thc morc thc mulcwillcd
lizabcth dug in hcr hcals, insisting that poor F orstcr was a martyr to truth and goodncss.
Undcrlying hcr stubbornncss, ol coursc, was thc stark lact that, as shc approachcd hcr lor
ticth ycar, F orstcr almost ccrtainly rcprcscntcd hcr last chancc at thc marriagc that would
rclcasc hcr lrom thc claustrophobic lilc ol a smalltown spinstcr.
Vith thc lamily at war, it must havc bccn with rclicl that Nictzschc lclt Naumburg on
ctobcr : to travcl, again via thc vcrbccks, to Gcnoa lor his nal stay in this muchlovcd
city. Hc rcturncd to his old lodgings with Signora Stagnctti in thc Salita dclla 8attcstinc,
though this timc inhabiting a ncw room on thc lth oor. ncc morc, howcvcr, his hcalth
dcclincd. Hc had, morcovcr, cxhaustcd all thc walks ncar to his lodgings and bcgan to
nd thc city too noisy. Accordingly hc dccidcd to movc to Nicc, a thrcchour train ridc
wcstwards along thc Rivicra coast, through \cntimiglia, Mcnton, and Montc Carlo. Hc
arrivcd on cccmbcr : and would stay thcrc lor thc ncxt lourandahall months.
Iirst Winter in Nice

riginally !talian, Nicc or Nizza in both !talian and Gcrman had bccn pcacclully
ccdcd to thc Frcnch mpirc ol Napolcon !!! in +86o. A lastcxpanding rcsort lor
wclltodo northcrn uropcan sunscckcrs, with its palmlincd Promcnadc dcs Anglais
and rcd and orangc lacadcs, it rcmaincd rcassuringly !talian.
!nitially Nictzschc rcluscd to rccognisc that Nicc was in Francc. Nizza as a French city,
hc wrotc, ! nd disagrccablc and a kind ol stain on this southcrn splcndour. !t was, hc
bclicvcd, still an !talian city in thc old town, whcrc ! havc rcntcd a placc, pcoplc spcak,
whcn it is ncccssary to spcak, !talian, and thcn it is likc a Gcnocsc suburb. Vhat attractcd
him to Nicc was rcscarch in guidcbooks which rcvcalcd, hc dccidcd, that Nicc had ::o
days ol clcar skics pcr ycar twicc as many as Gcnoa. Vith his hcalth in mind, this was
a dccisivc considcration. And so, with much rcgrct, ! said larcwcll to thc bclovcd city ol
Columbus it was ncvcr anything othcr than this to mc.

Zarathustra

&
To start with, Nictzschc lound lodgings with a Gcrman landlady on thc sccond oor ol
thc sixstoricd Ruc S cguranc 8, tcn minutcs walk lromthc scalront. For company at mcal
timcs hc had a Prussian gcncral and his daughtcr, thc wilc ol an !ndian princc (implausibly
namcd Lady Mchmct Ali) likcwisc accompanicd by a daughtcr, and a magniccntly clad
Pcrsian.

isappointingly, howcvcr, thc movc did not improvc Nictzschcs hcalth: as bad as at
thc worst timcs . . . vomiting, insomnia, dcprcssing thoughts about thc old things, gcncral
hcad pain, sharp pain in thc cycs.
6
His room, morcovcr, was oncc morc without hcating
and drcadlully cold. So hc dccidcd to movc again, to a placc whcrc hc could rcturn to his
rcgimcn ol solitudc, particularly at mcaltimcs. Just bclorc Christmas, thcrclorc, hc movcd
to thc \illa Mazzolini in thc Chcmin dc St. Phillipc (today Ruc dc Ch atcauncul ). Hcrc,
his landlady, again Gcrman, cookcd spccial mcals lor him and cvcn installcd a stovc in his
room which produccd, il not warmth, at lcast a thick smokc. His Spanish lcllow lodgcr,
with whom hc spokc !talian, trcatcd him comc un lratcllo.

Two isciples

n Christmas vc Nictzschc rcportcd to vcrbcck that hc had bccn rccciving lcttcrs

lrom an admircr, a Paul Lanzky, thc rst pcrson who had addrcsscd mc in lcttcrs as
honourcd mastcr (which acctcd mc with various lcclings and mcmorics)
8
mcmorics,
ol coursc, ol his own manncr ol addrcssing Vagncr. Lanzky was thc wcalthy Jcwish part
owncr ol a hotcl in \allombrosa, in Tuscany. Altcr rcading Human, ll-Too-Human, hc had
dccidcd that Nictzschc was thc most important living Gcrman writcr and proposcd thc usc
ol a housc on thc grounds ol his hotcl as a ncst lor Nictzschcs philosophy (prcsumably
somcthing along thc lincs ol a monastcry lor lrcc spirits). Nictzschc thought hc would
probably acccpt thc ocr lor part ol +88.

Anothcr admircr who madc contact was r. Joscph Pancth, also Jcwish, though non
rcligious and antiZionist. Tcy had a long talk on cccmbcr :6 about Spinoza, Schopcn
haucr, Vagncr, and antiScmitism. Pancth taught physiology at \icnna Univcrsity and
would latcr (with Lou Salom c) bclong to Frcuds inncr circlc. Frcud grcatly rcspcctcd him
and it was at his instigation that, latcr on, Frcud bcgan rcading Nictzschc lor himscll.
Pancth dcscribcd to his anc cc Nictzschcs manncr and appcarancc in this, his thirty
ninth ycar:
Hc was cxtraordinarily lricndly and thcrc is no tracc ol lalsc pathos or thc air ol a prophct
about him, which ! had lcarcd altcr thc last work |Zarathustra Part !|. Much morc, hc
comcs ovcr as quitc harmlcss and natural . . . Hc told mc, but without thc lcast acctation
or scllconsciousncss, that hc always lclt himscll thc bcarcr ol a mission and now, as lar as
his cycs allowcd, wantcd to carry it out . . . hc had an uncommonly clcar and high brow, plain
brown hair, vcilcd, dccply sct cycs corrcsponding to his hallblindncss, bushy cycbrows, a
rathcr lull lacc and a mighty moustachc, othcrwisc hc was clcanshavcn.
6o

Tc mccting with Pancth occurrcd just as Nictzschc was putting thc nishing touchcs to
thc third and, as hc thought at thc timc, nal part ol Zarathustra. n January :, +88, hc
&&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
inlormcd vcrbcck ol thc works complction, adding that thc wholc work has comc into
bcing in thc coursc ol prcciscly onc ycar: strictly, in thc coursc ol : wccks: ! havc ne.er
sailcd such a journcy ovcr such a sca.
6+
Tc : wccks cxhibits a pcrsistcnt tcndcncy
on Nictzschcs part to cxaggcratc thc inspirational naturc ol Zarathustra, to rcprcscnt it as
a gilt ol thc gods. !n rcality, a glancc at thc notcbooks rcvcals litcrally hundrcds ol pagcs
ol prcparatory work lor scctions ol Zarathustra and plans lor its ovcrall structurc. As wc
saw Nictzschc himscll obscrving in Human, ll-Too-Human, artists promotc thcmsclvcs
by disguising pcrspiration as inspiration.
6:
A New Bible
N
ictzschc dcscribcd Zarathustra as a grcat bloodlctting in which thc stirrings ol
thc blood by thc tormcnts ol thc Salom c aair lound thcir rctrospcctivc justica
tion.
6
8ut hc lound it hard to dccidc what kind ol book hc had writtcn. Somctimcs thc
notcbooks rclcr to its parts as acts, which suggcst a kind ol thcatrc piccc, whilc at othcr
timcs hc calls it a symphony. Somctimcs hc insists it is nothing litcrary but rathcr a grcat
synthcsis ol his philosophy to datc.
6
8ut at othcr timcs hc calls it poctry, poctry which
gocs bcyond cvcrything hc has writtcn as a philosophcr and cxprcssing lor thc rst timc
his most csscntial thoughts.
6
Vhat hc is clcar about, and corrcct to insist upon, is that, abovc all, thc book is conccivcd
as a religious work. !n thc rst placc, thc cponymous hcro whosc spccchcs makc up thc grcat
bulk ol thc work is a rcligious gurc Zarathustra is Zoroastcr, thc loundcr ol Zoroastri
anism. Sccond, thc stylc ol his spccch is ovcrwhclmingly that ol thc 8iblc hc sccms to
havc thought ol its author as Luthcr lcavcncd with clcmcnts ol Gocthc.
66
Tc work has
thc air ol |bcing writtcn by| a prophct that Pancth objcctcd to (p. 6 abovc), as do many
othcrs, cvcn Nictzschclans, who nd Zarathustra thcir lcast lavouritc work. Tird, Nictz
schc actually calls it a rcligious work, rclcrring to it variously as a lth Gospcl
6
and a ncw
holy book which challcngcs all cxisting rcligions,
68
cspccially, ol coursc, Christianity.
Zarathustra is, in a word, intcndcd to bc thc ccntral, sacrcd tcxt ol thc ncw rcligion that
is to rcplacc thc nowdcad Christianity. (Had his colony lor lrcc spirits projcct comc to
lruition, onc can imaginc a copy ol Zarathustra, likc thc Gidcon 8iblc, in cvcry bcdroom.)
Rctrospcctivcly, in Ecce Homo, hc says that thc book was writtcn by God himscll :
6
as a
book supcrior to thc 8iblc and thc !edas thc authors ol thcsc works arc not cvcn worthy
ol unlatching thc shocs ol Zarathustras author
o
Nictzschc bclicvcd hc had writtcn onc
ol thc two or thrcc most important books in human history.
Tis ol coursc convinccd him that hc had lar surpasscd Vagncrs lailcd attcmpt to crcatc
a ncw rcligion. Vith poctic liccncc, hc claims that Part ! ol Zarathustra was nishcd in thc
vcry hour in which Vagncr dicd,
+
and that with it hc has bcgun his own Fing cyclc.
:
Tat
thc notcbooks rclcr to Zarathustra as both a musical work and a thcatrc piccc suggcsts that
onc can think ol it as thc librctto lor a sacrcd musicdrama.
Zarathustra is intcndcd, thcn, to bc thc 8iblc ol a ncw rcligion a rcligion, Nictzschc
would ol coursc add, ol lilc rathcr than ol altcrlilc. As thc NcwTcstamcnt narratcs Jcsuss
cxcmplary lilc and spiritual journcy, so Nictzschcs tcxt narratcs Zarathustras. Among othcr
things, that is, it is a Bildungsroman, a story ol its hcros spiritual dcvclopmcnt, his progrcss
towards that ultimatc grcatncss

ol soul that consists in cmbracing thc ctcrnal rcturn, a

Zarathustra

&
story that is supposcd to inspirc us to lollowin his lootstcps. !n Nictzschcs carlicr languagc,
Zarathustra is thc grcat cducator.
His choicc ol his hcros namc is, howcvcr, somcthing ol a surprisc. Zarathustra/Zoroastcr
did, altcr all, lound a rcligion bascd on a stark and absolutc contrast bctwccn light and dark,
good and cvil, spirit and body thc epitome ol all that Nictzschc is dcdicatcd to abolishing.
!n Ecce Homo hc cxplains that, as thc oldcst ol all rcligious thinkcrs, hc has had thc timc to
corrcct himscll. Jcsus, hc adds clscwhcrc, was grcat cnough to havc donc thc samc, but hc
dicd too soon.

Two lurthcr prcliminary qucstions bclorc wc procccd to thc tcxt itscll. First, what is thc rcla
tionship bctwccn its ccntral charactcr and its author: Pcrsistcntly, in his lcttcrs, Nictzschc
rclcrs to my son Zarathustra.

So Nictzschc is Zarathustras lathcr. !n part, ol coursc,

this is just a mctaphor lor authorship: an author is thc parcnt to thc charactcrs hc crcatcs.
8ut thcrc is, ! think, morc to thc mctaphor than this. Tc son, Nictzschc writcs (onc can
imaginc him thinking, hcrc, ol Lcopold and Vollgang Mozart), is oltcn only thc unvcilcd
soul ol thc lathcr.
6
ltcn, thc lathcr undcrstands himscll bcttcr oncc hc has a son.

!n
a scnsc, thcrclorc, Zarathustra is Nictzschc. Not ol coursc thc wartsandall Nictzschc but
rathcr thc idcal Nictzschc, Nictzschcs truc scll, thc scll that, in thc words ol Schopenhauer
as Educator, draws |his| soul alolt (p. + abovc). Zarathustra is Nictzschcs avatar, thc
pcrson hc would likc to bccomc in his Sccond Lilc.
Tcrc is a quitc spccic aspcct to this idcntity bctwccn author and hcro. As Nictzschc
rctrospcctivcly obscrvcs in Ecce Homo, thc grcatcst challcngc which conlronts Zarathustra
on his path ol spiritual dcvclopmcnt is to ovcrcomc his great disgust at thc pctty uglincss
ol currcnt humanity.
8
8ut as wc havc sccn, Nietzsches grcatcst task, during thc pcriod in
which Zarathustra was writtcn was to ovcrcomc by turning into gold his disgust and
lcclings ol ressentiment ovcr thc Lou aair. !n onc important aspcct, thcrclorc, thc writing
ol Zarathustra was Nictzschcs cxpiation, in cgy, as it wcrc, ol his o.n disgust.
Anal, prcliminary qucstion: lor whomis Zarathustra writtcn: Tc subtitlc addrcsscs this
qucstion in a paradoxical way. Zarathustra is A8ook lor vcryonc and No nc. vcryonc
is casy to dcciphcr: rathcr than bcing writtcn in thc dcnsc, tcchnical stylc ol philosophy,
thc book is writtcn, Nictzschc obscrvcs, in a stylc which (likc thc 8iblc) is acccssiblc to
cvcryonc.

And it has a biographical storylinc: biographics (including this biography, onc

hopcs) swcctcn thc hardtoswallow pill ol philosophy.
8ut why Nobody: 8ccausc, ! think, likc all thc works sincc Human, ll-Too-Human,
it is writtcn lor lrcc spirits (ol thc rst rank), thc kinds ol pcoplc who at various points
in thc work arc dcscribcd as Zarathustras companions, lricnds, and brothcrs. Tc point
bchind Nobody is Nictzschcs lcar that particularly bccausc thc lcw promising spirits
havc bccn scduccd away lrom him by Vagncr, and bccausc Lou has lclt thc sccnc hc has
no propcr rcadcrs among his contcmporarics. At bcst in my childrcns land,
8o
Nictzschc
lcars, will hc nd propcr rcadcrs.
Tus Spoke Zarathustra: Te Prologue
!
n thc main, Zarathustra is littlc morc than a collcction ol its hcros spccchcs. !ts Prologuc,
howcvcr, contains a grcat dcal ol narrativc, morc than any othcr part ol thc book. Hcrc
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
wc lcarn that whcn hc was thirty ycars old Zarathustra lclt his homc by thc lakc and wcnt
to livc in a cavc in thc mountains lor tcn solitary ycars. (Tcrc is an obvious parallcl bctwccn
Zarathustras mountain rctrcat and Nictzschcs Sils Maria. ltcn, indccd, hc rclcrs to his
room in thc urisch housc as his cavc.) His only companions arc his snakc and his caglc,
but sincc thc lormcr is said to bc his own wisdom and thc lattcr his pridc,
8+
thc animals
arc no morc than pcrsonications ol aspccts ol his own pcrsonality, inncr rathcr than outcr
voiccs.
Altcr tcn ycars a changc comcs ovcr Zarathustra. !n a convcrsation with thc sun
Strausss lamous tonc pocm, Tus Spoke Zarathustra (othcrwisc, thc music lrom thc movic
:cc:), bcgins with thc suns rising hc cxplains that as thc sun needs to shinc on him so hc
needs to shinc on humanity with thc accumulatcd wisdom ol his tcn ycars ol solitary mcd
itation. (! shall rcturn to this convcrsation latcr on.) And so hc dcsccnds to thc lowlands,
back to human socicty. Passing on thc way down an old hcrmit who has not hcard thc ncws
that God is dcad, hc dcsccnds to thc city callcd Motlcy Cow.
Tc Motlcy Cow (motlcy is thc word Platos Fepublic uscs to dcscribc and condcmn thc
dcmocratic statc)
8:
is just Vcstcrn modcrnity.
8
As wc havc sccn (p. +6 abovc), a socicty
posscsscs, lor Nictzschc, a culturc to thc cxtcnt that it posscsscs a unicd (though not
homogcncous) lorm ol lilc. Alrcady, thcrclorc, in thc rst Untimely Meditation, Nictzschc
is condcmning modcrnity as a lairground motlcy: in placc ol a gcnuinc culturc, what wc
modcrns havc is a chaotic jumblc, a grotcsquc juxtaposition and conlusion ol dicrcnt
stylcs (p. + abovc).
So Motlcy signics thc scmibarbarism wc havc rcpcatcdly sccn ascribcd to modcr
nity by Nictzschcs cultural criticism. Cow, obviously, signics that thc town is inhabitcd
by thc hcrd. Tat modcrnity is hcrdlikc might sccm inconsistcnt with motlcyncss, but !
think that what Nictzschc has in mind is thc capacity ol politicians and thc prcss to whip
up mass hystcria lor cxamplc, thc antiFrcnch hystcria that prcccdcd thc FrancoPrussian
war. Plainly wc only havc to think lor a momcnt about our own rcccnt history to scc that
Nictzschc is right in sccing motlcyncss and mass hystcria as capablc ol cocxisting: multi
cultural though wc arc, wc rcgularly cngagc in, and arc manipulatcd into, mass hystcrics
thc dcath ol Princcss i, thc thrcat ol pacdophilia, thc war on tcrror.
!n thc towns markctplacc a ropc is strung bctwccn two towcrs (as, according to liza
bcth, it was in thc Naumburg markctplacc during Nictzschcs childhood).
8
A crowd has
asscmblcd, waiting lor a tightropc walkcr (tightropc danccr in Gcrman) to bcgin his act.
Vith thc abruptncss ol a dcrangcd, bornagain Christian (as wcll, pcrhaps, as thc rclicl ol
spcaking altcr tcn ycars ol silcncc), Zarathustra spcws out thc sumol his dccadc ol wisdom
gathcring. Man, hc shouts, is a ropc strctchcd bctwccn bcast and supcrman. Tc supcrman
is thc mcaning ol thc carth. 8clovcd arc thosc who takc thc dangcrous path ol dcdicating
thcmsclvcs to making thc world a housc lor thc supcrman. Man nccds an idcal. 8ut sincc
thc supcrnatural is a dclusion, wc must rcjcct all othcrworldly idcals. ur grcatcst hour is
whcn wc scc that wc lall as lar short ol thc supcrman as thc apc docs ol us.
Undcrstandably, thc crowd can makc nothing ol this. Tcy takc Zarathustra to bc a sort
ol clownish ringmastcr whosc job it is to introducc thc tightropc walkcr (thc man who
will soon bc supcr, abovc, thcir hcads) and dcmand that thc act start without lurthcr ado.
Frustratcd, Zarathustra has anothcr go at gctting his mcssagc across. Hc trics to convcy
a scnsc ol impcnding catastrophc by warning ol thc immancnt arrival ol thc last man: a
man, thc sizc ol a ca, who hops ovcr a tiny carth saying wc havc invcntcd happincss, and
Zarathustra

&,
mcrcly blinks shortsightcdly at anyonc who suggcsts that thcrc might bc morc to lilc than
thc plcasurc ol chcap narcotics. Tcrc rcmains in us, Zarathustra yclls, still cnough chaos,
cnough lrccspiritcdncss, to givc birth to a star. 8ut only just. Soon it will bc gonc and
that will bc thc cnd ol man.
!t is unclcar in just what scnsc thc last man is last. Possibly and most radically, what
Nictzschc cnvisagcs, givcn his thcory ol cultural hcalth (pp. : abovc), is that thc lailurc
to producc crcativc lrcc spirits will lcad to thc litcral cnd ol humanity in thc lacc, lor
cxamplc, ol global warming. A slightly lcss radical possibility is that hc cnvisagcs thc dcath
ol man in thc scnsc ol thc disappcarancc ol all thosc charactcristics that distinguish human
bcings lrom thc nonhuman animals. Lcss radical still is thc possibility that what hc is
talking about is thc dcath ol European man, thc possibility that uropcan culturc will bc
absorbcd by somc strongcr culturc. ! shall rcturn (morc dccisivcly) to this issuc in discussing
Beyond Good and E.il.
Tc last man spccch mccts with no morc succcss than thc supcrman spccch : thc crowd
calls out onc ol Nictzschcs lrcqucnt, satirical allusions to thc Ncw Tcstamcnt
8
Givc
us thc last man. You can kccp thc supcrman.
Mcanwhilc, thc tightropc walkcr has bcgun his act. Suddcnly a jcstcrlikc gurc appcars
on thc ropc bchind him, taunts him, and nally jumps ovcr him. Tis causcs thc walkcr
to losc his balancc, drop his polc, and lall to his dcath. Zarathustra comlorts thc dying
man with thc obscrvation that hc has had thc dignity ol making dangcr his calling. Frcc
spiritcdncss, as Nictzschc obscrvcs clscwhcrc,
86
oltcn cnds in martyrdom which suggcsts
that thc jcstcr may rcprcscnt convcntional opinion, surcr ol loot than thc lrcc spirit bccausc
it lollows a path (a ncural pathway) it has troddcn a thousand timcs bclorc.
Tc bcginning ol Zarathustras ministry to thc world thus bcgins in total disastcr. 8ut it
is, noncthclcss, a lcarning cxpcricncc lor him. A light has dawncd lor mc, hc rcccts. Lct
Zarathustra talk not to thc pcoplc but to companions, companions whom, ol coursc, hc
rst nccds to lurc away lrom thc hcrd. Tis, to rcpcat, mirrors Nictzschcs own progrcssion
lrom addrcssing thc world at largc to writing books lor lrcc spirits alonc.
Zarathustra Part I: Te Speeches of Zarathustra
Z
arathustras Prologuc is lollowcd by Tc Spccchcs ol Zarathustra, cach with its own
titlc, a hcading that cmbraccs all thc lour Parts that constitutc thc nal vcrsion ol
thc work. !ntcrspcrscd bctwccn somc ol thc spccchcs arc snatchcs ol narrativc which lo
catc Zarathustra in physical and spiritual spacc. Somctimcs thcrc arc songs at thc cnd ol
which Tus sang Zarathustra rcplaccs thc usual Tus spokc Zarathustra. !n what lollows
! summarisc (in italics) and thcn commcnt upon (in normal lont) what sccm to mc an
incvitably subjcctivc choicc thc most important spccchcs, bcginning with thosc in Part !
ol thc work.
On the Tree Metamorphoses.
8
First, the spirit becomes a desert-d.elling camel .ho bears
much; for example, feeding on the acorns and grass of kno.ledge and for the sake of truth, suering
hunger in the soul as .ell as parting from our cause .hen it celebrates its .ictory. Next the camel
changes into a lion .ho slays the dragon called thou shalt, .ishing to become master in his o.n
desert. Finally the lion becomes a child. Tis nal transformation is necessary if one is to become a
.orld-redeeming spirit, since though the lion pronounces the sacred No it does not create anything
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
to replace .hat it denies. For that, for the creation of ne. .alues, the child is needed. Te child is
innocence and forgetting, a ne. beginning, a play, a self-propelling .heel, a rst mo.ement, a
holy Yes-saying.
Tc causc lrom which Nictzschc partcd in thc momcnt ol victory was, ol coursc,
8ayrcuth, so that thc camcl is thc positivist Nictzschc Nictzschc, howcvcr, as cxcmplily
ing thc prcdicamcnt ol all positivists, ol thosc who havc abandoncd thc old, mcaninggiving
laith lor thc sakc ol truth but, sincc thcy havc yct to nd a ncw laith, inhabit thc camcls
spiritual dcscrt.
Tc camcl has to changc into thc lion bccausc, although hc has rcnounccd thc old God,
hc is still a rcvcrcnt spirit. Tough hc has rcnounccd Christian metaphysics, hc still clings to
Christian ethics. !t is, indccd, thc Christian virtuc ol truthlulncss that lorccs him to admit
to himscll that thc old God is dcad. Tc lion, sccing that Christian cthics makcs no scnsc
without thc Christian God to back it up, drops, as it wcrc, thc othcr shoc.
Rathcr clcarly thc lion, as mcrcly dcstructivc ol cxisting valucs, corrcsponds to thc Gay
Sciences lrcc spirit ol thc sccond rank. Sincc thc child, on thc othcr hand, is crcativc,
crcatcs a ncw lorm ol lilc, it is a lrcc spirit ol thc rst rank. Two things, howcvcr, arc
worrying about thc child.
Tc rst is that thc idca ol a scllpropcllcd rst movcmcnt looks vcry likc an armation
ol prcciscly thc doctrinc ol lrcc will Nictzschc has up to now bccn at pains to dismiss as a
damaging myth. Sincc univcrsal causal dctcrminism is rcarmcd in Zarathustra,
88
wc nccd
to undcrstand thc childs scllpropclling naturc, not in thc scnsc ol its bcing lrcc ol causal
dctcrmination, but in thc scnsc ol having become a genuine self rathcr than a hcrd animal
propcllcd by thc hcrd instinct. And thc childs rst movcmcnt should bc undcrstood not
as its bcing an uncauscd causc but rathcr as constituting, relati.e to existing social norms, a
ncw lorm ol lilc.
Tc sccond and morc troublcsomc worry, howcvcr, about thc child is that its innoccncc
and lorgctting sccms to amount to what is somctimcs callcd dccisionism: thc idca that
lundamcntal valucs arc things which wc just decide upon lor oursclvcs, things wc can and
must create out ol nothing. Tc problcm with dccisionism, as JcanPaul Sartrc has shown,
is that if oncs lundamcntal valucs arc bascd on nothing but onc own lrcc choicc, thcn thcy
arc absurd, dcvoid ol gcnuinc authority. !l, lor cxamplc, my communism is groundcd in
nothing but my own ungroundcd dccision, thcn, il it comcs to ghting against your lascism,
thcrc is nothing ! can do to show that my lundamcntal choicc is in any way prclcrablc to
yours. And that mcans that ! can havc no gcnuinc bclicl in what ! am ghting lor.
As wc havc alrcady sccn, a grcat dcal ol Nictzschcs social thinking is lar lrom bcing
dccisionistic sincc it rcvolvcs around thc idca ol rccovcring thc Grcck. Far lrom lorgct
ting, this involvcs a rcappropriation, a crcativc remembering. 8ut pcrhaps what Nictzschc
attributcs to thc child is only a relati.e lorgctting a lorgctting ol thc past two millcnnia
which clcars thc way lor a dccp, dccp rcmcmbcring: onc nccds to go a long way back, hc
obscrvcs clscwhcrc, il onc wants to makc a grcat lcap lorwards.
8
On the Behind-the-!orldly.
o
t one time Zarathustra too cast his delusion beyond the human,
like all belie.ers into a .orld behind [the .eil of appearancesJ. Te .ork of a suering and tortured
god the .orld seemed to me then. dream it seemed to me, and the fable of a god, coloured smoke
before the eyes of one di.inely discontented. But this other .orld is a hea.enly nothing.
Tis accuratc summary ol thc Birth of Tragedy makcs clcar how closcly Zarathustras
spiritual dcvclopmcnt is modcllcd on Nictzschcs own. nc major lunction ol Zarathustra is,
Zarathustra

:
undcr thc guisc ol ction, to prcscnt Nictzschcs path ol spiritual dcvclopmcnt as cxcmplary,
to prcscnt his idcalizcd scll as an cducator.
To bc notcd in this passagc is thc rcjcction ol mctaphysical idcalism, showing, should
thcrc bc any doubt, that Nictzschc still cndorscs thc naturalistic prcsuppositions ol thc
positivist pcriod. Matcrialist prcsuppositions indccd: soul, pronounccs Zarathustra, is
mcrcly a word lor somcthing about thc body.
+
Of Joys and Passions.
:
May your .irtue be too exalted for the familiarity of names. As an at
lcast rclativcly ncw bcginning, thc childs ncw modc ol lilc will not bc covcrcd by cxisting
languagc, not, at lcast, by its words ol praisc.
My brother you are fortunate if you ha.e only one .irtue. It is a distinction to ha.e many but a
hard lot indeed. !l you only havc onc ccntral drivc you arc lortunatc. !l you havc scvcral you
havc thc potcntial lor inncr richncss, but a grcat dcal ol sclldisciplinc is rcquircd to ordcr
thc soul into a hicrarchical unity. !l you cannot achicvc this rankordcring ol thc drivcs
you will bccomc a battlc and battlccld ol virtucs. (Tis cxplains thc miscry ol thc Pale
Criminal discusscd by Nictzschc in thc spccch immcdiatcly lollowing Joys and Passions.
Sincc his soul is a ball ol wild snakcs hc has no inncr pcacc and so inicts his miscry on
thc world around him.)

t one time you had .ild dogs in your cellar; but in the end they transformed themsel.es into
birds and lo.ely singers. Tis is thc sublimation thcmc, again, thc translormation ol bad ris
into good, violcncc into agon, war into compctition. Unlikc Christianity, which is ashamcd
ol, and wants to extirpate, thc warrior instinct, Nictzschc cclcbratcs it as somcthing which,
whcn propcrly spiritualiscd, is thc csscntial agcnt ol pcrsonal and communal growth: Var
(but without gunpowdcr!) bctwccn dicrcnt thoughts and thcir armics

nccds to bc chcr
ishcd and cultivatcd.
On the Tousand Goals and One.

Tis major spccch makcs a scqucncc ol points about

good and cvil, thc grcatcst powcr on carth.
No people could li.e .ithout e.aluating. A pcoplc or culturc is simply dened as such
through thc posscssion ol a communal cthos. Tcrc can bc no gcnuinc community without
a sharcd undcrstanding ol thc right way to livc.
If a people .ants to preser.e itself it may not e.aluate as does its neighbour. !l uropc wants
to prcscrvc itscll as distinctivcly uropcan it must avoid, lor cxamplc, Amcrican valucs,
bccoming Amcricanizcd. !l it docs not, it will simply bccomc, culturally spcaking, a part
ol Amcrica.
Neighbouring peoples regard each other as incomprehensible and .icked. All culturcs arc mor
ally chauvinistic: to bclicvc that it alonc posscsscs moral truth promotcs, altcr all, thc sur
vival ol oncs group.
!hate.er is both necessary and dicult is .hat is .alued. Morality is a tablet of a peoples
o.ercomings. bviously, il a charactcr trait or modc ol bchaviour is useless to a community it
will not bc valucd by communal cthos. And ncithcr will it bc valucd il cvcryonc docs it any
way: thcrc would bc no point in a moral commandmcnt to brcathc. Morality is csscntially a
discipline, a mattcr ol ovcrcoming. Tc ncxt paragraph tclls us thc goal ol that ovcrcoming.
Morality is the .oice of [a peoplesJ .ill to po.er. Tis is thc rst publishcd appcarancc ol
will to powcr, a conccption ccntral to Nictzschcs latcr philosophy. Tc prcvious paragraph
suggcsts that, in thc rst instancc, thc powcr in qucstion is powcr ovcr oneself, selfdisciplinc.
Almost immcdiatcly, howcvcr, thc notion is cxtcndcd to powcr ovcr othcrs: whatcvcr allows
a pcoplc to rulc and conqucr and shinc to thc horror and cnvy ol its ncighbour counts as thc
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
lolty, thc mcasurc, thc mcaning ol all things. Noticc that this is simply historical, sociological
comment on thc many lands and pcoplcs Zarathustra has sccn. Nictzschc is not endorsing
thc horrors nations inict on cach othcr indccd, as wc havc just sccn, hc wants thc
horrilying manilcstations ol aggrcssion to bc sublimatcd into war . . . .ithout gunpowdcr.
Once you ha.e recognised a peoples need and land and sky and neighbour you can surely guess
the la. of its o.ercomings. A communitys morality cxprcsscs its will to powcr, its drivc to
grow and cxpand, to achicvc hcgcmony ovcr its ncighbours, cithcr through thc hard powcr
ol military intimidation and conqucst or by thc solt powcr ol cultural shining (iphoncs
and rock music). 8ut to cxpand one needs rst of all to sur.i.e. And that mcans that a suc
ccsslul communitys tablc ol valucs will bc appropriatc to thc cnvironmcnt, both human
and natural, in which it nds itscll. Pcoplc in cold climatcs, lor cxamplc, nccding to storc
lood lor wintcr, will attach a high valuc to habits ol lrugality and accumulation (which is
probably why capitalism startcd in northcrn uropc rathcr than thc South Pacic).
Creators .ere rst peoples and only later indi.iduals . . . pleasure in the herd is older than plea-
sure in the I, and as long as the good conscience is called herd only the bad conscience says I . . . the
cunning I is not the origin of the herd. Partly this is advicc to thc lrcc spirit not to bc sur
priscd il hc nds himscll lccling bad about his rcjcction ol convcntion but not to takc much
noticc ol this acctivc rcmnant ol his cvolutionary past. 8ut it is also an attack on Tomas
Hobbcss account ol thc origin ol socicty and thc statc as consisting in a group ol lull
cdgcd rational individuals making thc gamcthcorctic calculation that sincc thc statc ol
naturc is nasty, brutish and short it is in all thcir intcrcsts to sct up a statc to which cvcry
onc sacricc a dcgrcc ol autonomy. As history this cannot bc corrcct, Nictzschc argucs
(surcly corrcctly), sincc communal lilc camc into bcing millcnnia bclorc pcoplc camc to
conccivc ol thcmsclvcs as individuals posscssing intcrcsts distinct lrom thc intcrcsts ol thc
tribc.
thousand goals ha.e there been so far, for there ha.e been a thousand peoples. Only the shackles
for the thousand necks are still lacking, there is lacking the one goal. Humanity still has no goal. !n
thc notcbooks Nictzschc writcs, in thc superman . . . individuals havc bccomc onc.
6
Tis
is his cosmopolitanism, thc dcmand lor a uropcan community, a ncw, supranational,
uropcan culturc that will ovcrcomc thc warring nationalisms ol thc past and cvcntually
sprcad throughout thc cntirc globc (pp. :66 abovc). nly somc lorm ol world govcrn
mcnt ocrs thc possibility ol world pcacc. Cosmopolitanism is thc basis ol Nictzschcs
admiration lor Napolcon, thc rcason hc calls him, likc himscll, a good uropcan.
A puzzlc, howcvcr, is this: why docs not thc sublimation ol aggrcssion ocr an altcr
nativc to world govcrnmcnt: !l aggrcssion can bc sublimatcd into compctition on thc indi
vidual lcvcl, why cannot it happcn on thc collcctivc lcvcl: Vhy cannot compctitivc shining
bctwccn nations ocr an altcrnativc to war: Tc answcr is, pcrhaps, this: gcnuinc argon,
whcthcr onc thinks ol thc lympic gamcs or ol compctitions to writc thc bcst tragcdy,
rcquircs rules ol compctition, rulcs that rcquirc cnlorccmcnt. As gamcs rcquirc umpircs
and disciplinary bodics, so intcrnational shining rcquircs somc lorm ol global authority.
(Somcthing likc Tc Vorld Tradc rganization might bc part ol it.)
On Old and Young Little !omen.

nc ol Nictzschcs wcakncsscs as a philosophcr is, on

ccrtain topics, his inability to tcll thc dicrcncc bctwccn thc prolound and thc pathological.
Tough thc lormal point ol this passagc is to advisc thc potcntial lrcc spirit on how to
comport himscll with womcn, its main valuc is as a manilcstation ol how dccply thc Lou
aair had damagcd Nictzschcs attitudc to womcn.
Zarathustra


Zarathustra addresses a little old .oman. E.erything about .omen, he tells her, has pregnancy
as a solution. man should be brought up for .ar and the .oman for the recreation of the .arrior.
Te .omans task is to bring out the child in the man. Te happiness of a man is I .ill, of a .oman
he .ills. Her .orld becomes perfect .hen she obeys out of total lo.e. Te old .oman replies .ith
a little truth: You are going to .omen? Ten dont forget the .hip.
Tis, ol coursc, is thc inlamous whip rcmark. (!t sccms to mc quitc irrclcvant that it is put
in thc mouth ol thc old woman this is mcrcly a rhctorical dcvicc dcsigncd to intcnsily thc
lorcc ol ZarathustraNictzschcs vicws on womcn: You scc, cvcn old, that is, wisc, womcn
agrcc with mc, hc implics.) As notcd, thcrc arc two ways ol intcrprcting thc rcmark: onc
might takc it that Nictzschc is cncouraging sadistic bchaviour towards womcn or altcrna
tivcly particularly il onc connccts thc rcmark with thc whip photograph takcn in 8ascl
(scc Platc : and p. abovc) takc it as a warning that, givcn hall a chancc, womcn
will scck to gain thc whip hand in any rclationship, thcrcby upsctting thc natural ordcr ol
things. !t sccms to mc, howcvcr, that it makcs littlc dicrcncc which ol thcsc intcrprctations
onc adopts. !n cithcr casc, thc mcssagc ol thc passagc is a radical dcnial ol thc movcmcnt
lor lcmalc cmancipation that was gathcring lorcc around him, a rcactionary rcarmation
ol thc traditional rcprcssion ol womcn. Rcprcssion is to continuc cithcr .ith his whip or
because of her whip.
Tcrc is a vcry markcd contrast bctwccn Nictzschcs cmpathctic stancc towards thc plight
ol womcn in ninctccnthccntury uropc in thc prcLou pcriod (pp. :88 abovc) and this
raising ol malc chauvinism to thc point, cvcn by ninctccnthccntury standards, ol carica
turc, this insulting slapping down ol cvcrything Lou (and Malwida) aspircd to. !t is not
hard to scc what has happcncd. Tc prcvious ycar Nictzschc had stagcd thc whip photo
graph which, in a jokingruclul way, rccctcd rcality by showing thc, by ninctccnthccntury
standards, mannish and scllwillcd Lou holding thc whip hand. Now, in thc altcrmath ol
thc aair, Nictzschc cascs his pain by taking a kind ol ctional rcvcngc. Tc passagc, in
othcr words, is cut lrom thc samc cloth as thc pathologically disturbcd lcttcrs hc wrotc R cc
and Lou at prcciscly thc samc timc as hc was writing Part ! ol Zarathustra rcmcmbcr thc
awlul rcmark that hc can bcar Lous voicc only whcn shc bcgs.
8
!t is, as hc himscll says
ol thosc lcttcrs, incompatiblc with thc rcjcction ol ressentiment by his inncrmost modc ol
thinking.
To bc sct against Zarathustra awlul rcmarks about womcn in Part !, howcvcr, is thc lact
that in its two danccsongs, onc in Part !! and thc othcr in Part !!!, Lilc (whomZarathus
tra claims to lovc unrcscrvcdly) is portraycd as a woman, wild and not virtuous,

who
danccs in an ccstatic circlc with aming, ying hair
+oo
(in part, surcly, a portrait ol thc
hcroinc ol Nictzschcs lavouritc opcra, Carmen). nc can analysc this dividcd attitudc to
womcn in tcrms ol Nictzschcs own catcgorics ol thc ionysian and thc Apollonian.
Vomcn attract Nictzschc bccausc thc crotic rcprcscnts transccndcncc ol sucring individu
ality (` a la Tristan und Isolde), thc intoxicatcd absorption into a highcr community
+o+
as
dcscribcd in Te Birth of Tragedy. 8urnt by thc Lou aair, howcvcr, hc rcacts with thc cxag
gcratcd Apollonianism rcprcscntcd by Te Birth as thc oric rcsponsc to thc harmlul sidc
ol ionysianism: Apollos majcstic rcjcction ol all liccncc.
+o:
So dangcrous arc womcn that
thcy must bc prcsscd back into thc cagc ol ninctccnthccntury chauvinism.
8y Part !!! ol Zarathustra, writtcn towards thc cnd ol +88 as hc was bcginning to rccovcr
a ccrtain, at lcast tcmporary, cquilibrium altcr thc Lou aair, Nictzschcs tcxt has calmcd
down somcwhat, and cvcn pcrlorms a kind ol pcnancc lor thc whip rcmark. !n Te Other
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Dance-Song
+o
Zarathustra trics to makc Lilc dancc to his tcmpo by cracking his whip as
sccmingly adviscd to do in Part !. Lilc asks himto stop. Surcly hc knows that noisc murdcrs
thoughts, in particular thc tcndcr thoughts shc is bcginning to havc about him. (Tcrc is
an amusing allusion, hcrc, to Schopcnhaucrs cssay n in and Noisc, which complains
bittcrly about how coachmcn cracking thcir whips disturb thc thoughts ol gcnius.) vcn in
Part !!!, howcvcr, Nictzschc rcmains opposcd to lcmalc cmancipation: womcn arc bccom
ing mannish, hc claims, bccausc thcrc is so littlc manlulncss in mcn only a propcrly
mannish man will redeem the .oman in womcn.
+o
Tis still sounds prctty awlul to mod
crn cars. 8ut it is cmbcddcd in an important and scriously philosophical thcsis, thc thcsis
wc havc alrcady conlrontcd that pcoplc arc by naturc dicrcnt, so that thc propcr and most
satislying kind ol lilc varics radically lrom onc kind ol individual to anothcr, and possibly
lrom onc gcndcr to thc othcr (scc lurthcr p. : bclow).
On Child and Marriage.
+o
Continuing to discuss ho.the free spirit should comport himself in
relation to .omen, Zarathustra asserts that one has the right to marry only if one is a .ictor, self-
compeller, commander of the senses, master of ones .irtues. As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc lavours
cugcnics, thc crcation ol a spiritualphysical aristocracy through thc promotion and prc
vcntion ol marriagcs.
+o6
8ut hc is also a Lamarckian, bclicvcs, that is, in thc inhcritability
ol traits rst acquircd during an individuals lilctimc.
+o
So hc bclicvcs in thc biological sig
nicancc ol Bildung, sclldcvclopmcnt. !l thc lathcr has, through sclldisciplinc and good
cducation, dcvclopcd into a nc pcrson, his virtucs arc liablc to bc transmittcd gcnctically to
his son. 8rccding by thosc lacking Bildung, howcvcr, has thc ccct ol transmitting prcciscly
what should not bc transmittcd. (Sincc thcrc is cultural as wcll as biological transmission
bctwccn gcncrations, this thcsis docs not sccm to mc csscntially dcpcndcnt on Lamarck
ianism.)
On the Free Death.
+o8
Die at the right time, Zarathustra exhorts. Do not let yourself hang on
the branch like a .izened apple. Your death should be a consummation and a spur and promise
for the li.ing. Death should become a festi.al that consecrate[sJ the oaths of the li.ing. In your
dying your spirit shall still glo. like a sunset.
Not just cugcnics, thcn, but also scllclcctcd cuthanasia.

Tc justication ocrcd is a
social onc and takcs us back to thc cxcmplary, monumcntal gurcs ol thc sccond Untimely
Meditation. Just as a good work ol art must nish at thc right point, so must a good lilc,
a lilc that can bccomc an inspiring rolc modcl lor luturc gcncrations. Tc problcm with
thc analogy bctwccn lilc and litcraturc, howcvcr, is that in rcal lilc, sincc onc ncvcr knows
what thc luturc will bring, it is usually hard or impossiblc to know what thc right timc
is. \icwing Parsifal s quasiChristianity as a dcclinc into scnility, Nictzschc claims that
Vagncr conspicuously lailcd to dic at thc right timc.
+o
Many, howcvcr, would arguc that
Parsifal is in lact Vagncrs crowning achicvcmcnt that il hc had takcn Nictzschcs advicc
hc would havc, likc Jcsus, dicd too carly. Lcaving Vagncr asidc, thc sad lact is that thc
pcrson who rcally did, conspicuously and dramatically, lail to dic at thc right timc, who
hung on in a complctcly wizcncd condition lor clcvcn ycars altcr losing his lacultics, was
Nictzschc himscll.
On the Gift-Gi.ing !irtue.
++o
Tere are t.o kinds of selshness: the sick selshness of cats
and .ol.es .hich al.ays .ants to take and the holy selshness .hich .ants to gi.e, .hich is a
gift-gi.ing lo.e.

Givcn thc similarity ol surnamcs, onc wondcrs whcthcr thc Australian cuthanasia campaigncr,
r Philip Nitschkc, was inspircd by this passagc.
Zarathustra


A consistcnt rclrain throughout thc notcbooks lor +88 is that cgoism is not a principlc
but a lact.
+++
uring thc writing ol at lcast thc rst thrcc parts ol Zarathustra, thcrclorc,
Nictzschc thinks hc is a bclicvcr in psychological cgoism, thc vicw, to rcpcat, that no onc
cvcr acts savc out ol pcrccivcd scllintcrcst. Tis, it will bc rcmcmbcrcd, was a ccntral point
ol dicrcncc bctwccn him and R cc, who agrccd with Schopcnhaucr that altruism, though
rarc, gcnuincly occurs.
!n placc ol thc R cc/Schopcnhaucr distinction bctwccn cgoism and altruism Nictzschc
wants to introducc a distinction bctwccn good and bad cgoism: thc cat sclshncss ol which
hc accuscd Lou lcss than a month bclorc writing this passagc,
++:
on thc onc hand, and
holy sclshncss, on thc othcr. Tc lattcr is supposcd to bc cxcmplicd by Zarathustra in
his intcraction with thc sun in thc Prologuc. As thc sun would bc miscrablc il it did not
havc human bcings to shinc upon, says Zarathustra, hc himscll rcscmblcs a bcc that has
gathcrcd too much honcy: hc nccds to ovcrow with his wisdom, and that is why hc will
go down to thc world ol mcn.
++
Tc qucstion, though, is whcthcr Zarathustras going down is motivatcd by thc dcsirc
lor thc orgasmic rclicl ol discharging his uncomlortablc lullncss ol mctaphorical honcy
or simply by thc dcsirc to bcstow his wisdom on mcn. Sincc thc lattcr dcsirc contains no
rclcrcncc to Zarathustras plcasurc or rclicl lrom pain it is an cntircly othcrrcgarding
dcsirc Nictzschc must, surcly, supposc Zarathustra to bc motivatcd by thc lormcr dcsirc.
Two ycars latcr, howcvcr, at thc bcginning ol Zarathustras Part !\, Nictzschc pcns thc
lollowing passagc, to which rclcrcncc has alrcady bccn madc:
Zarathustra, thcy |his animals| said, arc you pcrhaps looking out lor your happincss:
Vhat docs happincss mattcr!, hc |Zarathustra| answcrcd. ! havc long ccascd to strivc altcr
happincss: ! am striving altcr my work. Zarathustra, said thc animals again . . . arc you
not lying in a skybluc lakc ol happincss: you prankstcrs, rcplicd Zarathustra, How
wcll you choosc that imagc!
++
Tis, quitc cxplicitly it sccms to mc, rcjccts an cgoistic account ol Zarathustras motiva
tion. All that mattcrs to him is his mission, his work. Truc, hc knows that a byproduct ol
that will bc his happincss thc paradox ol happincss 8ut that is not his aim.
Zarathustras having long ccascd to strivc altcr happincss is codc lor Nietzsches having
givcn up on psychological cgoism wcll bclorc nishing Part !\ in +88. Hc has nally, and
rathcr rcluctantly, sccn that what motivatcs his hcro rcally has to bc admittcd to bc altruism
and cannot bc rcduccd to any kind ol sclshncss. Sincc, as wc havc sccn throughout this
book, absolutc commitmcnt to his mission charactcriscs Nictzschc cvcry bit as much as
Zarathustra, wc must concludc that Nictzschc has, by +88, undcrstood that lor a long
timc hc had misdcscribcd his own naturc and motivation. Vc must also concludc that, in
hcr naivcty, lizabcth actually hit upon thc truth in insisting that at hcart hcr brothcr was
no kind ol cgoist.
Zarathustra Part II
F
ollowing thc spccch on thc giltgiving virtuc, likc a sowcr who has cast lorth his sccd,
Zarathustra withdraws oncc morc lrom thc world ol mcn lrom lricnds as wcll as
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
locs into his mountain solitudc. cmanding that his lollowcrs bccomc autonomous
brothcrs rathcr than slavish disciplcs, hc tclls thcm that hc will only rcturn to thcm whcn
(likc St. Pctcr) thcy havc dcnicd him, arc ashamcd ol having known him.
Ycars pass until onc night a drcam tclls him that his cncmics havc distortcd his tcaching
and his lricnds arc indccd ashamcd ol him.
++
And so hc rcturns, turning up on thc !slcs
ol thc 8lcsscd whcrc thc wholc ol Part !! is sct. Nictzschc cxplaincd to K osclitz that thc
!slcs arc in lact !schia, in thc Northcrn 8ay ol Naplcs, which hc kncw lrom his Sorrcnto
days.
++6
Tc idcntilying cluc is that in Tc ancc Song
++
thc country girls dancc with
Cupido, which is thc !schian dialcct lor Cupid.
++8
!n Ecce Homo, to digrcss lor a momcnt, Nictzschc makcs thc point that thc ionysian,
abscnt lrom his thought sincc thc bcginning ol thc positivist pcriod, rcturns (though not by
namc) to ccntrc stagc in Zarathustra. Tc work is my conccpt ionysian bccomc suprcmc
dccd.
++
Tc ionysian is closcly conncctcd with dancc (and so ol coursc music) sincc
ccstatic dancc was thc main charactcristic ol thc ionysian rcvcllcrs in thc ancicnt world.
Te Birth of Tragedy makcs thc conncxion cxplicit. Tc crowds dancing through thc strccts
in thc mcdicval carnivals wcrc ionysian cnthusiasts cxprcssing thcir scnsc ol bclonging to
a highcr community in which thc individuality and division ol cvcryday lilc is abolishcd.
+:o
As Nictzschc intimatcs, dancing is csscntially communal. !n dancc wc gain or rcarmour
scnsc ol community with othcrs. !t is, it sccms, part ol thc lundamcntally rcligious charactcr
ol Nictzschcs thought that hc wants us to rccovcr thc capacity lor lcstivc, community
arming dancc.
Upon the Isles of the Blessed.
+:+
Once one said God .hen one looked on distant seas. But I ha.e
taught you to say: superman . . . E.erything must be humanly thinkable, humanly .isible, humanly
feelable. Tis calls to mind Nictzschcs rcpcatcd contrast bctwccn thc Christian God and thc
Grcck gods. Vhcrcas thc lormcr is an antihuman idcal, an impossiblc standard dcsigncd
to makc us lccl our human attributcs to bc all-toohuman, thc Grccks saw thcir gods as
thc most succcsslul cxcmplars ol thcir own stock, saw thcmsclvcs and thcir gods as two
castcs living sidc by sidc, onc mighticr and noblcr, but both ol onc spccics.
+::
Nictzschc is
saying somcthing similar hcrc: whocvcr thc supcrman is, hc is a human, not an antihuman
gurc.
!n thc notcbooks, commcnting on thc rcduction ol contcmporary man to a cog in thc
machincry ol cconomic intcrcsts (an aspcct ol thc Last Man thcmc), Nictzschc writcs that
it rcmains possiblc to conccivc ol a highcr typc ol human bcing. And thcn hc adds: As
is wcll known, my conccpt, my metaphor lor this typc is thc word supcrman.
+:
Vhy
is mctaphor strcsscd hcrc: 8ccausc, ! think, Nictzschc wants to rcjcct thc idca ol thc
supcrman as dcsignating somc particular species ol humanity: wc arc not to think ol supcr
man as bclonging to somc such scrics as Ncandcrthal man, Cromagnon man, Aryan
man . . . !n particular, wc arc not to think ol thc supcrman as an cnd ol history (or
Hcidcggcrs misrcading ol Nictzschc as a blond, bluccycd SS tank commandcr.)
Towards thc cnd ol thc spccch, Zarathustra says that pcrmancncc is mcrcly an allcgory,
that, in thcir praisc ol pcrmancncc, thc pocts lic too much. Tis armation ol thc incx
orability ol changc must apply to thc supcrman too. Tough thc supcrman is an idcal, thc
mcaning ol thc carth (p. 68 abovc), hc can ncvcr bc an ctcrnal, xed idcal ol human
bcing. Rathcr, likc thc horizon, thc idcal will always lic ahcad ol whatcvcr statc ol our
ishing human socicty has arrivcd at. (Nictzschcs hopc, wc saw, was lor, not a dawn, but
rathcr an unending series ol ncw dawns (p. :8 abovc).) Fugitivc though it is, howcvcr, wc
Zarathustra


do know somc things about thc supcrman idcal: that it will always bc a human rathcr than
antihuman idcal, and that it will always bc a communal idcal: in thc superman, as wc saw,
individuals havc bccomc onc (p. : abovc).
On those .ho pity.
+:
Pity [MitleidJ, the central human .irtue according to Christian [and
SchopenhauerianJ ethics, is in fact not a .irtue at all but rather a cause of suering. It injures the
pride of the recipient and generates resentment. But it also injures those .ho pity. God died of his
pity for man.
!n Gcrman, as alrcady obscrvcd, Mitleid has to do duty lor both pity and compassion.
ncs natural inclination is to say that Nictzschcs point about Mitleid harming its rccipicnt
is wcll takcn but oncsidcd. Ccrtainly, pity turns its objcct into an inlcrior bcing to whom
onc lccls supcrior (! pity you, you miscrablc littlc lump ol vomit!) and so makcs thc piticd
lccl bad. 8ut, onc might continuc, surcly Mitleid in thc scnsc ol compassion is quitc dicrcnt:
hcrc onc docs not turn thc othcr into an objcct scparatc lrom and lowcr than oncscll but
rathcr (as compassion tclls us) suers-.ith him. As Schopcnhaucr puts it, in compassion
onc sympathctically idcntics with thc sucrcr.
+:
nc takcs his sucring on board as
oncs own.
!n discussing Da.ns critiquc ol Mitleid, wc saw that whilc admitting thc cxistcncc ol
cmpathctic, Schopcnhaucrian compassion, Nictzschc argucs that, likc pity though in a dil
lcrcnt way, compassion harms othcr pcoplc: cmpathctic idcntication with thc wocs ol thc
cntirc cosmos convinccs onc ol thc lutility ol attcmpts to rclicvc sucring and so causcs
activc bcncvolcncc to withcr and dic (pp. o: abovc). Hcrc Nictzschc looks at this samc
phcnomcnon lrom a dicrcnt anglc: cosmic, Schopcnhaucrian compassion harms thc sub-
ject by gcncrating psychological collapsc, dccp dcprcssion. Tis is thc idca, ! think, that
Nictzschc cncapsulatcs in thc poctic conccit that God dicd lrom compassion lor thc awlul
ncss ol human cxistcncc. And so Nictzschc discovcrs a lurthcr rcason to rcjcct compassion
along with pity: compassion docs not just harmthc potcntial rccipicnts ol bcncvolcnt action,
it also harm thc compassionatc, to varying dcgrccs, kills thcir ability to arm lilc. Tis is
a major rcason that Nictzschc says that crcators must bc hard.
+:6
!l wc arc to rcmakc thc
world wc must, lor thc sakc ol both othcrs and oursclvcs, hardcn our hcarts to compassion.
Compassion, ! havc alrcady obscrvcd, was an unusually promincnt clcmcnt in Nictzschcs
own pcrsonality. Tat is why hc was, lor instancc, thc littlc saint to thc Gcnocsc. His
conviction that compassion damagcd thc compassionatc was strongly bascd on scllanalysis.
To vcrbcck hc wrotc in Scptcmbcr, +88:
thc total dcprcssion ! was sucring lrom. . . has liltcd: ! nowthink that ! havc takcn thc dil
lcrcncc with my lamily a hundrcd timcs too scriously . . . My troublc is thc ctcrnally rcpcatcd
mistakc ol rcprcscnting thc sucring ol othcrs as grcatcr than it is. From childhood thc
scntcncc, !n Mitleid lics my grcatcst dangcr, has rcpcatcdly conrmcd itscll. (Pcrhaps it
is thc bad conscqucncc ol thc cxtraordinary naturc ol my lathcr cvcryonc who kncw
him rcckoncd him to bclong morc to thc angcls than to mcn.) !ts sucicnt that through
thcsc bad cxpcricnccs with Mitleid ! havc bccn stimulatcd to a thcorctically vcry intcrcsting
altcration in thc valuation ol it.
+:
Te Night Song.
+:8
Tis is my loneliness that I am girded round .ith light . . . I do not kno. the
happiness of the recei.er . . . this is my po.erty that my hand ne.er rests from gift-gi.ing.

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc most salicnt aspcct ol thc ncw spccch
+:
which is said to distinguish Part !! lrom
Part ! is thc introduction ol thc songs Zarathustra sings as distinct lrom thc spccchcs
which hc spcaks. Tcsc, it sccms to mc (rcmcmbcring that Nictzschc somctimcs thinks
ol Zarathustra as a musical work) can bc takcn as arias which, rathcr than advancing thc
narrativc or thc mattcr ol discussion, cxprcss Zarathustras lcclings as hc procccds along his
path ol spiritual dcvclopmcnt. (A projcct lor somc composcr ol thc luturc might bc to turn
Zarathustra into an opcra.)
!n Ecce Homo hc calls thc Night Song a ionysian ithyramb and dcscribcs it as thc
lonclicst song cvcr writtcn. !t cxprcsscs Zarathustras immortal lamcnt that through his
supcrabundancc ol light and powcr, through his naturc as a sun, hc is condcmncd not to
lovc.
+o
Tat a sun or supcrman cannot be lovcd is casy to grasp: it can, onc might say, only bc
rcvcrcnccd. Tc kind ol lovc that includcs lricndship (as wc havc sccn, Nictzschcs lcttcrs
lrcqucntly spcaks ol loving his lricnds) dcmands cquality. 8ut why should thc giltgivcr
bc incapablc ol lo.ing: For, ! think, thc vcry samc rcason. Tc kind ol lovc thc song is
talking about can only bc bctwccn cquals and, sadly, ZarathustraNictzschc (likc God) has
no cquals. Tis is what condcmns thc onc who is highcr than all his contcmporarics to
lonclincss. !t is cold at thc top. !n March, +88 Nictzschc wrotc to his sistcr thc lollowing:
. . . somc ol thc bcst minds in Gcrmany bclicvc that ! am mad or cvcn say that ! will dic
in a madhousc. ! am too proud to bclicvc that any human bcing could lovc mc: that would
prcsupposc hc kncw who ! was. qually littlc do ! bclicvc that ! will cvcr lovc somconc:
that would prcsupposc that ! had lound wondcr ol wondcrs a human bcing ol my
rank dont lorgct that . . . ! nd thc loundcr ol Christcndomsupcrcial in comparison with
myscll.
++
On Self-O.ercoming.
+:
Te .ill to truth is really the .ill to the thinkability of all beings. !e
.ant to make things thinkable since .e doubt, .ith healthy suspicion, that they really are. Te .ill
to the thinkability of beings is really the .ill to po.er .hich means things ha.e to be smooth, a
mirror of our o.n spirit e.en .hen it comes to good and e.il. !here.er I found life I found the
.ill to po.er. E.en the .eak seek po.er o.er the .eakest and e.en the .eak seek to steal po.er
from the stronger by co.ert means. Life . . . is that .hich must al.ays o.ercome itself .
!n thc notcbooks lor +88 wc nd Nictzschc cntcring a phasc ol global sccpticism as
to whcthcr anything in rcality corrcsponds to thc nctwork ol conccpts mattcr, thing,
causc, ccct in tcrms ol which wc makc thc world intclligiblc to oursclvcs. (Latcr on,
wc will scc, hc grows out ol it.) 8ut, NictzschcZarathustra asscrts, this actually docs not
mattcr sincc thc point ol intclligibility is tcchnological, thc achicvcmcnt ol powcr ovcr our
cnvironmcnt and oursclvcs. vcn morality scrvcs this cnd a dcvclopmcnt ol thc carlicr
idca that moralitics always scrvc thc cxistcncc conditions ol a community. Nictzschc now
asscrts that it is not mcrc cxistcncc but rathcr communal powcr that moralitics scrvc: somc
kind ol incrcasc and cxpansion, somc kind ol a lrcqucnt synonymlor powcr growth.
+
And now wc comc to thc gcncral claim: lilc is thc will to powcr. Tis is implicit in thc
claim that lilc is that which must always ovcrcomc itscll sincc that claim, clcarly, is dcrivcd
lrom thc prcmiscs that (a) lilc is thc will to powcr and (b) thc will to powcr is always thc will
to morc powcr. Noticc that this gcncral claim lalls short ol thc lullblown thcsis ol Beyond
Good and E.il that lilc (indccd thc world) is will to powcr and nothing besides.
+
Unlikc
Zarathustra

,
thc lullblown thcsis, Zarathustra docs not cxcludc thc possibility ol motivcs othcr than
powcr.
Vhat is thc status ol thc gcncral claim: Zarathustra says hc has lound thc will to powcr
whcrcvcr ! havc lound thc living. Tis is a quitc cautious lormulation: not a dogmatic
asscrtion but, ! would suggcst, a working assumption bascd on a ccrtain amount ol obscr
vation, an inductivc hypothesis. Schopcnhaucr asscrts that his will to livc bcst dcciphcrs,
makcs unicd scnsc ol, thc riddlc ol cxpcricncc.
+
Nictzschc proposcs thc cxpcrimcnt
ol sccing whcthcr will to powcr might not do bcttcr. (Tc latc ol this cxpcrimcnt will bc
discusscd in dctail in Chaptcr :6.)
On Sal.ation.
+6
Tc lact that Erl osung, salvation or rcdcmption, is a rcligious word
brings to thc lorc, yct again, thc lact that Zarathustra is intcndcd as a rcligious tcxt. 8oth
in traditional Christianity and in Schopcnhaucrs mystical synthcsis ol Christianity and
8uddhism, salvation consists in asccnt lrom thc mundanc world ol pain to a supcrnatural
rcalm ol bliss. Nictzschc, wc havc sccn, lrom his pious youth onwards, ycarns lor salvation,
lor a world madc, not simply tolcrablc, but, likc thc ultimatc world ol Christianity, perfect.
!n Te ntichrist hc says that thc most spiritual human bcings arc thosc who can arm that
thc world is pcrlcct,
+
and in Part !\ ol Zarathustra, in a statc ol strangc drunkcnncss
causcd by lumcs lrom a grapcvinc, Zarathustra docs, lor a momcnt, cxpcricncc thc world as
pcrlcct.
+8
Zarathustra rcjccts, ol coursc, thc supcrnatural. His task, thcrclorc, is to show
how salvation, pcrlcction, bliss, can bc discovcrcd within thc conncs ol naturalism, how
thc kingdom ol hcavcn can bc discovcrcd in thc hcart.

hunchback tells Zarathustra he must cure the cripples if he is to con.ince the people of his
teaching. Not so, Zarathustra replies. If one takes a.ay the hunch from the hunchback one takes
a.ay his spirit. Tis rcvcals Nictzschcs basic stratcgy: thcodicy showing that problcmatic
phcnomcna arc rcally blcssings in disguisc, showing that, as thc notcbooks put it, Furics
that is just a bad word lor thc graccs.
+
Tc rcst ol thc spccch shows us how to pcrlorm
thc thcodicy.
I .alk among men as . . . o.er a battlefield or butcher-field. (Here, surely, Nietzsche is experienc-
ing one of his post-traumatic ashbacks to the stinking body-parts on the battleeld of ! orth
(pp. : abo.e).) E.ery.here I see only fragments, limbs and terrible accidents but no human
being. !e must compose into one, poeticize into a unity, all that is fragment, riddle and terrible
accident. !e must learn to .ill back.ards so as to recreate all It .as as Tus I .ill it.
Tc Gay Science has alrcady told us what it is to will backwards: it is to narratc oncs
lilc so that cvcrything that happcns turns out lor thc bcst, turns out to bc somcthing
that must not bc missing lrom thc Bildungsroman ol oncs lilc: thc story ol oncs spiritual
dcvclopmcnt towards thc goal ol bccoming thc pcrson who, according to oncs idcal, onc is
(pp. 6 abovc). !n narrating oncs lilc in this way onc is, ol coursc, giving it unity, com
posing into onc all that was prcviously mcaninglcss accidcnt. Apparcnt accidcnts bccomc
parts ol pcrsonal providcncc. To authcntic sclvcs accidcnts ncvcr happcn. For thc rcst,
cvcrything is an accidcnt.
Vhat Zarathustra outlincs hcrc is thc concept ol salvation: what onc would havc to do
to rcdccm oncs lilc and sincc that lilc is livcd, incxtricably, in the .orld thc history ol

!n scction ol Te ntichrist, as wc shall scc, Nictzschc says that lor thc historical Jcsus thc king
dom ol hcavcn is not abovc us but is rathcr a statc ol thc hcart. Tough hc calls Jcsus a d ecadent,
in this rcspcct, it sccms to mc, hc is in prolound agrccmcnt with him.
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc world as a wholc. Tis, howcvcr, docs not at all mcan that hc (or Nictzschc) is capablc
ol carrying out thc task ol rcdcmption. And in lact thc nal two spccchcs ol Part !! makc
it clcar that, as yct, hc cannot. For what thcy rcvcal is his disgust at cvcn thc highcst and
bcst ol thosc with whom hc is compcllcd to sharc his world, his inability to rcdccm thcm.
Tis inability cxprcsscs itscll as his inability to will, or cvcn uttcr, thc thought ol thc ctcrnal
rcturn. Vhat this shows is that ctcrnal rcturn is just a dramatic cxprcssion ol rcdcmption.
Rcdcmption, salvation, nding thc world pcrlcct, amor fati, cmbracing thc ctcrnal rcturn,
arc onc and all simply dicrcnt cxprcssions ol thc samc thing.
Zarathustra Part III
S
incc Zarathustras spiritual dcvclopmcnt thc Bildungsroman ol his lilc is not yct
complctc, hc must rcturn to thc solitudc ol his mountaintop lor lurthcr rccction. Part
!!! (publishcd in April, +88) discovcrs himcn routc lromthc 8lcsscd !slcs to thc mountain.
(Noticc how Zarathustras toing and lroing bctwccn sca and mountain rcccts thc lilc
cyclc ol his lathcr.)
On the !ision and the Fiddle.
+o
!ith great diculty Zarathustra nally manages to articulate
his most abysmal thought, though only by reporting it as the content of a .ision. Te gate called
(present) Moment has t.o paths leading from it, one to the past the other to the future. But
actually they are one and the same path. Time is a circle. nd because e.ery e.ent is knotted to
a cause, .hat happens no. must ha.e happened an innite number of times before for example,
this spider in this moonlight. fter Zarathustra has nished explaining his .ision, the ho.l of a
dog is heard. nd then the scene changes. young shepherd is con.ulsed by a black snake hanging
out of his mouth (as Nietzsche often .as by .omit). fter a ferocious struggle he succeeds in biting
o its head and jumps up laughing as no human being has e.er laughed before.
To undcrstand thc contcnt ol thc vision, think ol a modcl train with an incxhaustiblc
battcry in ctcrnal motion on a circular track: sincc thc carriagc nowpassing undcr thc bridgc
callcd Momcnt is knottcd to thc cnginc in lront ol it, that samc carriagc has passcd undcr
thc bridgc an innitc numbcr ol timcs alrcady and will do so an innitc numbcr ol timcs
in thc luturc. Tc spccch indicatcs that thc idca ol ctcrnal rcturn is capablc ol bcing takcn
in two ways: it can bc thc causc ol a caninc howl and a snakc ol black bilc, or it can
bc a thought that gcncratcs thc joylul laughtcr ol thc supcrman, gcncratcs thc words ol
Te Gay Science, ncvcr havc ! hcard anything morc divinc (p. 6 abovc). Vhy should
ctcrnal rcturn supposing onc discovcrcd it to bc truc havc thc capacity to gcncratc both
ol thcsc rcactions:
Vhy, rst ol all, might somconc Zarathustra, lor cxamplc, lor at lcast most ol thc
work nd thc ctcrnal rcturn abysmal: Not, lct us bc clcar, bccausc ol thc incrcdiblc tcdium
ol living thc vcry samc lilc ovcr and ovcr again. Sincc ! now havc no mcmory ol a prcvi
ous cxistcncc, wcrc my exact lilc to rccur ! would similarly havc no mcmory ol a prcvious
cxistcncc.
Christianity, as wcll as most othcr world rcligions, think ol salvation, whcthcr ol thc
individual or thc world, as a blisslul statc which brings history, in at lcast thc ordinary
scnsc, to an cnd. Timc is, as it wcrc, an arrow which rcachcs thc targct and thcn stops. 8ut
il timc is a circlc thcn thcrc is no such cnd ol timc. Tis is thc potcntially abysmal aspcct
ol ctcrnal rcturn: in cancclling thc arrow, thc circlc canccls thc salvation that has always
bccn bclicvcd in. Tcrc is no nal solution to thc riddlc ol lilc.
Zarathustra

:
8ut supposc that wc can nd salvation in lilc. Supposc wc can rcdccm, turn to gold
(p. abovc), cvcrything painlul and problcmatic that has happcncd: Tcn our world is
already pcrlcct, salvation has bccn achicvcd, and wc havc no nccd lor any othcr kind ol
salvation. Tc kingdom ol hcavcn is here and no., so that wc havc no nccd ol a kingdom
somcwhcrc clsc and in thc luturc. Having lallcn in lovc with thc circlc, wc losc all dcsirc lor
thc arrow. !n somc uncxplaincd way, thc young shcphcrd has pcrlormcd thc grcat thcodicy
and so madc thc transition lrom nausca to joy.
Before Sunrise.
++
OHea.en abo.e, so pure, so deep . . . into your height I cast myself that is my
depth . . . my innocence . . . Te God is .eiled by his beauty . . . together .e . . . learnt to climb abo.e
oursel.es . . . and to smile do.n cloudlessly from luminous eyes and far-o distances, .hile beneath
us constraint, and purpose, and guilt, stream like rain. t drifting clouds I am aggrie.ed . . . they
take from you and me . . . the enormous and unbounded Yea- and men-saying . . . blesser I ha.e
become and a Yea-sayer . . . But this is my blessing: to stand o.er each and e.ery thing as its o.n
hea.en, as its rounded roof, its azure bell and eternal security, and blessed is he .ho blesses thus.
For all things are baptised in the fount of eternity and are beyond good and e.il . . . Te .orld is
deep, deeper than e.er the day has thought.
Two aspccts ol this passagc ol, as Ecce Homo says, divinc tcndcrncss
+:
arc ol crucial
importancc. Tc rst is that in it, Zarathustra, lor a momcnt, has bccomc a Ycasaycr,
had achicvcd an cmcrald happincss. For a momcnt, hc sharcs in mcrsons cxpcricncc ol
nding all things protablc, all days holy, and all mcn divinc. For a momcnt hc can lovc
thc ctcrnal rcturn. Tc sccond important lcaturc is thc stylc and lccling ol thc passagc
ccstatic, ionysian. Ecce Homo makcs this cxplicit: 8clorc Sunrisc is thc dithyramb ol a
ionysus.
+
ionysus, supprcsscd throughout Nictzschcs positivist pcriod, rclcrs us back
to Te Birth of Tragedy and to thc mctaphysical comlort lor thc sucring ol lilc brought
by ionysian consciousncss.
+
l coursc, sincc Nictzschc has now rcjcctcd thc mctaphys
ical world, has rcjcctcd idcalism in lavour ol naturalism, thc ionysian can no longcr bc
conccivcd in thc way it was in thc carly pcriod. 8ut thcrc must, noncthclcss, bc a link.
!n Te Birth, thc ionysian statc consistcd in two kinds ol transccndcncc: ol naturc and ol
individuality, thc lattcr bcing accountcd thc sourcc ol all sucring.
+
Sincc thc possibility ol
thc lormcr is now rcjcctcd, thc ionysian, as conccivcd in Nictzschcs maturc pcriod, must
consist in thc lattcr. Tis indccd is what Nictzschc says. !n a notc lrom +888 hc says that
thc word ionysus mcans an urgc to unity rcaching our bcyond pcrsonality, thc cvcryday,
a passionatc painlul ovcrowing.
+6
How can thcrc bc a ionysian transccndcncc ol individuality which is yct no longcr
thought ol as a bchindthcworldly transccndcncc to somcthing mctaphysical: Latcr on in
Part !!!, Zarathustra dcscribcs himscll as a soul which, ccing lrom itscll, rctricvcs itscll
in thc widcst sphcrc,
+
a soul, that is, which rcdiscovcrs itscll not bchind but rathcr
in thc totality ol all cxistcncc. And this, ! suggcst, is what happcns in thc scction undcr
considcration: lor a momcnt, Zarathustra becomes thc allcmbracing azurc bcll ol thc sky
you arc my dcpth hc tclls it bccomcs thc totality ol all things.
8clorc Sunrisc rcturns, thcn, to thc idca that cnlightcnmcnt consists in transccnd
cncc ol individuality. Zarathustra ocrs us, as it wcrc, transccndcncc in a ncw kcy. Lou
Salom c dcscribcd this as Nictzschcs uncquivocal plungc into thc ctcrnal riddlc ol mys
ticism.
+8
8ut though on thc right lincs, thc implication that ionysian transccndcncc
takcs us bcyond, or cvcn against, rcason is, ! think, mistakcn. For Nictzschcs sobcrly
rational philosophising, too, tclls us that, lrom an ultimatc point ol vicw, individuality is an
illusion. !l, as wc havc sccn on numcrous occasions, thc cvcryday scll thinks that it acts
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
and is rcsponsiblc lor thosc actions, thcn it is dcludcd. Vhat is rcally rcsponsiblc lor my
actions, in a world complctcly knottcd togcthcr by causc and ccct, is thc total causal his
tory ol thc world, and lrom this it lollows that thc cnlightcncd usc ol thc ! is to apply it to
that total history. As T.ilight of the Idols will put it, rational insight, just as much as poctic
ccstasy, consists in sccing that onc bclongs to thc wholc, onc is thc wholc.
+
Vc havc, thcn, a conncxion bctwccn suprcmc armation, willing thc ctcrnal rcturn, on
thc onc hand, and thc ionysian statc ol (nonmctaphysical) transccndcncc ol individual
ity, on thc othcr.
+o
Tis is a conncxion Nictzschc draws in many placcs. nly, says Te Gay
Sciences 8ook \, thc ionysian god or man can achicvc an unqualicd armation ol lilc
its tcrriblc and qucstionablc aspcct would dclcat any lcsscr bcing.
++
Tc unboundcd Yca
and Amcnsaying is, says Ecce Homo, thc conccpt ol ionysus.
+:
Tc hard qucstion, how
cvcr, is .hy Nictzschc makcs this conncxion. Vhy can thc ctcrnal rcturn ncvcr bc willcd
lrom an cvcryday, individual pcrspcctivc: Vhy is it only possiblc lor thosc who widcn thcir
souls so as to bccomc thc totality ol, in Nictzschcs prclcrrcd languagc bccoming:
!n 8ook !\ ol thc Gay Science wc wcrc told to usc our thcorctical and practical skill in
intcrprcting and arranging cvcnts to discovcr a pcrsonal providcncc in our livcs, a narrativc
which discloscs cvcrything that happcns as bcing lor thc bcst.
+
Hcrc thcrc is no hint that
thc rcdcmption ol thc past ncccssary to arming thc ctcrnal rcturn rcquircd anything morc
than thc ordinary, individual pcrspcctivc on thc world. 8ut, thcn, in thc vcry ncxt scction,
Nictzschc dcsccnds into mclancholy at thc thought ol dcath: thc thought ol how all this
thirsty lilc will soon bc so silcnt, how cvcryoncs shadow stands bchind him as his dark
lcllow travcllcr.
+
(Noticc how thc shadow in Te !anderer and His Shado. turns out
to bc dcath.) Tis suggcsts that, so lar as (thc original)
+
Gay Science can scc, dcath, and
my knowlcdgc ol its incvitability, constitutcs an insupcrablc objcction to willing thc ctcrnal
rcturn.
And, ol coursc, it docs. !l ! am thc passionatc lilcarmcr Nictzschc wants mc to bc
thcn thc last thing ! want to do is to dic. (No onc wants to abandon a tcrric party that
is still in lull swing.) For thc hcalthy lilcarmcr, oncs own dcath can ne.er turn out lor
thc bcst. For an unhappy lilcdcnicr, ol coursc, dcath may wcll bc lor thc bcst, but lor him
thcrc arc a myriad ol othcr obstaclcs to arming thc circlc. cath, thcn, is thc y in thc
ointmcnt: bccausc ol thc omniprcscnt shadow ol dcath thc circlc cannot bc armcd lrom
thc ordinary pcrspcctivc but dcmands thc cxtraordinary: transccndcncc to idcntication
with thc totality. From that point ol vicw thc situation is translormcd: thc dcath ol that
individual ! oncc thought ! was appcars, now, as a triviality. And a ncccssity, too, sincc ! scc
that thc dcath ol thc old is a prcrcquisitc ol thc birth ol thc ncw.
!n Zarathustra, wc havc sccn, Nictzschc wantcd to writc thc lounding book ol a ncw
rcligion. 8ut any rcligion worth thc namc has to havc somcthing prolound and comlorting
to say about dcath. For dcath is, lor human bcings, thc summum malum, thc worst cvil,
our most primal lcar. For Nictzschc, in particular, it must havc that status sincc it is thc
ultimatc ncgation ol what hc is incrcasingly coming to idcntily as thc human csscncc, thc
will to powcr. No cxistcncc, no powcr!
!n Te Birth of Tragedy Nictzschc did indccd addrcss this primal nccd: sccing through
thc illusion ol individuality to thc rcalisation ol oncs idcntity with thc Primal Unity was
thc mctaphysical comlort lor, abovc all, mortality. 8ut thcn, as hc cntcrcd his positivist
pcriod, hc bccamc silcnt on thc topic ol dcath, or, whcn lorccd to spcak, tritc and/or cvasivc.
Human, ll-Too-Human, it is truc, cxpcricnccd a momcnt ol nostalgia lor his youthlul idca
Zarathustra


that grcat art could assurc us ol ctcrnal lilc: 8ccthovcns Ninth makcs thc rcccptivc pcrson
lccl that hc is hovcring abovc thc carth in a domc ol stars with thc drcam ol immortality
in his hcart (p. :+ abovc). (Noticc that thc domc ol stars links 8ccthovcns drcam to
thc azurc bcll ol 8clorc Sunrisc.) 8ut this is quickly dcbunkcd as thc kind ol scntimcntal
backsliding that tcsts thc lrcc spirits intcllcctual probity.
Te Gay Sciences discussion ol thc mclancholy thought ol dcath is as cvasivc as thc pos
itivist works: thc bcst it can think ol to say is that wc should try to ignorc thc clcphant in
thc sittingroom, try not . . . thinking thc thought ol dcath.
+6
vcn Part ! ol Zarathustra
rcmains supcrcial about dcath. As wc saw, it rccommcnds that wc dic at thc right timc
by opting lor thc lrcc dcath as il choosing to cnd oncs lilc wcrc ol no morc momcnt
or diculty than choosing to canccl oncs subscription to Time magazinc. 8ut nally, in
8clorc Sunrisc, hc knows how to say somcthing dccp and instructivc about dcath .ithout
lapsing into supcrnaturalism, somcthing that is, in lact, implicit in thc lundamcntals ol his
philosophy. !n ccct, and pcrhaps with thcir hclp, hc lollows both Malwida (p. :+ abovc)
and Lou (p. o abovc) into panthcism: dcath is ol no momcnt to thc cnlightcncd sincc
oncs truc idcntity is thc ccstatic, panthcistic All. 8y bccoming thc azurc bcll that is thc
lount ol |thc cnlightcncd souls| ctcrnity, Zarathustra achicvcs thc immortality Nictzschc
was lorccd to ridiculc by thc limitcd pcrspcctivc ol his positivist pcriod. For thc cnlightcncd,
lcar ol dcath is rcplaccd by thc ctcrnal sccurity ol a soul that has cxpandcd into thc widcst
sphcrc.
Zarathustra Part IV

n January +8, +88, Nictzschc wrotc Schmcitzncr that Zarathustra was nally com
plctc.
+
Tc lollowing Novcmbcr, howcvcr, hc announccd that hc was working on
a lourth part (and projccting cvcn a lth and sixth part, on thc grounds that Zarathustra
would allow him no pcacc until hc had sccn him through to his dcath).
+8
!n Fcbruary ol
thc lollowing ycar hc announccs thc complction ol Part !\ as a sublimc nalc to thc wholc
work, but onc that was mcant only lor privatc distribution among lricnds, not lor publi
cation. !n April +88 lortyvc copics wcrc printcd and privatcly distributcd to thc usual
suspccts plus, among othcrs, onc Hclcnc ruskowitz, ol whom morc anon. !nitially, Nictz
schcs purportcd rcluctancc to publish sccms to havc bccn a mattcr ol making a virtuc out
ol ncccssity. For, givcn that hc could not contcmplatc publishing anything morc with thc
appalling Schmcitzncr, hc did not actually ha.e a publishcr.
+
8y +886, howcvcr, his lcttcrs
makc clcar that hc gcnuincly did not want to publish Part !\: on account ol its cxtrcmcly
blasphcmous naturc, hc lcarcd thc policc and thc possiblc loss ol his pcnsion.
+6o
As wcll
as gratuitously ocnding pcoplc likc his mothcr, Part !\, hc lcarcd, might rcsult in thc
banning ol thc wholc ol Zarathustra.
Scholars oltcn try to cxplain thc nonappcarancc ol Part !\ in thc supposcdly complctc
Zarathustra ol +886 (thc appcarancc ol Parts ! to !!! togcthcr lor thc rst timc) by rclcrcncc
to an allcgcd lalling o in thc quality ol thc writing in comparison with thc rst thrcc parts.
Vhilc it is ccrtainly truc that thc stylc is dierent to that ol thc rst parts biblical solcmnity
has bccn rcplaccd by burlcsquc ! myscll nd no cvidcncc ol dcclinc. Morc importantly,
thcrc is no cvidcncc that Nictzschc was doubtlul about thc quality ol Part !\.
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tcrc is a plcasing symmctry to thc work. Vandcring around in thc vicinity ol his cavc
thc by now whitchaircd Zarathustra mccts cight highcr mcn prcsumably candidatcs
lor thc status ol bcing thc lrcc spirits lor whom Nictzschcs books havc bccn writtcn
and invitcs all ol thcm to a lcast in his cavc. Tough thcy turn out to lall short ol his high
cxpcctations, thcy arc, noncthclcss, all gcnuincly highcr than thc casizcd rabblc ol mo
dcrnitys last mcn. Tc cight arc: thc soothsaycr, a Schopcnhaucrian gurc who says that
lilc is mcaninglcss, two kings (thcsc arc trcatcd as a singlc pcrson), rcactionary gurcs who
rant and ravc against thc rabblc and thc lack ol hicrarchy and rcspcct in thc modcrn world
(thc manncr and mattcr ol thc rant sounds suspiciously likc Nictzschc himscll ), thc con
scicntious ol spirit, a scholarly typc intcrcstcd only in truth, no mattcr how narrow, thc
magician, an actor in thc scnsc ol lakc, clcarly a parody ol Vagncr, thc last popc,

who
knows that God is dcad and suggcsts that it is Christian picty (towards truth) which lor
bids both Zarathustra and himscll to bclicvc in him any longcr, thc voluntary bcggar, dis
covcrcd prcaching to thc cows, a kind ol Jcsus gurc, thc shadow, who dcscribcs himscll
as a wandcrcr, and nally thc uglicst man, thc sight ol whosc uglincss causcd God to dic.
Fairly clcarly, thcsc arc all aspccts ol Nictzschcs own pcrsonality and history. To thc cxtcnt
Zarathustra nds thc highcr mcn not high cnough, thcy rcprcscnt aspccts ol his lilc and
pcrsonality Nictzschc nowrcgards himscll as having ovcrcomc: hc was a Schopcnhaucrian,
hc rantcd and ravcd against modcrnity, hc was a scholar ol mcaninglcss philological minu
tia, hc was a Vagncrian, hc was lorccd to givc up God by Christian truthlulncss, hc livcd
a lilc ol voluntary povcrty (and also, as wc shall scc, prcachcd to cows), hc has many ugly
parts to his soul, manilcstcd cspccially in thc Salom c aair, and hc was, in his positivist
pcriod, a Vandcrcr and a shadow ol his lormcr scll.
Te Ass Festival
T
hc highcr mcn all asscmblc as instructcd in Zarathustras cavc. Rcturning to thc cavc
himscll, hc hcars a cry ol distrcss that sccms to bc comc lrom thcir combincd chorus.
Zarathustra tclls thcm to lightcn up, that what thcy nccd is somc dancing and chccrlul
buooncry to makc thcm laugh.
+6+
Finding thc air in thc cavc opprcssivc, hc gocs lor a
walk. Rcturning, hc hcars thc sound ol giggling and noticcs thc smcll ol inccnsc (or pcrhaps
marijuana) and burning pinc concs coming lrom his cavc. !nsidc hc discovcrs thc highcr
mcn worshipping an ass. Tc high point ol thc Ass Fcstival is a dcsccnt into a mood ol
mock solcmnity, which is sung a litany in praisc ol thc ass, who is trcatcd as thc incarnation
ol God. !t bcgins, Amcn: and praisc and honour and wisdom and thanks and strcngth bc
unto our God, to which thc ass prcdictably rcsponds, YcaAh.
+6:

Historically thc Ass Fcstival, othcrwisc known as thc Fcast ol Fools, was a carnivalcsquc
lctting o ol stcam which happcncd in mcdicval uropc, particularly in Francc, usually in
midwintcr. Condcmncd, though usually somcwhat hallhcartcdly, by thc Church hicrarchy,
it involvcd such things as playing dicc and cating black (i.c., blood) sausagc on thc altar (a

cscribcd as a tall man in black with a haggard, palc lacc, hc looks suspiciously likc Franz Liszt,
particularly as hc appcars in thc wcllknown +8 portrait by Hcnri Lchmann. Sincc Liszt bccamc
a Catholic abb c, this looks likc a piccc ol incidcntal naughtincss on Nictzschcs part.
Zarathustra


parody ol thc ucharist), wcaring masks, drcssing up as womcn or animals, and, altcr thc
ccrcmony, raging round town in a gcncrally riotous manncr. Not inlrcqucntly thc day cndcd
in minor bloodshcd.
!n thc ccrcmony itscll thc ass was thc ccntrc ol attcntion. Lcd into thc cathcdral, oltcn
covcrcd by a goldcn cloth with its lour corncrs hcld by thc cathcdrals lour most cmincnt
canons, it would bc thc objcct ol hymns ol praisc.
Tc burning pinc concs mcntioncd in Nictzschcs Ass Fcstival comc lrom a dcscription
ol a particular vcrsion ol thc mcdicval lcstival by thc cightccnthccntury aphorist Gcorg
Lichtcnbcrg, an author Nictzschc kncw wcll, and was rcading shortly bclorc writing Part
!\ ol Zarathustra.
+6
Tc thirtccnthccntury vcrsion ol thc lcstival Lichtcnbcrg dcscribcs
is a rcprcscntation ol thc \irgin Marys ight into gypt. A young woman rcprcscnting
Mary would bc lcd into thc cathcdral, lollowcd by a proccssion ol clcrgy and congrcgation,
and thcn thc Mass would bc rcad with grcat solcmnity. Altcr cvcry scction, howcvcr, thc
rclrain was not Amcn but, rathcr, YcaAh. And il thc donkcy itscll joincd in so much thc
bcttcr. At thc cnd ol thc Mass, instcad ol thc lamiliar blcssing, thc pricst YcaAhcd thrcc
timcs and thc congrcgation did thc samc. Tc ccrcmony cndcd with a hymn ol praisc to
thc ass, hall in Latin and hall in Frcnch. !t containcd thc lincs d.entabat asinuspulcher
et fortissimus (Hcrc comcs thc ass, bcautilul and strong).
+6
Nictzschc quotcs thcsc lincs as
a lovcly motto lrom an old mystcry in a lcttcr to von Gcrsdor writtcn within a lcw days
ol thc complction ol Part !\ ol Zarathustra,
+6
and thc lollowing ycar in Beyond Good and
E.il.
+66

iscovcring thcm cclcbrating thc Ass Fcstival translorms Zarathustras attitudc to thc
highcr mcn. Tough thcy arc still not rcally what hc has bccn waiting lor (thcy arc not,
in Nictzschcs othcr languagc, lrcc spirits ol thc rst rank), thcir bravc nonscnsc and ncw
joylulncss plcascs him cnough lor him to call thcm his ncw lricnds. Two clcmcnts ol
thc historical lcstival cxplain, ! think, Zarathustras altcrcd attitudc. First, it is wondcrlully
blasphcmous, quitc at odds with thc agcolgloomypicty stcrcotypc ol thc Middlc Agcs.
Tis, ol coursc, would havc grcatly appcalcd to, as hc now rcgardcd himscll, thc Antichrist.
And sccond, it rcprcscnts a continuation into thc Middlc Agcs ol thc ionysian lcstivals ol
thc ancicnt world. Tis continuity is rccogniscd in Te Birth of Tragedys dcscription ol thc
dancing and singing crowds cclcbrating thc lcstivals ol St. John and St. \itus as ionysian
cnthusiasts, rcincarnations ol thc ionysian chorus ol Grcck tragcdy.
+6
Givcn, as wc now
know, that stcpping out ol Apollonian sobricty (thc ordinary pcrspcctivc on thc world)
and into ionysian intoxication (thc cxtraordinary pcrspcctivc) is ncccssary to willing thc
ctcrnal rcturn, onc can scc why thc highcr mcn, cvcn il thcir ionysianism is a momcntary
drunkcnncss rathcr than an cnduring insight, at lcast point in a hopclul dircction.

Zarathustra cnds with an !ntoxicatcd Song,
,+68
clcarly anothcr ionysian dithyramb.
All joy wants ctcrnity, wants rcturn, sings Zarathustra. 8ut sincc hc also sings just now
my world bccamc pcrlcct, wc lcarn that, nally, hc is ablc, at lcast lor a momcnt, to will

At its conclusion, thc !ntoxicatcd Songs poctic prosc dcvclops into a propcr pocm. Tis appcars
on thc mcmorial stonc crcctcd in +oo on Sils Marias Chast c pcninsula (whcrc Nictzschc had
wishcd to bc buricd) by Nictzschcs organist lricnd, Carl Fuchs, and thc conccrt pianist, Valthcr
Lampc (scc Platc :6). As alrcady notcd, Gustav Mahlcr sct thc samc words to music in his Tird
Symphony.
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc ctcrnal rcturn. Tcn day brcaks and Tc Sign
+6
appcars: a laughing lion surroundcd
by dovcs. Having sobcrcd up, thc highcr mcn run away.
Tc dovcs signily, prcsumably, that though thc (rathcr C. S. Lcwisish) lion is a crcc
warrior, his war is without smokc or gunpowdcr.
+o
Hc is, prcsumably, at lcast a rcla
tivc ol thc lion ol thc Trcc Mctamorphoscs with which Zarathustra bcgan (pp. 6o
abovc) and, as such, a sign ol thc child, thc gcnuinc crcator. Tat hc laughs rathcr than
roars, howcvcr, suggcsts that hc is a morc ccctivc lion than his rclativc sincc, as Nictzschc
obscrvcs, Not by wrath docs onc kill but by laughtcr.
++
Tis suggcsts what is wrong with
thc highcr mcn with thc prcvious stagcs ol Nictzschcs spiritual journcy that hc (or at
lcast Zarathustra) has now ovcrcomc. !n thosc prcvious stagcs hc combatcd thc dccadcncc
ol modcrn culturc with a loaming fury that shows him still to bc a part ol that culturc. nly
whcn onc has ovcrcomc angcr, only whcn onc nds thc old God ludicrous rathcr than cvil,
has onc gcnuincly movcd on. nly thcn is onc is onc gcnuincly lrcc to crcatc ncw gods.
20
Nietzsches Circle of Women
P
~v:s !! and !!! ol Zarathustra wcrc writtcn, wc saw, in Nicc, whcrc Nictzschc had
dccidcd to spcnd thc cntirc wintcr ol +88. Tis migratory lilcstylc summcrs
in Sils altcrnating with wintcrs in Nicc was dcsigncd to producc thc pcrmancnt,
mild wintcr
+
hc now considcrcd bcst lor his hcalth and would last almost to thc cnd ol his
productivc lilc. Not that, at rst, hc likcd Nicc at all: a poor imitation ol Paris, a prctcntious
hallbigcity incrcdibly dccicnt in lorcst, shadc and quictncss
:
was his initial imprcssion.
Tc scarch lor silcncc drovc him to his third movc within as many months, taking him
lrom thc \illa Mazollini to thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc in thc Pctitc Ruc St. ticnnc, which
rccommcndcd itscll particularly on account ol thc Savorin lamilys cxccllcnt Swiss cuisinc.
]oseph Paneth
M
ost ol this rst wintcr in Nicc was punctuatcd by rcgular visits lrom Joscph Pancth.
Pancths rccord ol thcsc cncountcrs rccalls Nictzschc rclcrring to thc antiScmitic
movcmcnt as a swinishncss that had invadcd cvcn his own lamily, and as insisting on
his Polish anccstry: his surnamc, Nictzschc glcclully claimcd, camc lrom Niecki, mcaning
dcstroycr or nihilist. (vcrbcck, too, rccords Nictzschc as harping on at rathcr tcdious
lcngth on thc samc thcmc, but suggcsts that it was morc a conccit than a scrious bclicl.)
Pancth rccalls Nictzschc saying that his lcttcrs should ncvcr bc publishcd, and that hc would
rcquirc his lricnds, altcr his dcath, only to rclcasc lor publication thosc hc himscll had
sclcctcd and prcparcd lor that purposc. A man, hc said, should not bc rcquircd to appcar in
public in his shirtslccvcs. Tc convcrsation thcn turncd to thc conncxion bctwccn gcnius
and madncss. Tc similarity, suggcstcd Nictzschc, is that in both cascs onc is obscsscd by a
singlc idca. And hc quotcd Gocthcs bon mot, Man strivcs only so long as hc is crazy. !n thc
lth ol thcir cncountcrs in carly March, Nictzschc discloscd as his lundamcntal aim thc
improvcmcnt ol thc human racc and culturc, an improvcmcnt hc callcd thc supcrman.
nly wcak agcs, hc addcd, strivc lor plcasurc, strong oncs strivc lor goals. !n thcir nal
mccting at thc cnd ol March, Nictzschc attackcd thc Gcrmans as a scrvilc racc always

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
rcady to sacricc thcir individuality to thc supposcd good ol socicty as a wholc. Cataloguing
thc lurthcr crimcs ol thc Gcrmans, hc complaincd that Luthcr had scriously dclaycd thc
collapsc ol Christianity and that it was thc Gcrmans who wcrc rcsponsiblc lor thwarting
Napolcons hcroic attcmpts to crcatc a unitcd uropc.

Resa von Schirnhofer

!
nitially planning to lcavc Nicc lor \cnicc at thc bcginning ol April, +88, Nictzschc
rcmaincd in his wintcr quartcrs until thc twcnticth on account ol a lcttcr lrom Rcsa
von Schirnholcr (scc Platc :), whosc mothcrly lricnd, Malwida von Mcyscnbug, had
suggcstcd shc visit him. Nictzschc cnthusiastically wclcomcd thc proposal with thc rcsult
that shc visitcd him lrom April to April +:.
8orn in +8 (shc dicd in +8 at thc agc ol ), Rcsa arrivcd in Zurich in +88: to study
lor hcr Ph.., which shc cvcntually complctcd in +88. (At thc timc, Zurich was thc only
Gcrmanspcaking univcrsity to admit womcn.) arlicr in +88:, shc had mct Malwida in
8ayrcuth at thc rst pcrlormancc ol Parsifal, whcrc shc also mct Lou, whom shc did not
likc vcry much. Lous dialcctical virtuosity, shc thought, oltcn lapscd into sophism, and,
as notcd, hcr display ol thc whip photograph to all and sundry shc considcrcd poor tastc
(p. abovc).
Nictzschc provcd a charming host throughout hcr visit, Rcsas initial awc quickly disap
pcaring bclorc his modcst lricndlincss and thc lamiliarity ol his prolcssorial manncr. Hc
took hcr to a bullght (in which thc bull was not allowcd to bc killcd) and on his lavouritc
walks. nc ol thcsc, a climb up Mont 8oron, was particularly mcmorablc:
!t was a hcavcnly day |Rcsa rccords| with thc Mistral whipping cvcrything up as, altcr
a short tram ridc, wc bcgan to climb up thc mountain. Nictzschc was in a dithyrambic
mood praising thc wind as a rcdccmcr lrom carthly gravity: lor him thcrc was somc kind
ol hcalthy rclcasc in thc gusts ol wind. At a ccrtain hcight, Frcnch scntrics blockcd our
path . . . to thc lorticd summit. n this lcvcl spot wc lound a simplc osteria |chcap cal c|
with woodcn tablcs and bcnchcs undcr a pcrgola. Vc sat down amidst thc hcavcnly moun
tain naturc. !t altcrnatcd picturcsqucly bctwccn thc surrounding hills and, bclow us, thc
gracclul coastlinc with its charming bays. Tc bays wcrc surroundcd by a crcsccnt ol grccn,
lrom which clustcrs ol houscs glcamcd lorth likc bright owcrs. Hcrc ! had my rst tastc
ol \crmouth di Torino which Nictzschc pourcd lor mc . . . in a sparkling mood and lull
ol humorous inspirations. Tc guardcd mountain was thc occasion lor a scrics ol vcrscs
which tumblcd out lrom him onc altcr thc othcr. ! was amazcd and bcgan thcn to put in
my pcnnyworth. !t was no improvisation ol any high art but amusing doggcrcl that showcd
mc an unanticipatcd Nictzschc.

Nictzschc told Rcsa shc should not bc ocndcd by Zarathustras lamous whip passagc,
which, hcr rccollcctions add, at this stagc in thcir acquaintancc shc was not inclincd to do,
taking it as a poctic gcncralisation applying not to all womcn but only to particular cascs.
(lizabcth, intcrprcting thc whip rcmark in thc samc, probably mistakcn, way, makcs thc
samc claim that thc rcmark applics only to ccrtain womcn who stand in nccd ol a manly
hand to kccp thcm in thcir propcr bounds it is not hard to gucss whom shc has in mind
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,
as a suitablc casc lor trcatmcnt.) n anothcr occasion hc took hcr lor a walk along thc
Promcnadc dcs Anglais and pointcd out Corsica, just visiblc as a smudgc on thc horizon.
Tis lcd to a disquisition on Napolcon, whom Nictzschc rcgardcd as intcrmcdiatc bctwccn
contcmporary humanity and thc supcrman. And hc pointcd out that Napolcon had thc
samc pulsc bcat as himscll sixty bcats pcr minutc.
Nictzschc was ablc to rclax with Rcsa as with lcw othcr pcoplc, a droll onc who makcs
mc laugh a lot, hc dcscribcd hcr to vcrbcck.

!t is truc that hc also complaincd that shc

was not vcry good looking, indccd downright ugly,
6
but, likcly, it was prcciscly thc lack ol
scxual tcnsion that lightcncd his hcart, cnablcd him to rclax and, as with his sistcr, makc
up silly vcrscs.
Te Other Nietzsche

n onc occasion during thc Nicc visit, howcvcr, Rcsa cxpcricnccd a quitc dicrcnt
pcrsona:
As Nictzschc rosc to lcavc suddcnly his manncr changcd. Vith a rigid cxprcssion in his lacc
and looking rcluctantly all around as though somc tcrriblc dangcr thrcatcncd wcrc anyonc
to ovcrhcar his words, and putting his hand to thc mouth in ordcr to dampcn thc sound, hc
announccd to mc thc sccrct which Zarathustra had whispcrcd in Lilcs car . . . Tcrc was
somcthing bizarrc, cvcn uncanny, in thc way in which hc told mc ol thc ctcrnal rcturn
and thc cnormous wcight ol this idca. Far morc than thc contcnt ol thc idca, it was Nictz
schcs manncr ol communicating it that was alicn to mc. Anothcr Nictzschc had suddcnly
stood thcrc and tcrricd mc . . . Tcn, without cxplaining thc idca lurthcr, hc rcturncd to
his normal way ol spcaking and usual scll. ! had thc imprcssion hc had intcntionally playcd
lortissimo on thc instrumcnt ol my scnsibility to mark thc magnitudc ol his discovcry.

Tcrc arc othcr rccords ol this suddcn switch ol pcrsonality. Rcsa cxpcricnccd it again
thc lollowing August in Sils Maria (p. : bclow), and vcrbcck, too, rccords thc suddcn
switch to a solcmn whispcring in which Nictzschc discloscd thc sccrct doctrinc ol ctcrnal
rcturn.
8
!n thc lcttcrs ol this pcriod, morcovcr, thcrc bcgin to appcar occasional ashcs ol,
il not mcgalomania, at lcast grandiosity. !n Fcbruary, +88, lor cxamplc, hc claims that,
lollowing Luthcr and Gocthc, Zarathustra takcs thc nal stcp which brings thc Gcrman
languagc to pcrlcction,

and in March that his work will dividc thc history ol human
ity into two halvcs.
+o
!n March ol thc lollowing ycar hc makcs thc alrcady notcd claim
that comparcd to himscll, Christ is a supcrcial gurc (p. 8 abovc), rcmarks that it is a
pity God docs not cxist sincc thcn hc would havc at lcast onc lricnd on thc samc lcvcl as
himscll, and that it is a complctc cnigma how hc could bc biologically rclatcd to thc likcs
ol lizabcth.
++
!t sccms, thcn, that lurking within mildmanncrcd, bcspcctaclcd Fricdrich
Nictzschc was anothcr bcing (whom onc has, ol coursc, to call Zarathustra), a prophctic
gurc carrying with hima sccrct mcssagc ol worldhistorical signicancc. ! shall postponc,
lor now, lurthcr discussion ol thc signicancc ol this othcr Nictzschc. !n chaptcr :8, how
cvcr, ! shall attcnd to thc qucstion ol what light his rclativcly carly appcarancc might cast
on thc naturc and causc ol thc madncss that cngullcd him in +88.
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Meta von Salis
N
ictzschc lclt Nicc at thc cnd ol April, +88, and madc a slow journcy via \cnicc,
8ascl, and Zurich to Sils Maria. !n Zurich hc mct Rcsas lricnd and lcllow univcrsity
studcnt Mcta von Salis (+8+:). A handsomc and intclligcnt mcmbcr ol thc uppcr
Swiss aristocracy (scc Platc :8), Mcta was, likc Rcsa and thcir mutual lricnd and rolc modcl
Malwida von Mcyscnbug, a passionatc lcminist dcdicatcd to lrccing womcn (uppcrclass
womcn, at lcast) lrom thcir traditional houscwilcly bondagc. !n +88 shc complctcd hcr
Ph.. (a study ol thc mcdicval cmprcss Agncs ol Poitou), bccoming thc rst Swiss woman
to obtain a doctoratc. Shc had, shc said, littlc intcrcst in thc titlc lor its own sakc, but had
bccn dctcrmincd to complctc thc thcsis in thc intcrcst ol thc womcns qucstion.
Nictzschc admircd Mctas aristocratic manncrs, particularly thc lact that shc spokc high
Gcrman rathcr than Swiss dialcct. Shc, in turn, was bowlcd ovcr by him thc cncountcr,
shc said, cast a goldcn shimmcr ovcr thc rcst ol hcr lilc,
+:
a lilc during which shc ncvcr
abandoncd thc causc ol promoting his philosophy. (!t was Mcta who, in +8, purchascd
thc \illa Silbcrblick in Vcimar, which providcd a homc lor Nictzschc and lizabcth during
thc nal thrcc ycars ol his lilc and thc sitc lor thc Nictzschc Archivc.) Mcta would rcmain a
lricnd ol Nictzschcs lor thc rcmaindcr ol his sanity.

8ut by now, as wc know, hc had lost all

sympathy lor thc guiding idcal ol hcr lilc, womcns cmancipation. Vhcn shc tricd to movc
lrom Zurich to 8ascl to study with 8urckhardt in thc spring ol +88 and was rcjcctcd by
that still womcncxcluding univcrsity, Nictzschcs unsympathctic rcsponsc was to laugh
ovcr thc subtlcty ol thc agcnt provocatcur: shc wantcd to achicvc prcciscly what shc did, a
rcjcction, so as to incrcasc thc stock ol thc agitation.
+
Tis is thc man, rcmcmbcr, who,
in his prcvious incarnation as 8ascls dcan ol humanitics, had lought vigorously lor thc
admission ol womcn (p. ++ abovc).
Tird Summer in Sils Maria
N
ictzschc nally arrivcd in Sils Maria lor his third summcr rctrcat on July +8 and would
rcmain until Scptcmbcr :. urisch grcctcd him o thc post coach lrom Chur with
both hands outstrctchcd, to which Nictzschc rcspondcd with nally ! am homc again.
+
urisch rcgardcd Nictzschc as onc ol us. For all his cducation, Nictzschc had, as Mcta
von Salis obscrvcs, thc gilt ol simplicity (thc samc is said ol Martin Hcidcggcr), which
cnablcd him to cntcr quitc naturally into thc livcs ol uncducatcd country pcoplc. Hc
cmpathiscd, Mcta continucs, with his landlords worry that his ox would lall victim to thc
outbrcak ol lootandmouth discasc and cngagcd in animatcd convcrsation about thc com
ing harvcst. Tis was thc chicl cvcnt in thc cconomy ol thc ngadinc bccausc wintcr lccd
lor thc cattlc was absolutcly dcpcndcnt on it.
+
Nictzschc rcturncd to his lowccilingcd cavc, his dark, rcsinsccntcd, pincpancllcd
room at thc back ol thc sccond oor ol thc urisch housc. Vith thc Spartan sclldisciplinc

Sincc Mcta and hcr alrcady closc lricnd and lcllow lcminist, Hcdwig Kym, wcrc still sharing a
housc in ++o, thcrc was probably a hclplul abscncc ol scxual tcnsion bctwccn hcr and Nictzschc:
shc was appallcd whcn it was suggcstcd that thcy got on so wcll thcy should marry (Gilman (+8)
p. +8).
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,:
ingraincd sincc Plorta, hc would risc wcll bclorc dawn, wash himscll in cold watcr lrom thc
pitchcr, and altcr drinking somc warmmilk, work unintcrruptcdly until clcvcn. Atwohour
walk around onc ol thc lakcs would bc lollowcd by a solitary lunch at thc Alpcnrosc. Long
altcr Nictzschc had bccn ovcrtakcn by madncss, Hcrr Kr amcr, thc owncr ol thc hotcl, who,
likc urisch, rcgardcd Nictzschc as onc ol us, judgcd that his gucst had had no laults savc
lor cating too much mcat.
+6
Altcr lunch, drcsscd in a long, wcllcut brown jackct, hc would bc o on an cvcn longcr
walk, cithcr alongsidc onc ol thc lakcs or up thc Fcx \allcy as lar as its majcstic glacicr.
Somctimcs hc would bc accompanicd by a visitor but was morc oltcn alonc, armcd always
with a notcbook, a pcncil, and a grcygrccn parasol to shadc his cycs. Rcturning homc
bctwccn lour and vc, hc would immcdiatcly bcgin work again, sustaining himscll on bis
cuits, pcasant brcad, honcy, sausagc, ham, and lruit, with tca to drink which hc brcwcd in
thc littlc upstairs kitchcn. At ++ oclock hc would rctirc to bcd with a notcbook and pcncil
by his sidc to capturc night thoughts should thcy arrivc.
Tough Nictzschc avoidcd most ol Silss summcr rcsidcnts (many ol whom wcrc con
valcscing lrom somc malady, cithcr mcntal or physical), hc madc cxccptions lor two womcn
in particular. Tc rst was an cldcrly Russian spinstcr, thc Countcss Mansuro, not quitc
rccovcrcd lrom a ncrvous brcakdown. As a notquitcrightinthchcad lormcr ladyin
waiting to thc Russian Tsarina, aunt ol thc currcnt Russian ambassador in Paris, composcr,
pianist, and lormcr studcnt ol Chopin, Mansuro appcalcd simultancously to Nictzschcs
tastc lor thc obcat, thc wcllbrcd, and thc musical, so that hc bccamc cxtrcmcly attachcd
to hcr.
Helen Zimmern
T
hc sccond woman whosc company hc cnjoycd was Hclcn Zimmcrn (+86+),
Jcwish, born in Hamburg but transplantcd to London at thc agc ol lour. Fccling sorry
lor a man shc lound loncly, so tcrribly loncly,
+
shc oltcn accompanicd him on his altcr
noon walks.
8ilingual, intclligcnt, and cducatcd, Zimmcrn (whom Nictzschc had mct bricy in
8ayrcuth in +86) was chicy rcsponsiblc lor introducing Schopcnhaucr to thc nglish,
both by translating his works and by writing his rst nglishlanguagc philosophical bi
ography. Yct anothcr ol Nictzschcs lcminist lricnds, Zimmcrn told Nictzschc shc wantcd
to introducc Malwidas Memoirs of a Female Idealist to thc 8ritish.
+8
Nictzschcs attitudc to Zimmcrn, who bclongcd to his circlc ol womcn lricnds lor scvcral
summcrs in Sils, was ambiguous. n thc onc hand, knowing nowthc pain a woman holding
thc whiphand could inict, hc lclt his masculinc sccurity thrcatcncd by this protagonist
lor womcns rights.
+
Curious, hc writcs K osclitz, onc had dclcndcd oncscll wcll cnough
against womcns cmancipation: yct a paradigm ol thc littlc litcrary woman has arrivcd hcrc
to join mc.
:o
n thc othcr hand, hc rcspondcd vcry positivcly to hcr Jcwishncss. !t is,
hc continucs his lcttcr to K osclitz crazy how much this racc has thc intcllcctual lilc ol
uropc in its hand. Tis might suggcst a conspiracythcory paranoia worthy ol 8crnhard
F orstcr. !n lact, howcvcr, writing a littlc latcr to his by no mcans philoScmitic mothcr,
hc says, with rclcrcncc to Hclcns Jcwishncss, God hclp uropcan undcrstanding il onc
wcrc to abandon Jcwish undcrstanding. Tc lcttcr continucs by noting that thc author ol
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
a lavourablc rcvicw ol Zarathustra Part !!!, was oncc again a Jcw (a Gcrman would not so
casily allow his slccp to bc disturbcd), pardon thc littlc jokc, dcar mothcr.
:+
Zimmcrn has lclt a touching rccord ol Nictzschcs sympathctic idcntication with
Countcss Mansuro. Tc countcss, shc writcs,
sucrcd lrom obscssivc idcas. !t was alrcady Scptcmbcr and had bccomc cold, and thc
paticnts lricnds ordcrcd a coach to thc hotcl |Alpcnrosc| cvcry day to takc hcr to a warmcr
climatc in !taly. vcry day, howcvcr, thc coach had to lcavc without thc paticnt who rcluscd
to lcavc hcr room. nc day Nictzschc . . . said to hcr worricd lricnds Lcavc hcr to mc! And
onc day at noon, whcn thc coach had oncc morc appcarcd, hc suddcnly appcarcd at thc
lront cntrancc to thc hotcl with thc sick lady who lollowcd him likc an obcdicnt dog, cvcn
though shc had othcrwisc always gonc into a lury il anyonc spokc ol a dcparturc. Nonc ol
us, howcvcr, had any idca ol what Nictzschc had donc. Tc lamous whip had ccrtainly not
bccn uscd . . .
::
Tc lcvity ol this rclcrcncc to thc whip by a committcd lcminist raiscs an issuc to which !
shall rcturn shortly.

!n thc middlc ol August, accompanicd by hcr lcllow studcnt and lcminist Clara Vildcnow,
Rcsa von Schirnholcr madc thc clcvcnhour journcy lrom Zurich to visit Nictzschc lor a
sccond timc. Having madc rcscrvations at thc Alpcnrosc, hc collcctcd thc two womcn lrom
thc postcoach in Silvcrplana villagc. nc day hc took Rcsa lor his lavouritc walk along thc
castcrn shorc ol Lakc Silvcrplana (scc Platc :). As thcy camc to thc pyramidal Zarathustra
Stonc, Rcsa rccalls, a plcthora ol dithyrambic . . . thoughts and picturcs tumblcd out ol
with Nictzschc in a statc ol high cmotional and intcllcctual tcnsion thc othcr Nictzschc,
again. 8ut as soon as thcy had passcd thc zonc ol Zarathustra magic his words lost thcir
sccrctivc vibrations and hc rclaxcd oncc morc into his natural manncr.
nc day, puzzlcd by Nictzschcs nonappcarancc at thc Alpcnrosc, Rcsa walkcd round
thc corncr to thc urisch housc to nd out whcrc hc was. Sincc, in Nicc, hc had appcarcd
to bc in vibrant good hcalth, shc was tcrribly shockcd whcn hc cvcntually appcarcd, lcaning
against thc lramc ol thc hallopcn door to his room, with a palc and haggard lacc. Hc bcgan
straight away to spcak ol his sucrings. Hc said that hc could not slccp and that as soon as
hc closcd his cycs hc saw lantastic arrays ol owcrs. Tcn, with dark tcrricd cycs xcd on
hcr, hc askcd il this could bc thc bcginning ol madncss, rccalling that his lathcr has dicd ol
a brain discasc. Not until latcr did it occur to hcr that thc hallucinations could bc thc rcsult
ol thc chloral hydratc and othcr drugs, possibly including hashish, that hc had obtaincd
in Rapallo, mostly by thc simplc cxpcdicnt ol signing a prcscription with r. Nictzschc,
his crcdcntials ncvcr oncc having bccn qucstioncd. Hc also mcntioncd that hc had bccn
drinking nglish (!rish:) stout and palc alc.
:
Heinrich von Stein
A
nothcr pilgrim who madc his way up thc magic mountain to thc scllstylcd hcrmit
ol Sils Maria was 8aron Hcinrich von Stcin, who, though conlcssing hc had undcr
stood no morc than twclvc ol its scntcnccs, had bccn grcatly imprcsscd by Zarathustra.
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,
Tall as a giant and slim, thc lacc lrcsh and roundcd, thc hair blond and thc cycs bright
bluc and widc opcn, as a contcmporary dcscribcd him,
:
this Franconian noblcman was, in
appcarancc, thc pcrlcct Sicglricd. (\on Stcin was not mcrcly handsomc, hc was also tragic.
Having complctcd his Habilitation (sccond doctoratc) undcr Vilhclm ilthcy in +88 hc
was awardcd a prolcssorial chair at thc Univcrsity ol 8crlin only to dic ol a hcart attack,
agcd thirty, thc day altcr hcaring thc ncws.)
\on Stcins lundamcntal qucst was to rcdiscovcr thc rcligious, but to do so in a way that
would accommodatc rathcr than dcny thc matcrialist outlook ol modcrn scicncc. Having
lollowcd a study ol thcology with a study ol arwinian scicncc, hc complctcd a doctoratc
on acsthctics that was strongly inucnccd by thc matcrialistic and optimistic philosophy
ol thc positivist ugcn uhring. His rst book, which appcarcd in +88, was cntitlcd Te
Ideal of Materialism: Lyrical Philosophy. Tough dccply imprcsscd by Nictzschc, von Stcin
bclongcd to thc Vagncrian inncr circlc and had bccn, lor a ycar, tutor to Vagncrs son
Sicglricd. For him, thc rcdiscovcry ol thc rcligious lay in art, spccically in Vagncrs art.
Nictzschc had grcat hopcs ol von Stcin and rcgardcd his visit to Sils as the cvcnt ol thc
summcr.
:
Hc callcd him a splcndid cxamplc ol humanity and manhood who is, through
and through, comprchcnsiblc and sympathctic to mc on account ol thc hcroism ol his lun
damcntal mood. Sincc thc lyrical matcrialism ol von Stcins booktitlc is a rathcr good
dcscription ol Nictzschcs maturc position, onc can undcrstand his anity with thc young
man. Finally, nally, a ncwman, hc continucs his lcttcr to vcrbcck, somconc who bclongs
to mc and has instinctivc rcvcrcncc lor mc! Admittcdly still a littlc trop Vagnctis c |sic|,
but on account ol thc rational training hcs had in uhrings proximity, wcll prcparcd lor
mc.
:6
Nictzschc lclt, in othcr words, that thc young man, lollowing in his own lootstcps,
would soon grow out ol his Vagncrianism and translcr allcgiancc wholchcartcdly to him
scll. !n von Stcins prcscncc, Nictzschc continucs, hc has thc clcarcst grasp ol thc practical
task that bclongs to my lilc a task hc can dischargc il only ! posscss cnough young pcoplc
|such as von Stcin| ol a quitc dcnitc quality.
:
Nictzschc ycarncd lor disciplcs, in othcr
words, whcrc by disciplc, hc told von Stcin, ! undcrstand onc who makcs an unconditional
vow to mc
:8
rathcr than to Vagncr.
Nictzschcs practical task was, ol coursc, thc cstablishmcnt ol a colony lor lrcc spirits,
albcit conccivcd, hcrc, morc along thc Vagncrian lincs ol guru and disciplc than in thc
cgalitarian and dcmocratic manncr ol thc Sorrcnto pcriod. Vhat hc wants is to sct up
a uropcwidc ordcr ol mcn which, scmihumorously, hc now calls thc knighthood and
brothcrhood ol thc gay scicncc as wcll as, in Nicc, a small, but cxtrcmcly good community
that will rcprcscnt this bclicl in thc gaya scicnza.
:
And hc is ovcrjoycd that, during his
visit to Sils, von Stcin, a man altcr my own hcart, has ol his own volition promiscd . . . to
join mc in Nicc.
o
Soon, alas, von Stcin turncd into a grcat disappointmcnt. At thc cnd ol Novcmbcr,
Nictzschc scnt him a pocm, Hcrmits Ycarning, dcdicatcd to him in Mcmory ol Sils
Maria. !t bcgins and cnds with thc vcrsc
O lifes noonday! Solemn time!
O summer garden!
Unquiet happiness in standing and .atching and .aiting!
I tarry, a.aiting the friend, ready day and night:
!here is the ne. friend? Come! Its time, its time!
+
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
\on Stcins amazing answcr to this summons (which rcappcars as thc Altcrsong to Beyond
Good and E.il) was to invitc Nictzschc to join a communc ol disciplcs dcdicatcd to thc
intcrprctation ol !agners works which Cosima had commissioncd him to indcx. Vould
not this, hc askcd, count as thc idcal monastcry:
:
dcmonstrating thcrcby that hc spokc
only thc litcral truth whcn hc said hc had graspcd no morc than morc than twclvc scntcnccs
ol Zarathustra. cdicatcd to his dcad hcro, von Stcin rcmaincd a Vagncrian to thc cnd.
!n a notc writtcn at thc bcginning ol January +88 Nictzschc rccordcd his disappointmcnt:
Vhat a dim lcttcr thc good von Stcin has writtcn mc . . . Hc docsnt know how to bchavc
any morc.

Reconciliation with Ilizabeth in Zurich

T
hc arrival ol thc blucngcrcdcold

ol Scptcmbcr, +88, told Nictzschc that it was

timc lor thc annual ight to warmcr climcs. So it was that, almost thc last ol thc
migratory birds, hc lclt Sils on Scptcmbcr :. ragging his club loot ol +o kilos ol
books bchind him, hc arrivcd in Zurich two days latcr, whcrc hc would spcnd a month at
thc Pcnsion Ncptunc. Tc main point ol thc visit was to attcmpt yct anothcr rcconciliation
with lizabcth.
For much ol +88 hc had bccn immcrscd, oncc again, in dccp hatrcd. January and Fcbru
ary lcttcrs accusc hcr, and his mothcr, ol ruining his lilc. Hc writcs that hc has known sincc
childhood thc moral distancc bctwccn himscll and thcm. And hc nds it disgusting to bc
rclatcd to pcoplc such as thc dirty and abusivc lizabcth, pcoplc who constantly intcrrupt
cd his highcst and most blcsscd lcclings with thc basc smcll ol thc alltoohuman.

!n
April hc writcs K osclitz that hc is making a complctc brcak with his sistcr and with all who
takc hcr part. Hcr plan to cmigratc to Paraguay with thc lamcntablc F orstcr hc rcgards as
good riddancc to bad rubbish.
6
8y midMay, howcvcr, hc thought hc had managcd to risc
abovc thc wholc busincss

onc ol his hcrocs was thc Frcnch rcpublican statcsman, thc

Marquis dc Mirabcau, who was unablc to lorgivc an insult simply bccausc hc lorgot
8

and nally, in Scptcmbcr, hc lclt rcady to attcmpt rcconciliation.
Sincc thc strong visccral acction bctwccn thc two rcmaincd intact, a rcconciliation ol
sorts occurrcd almost immcdiatcly. Nictzschc wrotc Franziska that shc would bc rclicvcd
to hcar hcr childrcn wcrc gctting on again, whilc lizabcth rcportcd Fritz rcturning to his
habit ol making up vcrscs ol silly doggcrcl about mundanc mattcrs such as buying a tca
machinc, and as bcing in a gcncrally rclaxcd and jolly mood. And soon Nictzschc would
indccd writing lcttcrs addrcsscd, as ol old, to My car Lama.

To vcrbcck, on thc othcr

hand, hc condcd thc rclativc supcrciality ol thc rcconciliation: onc must bury a grcat dcal
in ordcr to livc wcll, hc wrotc, adding that onc cant cxpcct thc old intimacy.
o
Nictzschc had two othcr objcctivcs in Zurich. Tc rst was to mcct thc Swiss writcr
Gottlricd Kcllcr, whosc novcl, Green Henry, oltcn rcgardcd as thc grcatcst Swiss novcl,
hc admircd intcnscly. Tcy did indccd mcct, though Kcllcr (a libcral and a Marxist sym
pathiscr) latcr told a lricnd Ich glaube d a Kerl ischt .errucht Swiss dialcct lor ! think thc
lcllows crazy. Nictzschcs othcr task was to pcrsuadc thc conductor ol thc Zurich sym
phony orchcstra, Fricdrich Hcgar, whom hc had rst mct at Tribschcn in thc Vagncr days,
to pcrlorm somc ol K osclitzs music Hcgar did indccd givc a rchcarsal pcrlormancc to thc
ovcrturc to Te Lion of !enice. Nictzschc ncvcr gavc up on his loyal, but in thc cnd always
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,
unsucccsslul, attcmpts to cstablish Pctcr Gasts carccr. !t bclongs to thc occ ol a lricnd,
hc wrotc vcrbcck, to scc that oncs lricnd docs not havc to bcg.
+
Helene ruskowicz
A
n important cncountcr, during Nictzschcs stay in Zurich, was with Hclcnc rusko
witz, yct anothcr mcmbcr ol Malwida von Mcyscnbugs circlc ol lcminist admircrs.
8orn in \icnna in +86, ruskowitz complctcd hcr doctoratc in thc Univcrsity ol Zurichs
philosophical laculty +88 at thc agc ol twcntytwo, only thc sccond woman to rcccivc
a doctoratc lrom (Scction ! ol ) that laculty. !n +88 shc publishcd Tree English !riters,
a study ol Joanna 8aillic (a playwright), lisabcth 8arrctt 8rowning, and Gcorgc liot.
ruskowitz and Nictzschc wcnt on long philosophical walks togcthcr, lcading Nictzschc
to dcscribc his ncw lricnd to lizabcth as a noblc and honcst pcrson who, ol all thc
womcn ! know, has had by lar thc most scrious cngagcmcnt with my books, and not without
prot.
:
!t is thcrclorc no surprisc that Hclcnc was onc ol thc privilcgcd lcw to rcccivc, thc
lollowing ycar, a copy ol thc privatcly printcd Part !\ ol Zarathustra.
Alas, thc mutual admiration did not last long. cscribing hcr cnthusiasm lor Nictzschcs
philosophy as a passion ol thc momcnt, ruskowitz rcturncd thc book with a critical lcttcr
which Nictzschc dcscribcd to hcr as at lcast honcst, il not cxactly kind or insightlul and not
particularly modcst.

!n +886 shc publishcd a book, Te Quest for a Substitute for Feligion,

that was highly critical ol Zarathustra. !n Fcbruary, +88, thc book camc to Nictzschcs
attcntion: it appcars, hc wrotc Malwida, accting injurcd innoccncc,
that a Fr aulcin ruskowitz has writtcn a prccious piccc ol litcrary gossip against my son
Zarathustra: it sccms that through somc kind ol a crimc ! havc turncd thc lcmininc pcn
against my brcast thats .K.! For as my lricnd Malvida |sic| says !m cvcn worsc than
Schopcnhaucr.

8y Scptcmbcr it was all ovcr with ruskowitz: using his lamiliar, patronizing (but also
dclcnsivc) diminutivc lor womcn with thc tcmcrity to stray into his domain ol lcttcrs, hc
writcs that thc littlc litcrarygoosc is anything but my pupil.

As shc got oldcr, ruskowitzs lcminism bccamc cvcr morc radical, so that among hcr
litcrary rcmains was lound a pamphlct, Te Male as Logical and Moral Impossibility and Curse
of the !orld, containing scntcnccs such as thc malc is an intcrmcdiatc stagc bctwccn thc
human bcing and thc animal (a dircct rcvcrsal ol Schopcnhaucrs inlamous scntcncc (p. :88
abovc)). Shortly altcr Nictzschcs collapsc ruskovitz sucrcd hcr own mcntal brcakdown
and was hcrscll lorccd into a mcntal institution whcrc, continuing to writc, shc rcmaincd
until hcr dcath in ++8.
6
Second Winter in Nice
F
rom Zurich, cvcr on thc hunt lor a ncw hcalth cxpcrimcnt, Nictzschc travcllcd to
Mcnton on thc Frcnch Rivicra ncar thc !talian boardcr (hc always rclcrrcd to undcr its
!talian namc ol Mcntonc), arriving on Novcmbcr th. Hc had rcccivcd a rccommcndation
lor thc Gcrmanrun Pcnsion dcs

trangcrs. 8ut though hc lound thc landscapc supcrb and
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc town plcasantly quict in comparison with Nicc, hc blamcd his poor hcalth, again at
an cspccially low cbb, on its lack ol wind. Hc had, morcovcr, alrcady dcsignatcd Nicc as
thc sitc ol thc colony hc cxpcctcd soon to bc up and running. And so hc rcturncd to thc
lamiliar cnvironmcnt ol thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc, thc invigorating mistral, and thc clcar skics
ol Nicc. Arriving on Novcmbcr :8, hc would rcmain until April 8, +88.
Timing his arrival badly, howcvcr, Nictzschc was mct by a uniqucly hard wintcr, with
bclowzcro tcmpcraturcs and a hcavy snowlall. January saw thc worst storm in lty ycars, a
storm which inictcd scvcrc damagc on thc lamous avcnuc ol palms lining thc Promcnadc
dcs Anglais.

Noncthclcss, intcrmittcntly clcar skics inspircd thc crcativc mood out ol

which Nictzschc complctcd thc divinc blasphcmy ol Zarathustras nal part. Mcanwhilc, a
mystcrious utchman supplicd Nictzschc with a strangc whitc powdcr probably cocainc
lor his hcalth problcms and thc rcspcctlul but lugubrious Paul Lanzsky arrivcd to stay in thc
samc pcnsion lor to Nictzschcs dismay thrcc months. !ncrcasingly, this dismal and not
vcry bright pcrson got on his ncrvcs. Hc sighs a lot and dcprivcs mc ol solitudc without
providing mc with company,
8
Nictzschc complaincd to his mothcr.
Altcr hc had nally dcpartcd, Lanzskys lugubriousncss lcd Nictzschc to scnd him somc
advicc on bcing chccrlul: thc chccrlulncss |Heiterkeit heiter mcans both clcar and chccr
lul| ol thc sky dcpcnds on thcrc bcing vcry many good things to do: and that lilc is too
short to do thcm all.

Tis rcvcals, pcrhaps, somcthing important about Nictzschcs psy

chology: that, likc many high achicvcrs, his obscssivc xation on his task and goal had
somcthing to do with lcar ol borcdom, lcar ol having morc timc on his hands than mcan
inglul activity to ll it with.
Iourth Summer in Sils Maria
N
ictzschc spcnt most ol April and May ol +88 in \cnicc which, in spitc ol thc humid
ity, which hc thought vcry bad lor his hcalth,
o
hc noncthclcss lovcd not mcrcly on
account ol K osclitzs usclul prcscncc, and thc shadc providcd by its cndlcss mazc ol narrow
allcyways, but also, onc imagincs, bccausc in that carriagclcss city, thcrc was no chancc
ol thc hallblind prolcssor bcing run ovcr in thc strcct. Tis timc, howcvcr, hc loathcd thc
apartmcnt K osclitz had lound him, so it was with rclicl that on Junc 6th hc lclt lor Sils.
A high point ol this lourth summcr in Sils was a visit by Countcss Mansuros piano
tcachcr, Adoll Ruthardt, who journcycd lrom Gcncva to givc hcr composition lcssons.
uring his stay hc gavc a rccital in thc Alpcnrosc on thc cxccllcnt piano Mansuro had
shippcd in lrom Chur cspccially lor thc occasion. Hc playcd Liszts transcription ol 8achs
A minor organ luguc, a Chopin nocturnc, and Schumanns Kreisleriana. Tough Nictz
schc and Ruthardt strongly disagrccd on Schumanns mcrits Nictzschc now thought him
lormlcss, romantic slush thcy wcnt lor walks togcthcr and got on wcll. Ruthardt has lclt
a vivid dcscription ol Nictzschc in this lortyrst ycar ol his lilc:
Abovc middlc hcight, slcndcr, wclllormcd, with a stancc that was crcct but not sti, his
gcsturcs harmonious, calm and cconomical: thc almost black hair, thc thick \crcingctorix
moustachc,

his lightcolourcd but distinguishcdlooking suit ol thc bcst cut and t, madc

r, as wc might say, Astcrix moustachc \crcingctorix was a Gallic lcadcr and thorn in thc sidc
ol thc Romans.
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,
him so littlc likc a Gcrman scholar that hc rathcr callcd to mind a Southcrn Frcnch noblc
man or an !talian or Spanish highcr occr in civilian clothcs. His noblc lcaturcs cxprcsscd
dccp scriousncss, but by no mcans thc sombrc, angular, dcmonic cxprcssion that has bccn
attributcd to him in picturcs and busts.
+
As wcll as working on Beyond Good and E.il, Nictzschc was, during this summcr in Sils,
conccrncd to gathcr his carlicr works into a unity by rcissuing thcmwith ncwintroductions.
Two ol thcsc introductions would bc lor Human, ll-Too-Human, which was now to absorb
ssorted Opinions and Maxims and Te !anderer and His Shado.as a sccond volumc. For thc
rst month, hc had an oldcr woman, Louisc R odcrVicdcrhold, yct anothcr ol thc Zurich
lcminists, acting as amanucnsis. Considcring, hc wrotc Rcsa von Schirnholcr, that shc was
baptiscd in thc blood ol +88 (thc cmancipatory uprising that lcd to hopcs ol, inter alia,
womcns cmancipation), shc borc his horrilying, antidcmocratic vicws, and particularly
his vicws on woman as such, with thc paticncc ol an angcl.
:
Shc must, howcvcr, havc
lound it morc dicult than Nictzschc suggcsts, sincc shc cricd a lot and jigglcd hcr lcgs in
a way hc considcrcd unladylikc and which cvcntually got on his ncrvcs. !n thc cnd hc was
glad to scc hcr go.

!t is during this +88 stay in Sils that mily Fynn and hcr daughtcr, also mily, makc
thcir rst appcarancc in Nictzschcs corrcspondcncc. 8ut sincc, at thc bcginning ol his stay,
hc is alrcady cagcrly anticipating thc arrival ol my two nglish ladics, and sincc thcy wcrc
thc inscparablc companions ol Countcss Mansurowhomhc had mct thc prcvious summcr,
it is probablc that thc lricndship datcs lromthc summcr ol +88. (!n lact, as is obvious lrom
thc surnamc, mily Fynn was an cldcrly Irish woman who had scttlcd in Gcncva and had
somchow acquircd cxccllcnt Gcrman.)

Rcsa von Schirnholcr rcports that mily was thc

ccntrc ol Nictzschcs summcr circlc ol womcn. Likc almost cvcryonc clsc visiting Sils,
mily was convalcscing lrom somc (unspccicd) ailmcnt. And likc Nictzschc, shc had lost
a sistcr, though, as hc put it to hcr, to dcath rathcr than to antiScmitism.

Nictzschc
had a strong acction lor mily, calling hcr a noblc and tcndcr soul,
6
and sccms to havc
rcgardcd hcr as somcthing ol a surrogatc mothcr. A committcd Catholic, shc told Rcsa von
Schirnholcr that, with tcars in his cycs, Nictzschc had bcggcd hcr not to rcad his books,
sincc thcy containcd much that would hurt hcr lcclings.
,
Alcttcr mily wrotc Nictzschcs
mothcr in +8o discloscs thc rclaxcd and charming rclation bctwccn thc trio. Nictzschc, shc
rccalls,
was vcry graciously intcrcstcd in my daughtcrs paintings, and always said that shc ought
to paint somcthing ugly in addition, in ordcr to hcightcn, cvcn morc, thc bcauty ol hcr
|alpinc| owcrs. And thcn, onc morning, hc brought hcr, as a modcl, a livc, hopping toad,
which hc himscll had caught, and hc grcatly cnjoycd his succcsslul prank! !n rcturn wc
scnt him altcr a lcw days what lookcd likc a jar ol jam, but as hc was carclully opcning it,
grasshoppcrs sprang out at him!
8

Nictzschc dclcnds thc supposcd obscurity ol his dangcrous books on thc grounds that hc wantcd
thcm to bc unintclligiblc to old maids ol both scxcs in ordcr not to corrupt thcm (GS 8+). !t
cannot bc cmphasiscd too strongly that, lor all his antihcrd rhctoric which, likc Zarathustras
Last Man spccch, has thc spccic purposc ol arousing thc lrcc spirits slumbcring scnsc ol dicr
cncc and distinction Nictzschc hcld that old maids should al.ays form the majority, and that hc
valucd and, on a pcrsonal lcvcl, somctimcs lo.ed thcm.
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Nietzsche and His Ieminist Iriends
!
should likc, lor a momcnt, to intcrrupt thc narrativc to rccct on thc paradoxical naturc
ol Nictzschcs rclationships with womcn. As wc havc sccn, altcr thc pain hc sucrcd
at thc hands ol that scllwillcd, whipcracking, masculinc, pscudo girl,

Lou Salom c,
his prcviously sympathctic stancc towards womcns cmancipation at lcast so lar as it con
ccrncd womcns acccss to highcr cducation rcvcrscd itscll. Fromthc cnd ol +88: (whcn thc
lamous whip rcmark rst appcars in thc notcbooks)
6o
hc bccamc unrclcntingly opposcd to
thc lcminist movcmcnt, a lact hc madc no attcmpt to disguisc: ! am thc movcmcnts big
bad woll , hc kcpt rcpcating.
Nictzschcs vicws on womcn arc not mcrcly ocnsivc to modcrn opinion. Tcy wcrc
ocnsivc, too, to progrcssivc opinion in thc ninctccnth ccntury, including ol coursc thc
opinion ol many cducatcd womcn.
6+
Alrcady in +86 John Stuart Mill had writtcn his
scminal On the Subjection of !omen, arguing lor lcmalc cquality. Yct thc cxtraordinary
thing about thc lricndships and acquaintanccs Nictzschc lormcd lrom +88 onwards
is that, with thc cxccption ol Countcss Mansuro and mily Fynn, all ol thcm wcrc,
not mcrcly womcn in Sils and Nicc Nictzschc gcncrally avoidcd thc malc pro
lcssors who camc his way but feminist womcn: Malwida von Mcyscnbug, Mcta
von Salis, Rcsa von Schirnholcr, Hclcn Zimmcrn, Louisc R odcrVicdcrhold, Hclcnc
ruskowitz, and othcrs. Tis paradoxical lact raiscs two qucstions. First, why was it
that, notwithstanding thcir lcminism, lcminist womcn wcrc attractcd to Nictzschc: And
sccond, why was Nictzschc, notwithstanding his antilcminism, attractcd to lcminist
womcn:
!n thc carly ycars ol thc twcnticth ccntury thcrc appcarcd thc unlikcly phcnomcnon ol a
Nictzschcinspircd lcminist movcmcnt a movcmcnt which rcmains, to this day, alivc and
wcll. Vhat attractcd womcn to Nictzschcs philosophy was thc coincidcncc bctwccn his
mcssagc ol libcration and thcir own. To rcconcilc thcir lcminism with thc apparcntly anti
lcminist clcmcnts in Nictzschcs philosophy, Nictzschcan lcminists dcploycd onc ol two
basic stratcgics:
6:
thcy cithcr hcld it supcrcial to rcad Nictzschc as an antilcminist his
attack, \alcntinc dc Saint Pont insistcd in ++:, was not on womcn but on thc lcmininc,
somcthing which could appcar as casily in mcn as in womcn
6
or thcy admittcd and
rcjcctcd his antilcminism but hcld that his basic, cmancipatory mcssagc was noncthclcss
truc and important.
For womcn who actually kncw Nictzschc, thc rst ol thcsc stratcgics thc crcativc mis
rcading stratcgy, wc might call it was not availablc, sincc hc admittcd, wcnt out ol his way
to emphasise, his antilcminism, rcducing Louisc R odcrVicdcrhold, as wc saw, to tcars.
To lizabcth hc wrotc glcclully in May, +88, that on all ol thosc who rhapsodizc about
thc cmancipation ol womcn it has slowly, slowly dawncd that ! am thc big bad woll lor
thcm. !n Zurich, hc continucs (basing his rcport on K osclitzs inlormation), thcrc is grcat
lury against mc among thc lcmalc studcnts. Tough this circlc includcd his good lricnds,
Rcsa von Schirnholcr and Mcta von Salis, hc concludcs thc lcttcr with an cxprcssion ol
gratitudc that thc lcminists wcrc bcginning to gct thc point: Finally! And how many such
nallys do ! still havc to wait lor!
6
Sincc thc crcativc misrcading stratcgy was not availablc to thcm, Nictzschcs lcminist
lricnds wcrc thus lorccd, at lcast implicitly, to trcat his antilcminism as a pcrsonal quirk
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,,
and crror rathcr than an csscntial part ol his philosophy. Tis is surcly thc lorcc ol Hclcn
Zimmcrns joking dismissal ol thc lamous whip (p. : abovc).
Tat Rcsa von Schirnholcr took thc samc linc is suggcstcd by thc way shc rcports and
claboratcs on a lavouritc thought Nictzschc communicatcd to hcr in July +88, thc thought
that
human bcings know only thc smallcst part ol thcir possibilitics, which corrcsponds to aph
orism 6 ol Da.n with its nal scntcncc Vho knows to what wc could bc drivcn by
circumstanccs!, aphorism ol Te Gay Science, Vc all havc hiddcn gardcns and planta
tions . . . , and aphorism : ol Beyond Good and E.il . . . Fortunatc coincidcnccs arc ncccs
sary . . . lor thc highcr human bcing to crupt . . . Mostly this docs not happcn, and in cvcry
corncr ol thc carth pcoplc sit waiting . . .
6
nc can scc hcrc, ! think, Rcsa rcading Nictzschcs philosophy in a manncr dcsigncd to
cmphasisc his mcssagc ol pcrsonal libcration and scllrcalisation whilc quictly ignoring thc
lact that it is addrcsscd to mcn only.
Mcta von Salis dcploys thc stratcgy ol scparating thc antilcminism lrom thc csscntial
philosophy morc cxplicitly. Noting Nictzschcs incrcasing sharpncss ol tonc on thc womcn
qucstion in thc postGay-Science (i.c., postLou) ycars, shc says that it ncvcr madc hcr cross
or indignant sincc a man ol Nictzschcs brcadth ol vision and surcncss ol instinct has thc
right to gct things wrong in onc instancc. Pointing out thc mistakc morc on his bchall
than on ours, shc idcntics its sourcc as thc shamclul lact that what hc says is still accuratc
with rcgard to thc majority ol womcn. !n othcr words, Nictzschc madc a rcasonablc, but
in lact lalsc, inductivc gcncralisation lrom thc run ol contcmporary womanhood to thc
ctcrnal lcmininc and so lailcd to scc that, whilc thc woman ol thc luturc who rcaliscs a
highcr idcal ol powcr and bcauty in harmonious cocxistcncc has not yct arrivcd, shc .ill
arrivc. God bc praiscd, shc concludcs, lor thc latc which allowcd mc to scc and rcvcr
cncc, bcyond thc cphcmcral signicancc ol thc womcn qucstion, clitc human bcings mcn
and womcn.
66
!n short, thc aristocratic Mcta, cvcry bit as antidcmocratic as Nictzschc,
makcs just onc adjustmcnt to his philosophy: thc luturc bclongs to supcrwomcn as wcll as
supcrmcn.
Conccrning thc sccond qucstion, thc qucstion ol why thc chauvinist Nictzschc was
attractcd to lcminist womcn, onc nccds to attcnd, ! think, to Zarathustras conccption ol
woman as mans playmatc, his rccrcation whcn hc comcs homc lrom thc scrious, mascu
linc busincss ol war (p. abovc), somconc, as thcy say, who brings out his inncr child.
Play, wc havc sccn, is an important clcmcnt in Nictzschcs rclations with womcn: thc toad
jokc with thc Fynns, thc silly vcrsc scssions with lizabcth and Rcsa. Vhat nccds to bc
rcmcmbcrcd, howcvcr, is that, right up until thc cnd whcn hc wrotc hcr lovc lcttcrs
Nictzschcs idcal woman was Cosima Vagncr and his idcal marriagc, thcrclorc, that ol thc
Vagncrs. Hcrc, thc possibilitics ol play takc on a much widcr scopc: play can includc not
mcrcly jars ol crickcts but also thc play ol idcas, both vcrbal and musical. Vith Cosima, it
will bc rcmcmbcrcd, lourhandcd piano playing and long philosophical convcrsations wcrc
major clcmcnts in thcir rclationship. (pp. +o, ++: abovc.)
Putting thcsc lacts togcthcr, onc thing bccomcs obvious: lor a man such as Vagncr or
himscll, a woman capablc ol bcing his idcal playmatc would ha.e to posscss a high lcvcl
,cc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol intclligcncc and cducation, would ha.e bc somconc, such as Cosima or Lou who
did rcad his books, rathcr than likc mily Fynn whom hc bcggcd not to. Tc highcr typc
ol warriors rccrcation cannot consist solely ol toad jokcs and silly vcrscs sincc, on a daily
basis, that would bccomc boring. nc can surmisc, thcrclorc, that, bcncath his conlusion,
Nictzschc ncvcr rcally lost his initial disposition in lavour ol acccss to highcr cducation
lor suitably giltcd womcn. Vhat tcrricd him was womcns acccss to powcr, a monstrous
rcgimc ol womcn such as Lou: womcn arc always lcss civilizcd than mcn, hc rcmarks. At
thc basc ol thcir souls thcy arc wild.
6
Tis ! think is what lics bchind thc oltcnrcpcatcd
scntimcnt that nc wants thc cmancipation ol womcn and achicvcs thcrcby thc cmascu
lation ol mcn.
68
To bc surc, hc himscll obscrvcs, ` a propos thc labour qucstion, that !l onc
wants slavcs it is loolish to cducatc thcm to bc mastcrs,
6
sincc onc sows thcrcby thc sccds
ol social discontcnt and cvcn rcvolution. 8ut it is a by no mcans unusual human lailing
lor insights in onc domain to lail to bc carricd ovcr into anothcr, particularly whcn strong
cmotions arc involvcd.
Te I orsters
F
rom carly in +88 it bccamc clcar that nothing could prcvcnt lizabcth lrom mar
rying thc cxccrablc F orstcr. Tc wcdding ol thcsc two rabid Vagncrians occurrcd in
Naumburg on May :: ol that ycar thc dcccascd composcrs birthday altcr which thcy
honcymooncd in Tautcnburg. lizabcth had wantcd Fritz as bcst man, but in spitc ol thc
Zurich rcconciliation nothing would havc pcrsuadcd him to givc such a scal ol approval to
hcr marriagc to a jingoistic, antiScmitic strcct brawlcr. Valking a nc linc bctwccn pub
licly cndorsing thc marriagc and dcstroying thc rcconciliation, hc opcncd a supcrcially
lricndly corrcspondcncc with F orstcr and scnt his print ol urcrs Knight, Death and De.il
as a (rathcr wcird) wcdding prcscnt. Rcsisting sustaincd prcssurc to invcst moncy in thc
projcctcd racially purc Paraguayan colony ol Nue.a Germania by invcsting in a plot ol land
(moncy hc would ccrtainly havc lost), hc rcmarkcd that such a projcct would bc unsuitablc
lor a dycdinthcwool uropcan and antiantiScmitc
o
such as himscll. And though
hc had rcad F orstcrs book cvangclising on bchall ol colonization German Colonies in the
Upper La Plata Fegion. Fesults of Extensi.e Tests, Practical !ork and Journeys .ith a Map of
Paraguay Dra.n and Fe.ised by Myself hc cxprcsscd to both thc F orstcrs and his mothcr
dirc misgivings ovcr thc suitability ol a middlcclass Gcrman woman to thc company ol
illitcratc larmcrs and a lilc ol brcaking in thc junglc. Hc prcdictcd, absolutcly corrcctly, that
Paraguays lack ol propcr inlrastructurc and burcaucracy, as wcll as thc stranglchold Argcn
tina had ovcr its acccss to thc sca, would rcndcr timbcr cxport, thc intcndcd cconomic basc
ol thc colony, impossiblc. Hc lurthcr suggcstcd that an cducatcd man likc F orstcr would
bc bcttcr cmploycd sctting up an indcpcndcnt cducational institution that would bc an
altcrnativc to Gcrmanys statcslavcdrilling schools.
+
Nothing, howcvcr, would dctcr thc colonists lromthcir illconsidcrcd and illlatcd cntcr
prisc. Rcluctantly, thcrclorc, as autumn announccd thc timc lor thc annual migration lrom
Sils, thc nccd to larcwcll his sistcr took Nictzschc o to Gcrmany lor a month and a hall,
whcrc hc dividcd his timc bctwccn Naumburg and Lcipzig (an hours train journcy apart.)
n ctobcr :8 hc had what would provc to bc thc nal mccting with lizabcth bclorc his
mcntal collapsc. Shc sailcd lrom Hamburg on Fcbruary +, +886.
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,c:
Te Schmeitzner Mis` ere
A
part lrom saying goodbyc to his sistcr, Nictzschc had a sccond, prcssing rcason lor
rcturning to Gcrmany thc urgcnt nccd to do somcthing about his dirc publishing
situation. Tc rst pangs ol dissatislaction with his publishcr occurrcd, as wc saw, in carly
+88, whcn hc rcaliscd that Schmcitzncrs antiScmitic activitics wcrc dclaying publica
tion ol his works, which, hc lcarcd, would thcmsclvcs bc brandcd as antiScmitic. Tc rcal
Schmcitzncr mis` crc,
:
howcvcr, bcgan in April +88, whcn it bccamc clcar that thc pub
lishcr was on thc vcrgc ol bankruptcy. For scvcral rcasons, this thrcw Nictzschc into a statc
ol grcat agitation. First, with Schmcitzncr going out ol busincss, hc would bccomc a writcr
without a publishcr. Sccond, hc had lcnt Schmcitzncr ,ooo marks to hclp sct up his busi
ncss, thc loss ol which, in his straitcncd circumstanccs, would bc a disastcr. Tird, hc wantcd
Schmcitzncr to rclcasc thc rights to thc works hc had publishcd (Human, ll-Too-Human,
ssorted Opinions and Maxims, Te !anderer and His Shado., and Parts !!!! ol Zarathus-
tra) in ordcr to rclaunch thcm as a unicd body ol work with ncw introductions, somcthing
lor which Schmcitzncr would, ol coursc, dcmand paymcnt lrom thc ncw publishcr. And
lourth, hc wantcd Schmcitzncr to rclcasc thc unsold copics ol thc rst cditions ol thosc
works so that thcy could bc rcbound with thc ncw introductions so as to constitutc thcir
sccond cditions.
To rccovcr his moncy, Nictzschc startcd lcgal procccdings, conductcd rst by a lawycr
unclc and nally by a clcvcr Lcipzig lawycr namcd Kaulmann who, altcr many datcs lor
paymcnt had comc and gonc, nally managcd to cxtract ovcr ,ooo marks lromSchmcitzncr
(or rathcr lromhis lathcr, who had dccidcd to guarantcc his sons dcbts) in Novcmbcr +88.
n rccciving thc moncy, altcr paying o somc book bills, Nictzschc insistcd that hc, and
not his mothcr, should pay lor a propcrly inscribcd gravcstonc to bc laid on his lathcrs
gravc

in ordcr, surcly, to crasc hcr rcmark that hc was a disgracc to his lathcrs gravc
(p. abovc).
As lar as thc qucstion ol copyrights and unsold books was conccrncd, Schmcitzncr
attcmptcd scvcral, in Nictzschcs vicw, dirty tricks. nc was a plan to scll his wholc busincss,
including Nictzschcs works, to a convictcd Lcipzig pornographcr and (lar worsc) social
dcmocrat,

Albcrt rlcckc. Anothcr was to dcmand, as Nictzschc saw it, an cxorbitant

sum lor thc samc dcal lrom thc morc rcspcctablc Lcipzig publishcr, Hcrmann Crcdncr.
As good lortunc would havc it, Nictzschc ran into his rst publishcr, rnst Fritzsch
(pp. +:, +o abovc), in a Lcipzig strcct in thc middlc ol Junc, +886.

Fritzsch was back

in busincss and cagcr to rccstablish a prolcssional rclationship with Nictzschc. !t soon
bccamc clcar, in lact, as Nictzschc wrotc vcrbcck, that
hc lays grcat valuc on having in his publishing housc not mcrcly thc complctc Vagncr
|prosc works| but also thc complctc Nictzschc (a ncighbourlincss ! lccl rcally good about
sincc Vagncr was thc only, or at lcast thc rst, pcrson to havc any idca ol what ! was on
about).
6
Fritzsch opcncd ncgotiations with Schmcitzncr, which draggcd on lor somc timc
Schmcitzncrs dcmands bcing somcwhat justicd by thc lact that hc posscsscd ncarly +o,ooo
unsold Nictzschc books including, in thc casc ol Zarathustra, out ol a print run ol +,ooo
,c:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
copics in cach casc, + copics ol Part !, o ol Part !!, and ol Part !!!. !t was thus not
until August that Fritzsch was ablc to tclcgraph triumphantly, nally in posscssion, and
Nictzschc was at last ablc to cclcbratc thc scvcrancc ol all rclations with Schmcitzncr.
Tird Winter in Nice
L
caving Lcipzig on Novcmbcr +, +88, Nictzschc had a notion ol dcviating lrom his
usual migratory pattcrn. His rst stop was Munich, whcrc hc spcnt a couplc ol days
with Rcinhart von Scydlitz, who was doing a thriving busincss sclling Japancsc intcrior
dcsign (thc crazc lor Japonism was inlccting \an Gogh in Paris in thc samc ycar). \on
Scydlitz, still prcsidcnt ol thc Munich Vagncr Socicty, was thc only onc ol Nictzschcs
postunivcrsity lricnds with whom hc uscd thc lamiliar du. Vith his mcrry, prctty and
young Hungarian wilc, !rcnc shc would havc bccn his own pcrlcct lilc companion,
Nictzschc wrotc lizabcth cnviously hc lclt so rclaxcd as almost to bc ablc to call hcr
du as wcll.

Vith !rcnc hc travcllcd to Florcncc, whcrc hc was dclightcd to nd thc chicl

astronomcr with a copy ol Human, ll-Too-Human by his sidc. A quick trip to Lanzskys
hotcl in ncarby \allombrosa pcrsuadcd him, lor unclcar rcasons, to abandon his plan ol
spcnding thc wintcr thcrc (possibly it was thc thought ol months ol undilutcd Lanzsky
that provcd too much), and so, on Novcmbcr ++, thc Hamlctlikc molc ol Nicc
8
lound
himscll, via Gcnoa, oncc morc in his lamiliar wintcr quartcrs. ncc again thc Nicc air had
triumphcd ovcr irtations with altcrnativcs.
Flirtation with thc unlamiliar had thc ccct ol opcning Nictzschcs cycs to thc dclights ol
thc lamiliar. His initial Francophobic dislikc ol thc placc changcd into somcthing likc lovc.
To thc F orstcrs, making thcir nal prcparations lor cmigration, hc wrotc at thc bcginning
ol January that it was as il hc was sccing Nicc lor thc rst timc, his cycs suddcnly opcncd to
its nc air and tcndcr colours.

Hc particularly lovcs, anothcr lcttcr tclls thcm, thc St. Jcan

pcninsula with its young soldicrs playing boulcs, lrcsh roscs and gcraniums in thc hcdgcs,
and cvcrything grccn and warm (in cccmbcr!). ! drank |hc adds| thrcc largc glasscs ol
swcct .in ordinaire in your honour and was almost a bitzeli betrunken |SwissGcrman lor
a bit drunk|. Unablc to rcsist a dig at his brothcrinlaws racial vicws, hc cnds thc lcttcr
by saying that thc banning ol garlic is thc only lorm ol antiScmitism which smclls good
to your cosmopolitan rhinoccros sorry!
8o
(vidcntly somc ninctccnthccntury stcrcotypc
associatcd Jcws with garlic.)
!nitially Nictzschc rcturncd to thc tricd and truc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc, with its cxccllcnt
Swiss cuisinc, but dissatislaction with his room lcd himto movc, thrcc days latcr, to chcapcr
accommodation in a largc cstablishmcnt on thc Ruc St Francois dc Paulc :6, sccond oor,
on thc lclt, as hc wrotc at thc top ol lcttcrs. Tough thc room was cold and hc oltcn
prclcrrcd to cat at thc Gcn` cvc, hc cnjoycd thc stunning vicw lrom his window ovcr houscs,
lorcst, and sca in thc distancc and, at his lcct, thc Squarc dcs Phoc ccns. Nictzschc lovcd
thc incrcdiblc cosmopolitanism ol this combination ol words, nglish, Frcnch, and Grcck
(Phoc ccns rclcrs to thc Grcck tribc who loundcd Nicc). Somcthing victorious, and pan
uropcan sounds out ol thc namc hc wrotc K osclitz, somcthing vcry comlorting which
says to mc Hcrc you arc in your right placc.
8+
Continuing thc samc thcmc a lcw days
latcr in a lcttcr dcsigncd to inducc K osclitz to abandon \cnicc lor Nicc, Nictzschc asks
him to
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,c
considcr thc bcautilul conccpt Nicc (thc namc is Grcck and rclcrs to a victory.

) !ts a
cosmopolis, il only uropc would onc day bccomc onc! nc is ncarcr to thc nc Frcnch
spirit but yct not too ncar . . . my strcct with thc grcat !talian thcatrc is a supcrb cxamplc
ol thc !talian stylc . . . thc orchcstra in Montc Carlo is dircctcd by a Gcrman . . . thcrc arc
many trattoria whcrc onc can cat as wcll as in thc |\cnicc hotcl| Panada (actually bcttcr
and chcapcr) . . . and a good sclcction ol Russians and Polcs.
8:
A mclting pot indccd.
Nietzsches Cosmopolitanism
A
s wc saw (p. ++ abovc), Gcrman nationalism was intrinsic to thc outlook ol thc latcr
Vagncr. Tough givcn strong impctus by dircct cxpcricncc ol thc horrors ol warlarc
on thc FrancoPrussian battlcclds, Nictzschcs turn to cosmopolitanism rcally bcgan with
thc rcjcction ol thc alltoohuman sidc ol Vagncrianismin Human, ll-Too-Human. Tcrc,
it will bc rcmcmbcrcd (pp. :66 abovc), hc cxtols thc idca ol uropcan union as a way
ol ovcrcoming warlarc, and sccs uropcan unication as a prcludc to thc globalisation ol
uropcan culturc, uropcs colonisation ol thc cntirc world. !n Te Gay Science hc admircs
thc panuropcanism ol thc mcdicval Church (what hc admircs is thc Roman rathcr than
thc Catholic in it) and praiscs Napolcon lor striving to bring about onc uropc.
8
!n thc
abouttoappcar Beyond Good and E.il hc praiscs thc dcvcloping appcarancc ol a uropcan
typc ol pcrson dctachcd lrom all national lccling,
8
and says that it is timc to abandon
pctty, nationalistic politics lor grand, i.c., global politics. Vc must movc to thc lattcr, hc
says prcscicntly, sincc thc luturc ol humanity is at stakc.
8
For Nictzschc, uropcan always mcans classical. Hc ncvcr cscapcd thc idcalisation ol
thc Grccks that pcrmcatcd his training as a philologist. !n ssorted Opinions and Maxims
thc classical idcals ol harmony, proportion, strcngth, mildncss, rcposc, and an involun
tary, inborn modcration arc to lorm thc allcmbracing goldcn ground on which thc luturc
is to bc constructcd.
86
Tc goldcn momcnts in modcrn history arc thc Rcnaissancc and
Napolcon, in othcr words, thc attcmptcd rcbirths ol thc classical idcal. Tat hc rcpcatcdly
calls Christianity oricntal
8
indicatcs his vicw that it was an alicn invasion that and must
bc cxcludcd lrom any truly uropcan rcvival.
Tc rcvival ol Vcstcrn culturc is, thcn, a mattcr ol rcdiscovcring classical valucs, and,
ol coursc, rcintcrprcting thcm so that thcy makc scnsc in thc modcrn world (only dcrision
would grcct a rcturn to togas and sandals.) As ! suggcstcd in thc last chaptcr, it is impor
tant to kccp Nictzschcs classicism in mind as a corrcctivc to thc imprcssion hc somctimcs
givcs that hc is a dccisionist, that hc adhcrcs to thc as ! suggcstcd, scllundcrmining
thcsis that ultimatc valucs arc a mattcr ol ungroundcd, and hcncc arbitrary, choice. Rcally, it
sccms to mc, this is not at all what hc bclicvcs. Vhcn hc asks us to givc stylc to our char
actcrs and culturc, what hc mcans is classical stylc. !t lollows, thcn, that though Nictzschc
spcaks ol thc typc ol pcrson hc hopcs thc luturc will bring as (likc himscll ) a nomad,
88
hc
docs not mcan by this a rootlcss wandcrcr. Hc mcans, rathcr, somconc who, likc himscll, is

Tc namc Nicc, Nicaca in Grcck, is bascd on Nikc, thc goddcss ol victory. Nicc was loundcd by
thc Grccks in about o 8C.
,c,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
rootcd within a homcland which, bccausc it is supranational,
8
allows casy mobility across
national boundarics. Tis homcland is thc uropcan, that is to say, thc classical.
Vcrc onc to ask just what is so spccial about classical valucs, ! think Nictzschc would
answcr that classical valucs arc thc only oncs that sccurc cithcr an individual or a community
against anarchy and barbarism, always, lor him, tcrms ol nal condcmnation.
o
nly
classical, that is, Apollonian, valucs rcscucd thc Grccks lrom thc ionysian barbarism ol
thcir ncighbours,
+
only classical valucs will rcscuc us lrom thc anarchic barbarism ol mo
dcrnitys unbridlcd libcralism. Classical valucs arc thc only oncs that promotc intcgration,
wholcncss, and so pcrsistcncc, thc only oncs that promotc, in a word, lilc. Classical valucs
arc, in sum, a mattcr, not ol tastc, but ol survival. Tc opponcnt ol classicism, romanticism,
is thus antililc, dccadcnt, ultimatcly, as hc will arguc in his nal crcativc ycar, thc will to
dcath.
nc can scc lrom Nictzschcs cosmopolitanism closcly conncctcd, ol coursc, to his
antiantiScmitism, sincc rootlcss cosmopolitanism was, wcll into thc twcnticth ccntury,
a lamiliar antiScmitic slur thc prccisc charactcr ol his loathing ol his brothcrinlaw. !t
was not F orstcrs colonialism hc objcctcd to: on thc contrary, Nictzschc was all lor uropc
colonising thc cntirc world. Vhat hc objcctcd to was thc nationalistic and racist charactcr
ol F orstcrs colonialism. Vhat Nictzschc wantcd was European not German colonialism, a
Nue.a Europa rathcr than a Nue.a Germania. And what hc wantcd was colonisation by, not
thc dccadcnt uropcan culturc ol thc prcscnt agc, but by a re.i.ed and unied uropcan
culturc which is why hc told F orstcr that, rathcr than going to Paraguay, hc should lound
an altcrnativc high school, cducation bcing always, lor Nictzschc, togcthcr with art and
rcligion, thc kcy to thc rcvival ol a culturc.
Publishing Beyond Good and Evil
!
n midJanuary, +886, Nictzschc approachcd Hcrmann Crcdncr (thc samc Lcipzig pub
lishcr who had cngagcd in lruitlcss ncgotiations with Schmcitzncr) with a vicw to pub
lishing Beyond Good and E.il, now wcll on its way to complction. !nitially hc thought ol it
as a sccond volumc ol Da.n, but by March, as it ncarcd complction, hc saw that it nccdcd
to bc prcscntcd as an indcpcndcnt work.
:
Mcanwhilc, howcvcr, Crcdncr had rcad somc ol Da.n and, nding it shocking, scvcrcd
all communication with Nictzschc. Anothcr approach in April, to thc Carl unkcr \crlag
in 8crlin, was no morc succcsslul, cvcn though, in dcspcration, Nictzschc ocrcd to lorcgo
all royaltics

dcspcration sincc thc wholc point ol his books was, as hc wrotc in thc midst
ol thc Schmcitzncr aair, to lashion shing rods

with which to catch pcoplc lor his causc.

Accordingly, now in posscssion ol thc balancc ol thc moncy rccovcrcd lrom Schmcitzncr,
hc dccidcd to publish thc work at his own cxpcnsc, with thc printing to bc donc by thc
Lcipzig rm ol Ncumann.

Lcaving Nicc at thc cnd ol April, +886, lor a short visit to \cnicc, Nictzschc spcnt most ol
May kccping his loncly mothcr company in Naumburg. From thcrc hc movcd to Lcipzig
to takc pcrsonal chargc ol thc printing ol Beyond Good and E.il. !n Lcipzig hc had a lcw
sad, nal mcctings with Rohdc, who had loolishly movcd lrom T ubingcn, whcrc hc had
Nietzsches Circle of !omen

,c
bccn vcry happy, to takc up a chair in Lcipzig, thcir joint alma matcr, only to quarrcl almost
immcdiatcly with his ncw collcagucs. Nictzschc lound him distractcd and homcsick lor
T ubingcn, with no undcrstanding ol his currcnt philosophy. Rohdc, in turn, condcd to
vcrbcck that hc could no longcr rccognisc his onctimc bcst lricnd, nding it as il hc
camc lrom a land whcrc no onc clsc livcs.

Lcaving Lcipzig on Junc :, Nictzschc arrivcd

in Sils Maria thrcc days latcr lor his lth summcr rctrcat.
Beyond Good and E.il appcarcd on August , +886. 8laming his tcrriblc salcs ol prcvious
works on Schmcitzncrs incrcasing rcluctancc to distributc rcvicwcopics to litcrary opinion
mouldcrs, Nictzschc askcd Naumann to distributc thc cxccptionally largc numbcr ol sixty
six complimcntary copics to, not mcrcly thc usual suspccts (plus a lcw ncw oncs such as
Hclcn Zimmcrn), but also to thc cditors ol twcntyvc journals and ncwspapcrs in Lcipzig,
rcsdcn, 8crlin, Munich, Hamburg, Colognc, \icnna, Zurich, and London, whcrc copics
wcrc scnt to thc cditors ol thc theneum, thc cademy, and thc !estminster Fe.ie..
6
ynamite, ]unker Philosophy, Pathological
T
hanks to this conlctti ol complimcntarics, Beyond Good and E.il rcccivcd quitc a num
bcr ol carly rcvicws. Sincc book rcvicwcrs, thcn as now, tcndcd to bc ol a lcltlibcral
pcrsuasion, collcctivcly, thc rcvicws rcprcscntcd Nictzschcs rst major collision with thc
libcral opinion ol his day. Ncarly all wcrc hostilc, though somc raiscd issucs that, to this
day, rcmain ccntral to an cvaluation ol thc work.
Tc carlicst was by Joscph Vidmann (a lricnd ol 8rahms) in thc Swiss journal Der Bund
lor Scptcmbcr, +886.

8orrowing Nictzschcs own imagc,

8
hc calls thc book dynamitc
and says that it should bc markcd with a black ag. Tc rclcrcncc is to thc ag that markcd
thc stacks ol dynamitc uscd to blast thc Gotthard railway tunncl (onc ol thc rst uscs ol
thc cxplosivc in construction work), complctcd vc ycars prcviously at thc cost ol :+ livcs.
Vidmann commcnts, shrcwdly, that thc book is a bravc attcmpt to nd a way out ol thc
traditional duality bctwccn morality and rcality, but complains that it too oltcn sacriccs
philosophical rigour lor thc sakc ol a good turn ol phrasc. !ts rcactionary vicws on womcn
and dcmocracy arc, Vidmann asscrts, dcad wrong.
Gustav Glagau in 8crlins Deutsche Literaturzeitung lor ctobcr, +886, complains that
thc book rcprcscnts a quitc dicrcnt sort ol lrccspiritcdncss to that ol thc dcmocratic
cnlightcnmcnt ol thc last hundrcd ycars (thc phrasc is takcn lrom Nictzschcs own prclacc)
and that onc is ocrcd nothing onc can acccpt or rcjcct but mcrcly snippcts lrom somconcs
worldvicw. Glagau also complains that rathcr than ocring rational argumcnts, it trics to
numb onc into submission with rcpcatcd hammcrblows ol rhctoric to thc hcad.
P. Michaclis, in 8crlins Nationalzeitung lor cccmbcr , +886,

says that thc work is

worth carclul considcration il only to combat it. At timcs, Michaclis suggcsts, thc work
rcads likc a satirc on thc arrogant dcmands ol thc rcactionary aristocracy, though, in rcality,
it is no satirc but rathcr a symptom ol a dcnitc dircction in modcrn lilc. Nictzschc is thc
philosophical dclcndcr ol thc aristocratic currcnt ol our timc, providing us with thc philos
ophy ol thc Junkcr aristocracy (8ismarcks class). Nictzschcs principlc, Michaclis contin
ucs, is unlimitcd dcvotion towards thosc abovc, unlimitcd scorn towards thosc bclow.
Rcligion is an anachronism, a supcrscdcd standpoint, but a usclul dcvicc lor controlling
,c&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
thc hcrd. And morality is only lor thc rabblc. Tc watchword ol thc mastcrs is might is
right. Vhat rcconcilcs onc to thc book, though, is thc impudcncc with which its author
cxprcsscs his thoughts. (Nictzschc callcd this a good though hostilc rcvicw, thc most crcd
itablc rccapitulation ol my path ol thinking. Tat it rcpulscs thc rcvicwcr, hc adds, docsnt
bothcr mc at all.)
+oo
Hcinrich Vcltis rcvicwin Zurichs Neue Z urcher Zeitung lor cccmbcr +, +886, though
it docs call thc work a rarc and uniquc book, is mostly imam dcsigncd to disguisc thc
lact that thc rcvicwcr is complctcly out ol his dcpth onc suspccts hc wrotc thc rcvicw as
a chorc rathcr than choicc. Nictzschc latcr complaincd ol thc incompctcncc ol most ol his
rcvicwcrs.
Johanncs Sclal in thc llgemeine Deutsche Uni.ersit atszeitung lor January, +88, claims,
rathcr amazingly, that what givcs backbonc to thc aphorisms is thc not particularly original
idca ol thc will to powcr and rcvaluation ol all valucs, and gocs on to complain that thc
author cxaggcratcs thc valuc ol individuality, cxhibiting thc sick scllconsciousncss ol thosc
who isolatc thcmsclvcs lrom socicty, cvcn though thcy cannot cxist without it. Tc author,
hc concludcs, wants to crcatc cithcr lools or dangcrous parasitcs.
An anonymous rcvicwin 8rcslaus Nord und Sud lor May, +88, insightlully calls thc work
an intcrcsting attcmpt to build an cthic on thc will to powcr as a lundamcntal moral prin
ciplc. G. von Gizycki, in \olumc + ol thc Deutsche Fundschau lor thc samc ycar, dcscribcs
thc work as bordcring on thc pathological, whilc Tomas Frcy, in ntisemitic Letters lor
cccmbcr, +88, rclcrring to Nictzschcs rcmarks on thc Jcwish qucstion, thanks God that
only hall a dozcn pcoplc will cvcr rcad thc book.
A nal rcaction to thc book occurs in a lcttcr to vcrbcck in which Rohdc dcscribcs his
old lricnds book as thc altcrdinncr product ol somconc who has drunk too much winc,
almost childish in its philosophical and political vicws, thc totality a mcrc point ol vicw
rcsting on nothing but a mood. Tc works point ol vicw is trcatcd as thc only possiblc onc,
cvcn though in his ncxt work Nictzschc will surcly inhabit its oppositc. ! cant takc thcsc
ctcrnal mctamorphoscs scriously any morc,
+o+
Rohdc writcs, rcvcaling thc rcal sourcc ol
his cstrangcmcnt: Nictzschcs abandonmcnt ol thc standpoint hc, Rohdc, had dclcndcd so
bravcly and passionatcly against Vilamovitz (pp. +o+, +6 abovc), hc takcs as a pcrsonal
bctrayal.
Vhat wc now nccd to dctcrminc is whcthcr any ol thcsc rcvicws and rcactions docs
anything likc justicc to thc book.
21
Beyond Good and Evil
Te Heart of Darkness
V
n~: is thc lundamcntal aimol Beyond Good and E.il: As wc shall scc, thc work
dcvclops a distinction (grcatly cxpandcd in thc Genealogy of Morals) bctwccn thc
slavc morality (a morality ol good vcrsus e.il ) introduccd by Christianity,
and thc ancicnt worlds mastcr morality (a morality ol good vcrsus bad ) that prcccdcd it.
And so what thc titlc tclls us is that wc must advancc bcyond thc good and cvil morality
that wc havc grown up in. Prcsumably wc arc also told that wc must rccovcr somc vcrsion
ol thc good and bad morality. Vc nccd, thc titlc tclls us, a moral rcvolution.
Tc subtitlc, Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, tclls us thc samc thing in a dicrcnt
way. To undcrstand it onc has to noticc its doublc rclcrcncc to Vagncr, thc composcr who
callcd Das Fheingold a Prcludc to thc rcmaindcr ol thc Fing cyclc, and his musicdramas,
collcctivcly, thc artwork ol thc luturc.

As wcll as making clcar Nictzschcs continuing

powcrstrugglc with his lormcr Mastcr, thc lunction ol thc subtitlc is to idcntily Beyond
Good and E.il as a prcvicw, a bricl prcludc to a luturc work which will actually be thc
philosophy ol thc luturc. A lcttcr writtcn just altcr thc appcarancc ol Beyond Good and E.il
makcs this clcar: hc is now planning, Nictzschc writcs lizabcth, to spcnd thc ncxt lour
ycars producing a lourvolumc mastcrwork with thc lcarsomc titlc ol Te !ill to Po.er.
ttempt at a Fe.aluation of ll !alues.
+
Rcvaluation ol all valucs is Nictzschcs tcrm lor
moral rcvolution. So, again, what wc nccd is a moral rcvolution. Vhy should this bc so:
Nictzschc rcpcatcdly dcscribcs his book in thc darkcst ol tcrms: thc work is, hc writcs
on its complction, somcthing complctcly tcrriblc and rcpcllcnt,
:
a tcrrilying book . . . vcry
black and squidlikc. !n it, hc continucs, hc has graspcd somcthing by thc horns: quitc
ccrtainly its not a bull.

Vagncr sct out his rcvolutionary artistic programmc in an +8 pamphlct cntitlcd Tc Artwork ol
thc Futurc. Tc work is dcdicatcd to Ludwig Fcucrbach and clcarly dcrivcs its titlc lromFcucrbachs
Principles of a Philosophy of the Future (+8). !ndircctly, thcrclorc, Beyond Good and E.il s subtitlc
comcs lrom Fcucrbach.

,c
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc squidlikc thing Beyond Good and E.il grasps is, it sccms to mc, modcrn, that is to
say, arwinian scicncc. As wc shall scc, Nictzschcs conccpt ol thc will to powcr, which
comcs, in Beyond Good and E.il, to a promincncc it posscsscs in no othcr publishcd work, is
conccivcd as a modication ol arwinism. Vhat was dcvastatingly problcmatic lor thc latc
ninctccnth ccntury in gcncral, and lor Nictzschc in particular, was not mcrcly thc dcath ol
God but rathcr thc lact that what takcs thc placc ol divinc providcncc is survival ol thc
ttcst. Morc cxactly, in Nictzschcs improvcd vcrsion ol arwin, a world that is will to
powcr and nothing bcsidcs.

Vhat makcs thc ncwscicncc so rcpcllcnt is that it introduccs

thc duality bctwccn morality and rcality mcntioncd in Vidmanns rcvicw (p. o abovc).
As Nictzschc puts it in a lcttcr, it rcquircs us to lacc thc lact that that which has hithcrto
bccn thc most hatcd, lcarcd and dcspiscd, namcly, thc lust lor powcr and scnsuality, is, in
lact, thc rcality ol lilc and thc world.

Christian morality, that is to say, tclls us that wc ought

to bc sclcss, ought to lovc our ncighbour as oursclvcs. 8ut arwinian scicncc tclls us,
not that wc occasionally lall short ol that idcal, but that, as a mattcr ol scicntic ncccssity,
wc al.ays do, that thc truc motivcs on which wc always act arc in lact always thc opposite ol
thc motivcs on which wc ought to act, that wc act always out ol thc sclsh lust lor powcr.
Tis is why Nictzschc writcs that it is not a bull hc grabs by thc horns and pulls into thc
light ol day, but rathcr, lrom thc pcrspcctivc ol traditional morality, thc dcvil.
Schopcnhaucr anticipatcd somcthing vcry likc thc arwinian worldvicw. And this lcd
him to concludc that thc world is somcthing which ought not to bc.
6
Tis shows what is
so dcadly about thc radical dualism bctwccn thc ought and thc is: it lcads to disgust and
dcspair, to worlddcnial, Silcnuss nihilism, as dcscribcd in Te Birth of Tragedy (p. +:
abovc).
Givcn that worldarmation is always thc maturc Nictzschcs primc aim ccstatic
worldarmation, indccd thc primary aim ol Beyond Good and E.il is to ovcrcomc moral
dualism, thc gap bctwccn thc ought and thc is. And sincc thc is would appcar to bc
unaltcrablc, it lollows that thc ought has to bc changcd. A lundamcntal rcvaluation ol
valucs nccds to takc placc. Gordon Gckko, thc hcro ol thc movic !all Street, announccs
his grcat insight that grccd lor want ol a bcttcr word is good. Tough this is not
Nictzschcs rcvaluation, it docs suggcst thc radical, to traditional cycs shocking, naturc ol
what hc proposcs.
Nictzschc docs not mcrcly commcnt on thc blackncss ol thc book altcr its complction.
Hc gocs out ol his way, in thc book itscll, to emphasise thc blackncss ol its worldvicw
lrom thc point ol vicw ol traditional morality lrom which, ol coursc, as a child ol his agc,
Nictzschc himscll is by no mcans cntircly lrcc. (Tis, ! think, is why onc somctimcs scnscs
him to bc, likc a rabbit in thc hcadlights, lrozcn rigid with horror at thc blackncss ol thc
world hc dcscribcs.) Tc rcason lor this cmphasis is that Beyond Good and E.il s primary
targct ol attack is a position hc dcscribcs as idcalism.
!dcalists, thc darling idcalists, arc thosc who wax lyrical about thc good, thc truc,
and thc bcautilul.

Tc tcrm (which, lor thc sakc ol simplicity, it is bcst to rcgard as hav

ing nothing to do with mctaphysical idcalism) undoubtcdly takcs its mcaning lrom Mal
wida von Mcyscnbugs Memoirs of a Female Idealist. Tough Nictzschc had oncc admircd
Malwidas book intcnscly, during his nal ycars ol sanity hc bccamc incrcasingly antag
onistic to hcr.
Tough rcgarding idcalism as thc dominant condition ol ninctccnthccntury culturc in
gcncral, Nictzschc thinks ol it as a particular aiction ol cducatcd womcn. Latcr hc will
8cyond Good and vil

,c,
accusc thc littlc blucstocking, Gcorgc liot, ol thc samc thing.
8
!ts ground is thc lailurc
to lollow thc rcjcction ol Christian mctaphysics with thc rcjcction ol Christian morality.
Having givcn up Christianitys mctaphysics, idcalists cling, all thc morc intcnscly, to its
morality. Tcy arc thus thrcatcncd by thc dualism bctwccn thc ought and thc is that,
in somconc posscssing both Schopcnhaucrs commitmcnt to Christian morality and his
ruthlcss honcsty about thc way thc world actually is, lcads to worlddcnial.

Tc idcalists,
howcvcr, to avoid such dcspair, closc thc gap bctwccn thc ought and thc is. Tcy do so,
howcvcr, not via Nictzschcs stratcgy ol rcvaluing thc ought but rathcr by thc strangc
altcrnativc ol rcvaluing thc is. Malwida, Nictzschc writcs Mcta von Salis, populatcs thc
world with bcautilul souls so as not to scc rcality, a projcct which lorccs hcr to lic with
cvcry scntcncc.
+o
To avoid thc gap that lcads to moral dcspair, in othcr words, idcalists fake
thcir account ol rcality. Tcy dcccivc, abovc all, thcmsclvcs into thinking that thc world is
lull ol nicc pcoplc who rcally do act out ol unsclsh ncighbour lovc most ol thc timc.
Rcally, thcy tcll thcmsclvcs, wc can all bc nicc pcoplc. ccp down wc all havc bcautilul
souls, and il wc act in unbcautilul ways wc, our bcttcr sclvcs, our conscicnccs, lccl bad
about it.
Vhat, actually, is wrong with idcalism: Nictzschcs answcr to this qucstion is lcss than
pcrspicuous. !dcalists arc dishoncst, tcll thcmsclvcs lics, to bc surc, but it is lar lrom clcar
what objcction Nictzschc has to sclldcccption. !n thc samc lcttcr to Mcta von Salis hc
says that Malwidas sccing thc bcst in cvcryonc is not in lact innoccncc but rathcr an
cxtrcmc arrogancc. Vhat hc is rclcrring to, ! think, is thc arrogancc ol insisting that thc
world must be thc way onc thinks it ought to bc (thc oughtis lallacy, onc might call
it), a lack ol rcspcct lor thc rcality ol things, an arrogation to oncscll ol thc godly powcr ol
worldcrcation. 8ut again, it is not clcar why arrogancc should bc an objcction particu
larly coming lrom thc admircr ol, as wc shall scc, mastcr morality. Nictzschc admits that
Malwidas rosctintcd supcrciality has cnablcd hcr to kccp aoat in a dicult lilc.
++
And
hc himscll, in a ncw prclacc to Te Gay Science, is on thc point ol praising (lrom thc point
ol vicw ol a convalcsccnt) Grcck supcrciality supcrciality out ol prolundity. Tis is
a rclcrcncc to Te Birth of Tragedys account ol Homcrs Apollonian art as casting a shining
vcil ovcr its tcrrors and horrors ol lilc and so making lilcarmation possiblc (pp. +:6
abovc).
Vhat, thcn, to rcpcat, can rcally bc wrong with idcalism: Vhy must wc rcmovc our
rosctintcd glasscs and look with uninching Schopcnhaucrian couragc into thc hcart ol
darkncss: ! think that Nictzschc would wish to makc two points. First, that thc idcalists
cvasion ol thc truth about thc world is not mcrcly thc stratcgy ol thc psychologically wcak
but is also a stratcgy that dcclincs thc opportunity to ovcrcomc wcakncss. Fccl thc lcar
and do it anyway is a lamiliar slogan lrom pop psychology. Tc advicc is to build oncs
condcncc and so bccomc a morc powcrlul (and probably loving) pcrson, not by cvading,
but rathcr by making a virtuc ol lronting up to thc lcarlul as it comcs oncs way. As with
a grcat dcal ol pop psychology a lact which makcs Nictzschcs lilcwisdom sccm lcss
original than it is this dcrivcs ultimatcly lrom Nictzschc. For what it says is just what
thc lamous what docsnt kill mc makcs mc strongcr
+:
aphorism says. Tc point, thcn, is
that idcalism is a turning ol oncs back on thc possibility ol pcrsonal growth. Tc idcalists
sclldcccption, Beyond Good and E.il points out, is motivatcd by thc bclicl that populating
thc world with bcautilul souls will makc thcm happy.
+
8ut what thcy turn thcir backs on
is thc possibility ol a morc robust, and so bcttcr, kind ol happincss.
,:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
And in lact this, it sccms to mc, has to bc thc main point idcalism docs not rcally
makc its practitioncrs happy at all. Rccall that Nictzschcs idcalists arc educated pcoplc.
So thcy kno. about modcrn scicncc, know pcrlcctly wcll with onc chambcr ol thc mind
that according to our bcst (cort at) knowlcdgc, rcality is a world ol cutthroat compctition
dcnudcd ol ncighbour lovc. So, undcrlying thc idcalists lyricism, moral dcspair is rcally
prcscnt all along. Malwida just about kccps aoat, but kccping aoat is hardly happincss.
Tis is why Nictzschc bccamc incrcasingly lrustratcd with hcr. Hc kncw shc was not
happy and kncw, too, that in spitc ol hcr long cxposurc to his modc ol thinking shc had
rcluscd to gct thc point. And this is why, in Beyond Good and E.il, as wc shall scc, hc
cmphasiscs, in brutal rhctoric, thc gruesomeness, lrom thc idcalists point ol vicw, ol a world
govcrncd by will to powcr. Hc shouts his slogan that thc world is will to powcr, and nothing
bcsidcs in ordcr to brcak through thc idcalists scllimposcd dcalncss. Tc aim is to force
thcm to abandon thcir stratcgy ol rcvaluing, ludging, thc lacts, to lorcc thcm to scc thc
absolutc ncccssity ol his own stratcgy ol rcvaluing .alues.
Noticc that il this gcncral undcrstanding ol Beyond Good and E.il is corrcct, two things
lollow. First, thcrc is no room in Nictzschcs thought lor postmodcrnist sccpticism about
truth: what gcncratcs its ccntral problcm is thc lact that arwinian scicncc is true morc
cxactly, it is our bcst undcrstanding ol thc truth about thc world and as such demands rational
acccptancc. Sccond, thcrc is no room lor trying to airbrush thc will to powcr. Somctimcs, in
ordcr to makc Nictzschc lcss shocking, scholars suggcst that will to powcr just mcan powcr
ovcr oncscll . 8ut this misscs thc lundamcntal point that Nictzschc .ants to bc shocking.
Vhcn hc says that thc ovcrpowcring and cxploiting ol thc wcakcr by thc strongcr bclongs
to thc csscncc ol lilc,
+
hc mcans cxactly what hc says.

Tc phrasc bcyond good and cvil, ! havc suggcstcd, dirccts us towards thc moral rcvalu
ation ncccssary to propcrly arm lilc in a (among othcr things, socially) arwinian world.
!t dirccts us towards a morality which contrasts thc good with thc bad rathcr than thc cvil.
Somctimcs, howcvcr, as in, lor instancc Zarathustras 8clorc Sunrisc (p. 8+ abovc), Nict
zschc uscs thc samc phrasc, not to call lor thc rcplaccmcnt ol a goodcvil moral pcrspcctivc
with a goodbad pcrspcctivc, but rathcr to cxprcss an ccstatic statc in which onc is bcyond
good and cvil because e.erything is good, at lcast whcn sccn in thc contcxt ol bccoming as a
wholc. !n a lcttcr ol +888 cxprcssing thc pcrlcction ol living in Turin, hc writcs, vcnings
on thc Po bridgc: hcavcnly! 8cyond good and cvil!!
+
Tis suggcsts a conncxion bctwccn
bcing bcyond good and cvil and willing thc ctcrnal rcturn.
Nictzschc makcs this conncxion cxplicit in a lcttcr ol +888 to Gcorg 8randcs (as wc shall
scc, thc anc who rst madc him lamous):
Rcvaluation ol valucs o you undcrstand this tropc: Fundamcntally thc goldmakcr
is thc kind ol man to whom wc owc most. ! mcan hc who, out ol thc mcancst, thc most
scorncd, makcs somcthing worthwhilc and cvcn goldcn. My task is vcry odd this timc: !
havc askcd myscll what has bccn until now most hatcd, lcarcd, dcspiscd by humanity:
and out ol that !vc madc my gold.
+6
Vhcn wc rccall Nictzschcs conncxion bctwccn thc alchcmy ol turning shit into gold and
thc mcrsonian statc ol nding all things divinc whcn vicwcd in thc totality ol cxistcncc
(p. abovc), it bccomcs apparcnt that thc goal ol bccoming bcyond good and cvil is not
8cyond Good and vil

,::
just that ol arming lilc. !t is, rathcr, thc arming ol lilc .ithout reser.ations of any kind
that cnablcs onc to cmbracc thc ctcrnal rcturn.

nc lurthcr prcliminary qucstion. As ! havc insistcd, ol cvcry onc ol Nictzschcs tcxts onc
must ask: lor whom is it writtcn: Vho is thc intcndcd audicncc:
As with all its post+86 prcdcccssors, Beyond Good and E.il is writtcn lor thc lcw.
8ooks writtcn lor thc gcncral public always stink, it asscrts. Tc stcnch ol pctty pcoplc
stick to thcm.
+
8ooks writtcn lor thc airport bookstorc always lcvcl thcmsclvcs down to
thc lowcst common dcnominator. As wc know, thc lcw Nictzschc hopcs to attract to thc
Nictzschcan causc in gcncral and, in sclcctcd cascs, to thc monastcry lor lrcc spirits arc
thc cxccptional lcw, thc crcativc lrcc spirits who arc to bccomc thc coloniscrs ol thc luturc,
thc sccdbcarcrs ol a rcgcncratcd culturc. Beyond Good and E.il has, howcvcr, an cvcn morc
spccic goal: in thc lorclront ol his mind is thc goal ol attracting Hcinrich von Stcin to
his sidc. For, as notcd, thc pocm that appcars as its Altcrsong undcr thc titlc From High
Mountains is, in lact, a rcviscd and cxpandcd vcrsion ol thc pocm Nictzschc scnt von Stcin
in Novcmbcr, +88 (p. abovc), imploring him to comc to thc high mountains ol
Sils Maria and ol Nictzschcan thought.
Teoretical Philosophy: Te Prejudices of Metaphysicians
S
o much lor gcncralitics, now lor Beyond Good and E.il s spccic contcnt. Vhat makcs it
pcrhaps thc hardcst ol all Nictzschcs works is thc diculty ol nding a thrcad through
thc labyrinth ol aphorisms. Tc thrcad ! shall cmploy consists in rcgarding thc work as
consisting, rcally, ol two books ol uncqual sizc, onc conccrncd with thcorctical philosophy,
thc othcr with practical philosophy, cthics in thc vcry broadcst scnsc ol thc word. Tc rst
is largcly, but by no mcans cxclusivcly, to bc lound in Part !, thc sccond in thc rcmaining
cight parts.
As obscrvcd, thc book aims to changc thc livcs ol its propcr rcadcrs and via thcmto trans
lorm human culturc as a wholc. And so, likc Marx, Nictzschc wants to rcdcnc thc notion
ol philosophy. Philosophy will no longcr bc mcrc critiquc Kant, thc grcat Chinaman

ol
K onigsburg, was a grcat critic and worthy philosophical labourcr, but not a truc philos
ophcr.
+8
Philosophy, Nictzschc adds, cannot any longcr bc rcduccd to cpistcmology, lor
how could mcrc cpistcmology dominatc, how could it changc thc world:
+
n thc othcr hand, thc ncw philosophcrs arc ill adviscd to ignorc thc traditional arcas
ol philosophy or thc grcat namcs in its hall ol lamc. Kant and Hcgcl, who havc carricd out
thc noblc task ol codilying and abbrcviating traditional idcas in morality and mctaphysics,
rcprcscnt stcps thc truc philosophcr, in at lcast many cascs, nccds to trcad, prcconditions
ol his undcrtaking his truc task ol crcating valucs.
:o
!t is not cntircly clcar why Nictzschc
bclicvcs this. Pcrhaps thc thought is that in ordcr to crcatc a ncw way ol apprchcnding thc
world thc truc philosophcr will bc grcatly aidcd by a comprchcnsivc grasp ol what it is that
is to bc rcplaccd. Vhatcvcr thc rcason, Part ! ol thc work, cntitlcd n thc Prcjudiccs ol
Philosophcrs, sums up thc lruits ol Nictzschcs study ol traditional philosophy, his timc

Prcsumably a rclcrcncc to thc immutability ol Kants lorms ol cxpcricncc, his lailurc to pcrccivc
thc historical variability ol thc structurcs ol human consciousncss.
,::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
in, as it wcrc, philosophical boot camp. !ts aim is to scttlc somc scorcs with a numbcr ol
thcorctical positions all ol which hc himscll has inhabitcd at onc timc or anothcr.

Metaphysical Dualism. Tc work bcgins by targcting thc postulation by mctaphysicians ol
a dichotomy bctwccn a truc and a mcrcly apparcnt world. Hc has particularly in mind,
hcrc, Plato, Christianity (Platonism lor thc pcoplc)
:+
, and Kant.
::
Sincc Nictzschc always
uscs mctaphysics mctaphysics to mcan supcrnaturalism, thc targct is thc supposcd
duality bctwccn a natural and a supcrnatural world.

Vhat is unusual in Nictzschcs critiquc ol twoworldism is its gcncalogical charactcr.

Tc lundamcntal bclicl ol mctaphysicians, hc claims, is in opposition ol valucs, togcthcr
with thc assumption that things ol highcr valuc must havc a totally dicrcnt origin lrom
things ol lowcr valuc.
:
Vhat thc dicrcnccolorigin thcsis attributcs to mctaphysicians
is, ! think, thc insistcncc that, as a totality, rcality bc a moral ordcr. Vhat is attributcd to
thcm is a vcrsion ol what ! carlicr callcd thc oughtis lallacy: sincc only thc highcr valuc
ol an opposing pair is what ought to cxist, rcally, only it does cxist.
Somc cxamplcs ol what ! think Nictzschc has in mind: Plato, likc all conscrvativcs, hatcd
changc. Hc hatcd bccoming and admircd gyptian immobility, bcing. And so hc pos
tulatcd a truc world ol unchanging Forms. Changc was rclcgatcd to mcrc appcarancc.
Christians hatc pain and mortality. So, again cmploying thc hiddcn prcmisc that dccp down
rcality must bc as it ought to bc, thcy postulatc a truc world in which thcrc is ncithcr pain
nor dcath. Kant hatcs scnsuality as thc sourcc ol sclsh bchaviour. And so hc postulatcs an
intclligiblc scll consisting ol a purc, moral will lrcc ol all scnsual distractions. And so on.
Nictzschcs critiquc ol mctaphysical dualism makcs two claims: First, that thc traditional
valucoppositions gct things thc wrong way round. Tis is his by now lamiliar point that
cgoism, lor instancc, has morc valuc lor lilc than its oppositc, thc traditional good and
honourablc. Nictzschcs sccond claim is that thcrc arc no absolutc valuc oppositions: a
highcr valuc always has an incriminating link to, is in lact csscntially thc samc as, its
oppositc. Tis, again, is thc lamiliar thcmc ol sublimation. Vithout, lor instancc, bad ris
thcrc can bc no good ris, without thc aggrcssivc will to powcr that can lcad to war thcrc
cannot bc thc compctition that crcatcs culturc (pp. ++ abovc). Tc Christian cxclusion
ol aggrcssion lrom its truc world is, thcrclorc, doubly mistakcn. !t is a mistakc to supposc
that how rcality is lollows lrom any notion ol how it ought to bc, but it is also a mistakc to
supposc that drivcs such as thc will to powcr and sclshncss ought not to cxist. Noticc that
thc thcmc ol sublimation bcars importantly on thc task ol turning thc sccmingly squidlikc
into gold, ol loving latc, cmbracing thc ctcrnal rcturn: to scc aggrcssion as a prccondition
ol culturc is to acccpt its prcscncc in a totality onc can lovc without rcscrvation.
As with all Nictzschcs gcncalogical critiqucs, thcrc is a qucstion ol what cxactly thc
critiquc ol dualism is supposcd to cstablish. ! suggcst that what hc is implicitly arguing
hcrc is somcthing likc thc lollowing. Naturalism is thc most obvious and most plausiblc
gcncral account ol thc naturc ol rcality. Prima lacic, supcrnaturalism is highly implausiblc.
Vhy thcn would anyonc want to bccomc a mctaphysical dualist: Tc lundamcntal answcr
is: .alue dualism. 8ut this, as dcmonstratcd abovc, is a bad rcason. So wc should acccpt

Tcrc is a tircsomc ambiguity in philosophcrs usc ol thc tcrm mctaphysics. Somctimcs it mcans
account ol thc lundamcntal naturc ol rcality, somctimcs supernatural account ol thc lundamcntal
naturc ol rcality. Nictzschcs own account ol thc world as will to powcr is mctaphysics in thc rst
but not, ol coursc, thc sccond scnsc.
8cyond Good and vil

,:
naturalism. Kant, and cvcn Plato, havc, ol coursc, argumcnts lor mctaphysical dualism that
havc nothing to do with valucs. Nictzschcs background assumption must bc (a) that lor
mctaphysicians thcsc arc rationalisations rathcr than rcasons and (b) that nonc arc powcrlul
cnough to makc dualism morc plausiblc than naturalism. Tc task ol dcmonstrating (b) is
lclt as an cxcrcisc lor thc rcadcr.
Schopenhauerian Idealism. Schopcnhaucrs idcalismis, ol coursc, a vcrsion ol mctaphysical
dualism. Nictzschc noncthclcss providcs a critiquc that is indcpcndcnt ol thc accusation ol
valuc dualism. Tc matcrial world is mcrcly our rcprcscntation and is crcatcd by our scnsc
organs a position Schopcnhaucr oltcn lapscs into is, Nictzschc points out, scllrcluting,
sincc thc rst clausc cntails that thc scnsc organs arc mcrc ctions and so cannot causc or
crcatc anything.
:
Tis criticism is cntircly corrcct. To rcndcr thc position cohcrcnt onc
must cithcr rclormulatc thc claim into somcthing likc the commonsense picture of the .orld is
thc product ol our cognitivc organs or clsc dcny that any physical organ is thc origin ol con
sciousncss. As wc will scc, Nictzschcs own position corrcsponds to thc rst ol thcsc options.
Commonsense Fealism. Two noblc spirits, Nictzschc writcs, both Polcs (likc, hc lantas
iscs, himscll ), arc Copcrnicus and 8oscovich. 8oth dcny thc tcstimony ol thc scnscs, and
disdain thc ovcrvaluing ol scnsc pcrccption that is charactcristic ol thc modcrn agc. Copcr
nicus dcnicd that thc carth stood still, whilc 8oscovich dcnicd mattcr. Hc did this by show
ing that this last rclugc ol thc atomic thing is mcrcly an abbrcviation, an abbrcviation ol,
as wc saw (p. +8 abovc), ccntrcs ol lorcc which 8oscovich callcd puncta.
Tc passagc continucs by saying that 8oscovichs war on atoms nccds to bc pushcd lur
thcr, so that wc dcny thc atomic soul that is thc basis ol Christianity. Vc nccd to dcny
soul atomism, to undcrstand that thc atomic soul, likc thc thing in gcncral, is mcrcly thc
product ol subjcctprcdicatc grammar. To thc simplc and indivisiblc soul wc should prclcr
thc idca ol thc soul as a multiplicity ol subjccts. Tc idca ol thc soul as a social structurc
ol drivcs and cmotions should bc grantcd rights ol citizcnship in scicncc.
:
Tc point ! want to draw attcntion to, hcrc, is Nictzschcs low cstccm lor common
scnsc which hc vicws as bascd on a naivc laith in scnsc pcrccption and grammar as laith
lul rccctions ol thc naturc and structurc ol rcality. Tc commonscnsc imagc ol thc world
is plcbcian
:6
(! hopc I dont havc common scnsc, Lord 8crtrand Russcll oncc rcmarkcd),
grcatly inlcrior to thc scicntic imagc.
Scientic Fealism. Tat natural scicncc is prclcrablc to commonscnsc docs not mcan,
howcvcr, that it is thc nal arbitcr ol truth: physics is only an intcrprctation and arrangc
mcnt ol thc world (according to oursclvcs! il ! may say so) and not an cxplanation ol thc
world.
:
Tis, almost word lor word, is a rcpctition ol Schopcnhaucrs vicw that thc sci
cntic imagc ol thc world is csscntially lacilc, twodimcnsional, likc a scction ol a piccc ol
marblc showing many dicrcnt vcins sidc by sidc but not lctting us know thc coursc ol thc
vcins lrom thc intcrior . . . to thc surlacc.
:8
Tc socallcd laws ol scicncc, Schopcnhaucr
argucs, arc groundcd in natural lorccs. 8ut as to thc naturc ol thcsc lorccs, as to what grav
ity, impcnctrability, clcctricity, and so on rcally arc, scicncc has nothing to say. To it thcy
arc occult, unknown Xs.
:
Natural scicncc, Schopcnhaucr concludcs, is incomplctc:
Physics in thc widcst scnsc ol thc word |is| conccrncd with thc cxplanation ol thc phcnom
cna ol thc world, but it lics in thc naturc ol thcsc cxplanations that thcy cannot bc sucicnt.
Physics is unablc to stand on its own lcct but nccds a metaphysics on which to support itscll,
whatcvcr nc airs it may adopt towards thc lattcr.
o
,:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
!n rcpcating Schopcnhaucrs vicw ol natural scicncc Nictzschc appcars to bc prcparing thc
way lor his own, philosophcrs account ol thc naturc ol rcality. Scicncc in thc broad Gcrman
scnsc, hc sccms to bc saying, nccds to go bcyond natural scicncc. To his attcmpt to corrcct
and complctc natural scicncc ! now turn.
Te Metaphysics of Power
A
s indicatcd, Nictzschcs positivc mctaphysics is abovc all naturalistic. Nothing cxists
outsidc naturc, outsidc spacc and timc. Tc starting point lor his mctaphysics is, it
sccms to mc, arwins thcory ol cvolution. Tough hc calls arwin a mcdiocrc nglish
man,
+
onc suspccts this is intcndcd to disguisc how much his worldvicw, likc thosc ol all
his thinking contcmporarics, was mouldcd by arwins dangcrous idca.
nc clcmcnt ol his positivc vicw ol rcality has alrcady bccn touchcd upon: 8oscovichs
dcmolition ol thc matcrial atom in lavour ol a world madc up ol lorccs. Tis dcmatcrial
ising ol naturc in lavour ol lorcc sccms to Nictzschc to bc on thc right track. Tc qucstion
rcmains, howcvcr, as it did lor Schopcnhaucr, as to what thc lorcc in qucstion actually is.
!n thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod hc writcs,
Tc victorious conccpt ol lorcc with which our physicists havc crcatcd God and thc world
nccds a supplcmcnt: it must bc givcn an inncr world which ! dcsignatc as will to powcr,
i.c. as thc insatiablc drivc to manilcst powcr, or as thc cmploymcnt and cxcrcisc ol powcr,
as crcativc drivc ctc.
:
As wc havc just sccn, this nccds a supplcmcnt is just Schopcnhaucrs claim that sincc lorccs
arc, to natural scicncc, unknown Xs, physics must bc supplcmcntcd by mctaphysics in
ordcr to rcscuc scicncc lrom lundamcntal mcaninglcssncss.
Schopcnhaucrs mastcr conccpt lor supplcmcnting physics, giving mcaning to lorcc, is,
as wc know, will will to livc. 8ut Nictzschc criticiscs Schopcnhaucrs mctaphysics, not
as wrong, but rathcr as lailing to gct to thc bottom ol things. His own mastcr conccpt, will
to powcr, is, hc claims, morc lundamcntal than Schopcnhaucrs will to livc. !n attack
ing Schopcnhaucr, howcvcr, hc takcs himscll to bc simultancously attacking arwin. !n
T.ilight of the Idols hc cxplicitly attributcs thc will to livc, thc strugglc lor cxistcncc,

to
arwin with good rcason, sincc thc lull titlc ol thc rst cdition ol thc lamous book is: On
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preser.ation of Fa.oured Faces in the
Struggle for Life.
Physiologists, says Nictzschc,
should think twicc bclorc positing thc drivc lor scllprcscrvation as thc cardinal drivc ol
organic bcing. Abovc all, a living thing wants to discharge its strcngth lilc itscll is thc will
to powcr |or growth

| scllprcscrvation is only onc ol thc indircct and most lrcqucnt

consequences ol this.

Nictzschcs claim, in othcr words, is that thc lundamcntal drivc ol cvcry organism, includ
ing cvcry human bcing, is powcr. vidcntly, howcvcr, sincc cxistcncc is a prccondition ol
powcr, thcrc is a subsidiary drivc to cxistcncc. Schopcnhaucr and arwin arc subsumcd
undcr a morc lundamcntal vicw ol thc world.
8cyond Good and vil

,:
Sincc lilc in gcncral is will to powcr, whcn it comcs to human lilc in particular, psychol
ogy, a branch ol physiology, should bc graspcd as thc morphology and thc doctrine (Lehre)
of the de.elopment of the .ill to po.er which is what ! havc donc.
6
Somc human bchaviour,
ol coursc powcr politics, lor cxamplc is quitc cvidcntly motivatcd by powcr. 8ut thc
univcrsality ol Nictzschcs thcsis commits him to discovcring thc will to powcr at work in
cascs whcrc motivation seems to bc somcthing quitc dicrcnt. So, lor cxamplc, as wc will
scc, thc risc ol Christian morality was rcally a covcrt

and cunning powcrgrab on thc

part ol thc slavcs ol thc ancicnt world, an attcmpt to discmpowcr thcir mastcrs. And pity,
as wc havc alrcady sccn, is an cxcrcisc ol powcr ovcr thc piticd. !n gcncral psychology, thc
study ol human motivation, bccomcs, lor Nictzschc, thc hcrmcncutic ol suspicion. Sincc
convcntional scllcstccm usually rcprcsscs thc rcal powcrsprings ol action, Nictzschcan
psychology is govcrncd by thc suspicion
8
that what is dccisivc in action usually occurs
bclow thc lcvcl ol conscious intcntion.
Nictzschc writcs that moral prcjudiccs havc crcatcd unconscious rcsistanccs on thc
part ol invcstigators which havc prcvcntcd all psychology so lar lrom vcnturing into thc
dcpths.

Tis is an cxaggcration which disguiscs his own dcbt to thc hcrmcncutics ol sus
picion ol La Rochcloucauld, Schopcnhaucr, and Paul R cc, on which hc drcw so cxtcnsivcly
in Human, ll-Too-Human. 8ut what hc is rcally talking about is thc cvcryday psychology
dcploycd by thc darling idcalists. Vcddcd, as thcy arc, to thcir Christian moral prcjudiccs,
thcy cannot lacc up to what rcally makcs things happcn and arc thus lorccd, likc Malwida, to
lic with cvcry scntcncc so as not to scc thc rcality ol things. Tis is why, as ! havc said, Nictz
schc cxprcsscs his willtopowcr mctaphysics with dclibcratc harshncss, thc aim bcing to
shock thc idcalists out ol thcir scntimcntal drcam lor, ultimatcly, thcir own good. Tc clos
ing pagcs ol thc work contain a particularly brutal cxprcssion ol his mctaphysics ol powcr:
Lilc itscll is essentially a proccss ol appropriating, injuring, ovcrpowcring thc alicn and thc
wcakcr, opprcssing, bcing harsh, imposing your own lorm, incorporating, and, at lcast, at
thc vcry lcast, cxploiting.
o
Nictzschc givcs this conclusion spccial rclcrcncc to Marxist utopianism which, as hc sccs it,
is a vcrsion ol thc dccpdownwcallhavcbcautilulsouls psychology undcrlying Chris
tianiscd, Vcstcrn consciousncss. vcry body, hc writcs,
that is living and not dying . . . will havc to bc thc cmbodimcnt ol will to powcr, it will want
to grow, sprcad, grab, win dominancc . . . 8ut thcrc is no issuc on which basc uropcan con
sciousncss is lcss willing to bc instructcd than this: thcsc days pcoplc cvcrywhcrc arc lost
in rapturous cnthusiasms, cvcn in scicntic |i.c., Marxist| disguisc about a luturc statc ol
socicty whcrc thc cxploitativc charactcr will lall away |thc withcring away ol thc statc|:
to my cars that sounds as il somconc is promising to invcnt a lilc that dispcnscs with all
organic lunctions. xploitation docs not bclong to a corruptcd or impcrlcct primitivc soci
cty: it bclongs to thc essence ol bcing alivc as a lundamcntal organic lunction.
+
!t is thus scntimcntal drivcl to think that a bcast ol prcy such as Ccsarc 8orgia sucrs lrom
somc discasc. To bc surc, somcthing has to bc donc about such tropical monstcrs (! shall
rcturn in Chaptcr :6 to thc qucstion ol just what), but to supposc, as docs Kant, that thcy
arc sucring lrom thc inncr hcll ol a bcautilul highcr scll bcing opprcsscd and ovcrcomc
by an ugly, scnsual, lowcr scll is absurd.
:
,:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Epistemology

vidcntly, Nictzschcs startling claim that lilc indccd thc world is just will to
powcr and nothing bcsidcs

calls lor closc critical scrutiny. ! shall postponc this

task until ! comc to discuss his proposcd mastcrwork, Te !ill to Po.er, in Chaptcr :6.
Vhat ! shall, howcvcr, addrcss hcrc is thc qucstion ol thc intcndcd cpistcmological status
ol Nictzschcs mctaphysics ol powcr.
!ntcllcctual honcsty is, hc says, thc cardinal virtuc ol wc lrcc spirits ol philosophcrs
such as himscll.

Vc havc alrcady sccn him arguing thc nccd to bc ruthlcssly honcst about
thc world that is thc objcct ol invcstigation. 8ut cqually, hc insists, wc nccd to bc ruth
lcssly honcst about oursclvcs as invcstigators, about thc limitations ol our capacity to gain
knowlcdgc ol that world.
Honcsty that has bccomc in this way scllrccxivc lorccs us to lacc up to thc lact that wc
havc to givc up thc dogmatism that was thc hallmark ol traditional philosophy. Traditional
philosophy, that is, claimcd to ocr thc absolutcly ccrtain, lundamcntal truth about thc
world. (!ts prools ol Gods cxistcncc, lor instancc, did not claim to show that his cxistcncc
was a rcasonablc hypothcsis but that it was an absolute certainty.) Tat was what mctaphysics
was. Tc rcason wc havc to givc up such dogmatism, Nictzschc says in thc Prclacc, is thc
lact that pcrspcctivism is a lundamcntal condition ol all lilc.
Pcrspcctivism is Nictzschcs Kantian inhcritancc that wc havc mct in carlicr chaptcrs:
whatcvcr wc pcrccivc or think is mouldcd by thc structurc ol our minds, a structurc which
constitutcs a horizon wc can ncvcr cross, a corncr wc can ncvcr look round.

Tc cpis
tcmological conscqucncc ol this (so lar, Nictzschc is just trcading in Kants lootprints) is
that, sincc wc can ncvcr rcmovc thc sunglasscs ol thc mind, wc can ncvcr chcck up that
thc world rcally is thc way wc think it is. Vc can ncvcr, that is, bc ccrtain that our thcorics
ol thc world corrcspond to rcality. !n particular, thcn, Nietzsche can ncvcr bc ccrtain that
his mctaphysics ol will to powcr is truc. Vhat, thcn, is its intcndcd cpistcmological status:
Nictzschc rcjccts sccpticism: thcrc arc puritanical lanatics ol conscicncc who would
rathcr lic dying on an assurcd nothing than an unccrtain somcthing, but this is nihil
ism, a sickncss ol thc soul.
6
Sincc pcrspcctivism is a condition ol lilc so is unccrtainty:
to rcjcct unccrtainty is to rcjcct lilc. To lovc lilc is to lovc crror,

by which, as ! havc
cmphasiscd scvcral timcs, Nictzschc docs not mcan lalschood but simply bclicl that is
lcss than ccrtainly truc.
Tis tclls us thc status ol thc mctaphysics ol will to powcr: it is not ccrtain knowlcdgc
but rathcr a thcory or tcaching (Lehre)
8
which should bc grantcd rights ol citizcnship
in scicncc.

Anothcr thcory, howcvcr, is astrology. Vhy should Nictzschcs thcory bc

grantcd citizcnship rights and not astrology: How in gcncral do wc choosc onc thcory ovcr
anothcr: Nictzschcs answcr is that onc should choosc that thcory which bcst promotcs
and prcscrvcs lilc.
o
Tis, as ! intimatcd in discussing thc similaritics bctwccn Da.n and
thc work ol V. \. Quinc (pp. ++ abovc), is vcry likc thc outlook ol Amcrican prag
matism (which actually has its roots in Schopcnhaucrs and Nictzschcs philosophy). Tc
bcst thcory is that which works, which, in othcr words, givcs us powcr ovcr oursclvcs and
our cnvironmcnt. Nictzschcs claim lor thc will to powcr his, as hc sccs it, corrcctcd and
complctcd vcrsion ol arwinian scicncc is that it comprchcnds rcality in a way that is
morc comprchcnsivc and powcrlul than any rival thcory. Hc would, ! think, also add, as !
suggcstcd in discussing Da.n, that thc lact that a thcory works wcll is cvidcncc lcss than
complctcly conclusivc cvidcncc, to bc surc, but still cvidcncc that it is truc.
8cyond Good and vil

,:
Cultural Criticism
!
turn now to thc practical philosophy in Beyond Good and E.il. !n all his writings, Nictz
schcs practical philosophy his discussion ol social, political, rcligious, artistic and moral
thcmcs rcccivcd its ovcrall shapc lrom his conccption ol thc philosophcr as thc doctor
ol culturc,
+
lrom thc mcdical paradigm ol dcscription, diagnosis, and prcscription. Tc
dcscription and diagnosis ol what is wrong with thc way wc arc now constitutcs his cul
tural criticism, which Beyond Good and E.il, oncc again, makcs a dcning condition ol
thc philosophcr: thc philosophcr is, hc says, thc bad conscicncc ol his agc.
:
!n carlicr
languagc, hc is an untimcly man.
As wc havc sccn, thc town that is thc objcct ol Zarathustras scorn and lovc is callcd thc
Motlcy Cow. Tcsc two words sccm to mc to pick out thc two main strands ol Nictzschcs
cultural criticism: onc thing wrong with modcrnity is its motlcyncss, thc othcr is its cow
or hcrdlikc, charactcr.
Te Motleyness of Modernity. Modcrn humanity, says Nictzschc, has a hybrid, mixcd,
soul. !t trcats history as a storagc closct ol costumcs which it is constantly trying on but
nding nonc that quitc ts. !t constantly trics out ncw stylcs in customs and thc arts: onc
day it is thc romantic, thc ncxt thc baroquc. Again and again a ncw piccc ol antiquity
or lorcign country is takcn up and thcn cast asidc. (As notcd in thc prcvious chaptcr,
Rcinhardt von Scydlitz was cashing in on thc uropcan crazc lor Japonism as Nictzschc
wrotc thcsc words.) Modcrn uropcan culturc has bccn invadcd by lragmcnts ol cvcry past
and alicn culturc, turning it into a motlcy chaos.

Scvcral lactors arc rcsponsiblc lor this:

thc dcmocratic mixing ol classcs, thc mixing ol nationalitics, thc unparallclcd quantity ol
scholarly inlormation about thc past and thc lorcign. Abovc all, it is duc to our historical
scnsc, our tolcrant cmpathy lor all that is past and alicn.
Vhat Nictzschc is talking about is csscntially globalisation, multiculturalism, and thc
postmodcrn mixing ol stylcs, all ol thcm thc cccts ol thc ncw tcchnology ol railways
and clcctronic communication. As Vagncr was thc rst to obscrvc, what wc call postmod
crnism is not rcally post at all, but is, rathcr, an intcgral part ol modcrnity itscll. Tat
Nictzschc rcally docs havc postmodcrnism in his sights bccomcs particularly clcar whcn hc
says that thc only way ol inhabiting (rathcr than opposing) thc motlcyncss ol modcrnity
is to bccomc a parodist givcn to carnivalcsquc laughtcr

whimsy and play gurc, ol

coursc, as big (and scrious) words in cclcbrations ol postmodcrnism.
Vhat is supposcd to bc wrong with motlcyncss: Nictzschc calls our plcbcian curiosity
about cvcrything undcr thc sun an ignoblc lack ol good tastc. Vhcrcas wc havc a tastc
lor cvcrything (cthnic cuisinc, lor cxamplc), a noblc and scllsucicnt culturc is markcd
by thc vcry prccisc ycs and no ol thcir palatc, thcir rcady disgust, thcir hcsitant rcscrvc
about cvcrything strangc and cxotic.

Nictzschc calls modcrnity a hallbarbarism:

6
hall bccausc wc havc civilization plumbing and thc policc barbarism bccausc wc lack
culturc. Culturc, rccall, is dcncd as unity ol artistic stylc in all thc cxprcssions ol thc lilc
ol a pcoplc,

a unied conccption ol thc bcautilul, including thc bcautilul (i.c., good) lilc.
Not only do wc lack cultural unity, our tastc lor innitc varicty makcs us positivcly hos
tilc to it, hostilc to that ripcncd aspcct ol cvcry art and culturc which comcs into bcing
whcn a grcat lorcc stands voluntarily still . . . in a suddcn harncssing and lossilizing . . . on
still shaking ground. Tis hostility, hc says, placcs us in grcat dangcr.
8
Tc dangcr is thc total dcgcncration ol man

Entartung litcrally mcans lalling out ol

thc spccics man in somc scnsc, thc dcath ol man. Tc dangcr, in othcr words, is that wc
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
arc Zarathustras last mcn (pp. 68 abovc). Nictzschc rcpcatcdly talks ol spccics ol
humanity (an indication ol thc biological, arwinian, charactcr ol his thought). 8ut his talk
ol thc dcgcncration ol man cannot apply to all spccics ol humanity sincc thc scopc ol his
cultural criticism is cntircly conncd to Vcstcrn, uropcan, modcrnity. Vhat, thcrclorc,
this good uropcan lcars is, ! bclicvc, thc dcath ol thc uropcan spccics ol humanity.
A spccics ol humanity such as a Grcck city statc or thc \cnctian Rcpublic ol thc latcr
Middlc Agcs, Nictzschc says, in ordcr to bc a spccics, must succccd and makc itscll
pcrscvcrc in constant strugglc with its ncighbours or with its own opprcsscd who arc, or
thrcatcn to bccomc, rcbcllious. To do this it rcquircs hardncss, unilormity and simplicity
ol lorm. Hc adds that cxpcricncc tcachcs it which qualitics cnablc it to survivc and kccp
prcvailing. Tcsc it calls its virtucs, constitutc its morality. To cnsurc that pcoplc acquirc
thc virtucs, it dcploys mcasurcs ol cxtrcmc harshncss.
6o
Morality, wc havc sccn, is a survival kit. Morc cxactly, sincc survival is mcrcly a prcrcqui
sitc ol powcr, a morality is, in Zarathustras words, thc voicc ol a pcoplcs will to
powcr.
6+
8ut why docs such a morality rcquirc hardncss, unilormity and simplicity: Any
lootball coach would, ! think, nd this an casy qucstion to answcr. Unilormity rclcrs to thc
idca ol a gamc plan in which cvcry mcmbcr ol thc tcam contributcs to thc common goal.
Simplicity, thc cxclusion ol all unncccssary complcxity, is a dcsidcratum sincc thc morc
complcx thc plan thc morc chancc thcrc is ol somcthing going wrong. And, ol coursc, to
cnsurc that cvcryonc sticks to his appointcd task, thc plan must bc cnlorccd with hard
disciplinc. Tis, thcn, is why thc motlcyncss ol uropcan modcrnity thrcatcns its dcath:
lacking a sharcd gamc plan, it lacks thc capacity lor ccctivc collcctivc action, in particular,
lor action dircctcd at its own prcscrvation and cxpansion. Nictzschc takcs it as scllcvidcnt
that thc dcath ol uropcan humanity would bc a bad thing. Tosc with a morc jaundiccd,
morc guilty, vicw ol thc uropcan tradition might think othcrwisc.
Te Co. in Modernity. Nictzschc attributcs thc hcrd naturc ol modcrnity to Chris
tianity and its various shadows. Christian morality was, hc says, thc rst grcat uropcan
rcvaluation ol valucs.
6:
8y mcans ol thc slavc rcvolt it rcvcrscd all thc valucs ol antiquity.
Moralitics, hc says, lall into two basic typcs dcpcnding on whcthcr thcy arc gcncratcd by
mastcrs or by slavcs. (!n highcr culturcs thc two typcs oltcn cocxist in a conluscd mixturc.)
Mastcr or noblc morality, that lor cxamplc ol thc \ikings, was scllglorilying. !t clcvatcd
to thc status ol virtucs thc hard warrior qualitics strcngth, thc will to powcr, rcsolutcncss,
sclldisciplinc, couragc, loyalty which had cnablcd thcm to succccd. (Hcaring ol thc suc
ccss ol Gcorg 8randcss +888 lccturcs on his philosophy in Copcnhagcn, which rcprcscntcd
thc bcginning ol his lamc, Nictzschc wrotc that of course thc Scandinavians undcrstood what
hc was on about sincc thcy had rcad thc !cclandic Sagas, thc richcst sourcc matcrial lor my
thcory ol mastcr morality.)
6
Tc mastcrs valuc distinction was bctwccn good and bad,
bctwccn noblc typcs such as thcmsclvcs and thc bad typcs (badly lormcd, bad, as it wcrc,
corts at manhood), thc contcmptiblc slavctypcs whom thcy had conqucrcd.
Mastcr morality was, thcn, selflocuscd. Slavc morality, by contrast, was otherlocuscd.
!t was bascd on hatrcd and lcar ol thc slavcs opprcssors. So it was that thc hatcllcd word
cvil rcplaccd bad, thc cxprcssion, mcrcly, ol contcmpt. !n thc cthical rcvolt ol thc slavcs
thc goodcvil dichotomy camc to rcplacc thc goodbad dichotomy ol thc mastcrs. Tc hard
qualitics ol thc mastcrs wcrc givcn ncw namcs scllcondcncc bccomcs arrogancc, rcs
olutcncss bccomcs ruthlcssncss, and so on and wcrc dcsignatcd as cvil. Simultancously,
thc lormcrly dcspiscd solt qualitics wcrc also givcn ncw namcs powcrlcssncss bccamc
8cyond Good and vil

,:,
humility, cowardicc bccamc lricndlincss, and so on and wcrc clcvatcd to thc status ol
virtucs.
6
Tc culturc ol ancicnt Grcccc and Romc was ol coursc, vcry dicrcnt lrom thc rapc
andpillagc lilcstylc ol thc \ikings. 8ut it still had thc samc sct ol mastcr virtucs, with
thc dicrcncc that it valucd thcir sublimatcd cxprcssion morc highly than thcir natural
cxprcssion. Vhat was prizcd most highly, as wc havc obscrvcd on scvcral occasions, was not
bad ris aggrcssion but good ris compctition. As, howcvcr, slavc morality gradually
bccamc thc dominant morality ol thc Roman mpirc, Christian morality took ovcr and thc
rcvaluation was complctc.
Tc triumph ol Christianity and its morality was, in two crucial rcspccts, a disastcr. First,
it madc uropc sick lor two millcnnia by tcaching humanity scllhatrcd, hatrcd ol thc
physical in gcncral and ol human physicality in particular.
6
!t taught hatrcd ol thc natural
drivcs, abovc all hatrcd ol scx. ros, a god to antiquity, was givcn poison, which did not kill
him, but rathcr turncd him into a vicc.
,66
Tc sccond disastrous conscqucncc ol thc triumph ol Christianity is that it kccps thc
typc man on a low. . . lcvcl.
6
!t docs this in two ways: by prcscrving lilcs lailurcs and by
disabling its potcntial succcsscs. !t prcscrvcs lailurcs on account ol thc supposcd virtuc ol
compassion. Compassion mcans that a Christianizcd culturc prcscrvcs too much ol what
should havc pcrishcd.
68
Tough thcrc is no rcason to think ol thc cxtcrmination camps,
hcrc, thcrc is no gctting away lrom thc harshncss ol this vicw. Vhat Nictzschc is talking
about, ! bclicvc, is thc cugcnics brccding
6
wc havc alrcady sccn him to bc committcd
to. Trough indulgcnt, prcscrving carc ol thosc who sucr lilc likc a discasc,
o
through
Christian wcllarc, thosc who would othcrwisc pcrish survivc and brccd so that thcir lailurc
making charactcristics arc passcd on into thc gcnc pool. Hcncc thc avcragc strcngth and
powcr ol individuals rcmains at a low lcvcl.
+
Christian morality disablcs lilcs potcntial succcsscs bccausc it throw|s| suspicion on
dclight in bcauty, skcw|s| cvcrything scllglorilying, manly, conqucring, autocratic, cvcry
instinct that bclongs to thc highcst and bcstlormcd typc ol human, twist|ing| thcm into
unccrtainty, crisis ol conscicncc, sclldcstruction at thc limit.
:
Slavc morality dcstroys thc
will to risc abovc thc avcragc, to bc a tall poppy, and so brings it about that thcrc arc
no tall poppics. !t docs this by dcstroying thc pathos ol distancc,

thc giltcd, cxccptional

pcrsons scnsc ol bcing highcr than, .orth morc than, othcrs. Christianitys prcaching ol thc
cquality bclorc God ol all souls produccs guilt about thc pathos ol distancc which rcsults
in its cvcntual dcstruction. Christian cquality rcduccs cvcryonc to a hcrd animal.

God is dcad. Christian mctaphysics is unbclicvablc lor modcrn, cducatcd uropcans.
8ut Gods moral shadow,

in thc disguiscd lorm ol what Nictzschc variously calls thc

A tclling cxamplc ol hatrcd ol thc body and ol scx occurs in Annc nrights 8ookcrprizcwinning
Te Gathering, a book which ariscs out ol a background ol !rish Catholicism. \cronica, nrights
hcroinc, tclls us how shc hatcs waking up ncxt to hcr husband, Tom: ! wakc to a livid tumcsccncc
on his pronc body, a purplc thing on thc vcrgc ol dccay . . . a cock so purplc and dcnsc it was a
burdcn to him. Latcr on shc includcs hcr own body in hcr disgust lor all csh: ! would lovc to
lcavc my body. Maybc this is what thcy arc about, thcsc qucstions ol which or whosc holc, thc right
uids in thc wrong placcs, thcsc inlantilc conlusions and small sadisms: thcy arc ways ol ghting
our way out ol all this mcat. (! would likc to just swim out, you know: shoot likc a word out ol
my own mouth and disappcar with a ick ol thc tail.)
,:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
dcmocratic movcmcnt, thc dcmocratic cnlightcnmcnt and modcrn idcas,
6
livcs on. His
claimis that thc cxccllcnccdcstroying moral consciousncss ol Christianity livcs on in mod
crn idcas.
Vhat Nictzschc calls modcrn idcas stcm lrom that grcat rcvival ol slavc morality, thc
Frcnch Rcvolution, which lcads him to ocr Frcnch idcas as a synonym.

Undcr modcrn
idcas hc includcs political dcmocracy and univcrsal suragc,
8
utilitarianism (lor John
Stuart Mill and thc ninctccnth ccntury in gcncral primarily a movcmcnt ol social cmanci
pation rathcr than an abstract doctrinc in philosophical cthics), socialism (a tcrm covcring
both social dcmocracy and communism),

and nally, and particularly vocilcrously, lcmi

nism.
8o
All thcsc movcmcnts arc applications ol thc doctrinc ol cqual rights, which makcs
thcm hcirs
8+
to Christianitys doctrinc ol thc cquality ol all souls bclorc God. And all arc
movcd by thc idca that sympathy lor all that sucrs is a virtuc, which makcs thcm hcirs to
Christianitys doctrinc ol ncighbour lovc.
8:
Sincc thc dcmocratic cnlightcnmcnt is thc continuation ol Christian moral conscious
ncss in a disguiscd lorm, it has thc samc ccct ol undcrmining thc drivcs that dcvclop into
thc tall poppy. Tc high indcpcndcnt spirit, a high and hard and scllrcliant nobility, is
vicwcd as ocnsivc and dangcrous, thc lamb or cvcn bcttcr shccp, thc hcrd animal,
continucs to bc thc idcal. Likc Christianity, thc dcmocratic cnlightcnmcnt sccks to lcvcl
cvcryonc down to thc samc low mcan. !n thc potcntial highcr typc it produccs a patho
logical cncrvation, kills thc will to risc abovc thc avcragc.
8
!t produccs, in othcr words, a
socicty ol cows.
Vhat is so wrong with a socicty composcd cntircly ol cows, ol hcrd animals: Tc
answcr, ol coursc, rcsts on Nictzschcs thcory ol cultural hcalth. Tis appcars only in dribs
and drabs in Beyond Good and E.il, but Nictzschc prcsupposcs, ol coursc, that wc havc rcad
all his works to datc.
To rccapitulatc. A social organism rcquircs, as wc know, a disciplincd communal moral
ity, a gamc plan which cnablcs it to survivc and grow in thc arwinian junglc. 8ut it also
rcquircs thc capacity to changc, to rcspond wcll to changing circumstanccs. !t rcquircs thc
random mutation (pp. :6+: abovc), thc crcativc lrcc spirit who will rcjccts currcnt prac
ticcs, social norms, and ocr us signposts towards a ncw morality. As Nictzschc now puts
it, wc nccd a small numbcr ol thosc who will show us how much ol prcscntday morality
is out of date and will say (in thc spirit ol Columbus) Vc nccd to go out thcrc, out thcrc,
out whcrc you lccl lcast at homc today.
8

!s it rcally truc that thc Christian/dcmocratic commitmcnt to cquality ncccssarily lcads
to a socicty ol cows, a socicty in which thcrc will bc lcwcr and lcwcr crcators ol ncw
ways ol thinking and living: Tc cquality on which modcrn, libcral thinkcrs agrcc is cqual
ity ol desert: all human bcings arc cqually dcscrving ol moral rcspcct and conccrn. Vhcn
dividing up social goods it is immoral to say, Pcoplc with !Qs ol lcss than o gct nothing.
Nictzschc claims that this notion ol cquality hindcrs thc nurturing ol gcnius bccausc it
dcnics all spccial claims, spccial rights, spccial privilcgcs.
8
8ut that, surcly, is mistakcn.
Equality of concern does not entail equality of treatment. Hc himscll shows this by cmphasis
ing
86
that onc mans mcat is anothcr mans poison radically dicrcnt statcs constitutc
thc happincss ol dicrcnt pcoplc. nc pcrsons happincss may bc vcry chcap (training to
bccomc a car mcchanic), anothcrs cxpcnsivc (cducation to bccomc a brain surgcon). So
Nictzschc is wrong to supposc that clitist trcatmcnt ol thc highly talcntcd cannot bc justi
cd in an cqual (in thc spccicd scnsc) socicty.
8cyond Good and vil

,::
Tis lcavcs thc psychological objcction: thc morality ol cquality disablcs thc scnsc ol
supcrior worth
8
that is inscparablc lrom gcnius. !t givcs thc tall poppy a complcx about
his hcight, makcs him, as it wcrc, stoop. nc has only to obscrvc a class ol highschool
studcnts to apprcciatc thc lorcc ol this rcmark: Streber (strivcr or pcrhaps swot in nglish)
is a lamiliar tcrm ol abusc in thc Gcrman classroom. Tc studcnt ol supcrior talcnt and
ambition is wcll adviscd to kccp his light undcr a bushcl, and without sucicnt dctcr
mination may wcll nd it cxtinguishcd. 8ut this, surcly, is thc hcrd instinct that cxists in
all communitics and subcommunitics .hate.er thcir moral codc, not somcthing causcd by
Christian morality in particular. A popular summary ol Christian morality (takcn ovcr by
Marx) is, To cach according to his nccds. 8ut thc summary adds, From cach according to
his abilitics. Tis rccogniscs that somc pcoplc havc grcatcr and morc prccious abilitics than
othcrs, that somc pcoplc arc ol grcatcr worth to thc community than othcrs. Propcrly
thought out, thcrclorc, thcrc is no rcason that thc morality ol cquality ol dcscrts should
dcny thc gcnius his pathos ol distancc, his knowlcdgc that hc is ol grcatcr worth to thc
community than most othcrs.

A potcntially scrious diculty in Nictzschcs cultural criticism is prcscntcd by an apparcnt
inconsistcncy bctwccn thc two strands ol thc motlcy cow critiquc. n thc onc hand, hc
claims modcrnity to bc a motlcy chaos. 8ut on thc othcr, hc sccms to attributc to it an
unhcalthy order: that ol (disguiscd) Christian morality.
Nictzschc docs not cxplicitly addrcss this problcm, but ! think his implicit answcr is
this. cmocracy, socialism, and lcminism arc, lor Nictzschc, csscntially negati.e, dcstruc
tivc valucs. Tis is duc to thc ncgativc, rcactivc naturc ol thc slavc rcvolt in which modcrn
libcralism has its roots: as wc havc sccn, whcrcas thc mastcrs crcatcd valucs by glorilying
thcmsclvcs, thc slavcs simply ncgatcd thosc valucs. !n a clcar scnsc, slavc morality creates
nothing. So dcmocracy, socialism, lcminism, and so on arc, rcally (likc antiScmitism (scc
p. 8 abovc)), nothing but thc politics ol cnvy. Modcrn idcas, in short, scck to ovcr
throw thc rankordcring ol thc old morality, but can do nothing to ovcrcomc thc rcsult
ing chaos sincc thcy havc nothing positi.e, no positivc idcal, to put in its placc. Tis point,
! think, is implicit in Nictzschcs habitual trcatmcnt ol socialism as synonymous with
anarchism.
Tat thc valucs ol modcrnity arc all should nots rathcr than shoulds is thc rcason thc
notcs ol thc pcriod charactcrisc thc condition ol modcrnity as onc ol nihilism, a tcrm
which mcans, Nictzschc says, that the highest .alues de.alue themsel.es. Te aim is lacking,
the !hy? nds no ans.er.
88
Beyond Good and E.il makcs this point by pointing out that,
in thc postdcathol God world, thc Vhcrc to: and Vhat lor: a positivc conccption
ol thc good lilc arc missing.
8
A nal critical qucstion: docs Nictzschc misdiagnosc thc root causc ol modcrnitys cow
likc charactcr: Vcstcrn modcrnity is, cvcryonc rccogniscs, a mass culturc. Tis sccms to
givc somc validity to Nictzschcs claim that thc arc powcrlul, pcrhaps uniqucly powcrlul,
lorccs at work in modcrnity which lcvcl
o
pcoplc down to a vcry low avcragc. Tc qucs
tion, though, is whcthcr Nictzschc corrcctly idcntics thosc lorccs. According to him, thc
root causc ol modcrnitys hcrdlikc charactcr is thc lcgacy ol Christian morality. 8ut an
altcrnativc candidatc is modcrn tcchnology, thc tcndcncy ol modcrn industrial, communi
cations, and administrativc tcchnology to turn human bcings into human rcsourccs, parts
ol a grcat machinc which dicr lrom cach othcr as littlc as do machinc parts. Tcchnol
ogy, not Christianity, it could wcll bc argucd, is thc rcal causc ol thc cowlikc charactcr ol
,::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
modcrnity. Particularly in thc carlicr works, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc is wcll awarc ol
this ccct ol tcchnology. !t is arguablc, howcvcr, that his cvcrincrcasing dctcrmination to
saddlc Christianity with thc blamc lor absolutcly cvcrything lcads him to takc his cyc o
this important ball.
How to Overcome Diseased Modernity: Philosophers of the Future
N
ictzschcs motlcy critiquc ol modcrnity lcads, as wc havc sccn, to thc conclusion that
wc nccd a ncw gamc plan: a ncw sharcd undcrstanding ol thc right way to livc that
will givc us thc harncss, unilormity and simplicity ol lorm ncccssary to bc succcsslul com
pctitors in a socially arwinist world. For this wc rcquirc thc appcarancc ol spiritual col
oniscrs and shapcrs ol ncw statcs and communitics.
+
Although thc rcsurgcncc ol thc slavc
rcvolt in thc lorm ol modcrn idcas thrcatcns thc appcarancc ol such typcs, wc havc not
yct rcachcd thc condition ol bcing thc last mcn. !t is still possiblc lor us to givc birth to a
star. Vhat wc nccd, thcn, arc ncw lcadcrs who will tcach humanity its luturc thc imagc
ol such a lcadcr (F uhrer) hovcrs bclorc out cycs.
:
(As ! havc said bclorc, onc should avoid
making it impossiblc to scc what thc Nazis saw in Nictzschc.)
Hcrc, Nictzschcs practical task and his thcorctical writing comc togcthcr. Vc nccd ncw
lcadcrs thc likcs ol Hcinrich von Stcin and Beyond Good and E.il is dcsigncd to attract
thcm. Tc book, as Ecce Homo puts it (rcpcating H oldcrlins phrasc and gcsturc), is thc slow
scarch lor thosc rclatcd to mc.

Scvcral passagcs arc dcvotcd to prcscnting thc imagc ol

thc ncw lcadcr, a kind ol prolc ol a suitablc candidatc lor mcmbcrship ol thc colony lor
lrcc spirits. (Sincc Nictzschc is scarching lor thosc rclatcd to mc, thc prolc is at thc samc
timc an idcaliscd scllportrait.) Vhat thcn will thcy bc likc, thcsc ncw lcadcrs: arlicr thcy
wcrc callcd lrcc spirits. Now, howcvcr partly, ! think, to avoid conlusion with thc lrcc
thinkcr, that paradigm proponcnt ol modcrn idcas hc calls thcm philosophcrs ol thc
luturc.

Vhat arc thcy likc:

Tc rst thing to noticc about this phrasc is thc ambiguous gcnitivc (prcscnt also in
thc Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future subtitlc). Tc phrasc can mcan cithcr philosophcrs
who litcrally inhabit the future or philosophcrs who philosophisc to.ards or about the
future. Nictzschc spcaks ol thc philosophcr as bcing out ol stcp with his timc bccausc
hc is ncccssarily ol tomorrow and thc day altcr tomorrow,

so onc could say thc sccond

kind ol philosophcr inhabits thc luturc too but only mctaphorically. Tc philosophcr ol
thc rst kind ! shall call thc philosophcr triumphant. (Nictzschcs madncss, wc shall scc,
took thc lorm ol thinking hc .as thc philosophcr triumphant in thc mcgalomania which
ovcrtook him, hc bclicvcd hc had thc powcr to dcposc thc crowncd hcads ol uropc.) Tc
sccond kind, thc philosophcr visionary, onc might call him, is just thc crcativc lrcc spirit,
thc random mutation such as Nictzschc himscll who rcprcscnts and communicatcs a
ncw way ol thinking and living.
Tis ambiguity carrics ovcr into thc notion ol thc philosophcr as commandcr and lcgis
lator.
6
Somctimcs thcrc is an unmistakablc rcsurrcction ol Platos philosophcr king. Nictz
schc spcaks, lor cxamplc, ol philosophcrs as a ncw ruling castc

and ol thcir making usc

ol rcligion lor brccding and cducational purposcs.
8
Tcsc rcmarks havc to bc about thc
philosophcr triumphant. n thc othcr hand, whcn thc philosophcrs command amounts
to tcaching humanity its luturc,

what with luck it will do onc day rathcr than what

8cyond Good and vil

,:
it is to do no., that, clcarly, has to conccrn thc philosophcr visionary. Philosophcrs in
this scnsc, rathcr than bcing thcmsclvcs philosophcrkings, arc, as Nictzschc puts it, thc
hcralds and prccursors ol thc approaching philosophcrkings.
+oo
! shall rcturn to thc
philosophcrkings shortly, but lor thc momcnt ! shall usc philosophcr ol thc luturc to
rclcr cxclusivcly to wc |crcativc| lrcc spirits,
+o+
thc philosophcrs visionary. Vhat arc thcy
likc:
As obscrvcd carlicr, Beyond Good and E.il scts out, in a Marxian spirit, to rcdcnc phi
losophcr. Tc philosophcr as .e undcrstand him
+o:
will not, likc Kant and Hcgcl, bc a
mcrc codicr ol currcnt valucs. Such activity is thc mcrc undcrlabour
+o
ol gcnuinc phi
losophy.
+o
Rathcr than codilying and cndorsing currcnt valucs, this ncw typc ol
philosophcr will dcconstruct dynamitc
+o
such valucs as a prcludc to his mastcr
task,
+o6
which is to create [ne.J .alues: truc philosophcrs . . . rcach lor thc luturc with a
crcativc hand, lcgislating lor thcir community a ncw Vhcrc to: and Vhat lor:
+o
Vhcrcas, thcn, oldstylc philosophcrs havc mcrcly sought to undcrstand thc world, thc
ncw stylc sccks to changc it, sccks to dominate thc luturc:
+o8
philosophy in thc ncw stylc is
an cxprcssion ol thc philosophcrs will to powcr. Tis mcans that thc philosophcr must gct
his hands dirty, play thc rough gamc. Tough untimcly, hc must bc intcllcctually cngagcd
with his timcs rathcr than rctrcating to Spinozas icy hcights,
+o
thc discngagcd hcights
ol a mcrc onlookcr. Ncithcr will hc indulgc in mcrc sccpticism,
++o
mcrc criticism,
+++
or
mcrc scholarship.
++:
And though hc nccds to ha.e a philosophy, it nccd not bc onc hc
puts, or can put, into books. \on Stcin, lor cxamplc, Nictzschc dccidcd, had no hcad lor
thc philosophy ol books.
++
8ut, at thc timc, that did not bothcr him at all. His hcroic
lundamcntal mood was thc cmbodimcnt ol a ncw way ol living.
++
Nictzschc mcntions
Frcdcrick !! ol Sicily, Cacsar, Lconardo, and, abovc all, Napolcon, as hcrocs vcry much
altcr his tastc as, ! think, philosophers according to thc ncw conccption. Hcgcl callcd
Napolcon history on horscback. Nictzschc, it sccms to mc, thinks ol him as philosophy on
horscback.
Nietzsches Republic
V
hat docs thc philosophcr visionary work to.ards: Nictzschc says hc knows a ncw
grcatncss.
++
8ut what will that bc likc:
Hc docs not say in any dctail. Partly this is bccausc a succcsslul cthos is a lunction ol
thc circumstanccs in which a community nds itscll: sincc Nictzschc has no crystal ball,
hc is not in a position to say what kind ol morality will cnablc a community to survivc and
thrivc in thc luturc. 8ut partly, too, it is bccausc hc docs not want to stic thc crcativity
ol his disciplcs as Zarathustra points out, a tcachcr is ill scrvcd by pupils who rcmain
ctcrnally pupils. Tc notcbooks ocrs a charming cvocation ol this mystcry at thc hcart ol
Nictzschcs philosophy:
You sccm to havc in mind to lcad mc into somcthing bad, onc could wcll think you wantcd
thc dcstruction ol humanity: ! oncc said to thc god ionysus. Pcrhaps, answcrcd thc
god, but somcthing can comc out ol it lor you. Vhat thcn: ! askcd inquisitivcly: Vho
thcn, you should ask. Tus spokc ionysus and was silcnt in his own way, namcly scduc
tivcly. You should havc sccn him! !t was spring, and all thc wood was lull ol sap.
++6
,:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
As wc shall scc, Nictzschc bccamc ionysus as hc cntcrcd his insanity.
!n lact, though, thc mystcry is not as dccp as this suggcsts, lor Nictzschc actually says
quitc a lot about his ncw socicty. Vhat hc ocrs is a highly abstract, lormal dcscription
ol what any succcsslul socicty must look likc, a quasiKantian, quasiapriori tcmplatc on
which any hcalthy socicty must bc constructcd. As Ecce Homo modcstly puts it, Beyond Good
and E.il ocrs a sct ol signposts to a socicty antithctical to discascd modcrnity.
++
Lct us
cxaminc thcsc signposts onc by onc.
Hierarchy
N
ictzschc writcs,
vcry cnhanccmcnt ol thc typc man has bccn thc work ol an aristocratic socicty and so
it will always bc: a socicty which bclicvcs in a long laddcr ol rankordcr and dicrcnccs in
worth bctwccn man and man and nccds slavcry in somc scnsc or othcr. Vithout thc pathos
of distance as it grows out ol an ingraincd dicrcncc bctwccn stations, out ol thc ruling
castcs constant looking out and looking down on subjccts and instrumcnts,

and lrom its

cqually continuous cxcrcisc in obcying and commanding . . . that other, morc mystcrious
pathos could not havc grown at all, thc pathos which lcads to cxpansions ol distancc within
thc soul, to scllovcrcoming.
++8
To this idca that social distancc is a prcrcquisitc lor psychological distancc onc is immcdi
atcly inclincd to objcct that Nictzschc himscll hardly camc lroman aristocratic background.
8ut that, ! think, would bc a misundcrstanding. Vhat Nictzschc says is that thc psycho
logically supcrior typc must bc ablc to see social supcriority, not that hc should ncccssarily
inhabit a socially supcrior position. And in any casc, Nictzschc did, in lact, stcm lrom a
kind ol aristocracy thc spiritual aristocracy ol thc Luthcran pricsthood.
Aristocracy in its Grcck origin simply mcans rulc by thc bcst. And, as wc havc sccn, lor
Nictzschc as lor Plato, thc bcst at ruling arc thc philosophcrs (triumphant). Command
ing and lcgislating arc thcir busincss. Togcthcr with Plato, thcn, Nictzschc bclicvcs in thc
philosophcrking.
nc is inclincd to nd somcthing absurd in thc idca ol philosophcrs (hardly compctcnt,
usually, to run cvcn thcir own univcrsity dcpartmcnts) ruling thc world childish as Rohdc
put it (p. o6 abovc). Two points, howcvcr, should bc bornc in mind. Tc rst is that just as
thc philosophcrs visionary arc, as just obscrvcd, not ncccssarily bookwriting or cvcn book
rcading philosophcrs, ncithcr, surcly, arc thc philosophcrs triumphant. !l a Napolcon can bc
thc rst kind ol philosophcr hc can, surcly, bc thc sccond. Tc sccond point, as will bccomc
clcar whcn wc discuss Te ntichrist,
++
is that, likc Plato, Nictzschc docs not think ol thc
philosophcrking as conducting thc cxccutivc busincss ol govcrnmcnt. Hc is a big picturc
rathcr than a nuts and bolts man. Rathcr than initiating cxccutivc dccisions, hc providcs thc
community with spiritual lcadcrship thc rolc that Vagncr adviscd thc king ol 8avaria to
adopt (p. ++ abovc). nc might think ol thc rclation bctwccn thc Prcsidcnt ol !ran and thc

8ook ! ol Aristotlcs Politics calls thosc who arc by naturc slavcs instrumcnts.
8cyond Good and vil

,:
Ayatollah who is thc nations suprcmc lcadcr,

or bctwccn thc govcrnmcnt ol prcChincsc

Tibct and thc alai Lama, as providing approximatc modcls ol Nictzschcs idcal. Tcsc
modcls arc quitc appropriatc, lor, as wc will scc, Nictzschcs altcrnativc to dcmocracy is, in
lact, his own vcrsion ol somcthing approximating to thc thcocratic statc. Tough this is
not calculatcd to cndcar his political thcory to Vcstcrn rcadcrs, it makcs onc thing clcar:
sincc thcocratic statcs actually cxist, whatcvcr clsc onc might think about it, onc should not
dismiss Nictzschcs idcal ol thc philosophcrking as hopclcssly impractical.
Nictzschc bclicvcs, thcn, in spiritual lcadcrship by thc philosophcrking. 8ut, in lact, his
proximity to thc idcal statc as dcscribcd in Platos Fepublic is cvcn grcatcr than this. For,
likc Plato, hc bclicvcs that thc rankordcring ol any hcalthy socicty will consist ol just
thrcc basic classcs: thc spiritual lcadcrs, an cducatcd and sclldisciplincd middlc class who
aspirc to a highcr spirituality and lrom whom, onc day, luturc lcadcrs might arisc (Platos
auxiliarics), and nally, thc common pcoplc, thc grcat majority (Platos craltsmcn).
+:o
Plato dcncs justicc in thc statc as cvcryonc lullling thcir propcr rolc in thc community,
that rolc bcing dcncd by thc class to which thcy arc suitcd by naturc. Similarly, Nictzschc
bclicvcs in what ! shall call a stratication ol thc virtucs thcsis. \irtuc is station or rolc
spccic.
+:+
Pcrsonality traits that arc virtucs in lowcr typcs would bc viccs il thcy appcarcd
in thc philosophcr. Sclldcnial and modcst rctrcat, praiscworthy in thosc born to lollow,
would bc viccs in onc born to command.
+::
And convcrscly, thc will to command would
bc a vicc in onc born to lollow. So Christian univcrsalism, thc vicw Nictzschc attributcs to
Christian cthics that whats right lor onc is right lor all, is in lact immoral .
+:
!n Tc Grcck Statc ol +8+ (discusscd on pp. +6o+ abovc) Nictzschc writcs that Platos
perfect state is . . . ccrtainly somcthing cvcn grcatcr than is bclicvcd by his warmcstbloodcd
admircrs, to say nothing ol thc supcrior smirk with which our historically cducatcd rcjcct
such a lruit ol antiquity.
+:
Sincc thc tripartitc rankordcring ol socicty proposcd in Beyond
Good and E.il is idcntical with that cxplicitly borrowcd lrom Plato in +8+, onc can say that
Nictzschcs idcas on thc structure ol socicty (as wcll as on thc nccd lor an iron hand
+:
to
cnlorcc that structurc) havc altcrcd not at all sincc +8+.
Te Slavery Issue
N
ictzschc says, to rcpcat, that cvcry cnhanccmcnt ol thc typc man has bccn thc work
ol an aristocratic socicty and nccds slavcry in somc scnsc.
+:6
Tis rcturns us to thc
immoralism issuc raiscd in discussing Da.n. !s Nictzschc really, and not just polcmically,
an immoralist: Tc issuc, ! think, is whcthcr or not hc thinks that only highcr typcs havc
a claim to wcllbcing, whcthcr or not hc thinks that thc mcdiocrc masscs arc to bc nothing
but a support systcm lor thc highcr typcs. !l Nictzschc trcats lowcr typcs as mere mcans, il
hc trcats thcm as things rathcr than pcoplc, thcn hc rcally is an immoral (and ontologically
blind) thinkcr.
Tc kcy passagc is scction :8, in which Nictzschc says that, unlikc thc prc
Rcvolutionary Frcnch aristocracy, which thr|cw| away its privilcgcs with a sublimc disgust
and sacricc|d| itscll to an cxccss ol its moral |i.c., Christian| lccling, thcrcby cntcring a

!t is said that Ayatollah Khomcini rcad thc Fepublic whilc in Qum in thc +:os and was inspircd
by Platos vision ol thc philosophcrking in thc crcation ol his !slamic rcpublic.
,:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
statc ol corruption, a hcalthy aristocracy docs not lccl that it is a lunction (whcthcr ol thc
kingdom or thc community), but instcad lccls itscll to bc thc meaning and highcst justi
cation (ol thc kingdom or community). nly thus can it acccpt in good conscicncc
thc sacricc ol countlcss pcoplc who havc to bc pushcd down and shrunk into incomplctc
human bcings, into slavcs, into tools, all for the sake of the aristocracy. !ts lundamcntal bclicl
must bc that socicty cannot cxist lor thc sakc ol socicty, but only as thc substructurc and
lramcwork lor raising thc cxccptional typc up to its . . . highcr statc ol being. !n thc samc
way, thc sunsccking, Javancsc climbing plant callcd sipo matador will wrap its arms around
thc oak trcc, so oltcn and lor such a long timc, that nally, high abovc thc oak, although
still supportcd by it, thc plant will bc ablc to unlold its highcst crown ol loliagc and show
its happincss in thc lull, clcar light.
!t is this passagc morc than any othcr that has lcad to thc chargc ol immoral clitism,
thc chargc that nothing mattcrs to Nictzschc othcr than a couplc ol Gocthcs pcr millcn
nium: in a slogan, only thc supcrman counts. Tis is thc way in which hc has usually bccn
intcrprctcd, bcginning with P. Machacliss Junkcrphilosophy accusation in +886 (p. o
abovc). 8crtrand Russcll, lor cxamplc, claims that, lor Nictzschc, thc happincss ol common
pcoplc is no part ol thc good per se, that what happcns to thc . . . |nonclitc| is ol no |moral|
account,
+:
whilc thc inucntial John Rawls thinks that Nictzschc bclicvcs in an clitc ol
Socratcs and Gocthc typcs, ol philosophcrs and artists, and has no indcpcndcnt conccrn lor
thc wcllbcing ol thc mcdiocrc. Tis, hc suggcsts, is an immoral attitudc which clcvatcs
a tastc lor acsthctic pcrlcction
+:8
abovc thc claims ol justicc. For Nictzschc, hc claims,
Grcck philosophy justicd Grcck slavcry.
+:
Nictzschc valucs ncithcr art nor philosophy lor its own sakc: art lor arts sakc is a lorm
ol nihilism, a paralysis ol thc will to crcatc important, socially benecial, art
+o
(scc lur
thcr pp. o8 bclow). And, as wc havc sccn, hc attributcs a triplc social rcsponsibility to
philosophcrs: thcy must bc thc bad conscicncc, thc diagnosticians ol thc sickncsscs ol thcir
agc, thc doctors ol culturc, thcy must bc thc crcativc lrcc spirits who hcrald a ncw way ol
lilc, and, in thc bcst ol all worlds, thcy must bc thc spiritual commandcrs and lcgislators
ol thc community. All in all, thc philosophcr as .e undcrstand him. . . |is| thc man with
thc most comprchcnsivc rcsponsibility, whosc conscicncc bcars thc wcight ol thc ovcrall
dcvclopmcnt ol mankind.
++
!n attributing, thcn, to Nictzschc thc vicw that socicty cxists
lor thc sakc ol thc artist and philosophcr, Rawls gcts him cxactly back to lront.
Tc inconsistcncy ol thc standard rcading ol thc vincclimbingthcoak passagc with
so much clsc ol what Nictzschc says providcs a motivc lor trying to rcad thc passagc in
somcthing othcr than a standard way. And this is not dicult to do. Tc crucial point to
noticc is that Nictzschc docs not say my lundamcntal bclicl is that thc aristocrats arc thc
mcaning and justication ol cvcrything clsc. Hc is rcporting, rathcr, thc way the aristocrats
lccl, rcporting thc lundamcntal laith hcalthy aristocracics havc had, somcthing that may
wcll bc quitc alicn to his own point ol vicw.
Vhat Nictzschc is doing in scction :8, ! think, is simply survcying thc past, in thc
anthropological lashion hc oltcn adopts,

and noting that, in thriving aristocracics ol thc

Many lands has Zarathustra sccn and many pcoplcs: thus hc discovcrcd thc good and cvil ol many
pcoplcs . . . (Z ! +).
8cyond Good and vil

,:
past, thc aristocrats havc had a sublimc arrogancc which, whcn it collapscs, lcads to thc
dccay, thc corruption, ol that socicty. Tc passagc no morc commits Nictzschc to cndorsing
aristocracy as thc bcst ordcr ol socicty than his dcscription ol mastcrmorality socictics as
hcalthicr than slavcmorality socictics commits him to cndorsing thc rapc and pillagc ol
thc \ikings.
And in lact, it sccms to mc, Nictzschc docs not cndorsc aristocracy in thc standard scnsc
ol thc word. !t is important to noticc that thc concluding Part ol thc book in which
scction :8 occurs is not callcd Vhat is Aristocratic (adelig): but rathcr Vhat is Noblc
(.ornehm): Tc rclcvant dicrcncc appcars in his nal lcttcr to 8randcs: !l wc win, hc
writcs, wc havc ovcrcomc thc absurd boundarics bctwccn racc, nation, and classcs (St ande):
thcrc cxists lrom now on only ordcr ol rank (Fang) bctwccn human bcings.
+:
Tc dicr
cncc bctwccn rank and class is thc dicrcncc bctwccn ability and birth. Vhat Nictzschc
sccks, as wc shall scc in dctail in discussing Te ntichrist, is a hicrarchy not ol blood but ol
natural ability and aptitudc.
Still, thc qucstion rcmains: what about thc slavcs: Slavcry in somc scnsc, Nictzschc
asscrts, clcarly in his own voicc, is thc condition ol any highcr culturc.
+
Sincc hc himscll
bclicvcs in slavcry, is hc not rcducing a largc scction ol thc population to mcrc scaolding,
so that hc rcally docs havc to bc adjudgcd an immoral thinkcr:
Tc answcr is not immcdiatcly clcar. Tough scction :8s talk ol thc slavcs bcing shrunk
into incomplctc human bcings out ol thc nccd to support thc aristocracy is, ! havc suggcst
cd, bcst rcad as an account ol thc aristocrats rathcr than Nictzschcs vicw ol things, scction
6+ spcaks ol thc masscs as cxisting only lor gcncral utility, and hcrc it is unclcar whcthcr
it is Nictzschc thc anthropologist or Nictzschc thc normativc philosophcr who spcaks.
Nictzschc rccogniscs that thc traditional position assigncd to womcn is onc ol slavcry:
it is slavish and scrllikc.
+
And so, sincc his vicws on womcn arc cmphatically his own,
onc should bc ablc to inlcr his vicws on slavcry in gcncral lrom his vicws on womcn.
Women Again
B
eyond Good and E.il s vicws on womcn

arc an attack not so much on womcn as on

thc movcmcnt lor womcns cmancipation that was gathcring scrious strcngth as hc
was writing thc work. ltcn it is thc cmancipationists who arc his quitc cxplicit targct:
proponcnts ol thc movcmcnt lor lcmalc sclldctcrmination, hc says, lail to rcalisc that

!n scction :+ Nictzschc says that his vicws on woman as such arc idiosyncratic. Tcy arc only my
truths, a spiritual latc, a grcat stupidity that . . . .ill not learn. Hc conccdcs, in othcr words, that
his vicws may bc inlcctcd by a dcgrcc ol prcjudicc. Tc sourcc ol prcjudicc this cxtrcmcly scllawarc
man has in mind is surcly obvious: thc trauma ol thc Salom c aair, which dramatically changcd his
stancc to womcn (Chaptcrs +8 and + abovc). 8y +88, wc havc sccn, thc majority ol Nictzschcs
lricnds and admircrs wcrc not just womcn but feminist womcn. Tis tclls us, ! think, to whom thc
admission ol possiblc prcjudicc is madc: Malwida von Mcyscnbug, Hclcn Zimmcrn, Mcta von
Salis, Rcsa von Schirnholcr, Hclcnc ruscowicz and othcrs. bviously Nictzschc docs not wish
to undcrminc his vicws on womcn complctcly, othcrwisc thcrc would bc no point in prcscnting
thcm. 8ut rccognising, ! think, his lcminist lricnds nccd to rcndcr thcir own position consistcnt,
hc invitcs thcm, as Zarathustra invitcs his lollowcrs, to scrutinisc his vicws vcry carclully with an
cyc to scparating thc philosophical lrom thc possibly pathological. Tat, it sccms to mc, is our task
too.
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
sctting up Madamc dc Sta cl or Gcorgc Sand as cxamplc ol hownc an cmancipatcd woman
can bc is countcrproductivc sincc mcn nd thcsc womcn comical, counterexamples to cman
cipationist aspirations.
+
Four major thcmcs run through Nictzschcs discussion.
(+) !oman as such, the eternal feminine, lacks the capacity for manly pursuits. Vomcn havc
no conccrn lor truth thcir grcat talcnt is in thc (slavish) practicc ol lying. Tcy havc no
capacity lor cnlightcnmcnt (rational objcctivity) and so should bc silcnt on rcligion and
politics and on thc qucstion ol woman as such. Vomcn do not cvcn know how to cook,
though thcy havc bccn at it lor millcnnia: our tcrriblc dict is clcar prool ol lack ol rcason
in thc kitchcn.
+6
(As wc know, whcn it comcs to thc scrious busincss ol thc barbccuc,
thc man always takcs ovcr!) vcn womcn thcmsclvcs admit that thcrc has ncvcr bccn a
lcmalc mind as prolound as a mans. (How comc thcrc havc ncvcr bccn any grcat womcn
composcrs or philosophcrs:::) vcn womcn admit that thc lcmalc hcart can ncvcr bc as
just as a mans (and so womcn arc unt to rulc cithcr thc statc or thc lamily).
+
!t lollows
lrom all this that thc propcr rolc lor womcn is thc traditional onc ol bcaring and bringing
up childrcn.
+8
A woman scholar has somcthing wrong with hcr scxuality.
+
!s this just a mass ol prcjudiccs or, at bcst, pcriod crrors or is thcrc a scrious point
mixcd in with this, as it now sccms, unintcntionally comic ravc: ! think thcrc is, namcly, as
! rcmarkcd carlicr, Nictzschcs station or rolc cthics, his antiunivcrsalist, Platonic insis
tcncc that virtucs arc spccic to thc typc ol pcrson onc innatcly is. Vhilc it is not cstablishcd
that any intcllcctual or cmotional capacitics arc gcndcrspccic, thc idca is not a silly onc.
!t might rcally bc truc that mcn arc bcttcr at somc things and womcn at othcrs though
cmpirical cvidcncc is rapidly undcrmining Nictzschcs idca that art, scicncc, and govcrn
mcnt arc spccically manly aptitudcs. Anothcr point that nccds to bc rccogniscd is that
whilc physical capacitics arc clcarly gcndcrspccic, thcy can bc modicd by tcchnology:
though womcn ol thc past could not bc soldicrs, thcy can now bccomc tank commandcrs
and ghtcr pilots.
(:) !omen are terrifying and potentially barbaric. Nictzschc rclcrs to woman as thc
bcautilul and dangcrous cat. (Sincc it was Lou hc callcd a cat, thc posscssor ol a cat
cgoism,
+o
this comcs closc to naming namcs.) !nsidc thc womans glovc arc hcr tigcr claws.
!n lovc and rcvcngc womcn arc tcrrilying. (Hcll hath no lury likc . . . )
++
() !omen must be subject to tight masculine control. Tis lollows immcdiatcly lrom thcir
capacity lor barbaric tcrrorism. Tc oricntal trcatmcnt ol womcn as propcrty is thus
cnormously rational. Voman must not losc hcr lcar ol man.
+:
(Tus spokc Ayatollah
Nictzschc!)
() Te emancipationist mo.ement, equal rights, is part of the democratic destruction of hier-
archy, the le.elling of Europe. Fcminism, in othcr words, is part ol thc gcncral lcvclling ol
Vcstcrn modcrnity down to a mcdiocrc hcrd which is dcstroying its capacity to producc
thc cxccptional individual ncccssary to survival and growth.
+
As carlicr notcd, Mcta von
Salis, an aristocrat by birth, was as strongly antidcmocratic as Nictzschc: hcr only disagrcc
mcnt with him lay in hcr bclicl that thcrc could bc supcrwomcn as wcll as supcrmcn.
Nictzschc docs not sccm to havc noticcd that cqual rights lor womcn docs not ncccssarily
imply cqual rights lor all.

So lar, thc discussion ol womcn sccms to vicw thcm as mcrc tools, mcrc propcrty, as
Nictzschc indccd says. !n lact, howcvcr, cvcn thc postLou Nictzschc cvinccs a conccrn lor
8cyond Good and vil

,:,
womcn which onc docs not havc lor tools. Tc dcmocratic movcmcnt, hc says, lor
instancc, actually decreases womcns rcal powcr, which dcpcndcd on mystiquc and quict cun
ning.
+
Sincc hc now dcncs happincss as thc lccling ol thc incrcasc ol powcr that a
rcsistancc has bccn ovcrcomc,
+
onc ol his objcctions to thc cmancipation movcmcnt is
that it is actually making womcn lcss happy than thcy wcrc bclorc. Tis rccapitulatcs Te
Gay Sciences claim that womcn cxcrcisc a surplus ol strcngth and plcasurc in bcing thc
lunction ol a man, his pursc or social sccrctary (p. abovc) in bcing thc powcr bchind
thc thronc. (Tough womcn cannot spcak on thc marac, Maori culturc is oltcn dcscribcd
as bcing closcr to a matriarchy than a patriarchy.) Nictzschc is thus conccrncd that, in thcir
own way, womcn, likc mcn, should cxcrcisc thc will to powcr. Hc is conccrncd, in short, that
womcn should bc happy. Tis is why hc says that womcn arc prcdcstincd to scrvitudc and
fullled by it.
+6
Undcrncath all thc blustcr, thcn, Nictzschcs vicws on womcn makc him,
not an immoralist, but rathcr a vcry traditional paternalist. And thc samc, wc can assumc,
is truc ol his vicws on slavcry in gcncral.
Tis bccomcs crystal clcar in Nictzschcs nal work, Te ntichrist. Hcrc hc makcs clcar
his vicw that thosc who arc natural instrumcnts arc happicst being instrumcnts. For thc
mcdiocrc, mcdiocrity is happincss. Vhat makcs thcm unhappy is socialist rabblcrouscrs
who makc thcm want to risc abovc thcir happy lcvcl ol lilc.
+
Not just virtuc, thcn, but
also happincss, is rclativc to thc typc ol pcrson you arc. Tis makcs it clcar that, for Nietz-
sche, thcrc is no qucstion ol pushing down or shrinking pcoplc into slavcry, sincc his only
slavcs thc mcdiocrc arc dcstincd by nature lor that rolc.
!n sum, Nictzschcs vicws on hicrarchy, slavcry, and womcn do not makc him an immoral
thinkcr. Vhat thcy showhimto bc, rathcr, is a compassionatc or as thc 8ritish uscd to say,
oncnation conscrvativc. Noticc, howcvcr, that onc is vcry liablc to miss this conclusion il
onc dismisscs his vicws on womcn as an cmbarrassing sidc issuc, unrclatcd to his philosophy
propcr.
Morality, Religion, and Art in the New World
T
hc rst charactcristic, thcn, ol Nictzschcs utopia is social hicrarchy with slavcs in
somc scnsc thosc dcstincd by naturc to takc rathcr than givc ordcrs at thc bottom
ol thc social pyramid.
+8
Tc sccond charactcristic is that, unlikc motlcy modcrnity, it will
posscss a sharcd morality: it will havc thc hardncss, unity and simplicity ol lorm which an
|any| aristocratic community cnlorccs upon itscll.
+
!t will, in short, posscss that sharcd
gamc plan which, according to thc thcory ol cultural hcalth, is csscntial to cvolutionary
succcss.
Not that such unity will dcmand unilormity all thc way down. Anoblc socicty will not bc
North Korca but will, rathcr, cxcmplily that human grcatncss which consists in thc vcry
scopc and varicty ol humanity, in unity in multiplicity.
+o
Again, thc analogy ol a lootball
tcam comcs to mind. vidcntly, a good tcam is not onc in which cvcry playcr docs thc
samc thing but is onc, rathcr, in which a multiplicity ol dicrcnt lunctions arc coordinatcd
by a unilying gamc plan so as to achicvc a common goal. Noticc that Nictzschcs thcscs
ol thc stratication stationrclativc naturc ol both virtuc and happincss nd a rcady
cxplanation in tcrms ol this analogy.
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Nictzschcs idcal socicty, thcn, will havc a sharcd but nontotalitarian cthos. 8ut to bc
ccctivc, an cthos nccds to havc authority. Hcrc Nictzschc sccs a ccntral placc lor a com
munal rcligion in thc noblc socicty: not a rcligion bascd, likc Christianity, on lcar, but
rathcr, a noblc rcligion bascd, likc that ol thc Grccks, on gratitudc lor communal succcss
in thc cvolutionary strugglc, a rcligion in which a noblc pcoplc projccts idcaliscd imagcs
ol itscll as moral touchstoncs paradigms ol human cxccllcncc.
++
To bc ccctivc, such modcls nccd to posscss authority, to bccomc objccts ol rcvcrcncc,
objccts that producc an involuntary hush. nc ol thc lcwbcnccial lcgacics ol Christianity
is that it has accustomcd us to thc idca that ccrtain things dcmand such rcvcrcncc, that it
has brcd into pcoplc thc undcrstanding that thcy cannot touch cvcrything, that thcrc arc
holy cxpcricnccs which rcquirc thcm to takc o thcir shocs and kccp thcir dirty hands
away.
+:
!n ssorted Opinions and Maxims it was thc task ol, abovc all, artists to usc thcir
subtlc tcchniqucs ol transguration
+
to producc shining imagcs ol bcautilul souls which,
through thcir charismatic powcr, cxcitc cmulation.
+
Tat Beyond Good and E.il spcaks ol
(thc right sort ol ) art as bclonging to thc gcnuincly noblc clcmcnts
+
ol a culturc indicatcs
that this rcmains his vicw.
!t should by now bc clcar why ! spokc ol Nictzschcs altcrnativc to dcmocracy as a kind
ol (nonmctaphysical) thcocracy. Vhat hc still sccks, it sccms to mc, as hc sought in his
rst book, is thc rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy, thc rcbirth ol a collcctivc artwork which, as its
sacrcd hcart, collccts thc community togcthcr in a clarilying armation ol its lundamcntal
cthos.

Nictzschc says that thc philosophical lcadcr ol thc idcal statc, chargcd, as hc is (and as
Vagncr chargcd King Ludwig (p. ++ abovc)), with thc most comprchcnsivc rcsponsibility
lor thc ovcrall dcvclopmcnt ol mankind will makc usc ol onc rcligion or anothcr lor his
brccding and cducation work. Sincc hc mcntions thc Hindu castc systcmin this conncxion,
what hc has in mind, hcrc, sccms to bc thc buttrcssing ol thc cugcnics, in which wc knowhc
bclicvcs, with rcligious sanctions. Rcligions, hc adds, havc many social bcncts: lor cxamplc,
thcy bind thc rulcr togcthcr with thc rulcd and givc thc common pcoplc an invaluablc scnsc
ol contcntmcnt with thcir situation and typc.
+6
!n othcr words, thcy providc a clarilying
and authoritativc cxposition ol, as ! put it, communal cthos.
Givcn, howcvcr, Nictzschcs cnthusiasm lor Platos Fepublic, this picturc ol thc phi
losophcr as using rcligion to social cnds might sccm to conjurc up thc idca ol rcligion as a
noblc lic and ol thc rulcr as a cynical outsidcr who is himscll not lor a momcnt takcn in by
thc pious lraud:
+
a picturc ol thc philosophcr king as, likc ostoycvskys Grand !nquis
itor, all too awarc that rcligion is thc opium nccdcd to control thc masscs whilc rcgarding
it, himscll, as nothing but inlantilc supcrstition. Tis is what Michaclis rcvicw suggcsts in
rcprcscnting Nictzschc as holding rcligion to bc an anachronism, a supcrscdcd standpoint,
but a usclul dcvicc lor controlling thc hcrd (p. o6 abovc).
Actually, though, this cannot bc Nictzschcs account ol thc philosophical lcadcr, sincc, il it
wcrc, hc would bccomc indistinguishablc lrom thc lrcc thinkcr: thc man ol modcrn idcas
who looks down on rcligion with an air ol supcrior, almost gracious amuscmcnt . . . mixcd
with slight contcmpt lor what hc assumcs to bc unclcanlincss ol spirit that cxists whcn
anyonc supports a church.
+8
Vhat, thcn, docs thc philosophcrking bclicvc:
Rcturning to thc passagc which claims that cvcry cnhanccmcnt ol thc typc man has
bccn thc work ol an aristocratic socicty, notc that, as with Platos philosophcrking whosc
8cyond Good and vil

,:
rulc is govcrncd by his knowlcdgc ol thc Forms (thc divinc blucprint ol how thc world
ought to bc), Nictzschcs philosophical lcadcr docs not rulc by arbitrary at. Rathcr, hc
is cngagcd in a continuous cxcrcisc in obeying and commanding.
+
Vhat, givcn that,
along with all mctaphysical worlds, Nictzschc has rcjcctcd Platos supcrnatural rcalm ol thc
Forms, docs his idcal lcadcr obcy:
Hc will obcy communal cthos, that morality which is a lunction ol thc uniquc charactcr,
history, and currcnt circumstanccs ol his community. Sincc thc rcligion ol thc community
is is nothing morc than an cmpowcring articulation ol that cthos, hc will know that thc
gods arc not supcrnatural bcings but rathcr human projcctions. (Homcr and thc Grcck pocts
in gcncral, Nictzschc rcmarks, cannot havc bclicvcd in thcir gods, othcrwisc thcy would
not havc allowcd thcmsclvcs such lrccdomol invcntion in rcprcscnting thcm.)
+6o
Yct along
with Fcucrbach,

Vagncr and Nictzschc himscll, hc will know that thcy arc nonc thc worsc
lor that, that bcing ctions (or ctionaliscd vcrsions ol rcal pcoplc) impairs in no way thcir
lunctioning as touchstoncs ol human cxccllcncc.
Nictzschc grasps hcrc, ! think, an important point about rcligious discoursc: Jcsus would
ncvcr do that can havc just as much cthical lorcc lor somconc who bclicvcs Jcsus ncvcr
cxistcd as lor somconc who bclicvcs hc did. As Te Jane usten Book Club illustratcs, Tis
is what ( Janc Austcns) mma would do in this situation can havc cthical lorcc. Vhat
this shows is that though rcligion might bc a noblc lic told to thc masscs, this docs not
at all connc thc cnlightcncd rulcr to cynical dctachmcnt. Rathcr, in rcvcrcncing thc gods,
hc knows hc is rcvcrcncing thc bcst in his community. Tc situation is likc that bctwccn
mothcr and child: both can agrcc that Santa wouldnt likc that cvcn though onc knows
Santa to bc a ction whilc thc othcr bclicvcs him to bc rcal.
Nictzschc says that thcrc is a high and horriblc pricc to pay whcn rcligions do not scrvc as
mcans lor brccding and cducation in thc hands ol thc philosophcr but instcad scrvc thcm
sclvcs and bccomc so.ereign, whcn thcy want to bc thc ultimatc goal instcad ol a mcans
alongsidc othcr mcans.
+6+
Tis might bc rcad as cnjoining thc lcadcr to usc rcligion to
manipulatc thc masscs whilc prcscrving himscll in cynical dctachmcnt. 8ut in lact, ! think,
all it mcans that a good rcligion must scrvc human wcllbcing rathcr than, as with Chris
tianity, subordinating human lilc to rcligious prcscriptions damaging to human hcalth. Tc
gods should scrvc man, not man thc gods.

Ludwig Fcucrbachs Essence of Christianity (+8+), which had a prolound ccct on Vagncr (and
on Gcorgc liot, who translatcd it into nglish), is thc origin ol thc idca that gods arc ctional
projcctions ol human dcsircs (lor immortality, lor cxamplc) and virtucs.
22
Clearing the ecks
Iifth Summer in Sils Maria
T
nv ~vvv~v~xcv ol Beyond Good and E.il lound Nictzschc oncc again in Sils
Maria. Arriving on Junc o, +886, hc would stay, as usual, until thc cnd ol Scptcm
bcr. Tough thc placc was bccoming too crowdcd with middlcclass tourists lor his
liking by August hc rccords thc unwclcomc prcscncc ol tcn prolcssors, lour, including
himscll, in thc urisch housc alonc hc could nd no bcttcr way ol supporting thc pcr
mancnt, mild wintcr hc bclicvcd his hcalth rcquircd (thc bland wcathcr curc, wc might
call it). For company hc had his usual circlc ol womcn, thc two mily Fynns, Countcss
Mansuro, and, on a morc intcllcctual lcvcl, Hclcn Zimmcrn. Mcta von Salis visitcd lor
two days, togcthcr with hcr mothcr and hcr lricnd (and lovcr) Hcdwig Kym. Having takcn
hcr placc at thc communal dining tablc, Mcta rccalls,
! lookcd around, and my shortsightcd cycs gradually assurcd thcmsclvcs that it was Nictz
schc at thc top cnd ol thc tablc. Hc sccmcd to mc morc youthlul than at our rst mccting
and was cngagcd in livcly convcrsation with thc lady on his right, who was introduccd to
mc thc ncxt day as Miss Hclcn Zimmcrn . . . Tat cvcning, ! was ablc to obscrvc how ncly
and attcntivcly quitc unlikc his illloundcd rcputation hc rclatcd to womcn, cspccially
oldcr womcn. Shortly bclorc cvcryonc lclt thc tablc ! scnt my card across to him. Vhcn
hc camc ovcr to us ! introduccd my mothcr and lricnd. Hc was quitc charming . . . to my
mothcr. Tcrc was no tracc ol lorccdncss . . . Hc attcmptcd to pcrsuadc hcr to rcmain in Sils
lor thc lollowing day . . . Hc wantcd to show hcr thc nc spots ol thc rcgion |and| dcscribcd
its particular charms, thc |Chast c| pcninsula, thc two lakcs . . . For mc Nictzschc is inscpa
rablc lrom. . . thc silcnt mountain world ol thc uppcr ngadinc . . . thc most solitary, proud,
tcndcr man ol our ccntury stcppcd into his anccstral rcalm, likc a kings son born in cxilc.
+
Tcrc wcrc, howcvcr, lcss rcgal momcnts: pausing during a long walk around Lakc Silvcr
plana, Mcta rccords, hc dclivcring an impassioncd and lcngthy spccch to thc cows grazing
around thcm (rccall thc voluntary bcggar lrom Zarathustra Part I! ).
:
,:

Clearing the Decks

,
Ixplosions Below
!
t was in Sils that Nictzschc rst hcard, likc thc sound ol distant cxplosions in thc low
lands, thc initial rcactions to Beyond Good and E.il. !nitially hc was plcascd by Vid
manns dynamitc rcvicw (p. o abovc), quoting a wholc paragraph lrom it in a lcttcr to
Malwida.

At last hc was gctting somc rcspcctlul attcntion. And hc wclcomcd thc idca that
his books wcrc considcrcd dangcrous hc himscll had callcd thcm that.

Soon, howcvcr,
hc bcgan to think that dangcr had bccn strcsscd too much, so that soon hc would havc all
sorts ol policc onto him.

Similarly, although his initial rcaction to Vcltis rcvicw (p. o6

abovc) was plcasurc at thc grcat rcspcct shown him by thc Swiss,
6
hc was soon lorccd to
rccognisc its csscntial vacuousncss as wcll as thc ultimatc supcrciality ol all his rcvicwcrs,
claiming in January ol thc lollowing ycar that in ltccn ycars ol bookwriting hc had not
rcccivcd a singlc cvcn compctcnt rcvicw.

n thc othcr hand, hc was dclightcd with 8urckhardts rcaction to thc book. To Nictz
schcs suggcstion that thcy wcrc both working on thc samc problcm thc conditions lor
thc growth ol culturc
8
(what ! havc bccn calling thc thcory ol cultural hcalth), 8urck
hardt rcspondcd by saying that, as a humblc historian, hc lackcd a philosophical hcad
and so could not bc said to sharc Nictzschcs rcscarch programmc. Much ol thc book,
indccd, hc was incapablc ol undcrstanding. 8ut hc agrccd on thc hcrd naturc ol mo
dcrnity, on dcmocracy as thc hcir ol Christianity, and vcry particularly on thc luturc strong
oncs on carth. Hcrc, 8urckhardt wrotc, you dcscribc thc probablc gcncration and lilc con
ditions ol a modc ol bcing in a way that must arousc thc strongcst agrccmcnt.

No wondcr
Nictzschc was dclightcd by this, in lact, high lcvcl ol comprchcnsion and agrccmcnt
cxprcsscd by thc rcvcrcd 8urckhardts hcavcnly lcttcr.
+o
Anothcr rcadcr who rcccivcd a complcmcntary copy ol thc book and rcspondcd with a
lcttcr that takcs mc as scriously as ! could wish
++
was thc Frcnch historian and litcrary
thcorist Hippolytc Tainc. Nictzschc rcspcctcd Tainc almost as much as hc did 8urckhardt,
thcy, hc wrotc, wcrc his only truc rcadcrs.
+:
And hc wrotc a lurious lcttcr to Rohdc, who
had callcd Taincs work contcntlcss, tclling him that thc rcmark showcd how stupid hc
was, adding that, unlikc Taincs, his (Rohdcs) own lilc was mcaninglcss.
+
Hc was lull
ol admiration lor Taincs biography ol Napolcon: it was you, hc wrotc Tainc, who gavc
us thc trcmcndous problcm ol monstcr and supcrhuman (Unmensch und

Ubermensch),
+
a
judgmcnt on Napolcon that rcappcars in Te Genealogy of Morals. n thc othcr hand, hc did
not agrcc with Taincs milieu thcory, thc thcory that works ol art arc absolutc lunctions ol
thcir physical and cultural milieu. Gcnius, Nictzschc writcs in his notcs, is not cxplaincd by
its cnvironmcnt. icrcnt individuals may rcspond dicrcntly to onc and thc samc cnvi
ronmcnt.
+
!n T.ilight of the Idols hc cxplains what is rcally wrong with thc thcory: it is
incompatiblc with thc appcarancc ol individual gcnius.
+6
!l, in othcr words, crcativity is
cntircly a lunction ol milicu thcrc is ncithcr thc ncccssity lor, nor thc possibility ol, as !
havc callcd him, thc random mutation.
Hymn to Iife

uring August, +886, unwilling to abandon his aspirations as a composcr cntircly,

Nictzschc complctcd his Hymn to Life. Tis was his carlicr Prayer to Life (track +
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
on thc Vcb sitc lor this book), his +88: sctting ol Lou Salom cs pocm (p. : abovc),
but with two dicrcnccs. First, thc original work lor tcnor and piano (itscll a rccycling
ol thc mclody lrom his +8 Hymn to Friendship) was translormcd into a work lor choir
and orchcstra, thc orchcstration, bcyond Nictzschcs tcchnical compctcncc, bcing donc by
K osclitz. And sccond, hc now sct thc sccond as wcll as thc rst vcrsc ol Lous pocm.
Sccking thc approval ol his Zurich conductor lricnd Fricdrich Hcgar (p. abovc),
hc dcscribcs thc closing bars ol thc work as containing a tragic acccnt that comcs lrom
my inncrmost cntrails. Hc wantcd it to bc sung, hc continucd, in mcmory ol mc,
that is, in somcthing ovcr a hundrcd ycars whcn it has bccn graspcd what ! was talking
about.
+
Tough Hcgar was uncnthusiastic about (or so hc said) thc orchcstration, thc
work was cvcntually publishcd by Fritzsch in ctobcr +88.
!n Ecce Homo Nictzschc givcs cxtraordinary promincncc to thc Hymn, connccting it
closcly with thc idca ol ctcrnal rcturn and with thc inspiration that gavc risc to Zarathustra,
a work which itscll might pcrhaps bc rcckoncd as music. Tc sctting ol Fr aulcin Lou von
Salom cs pocm, hc says (trcating thc Prayer and thc Hymn as thc samc work), arosc out ol
a timc
whcn ! was posscsscd to thc highcst dcgrcc by thc armati.e pathos, par excellence, which !
call thc tragic pathos . . . Hc who knows how to cxtract any mcaning at all lrom thc closing
words ol thc pocm will divinc why ! prclcrrcd and admircd it: thcy posscss grcatncss. Pain
docs not count as an objcction to lilc: Havc you no morc happincss to givc mc, wcll thcn!
Still do you ha.e your pain . . . Pcrhaps my music is also grcat at this point. (Last notc ol thc
clarinct in A is C sharp not C. Printing crror.)
+8
Tis commcnt hclps cxplain thc changc in thc titlc lrom Lous praycr to his own Hymn.
8oth praycr and hymn arc rcligious words, but whilc a praycr is a convcrsation with
a pcrsonal dcity, hymn is appropriatc to thc cxprcssion ol wondcr and praisc bclorc an
impcrsonal onc. !t is signicant that thc notcbooks ol this pcriod arc lull ol lavourablc
rcmarks about panthcism, thc panthcistic attcmpt at thinking out a way in which cvil, crror
and sucring arc not argumcnts against divinity. Habitation ol panthcistic consciousncss
gcncratcs, hc writcs, a lilcarming gratitudc lor cxistcncc which nds natural cxprcssion
in thc dithyramb, in, in othcr words, a Hymn not to thc moral God ol Christianity
but rathcr to ionysus.
+
Schopcnhaucr hcld (rightly, it sccms to mc) that thc csscncc ol music is that it givcs
thc feeling ol lccling, ol cmotion. Sad or happy music, cvcn purcly instrumcntal music,
is callcd sad or happy bccausc that is how it makcs us lccl. !l thc words arc sct to that
music thcy givc thc conccptual mind a particular cxamplc ol somcthing that makcs onc sad
(thc pocts bclovcd has dcscrtcd him) or happy (shc has rcturncd). Tc intimatc conncxion
Nictzschc always sccs bctwccn his philosophy and his music thc original Prayer to Life
was, rcmcmbcr, intcndcd to scducc pcoplc to his philosophy
:o
is, ! think, to bc cxplaincd
in Schopcnhaucrs way. Vhilc thc words ol thc works lrom Zarathustra onwards announcc
Nictzschcs mcssagc ol lilcarmation, only his music (including thc music ol his poctry
and poctic prosc) can communicatc thc lundamcntal, dithyrambic cmotion that undcrlics
and unics thosc works, communicatc it by making us feel that cmotion.
:+
Philosophy,
Clearing the Decks

,
philosophy that aims to changc pcoplcs livcs, cannot, thcn, do without music. !t lollows
that music was not somcthing Nictzschc wrotc in addition to philosophy. Philosophy and
music arc ultimatcly thc samc cntcrprisc.

A Month in the Country

A
s Scptcmbcr drcw to a closc, Nictzschcs plan ol kccping his ambicnt tcmpcraturc
bctwccn and +: dcgrccs (Cclsius) throughout thc ycar
::
dictatcd that it was timc
oncc again lor thc annual migration. Hc had alrcady staycd too long and was this ycar, hc
told his mothcr, thc last bird to y out ol Sils.
:
To avoid thc still considcrablc hcat in
Nicc, hc optcd lor a monthlong intcrmczzo in thc hills abovc his bclovcd Gull ol Gcnoa,
in Ruta Lugurc.
Nictzschc lovcd Ruta. Scnding K osclitz a lcttcr hcadcd Circa oo mctcrs abovc sca lcvcl,
on thc road that lcads ovcr thc pcninsula ol Portono, hc lccls impcllcd to ocr
a word lrom this wondcrlul corncr ol thc world . . . Tink ol an island in thc Grcck
Archipclago, with lorcsts and mountains strcwn about at random which, onc day, by acci
dcnt, swamto thc mainland and ncvcr camc back. Tcrc is without doubt somcthing Grcck
about it, but also somcthing piratical, suddcn, hiddcn, dangcrous.
,:
Tough hc lound thc \cnctian stylc cooking in Rutas Albcrgo !talia, with its abscncc ol
propcr mcat, drcadlul, hc was ablc to livc lor a mcrc lrancs a day, including winc. And
hc lovcd thc vicw lrom his room. To thc lclt, hc wrotc mily Fynn, thc Gull ol Gcnoa
as lar as |Gcnoas landmark| lighthousc, bcncath my window and as lar as thc mountains,
cvcrything grccn, dark, rclrcshing to thc cyc.
:
And hc lovcd, too, thc invigorating air,
thc walks bctwccn two scas (thc Gull ol Gcnoa and thc Gull ol Tigullio), and thc cool
cvcnings: thrcc timcs alrcady hc writcs, wc havc lit grcat, outdoor rcs: . . . thcrc is nothing
morc bcautilul than sccing thc amcs blazing into . . . a cloudlcss sky.
:6
(As an imagc lor
art, thcsc rcs nd thcir way into a ncw prclacc to Te Gay Science (p. o abovc) com
poscd during thc month in Ruta: what wc convalcsccnts nccd is a mocking, light, ccting,
divincly untroublcd, divincly articial art that, likc a bright amc, blazcs into a cloudlcss
sky.)
Tough hc at rst lound in Ruta thc Robinson |Crusoc| isolation
:
hc nccdcd to
work, oncc again it was intcrruptcd by thc tcdious but adhcsivc Lansky. Too politc to givc
Lansky his marching ordcrs, Nictzschc was thanklul hc would not bc lollowing him to his
wintcr quartcrs in Nicc.
:8

As onc might put it, thcy constitutc a Gesamtkunst.erk, a collcctivc artwork. Tc idca that only
a musical artwork can attain sucicnt cmotional powcr to changc pcoplcs livcs was thc corc ol
Vagncrs acsthctic thcory.

For all Nictzschcs lovc ol Grcck antiquity, hc ncvcr cvcn contcmplatcd sctting loot in Grcccc.
nc suspccts hc wantcd it to rcmain a placc ol thc imagination, lcarcd that rcality would spoil thc
drcam.
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Iourth Winter in Nice
N
ictzschc arrivcd in Nicc, on ctobcr :o, lor his lourth wintcr stay (scvcnth in thc
NiccGcnoa corncr ol thc Mcditcrrancan), and would rcmain thcrc until thc bcgin
ning ol April, +88. Tough thc palms on thc Promcnadc dcs Anglais lcd him dcscribc
Nicc as Alrican,
:
this ycar it was bittcrly cold, particularly in his northlacing, stovclcss
room in thc \illa Spcranza, thc ncighbouring building into which thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc
had cxpandcd in ordcr to acquirc lorty cxtra rooms.
8luc ngcrs madc writing dicult.
o
Rcluctantly, thcrclorc, at thc bcginning ol January,
hc movcd to ncw lodgings in thc Ruc dcs Ponchcttcs : (now Numbcr +), which providcd
both sunlight and a stovc. Pcrvcrscly Spartan as cvcr, howcvcr, hc braggcd that hc had uscd
thc stovc not oncc,
+
whilc continuing to add thc bluc ol his ngcrs to his palcttc ol local
colours: Tc ncar mountains havc bccn whitc lor a long timc (what a coqucttc naturc sccms
in this coloursaturatcd landscapc). To this colourlulncss bclongs also my bluc ngcrs
|and| black thoughts.
:
Shortly altcr his arrival in Nicc, his pcacc ol mind was disturbcd by moncy dcmands lrom
thc F orstcrs in Paraguay. Tc dcmands wcrc prcscntcd oncc again in thc lorm ol an invcst
mcnt in a plot ol land to which, it was suggcstcd, hc should onc day cmigratc. Nictzschc
was imprcsscd by thc sizc ol thc land Nue.a Germania had acquircd: twclvc squarc milcs,
hc obscrvcd, was largcr than somc Gcrman principalitics. And hc wishcd thcm wcll in thcir
drcamol a major railway bcing constructcd through thcir land, thus cnabling thcmto cxport
thcir timbcr. 8ut, as hc wrotc K oclitz, hc rcluscd to havc any pcrsonal involvcmcnt in this
antiScmitic cntcrprisc,

and lcarcd, morcovcr, that thc 8asclcrs, on hcaring hc was buy

ing rcal cstatc, would dccidc that hc obviously nccdcd his pcnsion no longcr.

Hc dcclincd
thc purchasc whilc, in a somcwhat cowardly way, laying thc rcsponsibility on vcrbccks
shouldcrs. vcrbcck (his man on thc spot in 8ascl), hc said, had adviscd him ol scrious
problcms with his pcnsion that thc purchasc could causc.

Preparations for Greatness

F
ollowing thc complction ol Beyond Good and E.il, Nictzschcs litcrary projcct lor thc
rcmaindcr ol +886 was thc rcissuc, in a rcviscd lorm, ol all ol what hc considcrcd his
major philosophical works to datc. Tus, by thc bcginning ol Scptcmbcr, working with
lightning spccd, hc had complctcd ncwprclaccs to Human, ll-Too-Human and to Te Birth
of Tragedy. A lurthcr prclacc was writtcn to ssorted Opinions and Maxims and Te !anderer
and His Shado., which wcrc now combincd to lorm thc sccond volumc ol Human, ll-Too-
Human. All lour works, in thcsc sccond cditions, wcrc publishcd by Fritzsch on ctobcr
+. 8y thc cnd ol +886, morcovcr, Parts !!!! ol Zarathustra had bccn bound togcthcr and
publishcd as a singlc work lor thc rst timc.
Not contcnt with this, by thc middlc ol Novcmbcr, Nictzschc had rcady lor thc printcrs
a ncw prclacc lor a sccond cdition ol Da.n and, by thc cnd ol cccmbcr, a prclacc lor
a ncw cdition ol Te Gay Science. Tis sccond cdition includcd a ncw motto on thc titlc
pagc, thc ncw prclacc writtcn in Ruta, and, at thc cnd ol thc work, a wholc ncw lth book,
lollowcd by Tc Songs ol Princc \ogcllrci, an cxpandcd vcrsion ol thc !dylls ol Mcssina
Clearing the Decks

,
(pp. :6 abovc). uc to tircsomc printing dclays, thcsc two works did not appcar until
Junc +88.
Nictzschc had scvcral complcmcntary motivcs lor this rcprcscntation ol all his work to
datc. Tc rst was that Fritzsch had acquircd lromSchmcitzncr not only thc rights to all his
works but also thc largc numbcr ol unsold copics (pp. o+: abovc). Nictzschc hopcd that
rcbinding thc old copics with ncw prclaccs would givc thcm ncw wings and so gcncratc
ncw intcrcst, lrom a bookdcaling point ol vicw.
6
A sccond, lcss commcrcial, motivc lay in Nictzschcs ccrtainty that hc was, as hc pucd
himscll to Fritzsch, by lar thc most indcpcndcnt thinkcr ol thc prcscnt agc, onc who thinks
lar morc than any othcr in thc grand stylc. Hc was, morcovcr, somconc whosc dcvclop
mcnt as a thinkcr in thc lacc ol thc ills and unccrtaintics ol thc prcscnt agc was cxcmplary
lor his contcmporarics. Tis madc it a mattcr ol urgcncy to prcscnt his works as a dcvclop
mcntal wholc, thcrcby showing, by cxamplc, how to inauguratc lor Gcrmany a ncw litcra
turc (thc prcludc to a moral scllcducation and culturc which thc Gcrmans havc lackcd up
to now).

A nal motivc was providcd by thc scnsc that hc had rcachcd a turning point in his
carccr. n complcting thc projcct ol scllrcprcscntation hc lclt that a phasc ol my lilc
has comc to an cnd so that now ! havc thc wholc, cnormous task bclorc mc. 8clorc mc
and, still morc, on top ol mc.
8
As wc know, this cnormous task, this work in thc grand
stylc that would systcmatically sum up his cntirc philosophy (and thcrcby allow him cntry
into thc ranks ol thc truly grcat Gcrman philosophcrs), was to bcar thc grandiosc titlc, Te
!ill to Po.er: ttempt at a Fe.aluation of all !alues. Tis projcct appcars lor thc rst timc
in thc notcbooks lrom latc +88

and, in thc lcttcrs, lor thc rst timc in August +866

hc thinks that a pilgrimagc to Cortc in Corsica, thc placc ol Napolcons conccption, is
an appropriatcly worldhistorical prcparation lor thc task ahcad.
o
Hcncc a bringingto
closurc ol thc totality ol his works to datc, a clcaring ol thc dccks, was a ncccssary prcludc
to locusing his corts on this crowning projcct. A mark ol his scnsc ol closurc was thc
momcntary cxpcricncc ol nausca at all thcsc works: bctwccn oursclvcs, hc wrotc K osclitz,
! cant stand thcm.
+
Te Prefaces of
!
n thc samc lcttcr, Nictzschc tclls K osclitz that hc rcgards it as a piccc ol luck that hc
had ncithcr Te Birth of Tragedy nor Human, ll-Too-Human to hand as hc was writing
(in Sils Maria) thcir ncw prclaccs.
:
Tc rcason hc rcgards this as lortunatc is that, apart
lrom sclling books, thc point ol thc ncw sct ol prclaccs is somcthing othcr than providing
accuratc guidcs to thc contcnts ol thc books. Rathcr, as alrcady notcd, thcir point is to
prcscnt a kind ol narrativc ol spiritual dcvclopmcnt,

a Bildungsroman, a story ol his scll

cducation that will bc cxcmplary lor thc Gcrmans (and Vcstcrn modcrnity as a wholc). !n
thc prclaccs Nictzschc sccks to prcscnt himscll as a spiritual hero. 8ut, as Te Gay Science
obscrvcs (p. abovc), to discovcr thc hcro that is conccalcd in cvcryday charactcrs onc
nccds artistic distancc lrom oncs subjcct mattcr to avoid losing thc lorcst on account ol
thc trccs. Acsthctic distancc mcans, howcvcr, that thcrc is a good dcal onc no longcr sccs,
and much our cyc has to add il wc arc to scc anything at all.

!n a word, onc nccds to

,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
fake things a bit. !t lollows, thcn, that wc should not cxpcct scholarly accuracy lrom thc
+886 prclaccs. !n ordcr lor him to prcscnt himscll as a monumcntal, cxcmplary gurc, thc
thinkcr hc portrays has to bc to a ccrtain dcgrcc, likc all rolc modcls, an artistic ction. (Art,
Picasso oncc obscrvcd, is thc lic that tclls thc truth.)
Tat thc ncw prclaccs arc not to bc rcgardcd as anything likc scholarly rcports is par
ticularly cvidcnt with rcspcct to thc Attcmpt at a ScllCriticism that prcccdcs thc sccond
cdition ol Te Birth of Tragedy. Tc problcm is not that Nictzschc ungcncrously lambastcs
thc stylc ol his rst book badly writtcn, clumsy, cmbarrassing, with a ragc lor imagcry and
conluscd in its imagcry, cmotional, hcrc and thcrc sugary to thc point ol ccminacy. !t is
rathcr that hc trics to modulatc a work which, in rcality, as wc saw, is cvcry bit as committcd
to mctaphysical idcalismand to pcssimismabout human lilc as is Schopcnhaucr into a work
whosc truc mcssagc is naturalism and lilcarmation. Tat mcssagc, hc claims (without,
rcmcmbcr, thc work bclorc him), lundamcntally ran countcr to both thc spirit and tastc ol
Kant and Schopcnhaucr but was spoilt by thc attcmpt to cxprcss it in Schopcnhaucrian
and Kantian lormulations. Trying, lor thc sakc ol his narrativc, to paint a picturc ol thc
truc Nictzschc as alrcady prcscnt, in cmbryo, in Te Birth, hc givcs a thoroughly unrcliablc
account ol its contcnt. (!t is notablc that thc ncw 8ook ol Te Gay Science, writtcn at thc
samc timc but not undcr thc samc constraints, is much morc accuratc: !t may bc rccallcd,
at lcast among my lricnds, that initially ! approachcd thc modcrn world |and in particu
lar| . . . thc philosophical pcssimism ol thc ninctccnth ccntury as il it wcrc a symptom ol a
highcr lorcc ol thought.)

Similarly, in thc ncw prclacc to Human, ll-Too-Human (now \olumc ! ol thc cxpandcd
work), hc sccks to suggcst hc was ncvcr really cithcr a Schopcnhaucrian or a Vagncrian.
Lacking thc couragc hc latcr acquircd to lacc up to thc isolation ol thc radical thinkcr, hc
suggcsts,
! kno.ingly-.ilfully closcd my cycs bclorc Schopcnhaucrs blind will to |Christian| moral
ity at a timc whcn ! was alrcady sucicntly clcarsightcd about morality. Likcwisc I decei.ed
myself ovcr Richard Vagncrs incurablc romanticism, as though it wcrc a bcginning and not
an cnd |my cmphascs|.
Vriting to Fritzsch (who, as wc know, was also Vagncrs publishcr) conccrning thc prclacc
to \olumc !! ol thc cxpandcd Human, ll-Too-Human, Nictzschc says that its point is to
makc an cnd ol thc ctcrnal misundcrstanding in rclation to my brcak with R. Vagncr . . . to
say thc main thing clcarly.
6
And what hc says is that at thc timc ol writing Human, ll-
Too-Human it was, lor him,
high timc indccd to say fare.ell: and ! immcdiatcly rcccivcd a conrmation ol thc lact.
Richard Vagncr, sccmingly thc allconqucring, actually a dccaying, dcspairing romantic,
suddcnly sank down hclplcss and shattcrcd bclorc thc Christian cross |Nictzschcs account
ol Parsifal| . . . Vas thcrc no Gcrman with cycs in his hcad . . . lor this drcadlul spcctaclc:
Actually, though, Nictzschcs attitudc to Vagncr was much morc nuanccd than this. Lcss
than a month altcr writing this hc wrotc thc alrcadyquotcd lcttcr to vcrbcck (pp. 6o
abovc) arming his continuing bclicl in thc idcal in which Vagncr bclicvcd and saying
Clearing the Decks

,,
that it was only thc humanalltoohuman in Vagncr ovcr which hc stumblcd. !n an
important scnsc hc ne.er said larcwcll to Vagncr. 8ut thc idca ol a dramatic and total
brcak makcs a bcttcr story.
Te Gay Science, Book V: Being Scientic about Science
T
hc most substantial part ol thc scllrcprcscntation projcct was thc ncw 8ook \ addcd
to Te Gay Science almost vc ycars altcr thc appcarancc ol thc rst lour books. Sincc
thc scrcnc luminosity ol Vc Fcarlcss ncs rcvcals Nictzschc at thc hcight ol his powcrs,
it dcscrvcs an cxtcndcd discussion.

!n Gcrman, ! havc pointcd out, cvcrything is scicncc (!issenschaft). Tc humani
tics, including, importantly, philosophy, arc thc spiritualintcllcctual scicnccs (Geistes.is-
senschaften). Scicncc in thc nglish scnsc corrcsponds to thc Natur.issenschaften, thc nat
ural scicnccs. Vhcn Nictzschc spcaks simply ol scicncc hc is spcaking collcctivcly ol both
thc natural and human scicnccs, though usually it is thc lattcr that arc lorcmost in his mind.
Tough scicncc is supposcd to bc dcncd and distinguishcd lrom othcr lorms ol human
bclicl by bcing lrcc ol irrational prcjudicc, conviction, and laith in scicncc, convictions
havc no rights ol citizcnship

scvcral major scctions ol 8ook \ arc conccrncd to cxposc

ways in which scicncc is lrcqucntly lrcc ol nonc ol thcsc things. Amajor conccrn, thcrclorc,
is to rcndcr scicncc, and in particular philosophy, truly scicntic.
nc targct ol criticism is natural scicncc, or, morc cxactly, matcrialist natural scicncc,
posing as mctaphysics. Tc targct is thc physicist who makcs two claims which togcthcr
amount to arrogant stupidity: First, that his intcrprctation ol, or pcrspcctivc on, thc world,
which discloscs it as mcasurablc chunks ol mattcr pushcd around by mathcmatically quan
tiablc mcchanical lorccs, grasps rcality as it really is. Sccond, that his is thc only rightlul
intcrprctation ol thc world.
8
! shall call thc combination ol thcsc two claims scicncc is
truc and nothing clsc is thc absolutizing ol thc scicntic pcrspcctivc.
Nictzschc mcntions thc pcdantic nglishman, Hcrbcrt Spcnccr, as somconc who
claimcd to havc produccd an ultimatc pcrspcctivc, but onc may suspcct that hc also has his
crstwhilc lricnd, Paul R cc, a dogmatic scicntic naturalist, in mind. Vcrc hc alivc now hc
would surcly targct dogmatic matcrialists such as anicl cnnctt and Richard awkins as
primc cxcmplars ol unscicntic scicnccworship.
Nictzschc points out that thc two clcmcnts ol thc absolutizcrs position arc both prcju
diccs. Sincc, as alrcady notcd, wc cannot look around our corncr,

cannot stcp outsidc

our minds, wc can havc no certainty that any worldintcrprctation produccd by our lour
corncrcd littlc human rcason
o
corrcsponds complctcly, or cvcn partially, to rcality. And
sincc wc cannot bc ccrtain that our intcrprctation grasps thc world as it rcally is, wc havc
no grounds lor bcing dismissivc ol othcr intcrprctations: good tastc dcmands rcvcrcncc
lor cvcrything that lics bcyond |oncs own| intcrprctation.
+
!nstcad ol scicntistic arrogancc, thc watchword lor thc truly scicntic spirit is modcsty.
Tc vcry word philosophy, lo.er ol wisdom, Nictzschc points out, was coincd by modcst
Grccks who, apart lrom conccitcd cxccptions such as Pythagoras and Plato, ncvcr claimcd
to be wisc or to kno. anything ol rcal importancc.
:
A truly scicntic pcrson is modcst
about his own worldintcrprctation a modcsty that rcquircs sovcrcignty and strcngth.
,,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
vcry kind ol lanaticism, whcthcr it takc thc lorm ol socialism, Russian nihilism, thc
rcalism ol Flaubcrt and Zola or thc scicnticpositivist outlook ol thc prcscnt agc, is
actually a sign ol a wcak and timid will that lacks thc couragc to livc in a world ol unccr
tainty. Lacking, as Nictzschc puts it, thc couragc to maintain |himscll | on thc lightcst
ol ropcs and possibilitics, to dancc bcsidc abysscs, thc wcakwillcd lanatic nccds to bc
commandcd by somc prcpackagcd laith, nccds to bccomc a bclicvcr in a singlc point ol
vicw.

8cing a good scicntist or philosophcr is, thcn, as onc might put it, a mattcr ol bcing ol
good charactcr. Pcoplc who arc ol such a charactcr livc, Nictzschc writcs, in thc awarcncss
ol a world which has bccomc innitc: bccomc innitc bccausc, particularly whcn wc takc
into account thc possibility ol worldpcrspcctivcs bclonging to nonhuman crcaturcs, wc scc
that thcrc is no limit to thc numbcr ol possiblc worldintcrprctations, cach quitc possibly,
in its own way, as good as cvcry othcr onc. Living such a world, wc (Nictzschc and thc
lricnds lor whom 8ook \ is writtcn)

arc lar away lrom thc ridiculous immodcsty ol

dccrccing lrom our anglc that pcrspcctivcs arc permitted only lrom that anglc.

Vhat wc conlront, hcrc, oncc again, is Nictzschcs doctrinc ol pcrspcctivism: thc human
mind moulds all its input, and sincc wc can ncvcr stcp outsidc it, wc can ncvcr havc absolutc
ccrtainty that any ol our world intcrprctations arc truc. To this, as ! callcd it, Kantian
inhcritancc (p. +6 abovc), Nictzschc now makcs two modications. First, thcrc arc many
dicrcnt human pcrspcctivcs on thc world (as wcll, possibly, as nonhuman pcrspcctivcs).
And, sccond, cach pcrspcctivc is thc product ol somc particular nccd, dcsirc, cmotion, or
intcrcst.
6
Vhat kind ol mctaphysical account ol rcality is implicd by pcrspcctivism: As ! havc
suggcstcd, thcrc arc two possiblc intcrprctations ol Nictzschcs position. Tc rst is thc
postmodcrnist rcading: sincc thcrc arc many dicrcnt intcrprctations ol rcality nonc ol
which can claim to bc truer than thc othcrs, it lollows that no intcrprctation can claim to
rcprcscnt thc world as it rcally is. And sincc no rcprcscntation can makc that claim, it makcs
no scnsc to say that rcality has any particular charactcr lrom which it lollows that thc vcry
idca ol an intcrprctation bcing truc ol rcality is incohcrcnt. Tc sccond intcrprctation, thc
plural rcalist rcading, as ! callcd it (p. 8 abovc), suggcsts, in an ccumcnical spirit, that thc
lact that wc havc many, in thcir own way, cqually good intcrprctations ol thc world suggcsts
that all, or at lcast many, ol thcm arc truc ol a multilacctcd rcality truc ol a rcality that
has many aspccts, onc aspcct bcing rcvcalcd by onc intcrprctation, anothcr by a dicrcnt
onc.
!t is not casy to dccidc bctwccn thcsc intcrprctations. Tcrc is no doubt that, in thc notc
books at lcast, Nictzschc somctimcs says things which suggcst postmodcrnism.

As carlicr
indicatcd, though ! inclinc to thc plural rcalist rcading, ! want to dclcr a rm dccision
bctwccn thcsc rivals until wc comc to thc nal discussion ol pcrspcctivism in thc Gene-
alogy of Morals. Hcrc, howcvcr, ! would likc to rccmphasizc onc point lrom thc prcvious
chaptcr. Tc wholc purposc ol thc violcnt languagc in which thc willtopowcr mctaphys
ics is cxprcsscd in Beyond Good and E.il is to lorcc thc scntimcntal idcalists to lacc up to
reality to, at lcast, an account ol rcality which dcmands ol rational bcings that thcy accord
it strong though always provisional acccptancc as bcing true. !l, thcn, wc rcad Nictzschc
as undcrmining thc vcry idca ol truth, wc cmasculatc Beyond Good and E.il. !t might, ol
coursc, bc that Nictzschcs philosophy as a wholc is inconsistcnt, that hc says onc thing
whcn talking about truth and rcality and a dicrcnt thing whcn talking about thc will to
powcr. 8ut inconsistcncy should bc attributcd to him only as a vcry last rcsort.
Clearing the Decks

,,:

Pcrspcctivcabsolutizcrs, thosc who do not rcalisc that thcir pcrspcctivcs are pcrspcc
tivcs, rcprcscnt onc kind ol prcjudicc in scicncc. Anothcr is cxposcd in a scction with thc
intriguing titlc, To Vhat xtcnt Vc, Too, Arc Still Pious.
8
Convictions, to rcpcat, havc no rights ol citizcnship in scicncc. Pcrmittcd only is thc
hypothcsis, a tcntativc cxpcrimcntal standpoint, which, howcvcr, always rcmains undcr
policc supcrvision, undcr thc policc ol mistrust.

Yct, Nictzschc asks, is it not thc casc that

in ordcr lor convictionrcjccting scicncc cvcn to begin thcrc must bc thc prior conviction
that Nothing is more ncccssary than truth: Tc practicc ol scicncc, in othcr words, rcsts
on thc unconditional will to truth, thc will to truth at any pricc. Vhat, Nictzschc now
asks, is thc ground ol this will: !t must, hc dccidcs, rcst cithcr on thc will not to dcccivc
or (at rst sight thc most obvious answcr) thc will not to bc dcccivcd. !n lact, howcvcr,
it cannot rcst on thc lattcr, on prudcntial calculation, sincc it is pcrlcctly obvious that on
many occasions it is morc bcnccial to bc dcccivcd than to know thc truth. (Supposc my
partncr is guilty ol just onc indclity that is now wcll ovcr and long in thc past, but that !
am thc typc ol pcrson whom knowlcdgc ol thc indclity would drivc to murdcrous angcr
and suicidal dcspair. !n this situation it is morc bcnccial lor all conccrncd that ! should bc
dcccivcd about my partncrs dclity.) Hcncc, contrary to cxpcctations, thc unconditioncd
will to truth must actually bc bascd on thc will not to dcccivc anyonc including oncscll
and hcrc, says Nictzschc, wc stand on moral grounds: thc will to truth at any pricc is a
moral commitmcnt. 8ut whcncc docs truthlulncss acquirc this unconditional valuc: For
rcasons alrcady givcn, it cannot acquirc it lrom any bcnct that accrucs to us in thc natural
world. So, Nictzschc, concludcs, it must dcrivc lrom bcncts which supposcdly accruc to
us in another world: thosc who arc truthlul in that audacious and ultimatc scnsc which laith
in scicncc prcsupposcs thereby arm another .orld than that of life [andJ nature. Nictzschc
concludcs thc scction by saying that what hc has dcmonstratcd is that cvcn wc knowcrs ol
today, wc godlcss antimctaphysicians takc our rc lrom thc . . . Christian laith which was
also Platos laith that God is truth, that truth is divinc . . . 8ut what il God himscll turncd
out to bc our longcst lic:
Nictzschc obviously docs not mcan that thosc with laith in scicncc consciously arm
thc cxistcncc ol thc Christian hcavcn, lor that is what modcrn mcn ol scicncc activcly dcny.
Vhat hc mcans, rathcr, is that thcir commitmcnt to thc ovcrriding valuc ol truthlulncss is,
rst, a hangovcr lrom our Christian past and, sccond, complctcly irrational givcn that, as
wc now know, Christian mctaphysics is a lic.
ncs immcdiatc rcsponsc to this pcculiar argumcnt, ! think, is to say that it is com
plctcly naivc to supposc that thc practicc ol scicncc rcsts on thc unconditional will to truth.
Pcoplc practisc scicncc lor all sorts ol rcasons, thc most obvious bcing to makc a living.
8ut Nictzschc is pcrlcctly awarc ol this. !n thc carly part ol Te Gay Science hc obscrvcs
that cvcn .ithout this ncw passion ! mcan thc passion lor knowlcdgc scicncc would
bc promotcd: up to now it has grown and maturcd without it, and hc gocs on to obscrvc
that, in thc past, thc scicntic drivc has oltcn bccn motivatcd by statussccking, curiosity,
or lcar ol borcdom.
6o
n a morc institutional lcvcl, thc notcbooks ol this pcriod rcmark
(in apparent contradiction to thc Gay Science passagc) that fear of the unpredictable |is| the
hidden instinct ol scicncc.
6+
And in thc Genealogy of Morals, thc book hc was constructing
as this nal book ol thc Gay Science appcarcd, hc cxplicitly distinguishcs bclicvcrs in truth
lrom thc majority ol scicntists as thc rarcr cascs . . . thc last idcalists wc havc today among
philosophcrs and scholars.
6:
,,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Contrary to appcaranccs, thcrclorc, thosc who arc still pious still too pious arc not sci
cntists (natural scicntists, philosophcrs, and scholars) in gcncral but rathcr that tiny minor
ity lor whom thc practicc ol scicncc is motivatcd by thc unconditional will to truth. Tc
ovcrly pious arc thc idcalists ol truth, thosc lor whom thc scarch lor truth is an absolutc
idcal, who bclicvc that in all circumstanccs thcy ought to asccrtain thc truth whatcvcr thc
cost. Tc qucstion is: who might thcy bc:
Vc arc told quitc cxplicitly: it is wc who arc pious, wc Godlcss antimctaphysicians.
Paradigmatically, in othcr words, it is himself and F ee in thc pcriod ol thcir collaboration
on thc positivist programmc ol dcmolishing, as thcy rcpcatcdly put it, mctaphysics. For
it was in that pcriod, it will bc rcmcmbcrcd, that Nictzschc rccogniscd, with 8yron, that
thc trcc ol knowlcdgc is not that ol lilc (p. :6 abovc), that, as oltcn as not, knowlcdgc
brings sorrow rathcr than joy thc knowlcdgc, lor cxamplc, that thcrc is no God. Nonc
thclcss, hc insistcd at that timc, any dcgrcc ol . . . mclancholy is bcttcr than . . . incurably
dirtying oncs intcllcctual conscicncc and prostituting it through a romantic rcturn . . . to
Christianity.
6
!t is truc that in thc privacy ol thc notcbooks ol thc positivist pcriod hc
worricd that R ccs sardonic psychological obscrvations would makc pcoplc contcmptuous
ol thcmsclvcs and suspicious ol othcrs,
6
but nonc ol thcsc privatc doubts wcrc allowcd to
disturb thc truthatanycost cthos ol thc ocial programmc.
Vhat, in short, scction ol Te Gay Science rcally constitutcs is anothcr part ol his
long goodbyc to R cc togcthcr with an cxplanation ol why, intcllcctually, thc two had to
part, why Nictzschc outgrcw why one should outgrow his r ccalism ol thc latc +8os. (!n
a similar way, 8ook \s critiquc ol scholars thcy havc crampcd digcstions lrom sitting too
much, and crampcd minds lrom lorcing thcm into a narrow spcciality whosc importancc
thcy vastly ovcrcstimatc is a larcwcll to Rohdc and an cxplanation ol why hc, too, has
to bc outgrown. Nictzschc makcs this almost complctcly cxplicit by saying that that hc is
dcscribing thc lricnds ol |his| youth who havc bccomc crampcd bcyond rccognition.)
6
!n what way docs Nictzschc think hc has outgrown thc will to truthatanypricc and
what arc thc conscqucnccs ol that dcvclopmcnt: Nictzschc ncvcr abandons thc idca ol intcl
lcctual honcsty as a suprcmc virtuc. !n thc notcbooks ol this pcriod onc nds Tc ultimatc
virtuc . . . our virtuc is callcd: honcsty. For thc rcst wc arc only thc hcirs . . . ol virtucs that
wcrc not collcctcd and trcasurcd by us.
66
!n 8ook \ hc honours Schopcnhaucrs intcgrity
|his| unconditional honcst athcism, his uninching honcsty about thc pain ol lilc which,
combincd with his adhcrcncc to Christian morality, dcmolishcd thc possibility ol intcrprct
ing thc world as thc product ol a bcncvolcnt crcator. And hc claims that it is thc Christian
virtuc ol truthlulncss that triumphs, in Schopcnhaucr, ovcr Christian mctaphysics: it was
Christian conscicncc, translatcd and sublimatcd into a scicntic conscicncc, into intcllcc
tual clcanlincss at any pricc that triumphcd ovcr thc Christian God.
6
8ut, to rcpcat thc qucstion, what il God turns out to bc |a| lic: Vhat il thc unconditional
will to truth prcsupposcs God, hcavcn, and thc immortal soul, but wc bccomc convinccd
that thcrc is no God: Tcn this is thc conclusion Nictzschc is lcading us towards wc must
procccd bcyond Schopcnhaucr by turning an honcst cyc not only on Christian mctaphysics
but also on Christian morality, including the supposed .irtue of truthfulness. And thc rcsult
ol that thc rcsult ol bcing complctcly honest about thc will to truth is to scc that no
justication cxists lor pursuing truth at any pricc, that truth, knowlcdgc ol truth, is not thc
highcst valuc. Tc unconditional will to truth autodcstructs. Tis docs not mcan, ol coursc,
that wc givc up doing scicncc. 8ut it mcans that wc do it, whcn wc do it, lor prudcntial
Clearing the Decks

,,
rathcr than moral rcasons. Truth at any pricc givcs way to truth whcn thc pricc is right.
!l, lor cxamplc, wc rcally bccamc convinccd that thc La RochloucauldR cc programmc
ol psychological obscrvations had thc ccct ol undcrmining lilc, thcn wc should havc to
abandon it. For ultimatc valuc attachcs not to thc trcc ol knowlcdgc but rathcr to thc trcc
ol lilc. Tcrc is morc to bc said on this topic, which, howcvcr, ! shall rcscrvc lor thc ncxt
chaptcr.
Te Wanderer Speaks
A
s with all Nictzschcs writings, thc driving lorcc bchind 8ook \ is an untimcly stancc
towards Vcstcrn modcrnity, thc alicnatcd stancc ol, as hc again calls himscll, a homc
lcss . . . wandcrcr.
68
!t is a stancc thoroughly critical ol thc currcnt statc ol Vcstcrn culturc,
though at thc samc timc lull ol hopc lor indccd, as wc shall scc, laith in its luturc. Tc
main lact about how wc arc now is, ol coursc, thc dcath ol God:
Tc grcatcst rcccnt cvcnt that God is dcad, that bclicl in thc Christian God has bccomc
unbclicvablc is alrcady casting its rst shadow ovcr uropc . . . Somc kind ol sun sccms to
havc sct, somc old, dccp trust turncd to doubt.
8ut, Nictzschc continucs, vcry lcw havc graspcd how much must collapsc bccausc it was
built on this laith . . . lor cxamplc, our cntirc uropcan morality. Fcw havc graspcd thc
monstrous logic ol horror that must lollow, thc long dcnsc succcssion ol dcmolition,
dcstruction, downlall, uphcaval that now stands ahcad.
6
Nictzschc thinks prophctically ol a ccntury ol warlarc as onc ol thc traumatic con
scqucnccs ol thc collapsc ol thc old laith and thc old morality. Anothcr is thc malaisc ol
pcssimism and nihilism. Schopcnhaucrs pcssimism his dcnial ol thc valuc ol cxistcncc
is, says Nictzschc, a panuropcan phcnomcnon: Schopcnhaucr spcaks, not just lor him
scll, but lor postChristian Vcstcrn consciousncss in gcncral. And his rclutation ol thc
Christian mcaning ol lilc immcdiatcly raiscs thc tcrrilying qucstion: does existence ha.e
any meaning at all?
o
Sincc, in othcr words, a mcaninglcss lilc is a worthlcss lilc, thc loss
ol thc old laith mcans that, dccp down, modcrn Vcstcrn humanity thinks that lilc is not
worth living.
A lurthcr conscqucncc ol thc collapsc ol thc old morality is thc Amcricanisation ol thc
Vcst Nictzschc cxpands, hcrc, on what ! havc callcd his motlcy critiquc ol modcrnity.
!n thc past, hc rcccts, a mans prolcssion was, or morc accuratcly bccamc, his charactcr,
through accidcnt ol birth and allicd lorms ol social cocrcion what was originally articc
bccamc naturc. A mans prolcssional rolc in socicty was acccptcd as his dcstiny. Tis laith
was cmbodicd in thc mcdicval guilds and class distinctions, and so cnablcd onc to build
thc broadbascd social pyramid ol lcudalism. Vhatcvcr onc might say against thc cocr
civc charactcr ol thc Middlc Agcs, onc can at lcast crcdit it with social durability and
durability, Nictzschc adds, is a rstrank valuc on carth. Now, howcvcr, with thc collapsc
ol thc old laith, wc livc in an agc ol dcmocratic anarchy. Vc arc dominatcd by thc Amcr
ican laith . . . according to which thc individual is convinccd hc can do just about anything
and is up to playing any role, and cvcryonc cxpcrimcnts with himscll . Tis mcans that pro
lcssion or rolc no longcr constitutcs charactcr or dcstiny, that rolcs arc simply acted out
,,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
on a tcmporary basis. Vcstcrn modcrnity is thus an agc ol actors (who, as wc know, play
many parts). !t is an agc ol uidity and unprcdictability which has thc conscqucncc that
thc capacity lor social architccturc, thc strcngth to build, is now paralyscd:
what is dying out is that lundamcntal laith on thc basis ol which somconc could calculatc,
promisc and projcct, and sacricc thc luturc to his plan namcly, thc basic laith that man
has valuc and mcaning only insolar as hc is a stone in a great edice, to this cnd hc must bc
rm, abovc all a stonc . . . abovc all not an actor! . . . what lrom now on can ncvcr bc built is
a socicty in thc old scnsc ol thc tcrm. . . !e are all no longer material for a society.
+
Tc Vcst is, thcn, in a parlous condition. !n its motlcy statc it lacks thc hardncss, unilor
mity and simplicity ol lorm ol a sharcd, as ! callcd it, gamc plan (p. +8 abovc) posscssion
ol which is ncccssary to survivc and thrivc in a compctitivc world. 8ut thc situation is not
hopclcss. For onc thing, lor all thc dicultics it crcatcs, thc collapsc ol Christianity, sincc
it madc our culturc sick, is lundamcntally a causc lor cclcbration. For anothcr, wc posscss
a sccrct laith, a vision ol what should and must rcdccm us lrom thc prcscnt and thc past.
To what cnd, Nictzschc asks rhctorically, havc wc ovcrcomc our Christian past: For thc
sakc ol unbclicl: No, hc rcplics, you know bcttcr than that, my lricnds! Tc hiddcn Ycs
in you is strongcr than all Nos and Maybcs that aict you and your agc likc a discasc.
Far lrom bcing a whimpcring cnd ol history, modcrnity is, Nictzschc bclicvcs, a timc ol
transition.
:
To what:
Nietzsches Undiscovered Land
T
hc bulk ol Te Gay Science was writtcn, it will bc rcmcmbcrcd, in Columbuss city ol
Gcnoa. 8ook \, complctcd within sight ol Gcnoa in Ruta, is, likc its prcdcccssors,
pcrmcatcd by thc sight and smcll ol thc sca. Vhat, morc than anything clsc, binds it to
thc carlicr books is thc pcrsistcncc ol thc Columbus imagc: wc lricnds ol Nictzschc, wc
lrcc spirits, hc tclls us, rcjoicc in thc sight ol thc opcn sca.

Vc who must sail thc scas

arc willing cmigrants.

As lor all scalarcrs, howcvcr, our journcy must havc a dcstina

tion: a hopc and vision ol thc luturc which translorms us lrom mcrc sailors into argonauts
ol thc idcal. Tough wc havc oltcn sucrcd shipwrcck, wc arc voyaging on towards an
as yct undiscovcrcd land thc boundarics ol which no onc has yct survcycd . . . a world so
ovcrrich in what is bcautilul, strangc, qucstionablc, tcrriblc |by todays standards|, and
divinc.

Vhat is this land: vcn though its cxact boundarics arc unknown, surcly wc must
know something ol its charactcr, lor othcrwisc why would it bc our dcstination: At thc vcry
lcast, surcly, somcthing ol its charactcr must bc inlcrablc lrom Nictzschcs critiquc ol thc
prcscnt.
Tc main lcaturc ol thc promiscd land is that, in contrast to thc sickncss ol Christian
culturc, it will cxhibit thc grcat hcalth.
6
8ut what is that: Nictzschcs discussion suggcsts
that thc idcal wc argonauts pursuc consists in lact ol two idcals, onc pcrtaining to thc
hcalth ol thc community, thc othcr to thc hcalth ol individuals.
Clearing the Decks

,,
Communal Health

nc has to lcavc a city, obscrvcs Nictzschc, in ordcr to scc thc hcight ol its towcrs. (Hc
is surcly thinking ol Naumburg, whcrc thc imposing hcight ol thc cathcdral towcrs,
visiblc lor milcs ovcr thc at landscapc, rcally can only bc apprcciatcd lrom a distancc.)
Similarly, onc has to lcavc our prcscnt morality and wandcr among othcr moralitics in
ordcr to grasp ours lor what it is. nc nccds to bc carclul, howcvcr, to vicw it lrom a
position outsidc cvcry morality, lor othcrwisc our obscrvations about morality will simply
bc prcjudiccs about prcjudiccs.

Tc product ol this wandcring, hc writcs, is to scc how

uttcrly childish it is to supposc that Christian morality is univcrsally binding, thc only
truc morality. !t is equally childish, howcvcr, to inlcr lrom thc lact ol many moralitics thc
conclusion that no morality is binding. vcry socicty nccds a morality, lor without it thcrc
can bc no socicty.
8
Morality, Nictzschc continucs, is a kind ol mcdicinc, thc most lamous ol all mcdi
cincs.

!l it is good mcdicinc, in othcr words, what it will producc is communal health.

Tis vicw ol morality has two conscqucnccs. First, what kind ol morality a socicty nccds
at a givcn point in its history will vary according to thc conditions it nds itscll in, thc
discascs that thrcatcn it. And sccond, as cmphasiscd carlicr, sincc Nictzschc cannot know
what discascs will thrcatcn in thc luturc, his account ol thc morality ol his luturc land has
to bc highly abstract: all hc can providc arc thc structural lcaturcs which, hc bclicvcs, any
hcalthy morality must cxhibit.
nc ol thcsc structural lcaturcs Nictzschc claboratcs, hcrc, on thc point madc in Beyond
Good and E.il is that morality will bc closcly allicd to rcligion. Rcligions, hc writcs, do
not invcnt ways ol lilc. Tc lunction ol a rcligion, rathcr, is to validatc a lorm ol lilc that
alrcady cxists but has, as yct, no scnsc ol its spccial worth. Tc loundcr ol a rcligion sclccts
a particular culturc and providcs a narrativc which cxplains why it is thc highcst way ol lilc
(Gods choscn pcoplc, and so on). A rcligion, in othcr words, collccts togcthcr a group
ol pcoplc who havc not yct rccogniscd cach othcr as allics, making it a long lcstival ol
rccognition.
8o
(A Bayreuth lcstival, purgcd ol thc alltoohuman, is, ! suggcst, thc subtcxt
hcrc.)
Vay ol lilc is just anothcr morc rcvcaling word lor what Nictzschc mcans by moral
ity. So what a rcligion docs is to validatc a morality, providc it with authority. !t cstablishcs
a disciplina .oluntatis (disciplinc ol thc will)
8+
by, as wc know, raising sclcctcd gurcs to
cxcmplary status, to thc status ol gods or hcrocs, and (with thc hclp, ! suggcstcd, ol thc
collcctivc artwork) cndowing thcm with charismatic authority. Tis is not so dicult to do
sincc man, by naturc, is a vcncrating animal:
8:
givcn hall a chancc, hc will rcvcrc and bc
movcd to livc in imitation ol an ccctivcly prcscntcd lilcmodcl.
Rcligions, Nictzschc says, do, in gcncral, two othcr things. First, thcy cstablish a kind ol
govcrnancc by thc bcttcr typc ol pcrson:
A church is abovc all a structurc lor ruling that sccurcs thc highcst rank to thc more spiritual
human bcings and that belie.es in thc powcr ol spirituality to thc cxtcnt ol lorbidding itscll
thc usc ol all crudcr instrumcnts ol lorcc, and on that scorc alonc thc church is undcr all
circumstanccs a nobler institution than thc statc.
8
,,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Sccond, thc way ol lilc which it prcscnts as posscssing thc highcst worth it clcvatcs into a
good lor which onc ghts and undcr ccrtain circumstanccs cvcn givcs oncs lilc.
8
Rcligion
illuminatcs a communal way ol lilc in such a way that oncs contribution to thc prcscrvation
and ourishing ol that community bccomcs oncs highcst valuc, the meaning of ones life, a
mcaning lor which, somctimcs, onc is prcparcd to dic. !n thc idcal, mcaninggiving, nation
you do not ask what your nation can do lor you, but what you can do lor your nation.
!t is, ! think, obvious that thcsc rcmarks about morality and rcligion arc not mcrc history
but rathcr signposts to thc luturc socicty which is Nictzschcs guiding idcal. Sincc hc
knows pcrlcctly wcll, lor instancc, that, historically, thc Church has by no mcans always
abjurcd crudcr instrumcnts ol lorcc, it is clcar that hc is dcscribing an idcal church. Vhat,
thcn, wc can takc lrom this discussion is lurthcr cvidcncc that Nictzschc is lar lrom bcing
thc athcist hc is oltcn rcprcscntcd as bcing. For all his rcjcction ol Christian rcligion, his
luturc socicty will bc a rcligious socicty: it will bc lcd, at lcast spiritually, by somcthing
rcscmbling a pricsthood, will havc somc kind ol panthcon ol monumcntal gurcs so that
it validatcs a lormol lilc which givcs mcaning to individual livcs and ovcrcomcs, thcrcby, thc
mcaninglcssncss ol modcrnity. And rcgular lcstivc occasions will gathcr thc community in
cclcbratory rcarmation ol its lundamcntal morality: thc collcctivc artwork will collcct thc
community into a cohcsivc unity, thcrcby cndowing it with that rstratc valuc on carth,
durability.
Mental Health
N
ictzschc writcs that as wcll as his idcal ol communal hcalth, anothcr idcal runs bclorc
us . . . thc idcal ol a human, supcrhuman wcllbcing and bcncvolcncc,
8
an idcal ol
indi.idual hcalth. Nictzschc claboratcs on this conccption ol thc supcrman, a conccption
wc should aspirc to cmulatc, in a brilliant scction cntitlcd !hat is Fomanticism?
86
Pcssimism, Nictzschc assurcs us (attaching a ncw and unusual mcaning to thc tcrm),
is truc: lilc and sucring arc inscparablc. Tcrc arc, howcvcr, two kinds ol pcssimism:
romantic and ionysian. Romantic pcssimism takcs sucring to bc an insupcrablc objcc
tion to lilc. !n art or philosophy, thcrclorc, what thc romantic sccks is quict, stillncss,
calm scas, rcdcmption lrom thcmsclvcs . . . or clsc intoxication, paroxysm, numbncss, mad
ncss. Romanticism, in short, is cscapism. !t dcnics lilc. Naturally, it is thc usual suspccts,
Vagncr, Schopcnhaucr, and thc Christians, who arc idcnticd as romantics.

Nictzschc trcats romanticism as a symptom ol a physiological condition: ol an impov

crishmcnt ol lilc, a condition ol low cncrgy. Tc antithcsis is a supcrabundancc ol lilc

Surprisingly, howcvcr, Nictzschc adds picurus to thc list: thc Christian, hc writcs, is rcally
simply a kind ol picurcan and, likc him, csscntially a romantic (GS o). Tis rcjcction ol thc
hcro ol Da.n is startling, sincc in 8ook ! ol thc vcry samc book, hc still rcmains a grcat lovc: Ycs,
! am proud to cxpcricncc picuruss charactcr in a way unlikc pcrhaps anyonc clsc, and to cnjoy, in
cvcrything ! hcar and rcad ol him, his happincss (GS ). Vhat has happcncd, ol coursc, bctwccn
+88: and +886, is thc will to powcr: il thc human csscncc is thc will to powcr, happincss, Nictzschc
thinks, has to bc conccivcd as incrcasing oncs powcr ovcr thc world rathcr than withdrawing lrom
it into picuruss gardcn. Vhat hc sccms, at lcast tcmporarily, to havc lorgottcn, howcvcr, is his
notion ol thc hcroicidyllic (pp. o8 abovc), a conccption that sccmcd to makc it possiblc to
combine picurcan scrcnity with a lilc ol challcngc and action.
Clearing the Decks

,,
(which as wc know is will to powcr), an ovcrowing ol cncrgy prcgnant with luturc. Tis
is thc undcrlying condition ol thc ionysian pcssimist who not only nds sucring no
objcction to lilc but positivcly wclcomcs it. Tc idcal ol this condition is thc ionysian
god or man who (unlikc thc idcalist attackcd in Beyond Good and E.il)
can allow himscll not only thc sight ol what is tcrriblc and qucstionablc but also thc tcrriblc
dccd and cvcry luxury ol dcstruction, dccomposition, ncgation, in his casc, what is cvil,
absurd, and ugly sccms, as it wcrc, pcrmissiblc owing to an cxccss ol procrcating, lcrtilizing
lorccs capablc ol turning any dcscrt into lush larmland.
8
Hc claboratcs on this idca in thc notcbooks:
thc dccision on what cxcitcs plcasurc and unplcasurc dcpcnds on thc dcgrcc ol powcr: thc
samc thing which, in thc casc ol a small quantum ol powcr, appcars as a dangcr and as
having to bc rcpulscd immcdiatcly, with a grcatcr consciousncss ol a plcnitudc ol powcr,
can rcsult in voluptuous stimulation, a lccling ol plcasurc . . . Plcasurc and unplcasurc arc
ncvcr original lacts . . . |Tcy arc variablc| reactions of the .ill (aects).
88
!n othcr words, that which sccms cvil, absurd, and ugly to somconc who posscsscs only
a small quantum ol powcr will appcar cxciting and dclightlul, an occasion lor cxcrcising
and cxpanding oncs will to powcr, to somconc with a largc quantum. Nictzschcs idcal
ol individual mcntal hcalth is, thcn, somconc so richly cndowcd with thc will to powcr
that e.erything that to most pcoplc appcars tcrriblc and qucstionablc is wclcomcd as an
occasion lor ovcrcoming, an ovcrcoming onc is sublimcly condcnt onc can achicvc.
As hc rccogniscs, Nictzschcs idcal is sct cxtraordinarily high: only a ionysian god or
|supcr|man can lully achicvc it. (! shall rcturn, in Chaptcr :, to thc qucstion ol thc sig
nicancc that ionysian has hcrc.) Noncthclcss, though it may sccm to vcrgc on mcgalo
mania, it is bascd, ! think, on quitc lamiliar cxpcricnccs. Vhcn wc arc down cvcrything
sccms impossiblc, too hard, thc wholc world against us. Vc wish romantically wc wcrc
somcwhcrc clsc. 8ut whcn wc arc up nothing sccms too dicult, thc world is at our lcct.
Vc lccl lull ol cncrgy and condcncc, condcncc in our powcr to ovcrcomc thc tcrriblc
and qucstionablc. And so wc (wc who arc lull ol thc powcr ol positivc thinking, anothcr
subNictzschcan conccpt) .elcome thc strcsslul in thc way in which a mountain climbcr
wclcomcs thc challcngc ol thc mountain. And wc lccl this way not just about what lics
within our own dircct control but also about thc world in gcncral: that in onc way or othcr,
it will all work out lor thc bcst in thc long run. Nictzschcs idcal ol spiritual hcalth imagincs
this statc ol ionysian ccstasy as, not just a momcntary condition, but as a pcrmancnt
statc:
Most pcoplc simply do not bclicvc in clcvatcd moods, unlcss thcsc last lor momcnts only
or at most a quartcr ol an hour . . . 8ut to bc a human bcing with onc clcvatcd lccling to
bc a singlc grcat mood incarnatc that has hithcrto bccn a mcrc drcam. . . as yct history
docs not ocr us any ccrtain cxamplcs. Ncvcrthclcss history might onc day givc birth to
such pcoplc |to thc lccling ol | . . . a continual asccnt as il on stairs and at thc samc timc a
scnsc ol rcsting on clouds.
8
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc mark ol having rcachcd that idcal ol hcalth is, ol coursc, thc ability to will thc ctcrnal
rcturn, to rcdccm thc tcrriblc and qucstionablc by sccing how it ts as an csscntial com
poncnt into a divinc totality. Pcrlcct mcntal hcalth, wc know, is bcing ablc to cry Da capo!
Encore! to thc wholc play and pcrlormancc
o
down to thc vcry last dctail.
A Lovely Tought: Via Sils to Greece!
q+
N
ictzschc calls thc joylul pcssimism that hc opposcs to romanticism classical. Undcr
stood propcrly, hc says (not, that is, as mcaning serenely rational), thc vision ol a
rcstorcd classicism bclongs to his inncrmost scll,
:
thc scll that, cvcr sincc Plorta, has
bccn in lovc with classical antiquity. !n a propcrly qualicd scnsc, thcrclorc, thc watchword
lor thc attainmcnt ol individual hcalth (and ol communal hcalth, too, sincc thc structurc ol
Nictzschcs idcal community is, wc havc sccn, takcn, almost word lor word, lrom Plato)
is back to thc Grccks.
Tis is thc kcy to undcrstanding thc mcaning ol Nictzschcs claimthat hc and his notional
lricnds arc, though homclcss in thc prcscnt, at homc somcwhcrc clsc. Vc arc at homc,
hc says, bccausc wc arc
and lct this bc our word ol honour good Europeans, thc hcirs ol uropc (Europa), thc
rich hcirs ol millcnnia ol uropcan spirit, thc rich, ovcrsupplicd, but also ovcrly obligatcd
hcirs ol thousands ol ycars ol uropcan spirit. As such wc havc outgrown Christianity and
arc avcrsc to it.

!t is vcry important to scc that by thc uropcan Nictzschc mcans thc classical. Unlikc
thinkcrs such as H oldcrlin and Hcidcggcr, hc looks lor no synthcsis bctwccn thc clas
sical and thc Christian. Rathcr, hc excludes oricntal

Christianity lrom thc authcntically

uropcan as docs thc namc uropc.

Tc picturc hc ocrs, thcn, is this. Vc arc hcirs

to millcnnia ol uropcan valucs. 8ut thc mixturc is muddy and conluscd, wc arc ovcr
supplicd with conicting obligations our morality is a battlcground (scc p. 6o bclow)
ol compcting and conicting moralitics, slavc and mastcr, classical and Christian. Tc task
is to rccovcr consistcncy by outgrowing, ovcrcoming, thc Christian. l coursc, wc can
not and do not want to litcrally rccrcatc thc Grcck: wc do not want to rcturn to any past
pcriod.

8ut that just mcans that, likc thc Frcnch ol thc scvcntccnth ccntury, wc nccd to
rcintcrprct, to translatc thc classical so that it makcs scnsc in a modcrn contcxt:
Tc Frcnch ol Corncillcs agc as wcll as thosc ol thc Rcvolution took posscssion ol Roman
antiquity in a way lor which wc would no longcr havc couragc cnough . . . And Roman
antiquity itscll: how lorcibly and at thc samc timc how naivcly it took hold ol cvcrything
good and lolty ol Grcck antiquity. How thcy translatcd things into thc Roman prcscnt! . . .
Tcy did not know thc dclights ol thc historical scnsc |cultural salcty| . . . translation was
a lorm ol conqucst. Not only did onc omit what was historical, onc also addcd allusions to

Tc word Nictzschc uscs, Europa, is, ol coursc, thc standard Gcrman word lor uropc. Stccpcd
as hc is, howcvcr, in Grcck mythology, thc knowlcdgc that uropa originally applicd solcly to
Grcccc would ncvcr havc bccn lar lrom his mind. (Tc namc dcrivcd lrom that ol a Phocnician
princcss, rapcd by Zcus in thc lorm ol a bull, who latcr bccamc quccn ol Crctc.)
Clearing the Decks

,,,
thc prcscnt and, abovc, all, struck out thc namc ol thc poct and rcplaccd it with oncs own
not with any scnsc ol thclt but with thc vcry bcst conscicncc ol thc Imperium Fomanum.
6
Tis, surcly, givcs us thc kcy to Nictzschcs vision ol thc luturc. Vhat inspircs and providcs
thc outlinc ol thc grcat hcalth is thc classical, ultimatcly thc Grcck. Vhat providcs thc
mcdium into which that structurc is to bc translatcd is thc modcrn.
23
The Genealogy of Morals
Parsifal, ostoyevsky, and a Well-Intentioned Iarthquake
T
nv vv~v +88 bcgan with a dccp lrcczc: uropc, Nictzschc wrotc lizabcth, swcl
tcring in Paraguay, has translormcd itscll into a snowmountain and polar bcar.
Tough thcrc was nonc in Nicc itscll, thc hills surrounding his wintcr quartcrs wcrc
powdcrcd with snow.
+
!n spitc ol his ncw, southlacing room in thc Ruc dcs Ponchcttcs
(p. 6 abovc) thc blucngcr problcm pcrsistcd, as did a lowcring ol hcalth and spirits,
thc cumulativc ccct, hc thought, ol two months ol lrost and rain.
:
Towards thc cnd ol
January, howcvcr, his spirits rcccivcd a lilt lrom an uncxpcctcd quartcr: a visit to Montc
Carlo to hcar thc prcludc to Parsifal. Lcaving asidc thc qucstion ol thc usc ol such music
and rcgarding it purcly acsthctically, hc wrotc K osclitz,
has Vagncr cvcr donc anything bcttcr: Tc highcst psychological awarcncss and dcnitc
ncss with rcgard to what should bc said, cxprcsscd, communicated, thc shortcst and most
dircct lorm thcrcol, cvcry nuancc ol lccling rcduccd to thc cpigrammatic: a clarity ol music
as a dcscriptivc art . . . and a sublimc and cxtraordinary lccling, cxpcricncc, cvcntlulncss, ol
thc soul at thc vcry hcart ol thc music which honours Vagncr to thc highcst dcgrcc.

And in thc notcbooks hc calls it thc grcatcst mastcrpiccc ol thc sublimc that ! know.
Nothing clsc grasps Christianity so dccply or brings onc to havc such intcnsc sympathy
with it, hc writcs, adding that no paintcr had paintcd such a dark, mclancholy vision as
do its nal bars, not antc, not Lconardo.

A couplc ol months latcr hc writcs K osclitz

that what is wrong with modcrn music is that it has bccomc thcatrical, subordinatcd to
thc convcntions ol drama. Tcrc should bc, hc adds a rcturn ol music lrom its thcatrical
unnaturc to thc naturc ol music.

Two conncctcd points cmcrgc lrom thcsc rccctions on

Vagncr: rst, a rcpctition ol thc Schopcnhaucrian vicw that music is a lar dccpcr spiritual
phcnomcnon that words or drama, and, sccond, Nictzschcs continuing valuing ol ccstatic
sclltransccndcncc his word lor sublimc is erhoben, which mcans, litcrally, raiscd up
abovc.
,c

Te Genealogy of Morals

,:

Tc sccond cvcnt that hclpcd lilt thc opprcssion ol wintcr was thc discovcry, at thc bcgin
ning ol Fcbruary, ol ostoycvsky. Chancing, in a Nicc bookshop, upon a Frcnch translation
ol Notes from the Underground by an author hc had ncvcr hcard ol, hc quickly progrcsscd to
Humiliated and Oppressed, onc ol thc most human books cvcr writtcn,
6
and to House of the
Dead. Vith joy hc rccogniscd in thc grcat psychologist a vicw ol thc human condition to
which hc lclt instinctivcly rclatcd.

Tat Nictzschc should havc lclt ostoycvsky and himscll to bc on thc samc wavclcngth
comcs as no surprisc to a rcadcr ol Zarathustra. Tc similarity bctwccn Nictzschcs Palc
Criminal and ostoycvskys Raskolnikov, thc lormcr as puzzlcd about thc motivcs lor
thc murdcr hc has committcd as thc lattcr, has lcd many pcoplc to bclicvc that Nictzschc
must havc known Crime and Punishment by +88. !n lact, though, thcrc is no rcason to
doubt his asscrtion that hc had ncvcr hcard ol him bclorc +88.
8
!n conncxion with thc
Nictzschcostoycvsky anity it is worth noticing that both mcn (ostoycvsky altcr his
mock cxccution and cxilc to Sibcria) wcrc strong opponcnts ol socialism, anarchism,
and nihilism, and that both bclicvcd in thc rctcntion and rcstoration ol thc rm, aris
tocratic, rcligiously sanctioncd social hicrarchy ol thc past. Tc dicrcncc, howcvcr, was
that ostoycvsky bclicvcd in a Christian aristocratic socicty. Tis is why Nictzschc writcs
8randcs that whilc hc cstccms ostoycvsky as thc most valuablc psychological matcrial
that ! know, hc is, noncthclcss, in a strangc way thanklul to him that hc is quitc contrary
to my basic instinct.

Had thc anity bctwccn thc two bccn complctc thcrc would havc
bccn nothing lclt lor Nictzschc to say.

Tc third, strangcly chccring cvcnt was a major carthquakc which claimcd two thousand
livcs on thc Frcnch Rivicra as a wholc. !n Nicc, it cmpticd thc hotcls and pcnsions ol thcir
panicstrickcn gucsts in thc carly hours ol Fcbruary :. Having slcpt soundly through thc
quakc itscll, Nictzschc, as a man ol Prussian bcaring and training, strollcd
+o
through thc
town, attcnding to pcoplc ! kncw who wcrc sitting in thc opcn, on bcnchcs or in coachcs,
hoping to cscapc thc dangcr. ! myscll , hc adds, plcascd to havc acquittcd himscll wcll in
thc lacc ol mortal dangcr lor a sccond timc, cxpcricnccd not a momcnt ol lcar cvcn a
grcat dcal ol irony.
++
(Tc irony, prcsumably, was that his own stick ol dynamitc, Beyond
Good and E.il, had conspicuously failed to causc an carthquakc in thc world ol lcttcrs.)
Not only did Nictzschc lccl no lcar, hc lclt positivc glcc:
Vc arc living in thc most intcrcsting cxpcctation ol perishing thanks to a wcllintcntioncd
carthquakc which madc morc than dogs howl, lar and widc. Vhat a plcasurc it is whcn thc old
housc abovc onc rattlcs likc a coccgrindcr! Vhcn thc inkwcll dcclarcs its indcpcndcncc!
Vhcn thc strccts ll up with tcrricd, hallclothcd gurcs with shattcrcd ncrvous systcms.
Nicc, hc continucs his lcttcr to von Scydlitz, lookcd as though it had bccn translormcd into
a military bivouac: ! lound all my mcn and lady lricnds pitilully strctchcd out undcr grccn
trccs wcll towcllcd and blankctcd, lor thc cold was picrcing and thinking with cvcry
tiny trcmor that thc cnd ol thc world had arrivcd.
+:
Nictzschcs glcc is probably cxplaincd by an cntry in thc notcbooks writtcn a lcw months
latcr. Vhcrcas in primitivc timcs cvil consistcd in chancc, thc unccrtain, thc suddcn,
in thc modcrn world, madc salc and prcdictablc by scicncc and tcchnology, thc suddcn
and uncxpcctcd prcscnts itscll as somcthing positi.e: a titillation that brcaks through thc
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
tcdium ol prcdictability.
+
(Stockmarkct crashcs can crcatc this kind ol horricd glcc
cvcn in thosc who arc losing moncy hand ovcr st.)
Tc carthquakc cmpticd Nicc. 8y thc third wcck in March thc sixtycight gucsts round
thc table dh ote at thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc (whcrc Nictzschc continucd to lunch in spitc ol his
shilt to thc ruc dcs Ponchcttcs) wcrc rcduccd to six, including himscll. And thc lourth, thc
top, oor ol thc pcnsion, whcrc hc had writtcn thc third and lourth parts ol Zarathustra,
was so badly damagcd that it had to bc rcmovcd.
Youths and Anti-Semites
T
hough hc cnjoycd thc carthquakc, othcr intcrruptions ol Nictzschcs work routinc wcrc
lcss wclcomc. nc was a visit lrom a hallGcrman, hallAmcrican, rcccntly graduatcd
r. Adams who had studicd classics with Rohdc but nowwantcd Nictzschc, his Mastcr, to
tcach him how to bccomc a philosophcr.
+
Nictzschc ncithcr likcd Adams nor disccrncd
in him any gilt lor philosophy. 8ut with his innatc politcncss and his rcspcct lor thc Rohdc
conncxion hc cntcrtaincd him paticntly. Hc was grcatly rclicvcd whcn Adams lclt, com
plaining to vcrbcck that young pcoplc arc a burdcn, particularly whcn thcy comc to
mc as lans ol my writings, sincc it ought to bc obvious that thcy arc quitc unsuitablc lor
young pcoplc.
+
His attitudc to young pcoplc was in no way improvcd by thc lact that
thc impccunious Adams borrowcd thc moncy lor his hotcl bill and ncvcr rcpaid it.
+6
qually unwclcomc wcrc lcttcrs lrom onc Tcodor Fritsch (not to bc conluscd with thc
publishcr Fritzsch) who thought hc had discovcrcd his own chauvinistic antiScmitism
rccctcd in Zarathustra. Nictzschc wrotc him that hc had no sympathy at all lor thc so
callcd Gcrman spirit and, as lor thc Jcws vcrsus thc Gcrmans, hc lound thc lormcr lar morc
worthy ol attcntion than thc lattcr. vcntually, lorccd out ol his habitual shcll ol politcncss,
hc rcturncd all Fritschs corrcspondcncc, togcthcr with thc poisonous antiScmitic litcraturc
hc had bccn rccciving, nishing his lcttcr with thc qucstion, How do you think ! lccl whcn
antiScmitcs mouth thc namc Zarathustra:
+
Tc qucstion is answcrcd in thc privacy ol
thc notcbooks: A vcry pcculiar Hcrr Fritsch has bccn corrcsponding with mc. Sincc hc
was vcry pcrsistcnt, thcrc was nothing lor it but to givc him a couplc ol lricndly kicks in
thc guts. Tcsc Gcrmans ol today makc mc cvcr morc sick.
+8
!n rcturn, having lailcd
to gct Nictzschc to scc thc crror ol his philoScmitic ways, Fritsch attackcd him in thc
ntisemitic Correspondence as a man ol Jcwicd book lcarning dcvoid ol any undcrstanding
ol thc Gcrman csscncc.
Tc Fritsch cpisodc causcd Nictzschc to rccct wryly on his strangc undcrground inu
cncc on all thc wrong pcoplc: !n all thc radical partics (socialists, nihilists, antiScmitcs,
orthodox Christians, Vagncrians) ! cnjoy a strangc, almost mystcrious rcspcct
+
(a situ
ation, onc might rccct, that pcrsists to this day).
Intermezzo
N
ictzschc hatcd spring and autumn, thc intcrmczzo scasons hc callcd thcm, sincc thcy
challcngcd his programmc ol living within +: dcgrccs at all timcs. At thc bcginning
ol April, it bcing too warm in Nicc but too cold yct lor Sils, hc dccidcd on Cannobio lor
thc spring intcrmczzo bctwccn his two homcs. An ancicnt and bcautilul town :oo mctrcs
abovc sca lcvcl on thc wcstcrn shorc ol Lakc Maggiorc, it had bccn rccommcndcd to him
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
as a hcavcnly spot whcrc hc would bc wcll carcd lor in thc \illa 8adia, a pcnsion run by a
rcliablc Swiss couplc. His rst rcaction was rhapsodic: this spot, hc wrotc K osclitz, is morc
bcautilul than anywhcrc on thc Rivicra how did ! comc so latc to this insight: Tc sca has,
likc all grcat things, somcthing stupid and indcccnt about it. Tat is abscnt hcrc.
:o
(Unlikc
thc sca, thcrclorc, lakcs arc intclligcnt and modcst! !n thc Genealogy of Morals hc calls thcm
cycs.) Soon, though, whilc his inncr cyc continucd to say Ycs to thc bcauty ol thc placc
and thc incomparablc purity ol thc sky, his outcr cycs said No to thc bright sunlight and
lack ol shadc.
:+
At thc cnd ol thc month, thcrclorc, hc rcluctantly dccidcd hc must wait
out thc rcst ol thc intcrmczzo in his old haunt, thc Pcnsion Ncptun in Zurich.
Mostly, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc had had good timcs in Zurich, timcs ol, lor him,
unusual sociability. n this occasion, howcvcr, though vcrbcck camc ovcr lrom 8ascl lor
a couplc ol days, hc lound it hard to catch up with pcoplc. Mcta von Salis was undcr prcssurc
to nish hcr doctoral thcsis whilc at thc samc timc nccding to hclp hcr sistcr rclurbish hcr
housc, rcccntly guttcd by rc. Hc did managc to mcct up with Rcsa von Shirnholcr, but
only altcr shc rcturncd lrom Paris at thc cnd ol his stay. Likc him, shc had discovcrcd
ostoycvsky, which lcd to an intcnsc discussion about House of the Dead. Hc also told hcr
how much hc admircd hcr lcllow Austrian, thc licdcr writcr Hugo Voll (dcstincd to lollow
Nictzschc into insanity in +8). Loyal as cvcr, hc attcmptcd to pcrsuadc scvcral pcoplc,
including his conductor lricnd Fricdrich Hcgar, ol thc mcrits ol K osclitzs opcra, Te Lion of
!enice, but, as Rcsa rcmarks, tcndcd to put pcoplc o by lctting thc points against Vagncr
bc too clcarly lclt.
::
Lacking thc usual stimulus ol socicty and lccling sick in thc warm, humid atmosphcrc,
Nictzschc bccamc oncc again dcprcsscd thc worst ol all pcnaltics that cxists on carth,
hc wrotc Malwida.
:
Unablc to arrangc lodgings in his bclovcd \cnicc, hc dccidcd altcr a
wcck to movc on to Chur, roughly hallway bctwccn Zurich and Sils in both travcltimc
and clcvation. Hcrc hc lodgcd chcaply in a schooltcachcrs housc, waiting lor thc momcnt
whcn hc could rcturn to Sils without lrcczing to dcath.
epressed in Chur
C
hur, howcvcr, provcd a bad movc. Tough hc cscapcd Zurichs humidity, what rcplaccd
it was days ol cold, wintcry rain, ruling out walks in thc surrounding pinc lorcsts. His
physical and mcntal hcalth dccrcascd lurthcr, intcnsicd by thc thought ol how much niccr
it would bc to bc with K osclitz in sunny \cnicc: no music, no Palazzo San Marco, no gon
dolas, only ugly mountain pcasants,
:
hc moancd. Latcr hc did hcar somc music, Schu
manns oratorio, Paradise and the Peri, which, howcvcr, as a scllpitying sca ol lcmonadc,
only madc him lccl worsc.
:
Hc thought ol again trying out Platos asscrtion (according to
Nictzschc) that massagc can curc cvcn a bad conscicncc, though hc had not lound it hclplul
to datc.
:6
!n Chur, hc rcccivcd thc ncws ol Lou Salom cs cngagcmcnt to (thc luturc distinguishcd
oricntalist) Fricdrich Carl Andrcas. (As mcntioncd carlicr, Lou only agrccd to marry him
on thc condition that thc marriagc would bc scxlcss.) Fr aulcin Salom c has announccd to
mc hcr cngagcmcnt, hc wrotc Malwida on May +:, but ! havc not rcplicd . . . nc must
avoid this kind ol pcrson, somconc who is without rcspcct. No onc knows who this r.
Andrcas is.
:
Six months latcr, howcvcr, hc wrotc his sistcr that hc lclt unablc to visit thc
vcrbccks in 8ascl sincc hc could not lorgivc !da thc dirty and unworthy rcmarks shc madc
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
conccrning a woman ol whom ! myscll havc said that shc is thc only naturc rclatcd to mc
that ! havc mct in my cntirc lilc.
:8
Clcarly hc was still lar lrom lorgiving and lorgctting
thc Salom c aair, and lrom sorting out what his truc lcclings about Lou wcrc somcthing,
! think, hc ncvcr in lact achicvcd.
And ncithcr was hc ablc to ovcrcomc his choking animosity towards his sistcr and hcr
husband. Vhcrcas thcir attcmpts to cxtract moncy lromhimhad, in thc past, bccn couchcd
in thc idca that hc should purchasc land in thc Nue.a Germania colony, in Chur Nictz
schc rcccivcd an outright demand that hc should guarantcc lor thcm a bank loan ol ,oo
marks. Tis hc atly rcluscd to do.
:
Vhilc thc lcttcr hc actually scnt lizabcth (hc could
no longcr bcar to writc to hcr and his brothcrinlaw jointly, and in lact ncvcr addrcsscd
anothcr lcttcr to thc lattcr) cxcuscd thc rclusal on thc grounds ol his own prccarious nancial
situation,
o
an unscnt skctch ol thc lcttcr rcvcals his truc lcclings: hc will not support any
antiScmitic undcrtaking, hc docs not trust hcr any morc, hc hopcs all thc antiScmitcs will
lcavc Gcrmany and join thcm, and hc hopcs that thc Jcws comc to powcr in uropc.
+
Tc
skctch ol anothcr lcttcr at thc cnd ol thc ycar rcvcals cvcn morc clcarly his truc lcclings
towards lizabcth:
How ! havc sucrcd lrom your mixing our good namc in with this |antiScmitic| movc
mcnt through your marriagc! !n thc last 6 ycars |i.c., going back to thc timc ol thc Salom c
aair| you havc lost all capacity lor undcrstanding and rcspcct. God, how hard it has bccn
lor mc! ! havc ncvcr dcmandcd, which would havc bccn casy, that you undcrstood my stancc
to thc timcs. Noncthclcss, givcn cvcn a littlc ol thc instinct ol lovc, you would havc rclraincd
lromshacking up with my antipodc. ! nowthink about sistcrs what Schopcnhaucr thought,
morc or lcss thcy arc supcruous, thcy crcatc nothing but mischicl.
:
Iifth Summer in Sils Maria
M
iscrablc in Chur, Nictzschc madc his way to Sils as carly as hc possibly could, arriving
on Junc +:, thc rst gucst ol thc summcr scason. Tc rcmains ol an avalanchc bchind
thc urisch housc rcmindcd him how carly hc was. Tough happy to bc back on homc soil,
his hcalth was, il anything, cvcn worsc than it had bccn in Zurich and Chur. A wcck altcr
arriving hc sucrcd a twclvchour attack ol hcadachcs and vomiting couplcd with insomnia
and a lcvcr which madc him swcat in spitc ol thc cold.

Hc dccidcd that hc was sucring

a dccp, physiological obstruction ol unknown causc and location on account ol which thc
avcragc statc ol lccling . . . is pcrmancntly bclow zcro. Vithout cxaggcration, hc wrotc
vcrbcck, ! havc now had a wholc ycar without a singlc day ol lccling lrcsh and light
hcartcd in body and spirit . . . |and sucring lrom| a pcrmancnt dcprcssion.

8y thc cnd ol Junc, howcvcr, hc was at lcast wcll cnough to think ol provisions, scnding
SS mcssagcs to his mothcr and to thc vcrbccks lor, inter alia, honcy, sausagcs, +: dozcn
Rocdcr stccl pcns, no. + broad, and tca:
thc only tca ! trust . . . is Hornimans nglish tca . . . thcrc arc kilo tins which cost +: lrancs
. . . Tis tca is not particularly nc, but it has rcmaincd absolutcly thc samc (lor lorty ycars

)
so that it is not, as with othcr tcas onc buys, a mattcr ol cxpcrimcnt.

Actually lor 6+ ycars. Hornimans was a lamous \ictorian brand and was probably thc rst tca to
bc sold in tins. !n ++8 thc company was bought by J. Lyons, but thc namc livcd on in 8ritain into
thc +6os and in thc Unitcd Statcs until thc +os.
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
!n latc Junc Nictzschc rcccivcd thc ncws ol thc dcath ol Hcinrich von Stcin, almost his
last bridgc to thc Vagncr circlc. Hc dicd on Junc :o, at thc agc ol thirty. Nictzschc was
dcvastatcd lor wccks:
!nwardly, ! am quitc bcsidc myscll |hc wrotc K osclitz|. Hcinrich von Stcin is dcad . . . quitc
suddcnly, hcart attack. ! truly lovcd him. Hc sccmcd to mc to bc rcscrvcd lor mc at a latcr
datc. Hc bclongcd to thc vcry lcw pcoplc whosc cxistcncc gavc mc joy, and hc had grcat
laith in mc. Hc said that in my prcscncc thoughts camc to him lor which hc othcrwisc
would lack thc couragc: ! lrccd him. And how much wc laughcd togcthcr up hcrc . . . Hc
was by lar thc most bcautilul spccics ol human bcing among thc Vagncrians.
6
And to vcrbcck hc addcd: ! had no doubt that hc was savcd lor mc at a latcr datc: lor mcn
likc him, rich and dccp, who ncccssarily havc a slow dcvclopmcnt, must bc givcn plcnty ol
timc. And that was not allowcd to him!

\on Stcin, as wc havc sccn, had bccn thc locus ol

Nictzschcs hopcs ol scducing thc bcttcr sort ol Vagncrian to his own causc. Givcn timc, hc
now lclt (lorgctting, as onc docs in thc lacc ol dcath, how badly von Stcin had disappointcd
him (pp. abovc)), von Stcin would havc travcrscd his own path lrom Vagncrianism
to lrccspiritcdncss.
July opcncd with thc cxciting discovcry that thc mystcrious Muthgcn mcntioncd in
Gocthcs diarics as an aair ol thc young pocts hcart was nonc othcr than his patcrnal
grandmothcr rdmuthc. Alas, cnquirics showcd that rdmuthc was ccrtainly too young
to havc bccn Muthgcn, a conclusion Nictzschc was cxtrcmcly rcluctant to acccpt.
8
Sincc
Gocthc was his grcatcst hcro, his paradigm ol mcntal hcalth, a pcrsonal conncction pcr
haps hc cvcn cntcrtaincd thc possibility ol Gocthcs blood owing in his own vcins would
havc bccn a grcat joy.
!n midJuly, thc mily Fynns and Countcss Mansuro arrivcd oncc morc in thc nga
dinc, but this timc thcy staycd, not in Sils, but in thc Grand Hotcl in Maloja, about an
hour and a halls walk away on thc oppositc, southcastcrn cnd ol Lakc Sils. Nictzschcs
rcport ol ninc hundrcd vchiclcs in thc lorccourt ol thc hotcl, making Maloja vcry Nicc
likc,

sounds cxaggcratcd, but contcmporary photographs ol thc hotcl dining room, with
scating lor thrcc or lour hundrcd pcoplc at a timc around hugc, communal tablcs, shows
that, by thc +88os, mass tourism had arrivcd in thc ngadinc.
High summcr saw thc wholc ol uropc grippcd by an intcnsc hcat wavc, lcading
Nictzschc to writc K osclitz that, in \cnicc, hc must bc morc omclcttc than man.
o
Tough
Nictzschc was gratclul to bc six thousand lcct abovc thc worst ol it, cvcn in Sils thc humid
ity was high, accompanicd by lrcqucnt thundcrstorms. Tcsc did nothing to improvc his
hcalth or spirits, though thcrc wcrc somc good days which allowcd him to dash o his littlc
polcmic, thc Genealogy of Morals, in thrcc wccks.
At thc bcginning ol August hc dccidcd on yct anothcr ncw dictary cxpcrimcnt.

Tough
not invadcd by tourists to thc cxtcnt ol Maloja, thc dining room at Silss Alpcnrosc still had
ovcr a hundrcd pcoplc dining at thc tablc dh ote, among thcm many childrcn. Nictzschc
dccidcd, on account ol both thc noisc and thc dangcrous naturc ol thc lood, that hc was

As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc always insistcd on thc cxpcrimcntal naturc ol his own thought and ol
rational thinking in gcncral. His constant cxpcrimcnts with climatc and dict in thc cort to improvc
his hcalth rccct that vicw ol rationality, and pcrhaps hclpcd gcncratc it. A lailurc ol rationality,
howcvcr, was his lailurc to considcr thc likclihood that his digcstion would havc bccn happicr had
his dict bccn morc scttlcd.
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
too tcndcr an animal to takc his loddcr with thc masscs. Hc dccidcd to cat lunch hall an
hour bclorc thc rush and, abandoning thc sct mcnu, concoctcd a comprchcnsivc rcgimcn:
cvcry day lor lunch, bcclstcak with spinach, lollowcd by a largc omclcttc with applc jam, in
thc cvcnings, a lcw sliccs ol ham with two cgg yolks and two brcad rolls. For thc mornings,
hc dccidcd to rcplacc his vc a.m. cup ol tca with unswcctcncd cocoa (van Houtcns utch
cocoa was his prclcrrcd brand, though latcr on hc dccidcd to cxpcrimcnt with thc Swiss
Spr ugli). Tcn, altcr an hours lurthcr slccp, hc rosc, drcsscd, had a cup ol tca, and bcgan
work.
+
Unsurprisingly, this appalling, lruitlcss and almost vcgctablclcss dict madc no
visiblc improvcmcnt to his hcalth. And thcn hc madc it cvcn worsc by giving up thc spin
ach at lunchtimc and rcplacing thc stcak with ham, lollowing thc by now (unsurprisingly)
dcccascd r. Vicls (pp. :o8+: abovc) ham curc lor discascs ol thc stomach.
:
Troughout August, Nictzschc cnjoycd thc rcgular company ol (nowr.) Mcta von Salis,
who arrivcd with hcr lricnd Hcdwig Kym, with whomshc nowsharcd a housc. Mcta rccalls
that Nictzschc madc thc twominutc walk lrom his lodgings to hcrs almost cvcry morning
and somctimcs in thc altcrnoons too. His nonappcarancc mcant that hc was ill that day. !l
it was not too hot thcy wcnt lor a walk, othcrwisc rcmaining in intimatc convcrsation in
hcr room. Mostly, Nictzschc was vcry chccrlul and givcn to harmlcss jokcs as was his wont
with thosc womcn (lizabcth in carlicr timcs) to whom hc stood in a brothcrly rclation.
Tc womcn taught him to row and hc cnjoycd thc slight shivcr ol dangcr whcn thcrc was a
wind. To Hcdwigs cxprcssion ol guilt altcr a trip during which shc had donc nonc ol thc
rowing, hc rcplicd that hc would rcmcmbcr hcr always as wclcomc ballast.
Mctas visit camc to an cnd in carly Scptcmbcr:
! will ncvcr lorgct our parting . . . wc wcrc walking along thc shorc ol Lakc Silvcrplana, at
thc loot ol |Mount| Corvatsch. Tc air had that silvcry, autumnal tonc which Nictzschc
likcd to call othcrworldly. Tc lakc was slightly agitatcd and thc littlc ripplcs in which thc
rosy cvcning clouds wcrc rccctcd, ran murmuring onto thc sandy shorc and back again.
As il thcy too wantcd to shakc your hand in larcwcll said our companion in his mclodious
voicc. Tcn, as wc wcrc walking homc across a blcak strctch ol cld bctwccn thc lakc and
thc sidc ol Sils lacing it, hc rcmarkcd with a small sigh: Now ! am widowcd and orphancd
again.

A nal mccting in carly Scptcmbcr was with his old school lricnd Paul cusscn. Nict
zschc had rcccivcd a complimcntary copy ol cusscns ncw book, a cxtcnsivc translation
ol and commcntary on thc Sutras of the !edanta.

Far lrom patronising cusscn as hc had

usually donc in thc past, Nictzschc was imprcsscd by his gaining, in 8crlin, a chair ol philo
sophy, thc rst Schopcnhaucrian to do so. And hc was trcmcndously imprcsscd by cusscns
indccd major book. Subtlc and rcncd, hc wrotc, it madc cusscn thc lorcmost oricnt
alist in uropc. And it madc onc awarc, hc addcd, that thc clcvcr positions ol thc most mod
crn uropcan philosophy, (Kantianism, atomism, nihilism, and so on), had all happcncd
in !ndian philosophy scvcral millcnnia carlicr.

cusscn visitcd lrom Scptcmbcr :

to , togcthcr with his wilc, Maric, Jcwish and hall his agc, cn routc to Grcccc. cusscn
rccalls that
it was with a bcating hcart that ! mct my lricnd lor thc rst timc altcr lourtccn ycars ol
scparation and, grcatly movcd, cmbraccd him. 8ut how changcd hc had bccomc during
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
this pcriod. No longcr thc proud bcaring, thc clastic stcp, thc ucnt talk ol thc past. nly
slowly, and lcaning somcwhat to onc sidc, hc sccmcd to drag himscll along. And his spccch
was oltcn labourcd and hcsitant . . . Tc ncxt morning hc lcd mc into his apartmcnt or, as
hc callcd it, his cavc. !t was a simplc room in a pcasant housc, thrcc minutcs lrom thc
main road . . . To thc onc sidc stood his books, mostly wcllknown to mc lrom carlicr timcs.
Ncxt to thcm was a rustic tablc with cocc cups, cggshclls, manuscripts, toilct articlcs,
all in colourlul conlusion, thcn a bootjack with a boot on it, and nally thc unmadc bcd.
vcrything pointcd to slack scrvicc and an indulgcnt gcntlcman . . . As wc partcd thcrc wcrc
tcars in his cycs, which ! had ncvcr sccn bclorc. ! would ncvcr again scc him in his right
mind.
6

Vith autumn in thc air it was oncc again timc to lcavc Sils. A lcw days bclorc lcaving,
Nictzschc wrotc to Vidmann (author ol thc dynamitc rcvicw ol Beyond Good and E.il )
asking him to show his Hymn to Life to his lricnd Johanncs 8rahms.

Pcrhaps hc thought
that his brcak with thc Vagncrians would makc 8rahms, Vagncrs musical antipodc, his
natural ally. Alas, 8rahms mcrcly scnt a lormal notc ol rcccipt ol thc work. To Vidmann
hc wrotc that hc had Nictzschcs Beyond Good and E.il to hand (prcsumably on Vidmanns
rccommcndation) but also an !talian novclla so that hc could choosc whcthcr to walk undcr
grcy or bluc skics.
8
vidcntly 8rahms had at lcast dippcd into that squidlikc work.

Nictzschc lclt Sils on Scptcmbcr :+, having oncc morc sought out an intcrmczzo bctwccn
his two homcs. Tis timc hc had luck with \cnicc, nding lodgings at Callc ci Prcti +:6,
closc to both his bclovcd St. Marks Squarc and his lricnd K osclitz. !mportantly, hcrc as
in Nicc, thcrc was a mosquito nct abovc thc bcd. !t would bc his last visit to \cnicc, and
thc last timc K osclitz would scc him bclorc his collapsc. Alas, thc sun provcd too bright,
so that, although hc cnjoycd thc cool brcczc and clcar sky, thc intcndcd twomonth stay
was rcduccd to onc. Altcr a tortuous journcy involving a twohour dclay in a train tunncl
bctwccn Gcnoa and Milan, hc arrivcd in Nicc on ctobcr :, with a burst suitcasc and a
bursting hcad.
Iifth and Iinal Winter in Nice
!
n spitc ol thc strcss ol thc journcy hc was dclightcd to bc back. Noticcably warmcr than
\cnicc, thcrc was, hc wrotc K osclitz, somcthing intoxicating about Niccs chccrlul,
worldly clcgancc, bigcity lccl, and cxotic, Alrican vcgctation.

Tis timc thcrc was no

qucstion ol staying anywhcrc othcr than thc tricd and truc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc, no qucstion
ol dcparting lromthc tricd and truc in any rcspcct: ! havc arrivcd at a point, hc wrotc Fran
ziska, whcrc ! can do nothing . . . othcr than stick to thc lcw provcd things (Nicc among
thcm) and allow my work which is thc mcaning ol my lilc to bc disturbcd as littlc as
possiblc by cxtcrnal things.
o
Avoiding distractions ol all sorts is a mattcr, hc wrotc Carl
Fuchs, ol nding oncs ccntrc:
Vhcn ! was a philologist, ! was ccccntric |cxccntric|, outsidc my ccntrc (which . . . is not
to say that ! was a bad philologist). Today it sccms to mc an ccccntricity that ! was a
Vagncrian . . . Gradually onc disciplincs oncscll back towards oncs inncrmost unity, that
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
passion lor which, lor a long timc, onc has no namc, rcscucs onc lrom all digrcssions and
dispcrsions, that task ol which, onc is, without any lrccdom ol choicc, thc missionary.
+
Prcdictably, thc rcturn to a chcap room in thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc mcant oncc again a
cold, trccshadcd northlacing room which, in a cold January, hc lound no jokc.
:
Facing
thc usual blucngcr problcm, hc thought ol rcnting a stovc. 8ut sincc it would havc
cost o lrancs (without lucl) lor thc scason hc had Franziska scnd onc lrom Naumburg.
vcrjoycd whcn it arrivcd and bathing in thc luxury ol a room hcatcd lor thc rst timc, hc
conlcsscd to K osclitz that hc had pcrlormcd a pagan dancc around thc rc god.

At thc bcginning ol cccmbcr, Nictzschc rcccivcd a lcttcr lrom thc anish scholar and
critic Gcorg 8randcs. 8randcs (born Morris Cohcn) had madc a namc lor himscll as thc
author ol a manyvolumcd study ol thc ninctccnth ccnturys principal litcrary trcnds. Hc
wrotc Nictzschc that hc kncw Human, ll-Too-Human, Beyond Good and E.il, and thc
Genealogy of Morals and now wantcd to rcad all ol his works. 8randcs wrotc that hc was
amazcd to nd that Nictzschc was a prolcssor and congratulatcd him on sounding so littlc
likc onc. Hc cndorscd thc attack on Christianity and on dcmocratic mcdiocrity as wcll as
Nictzschcs aristocratic radicalism. No sycophant, howcvcr, hc said hc was unccrtain about
thc attack on compassion and did not agrcc with thc attack on womcn. And thcrc was, hc
addcd, a grcat dcal hc didnt undcrstand.

Nictzschc rcplicd by calling 8randcs a good uropcan. As lor dicultics in comprc

hcnsion, hc attributcd thcm to thc lact that as an old musician ! havc a good car lor quartcr
toncs, making thc tcxturc ol his works dcnscr, and to his distrust ol dialcctics, cvcn ol
thc giving ol rcasons.

clightcd to havc caught thc cyc ol this widcly inucntial gurc,

Nictzschc had Fritzsch scnd him all thc works hc did not alrcady posscss. To K osclitz hc
wrotc that 8randcs was thc intcllcctually richcst anc thcrc is at thc momcnt i.c. is a Jcw
and that thc dcscription aristocratic radicalism was wcll said and cxpcricnccd.
6
Asidc
lrom discussions ol philosophy, 8randcs, who had spcnt timc with thcm in 8crlin, rcport
cd that R cc and Lou Salom c wcrc living togcthcr likc brothcr and sistcr.

Christmas, +88, was, in Nicc, Nictzschc wrotc, somcthing lantastic and absurd:
ccp snow: somcthing ncw lor mc cvcn lor many ol thc Nicois. Palms wcighcd down with
snow, thc ycllow orangcs pccring out ol thc snow, abovc, an unbclicvablc sky, radiant with
joy. Undcr thcsc circumstancc ! cnvy myscll my littlc stovc (which ! light cvcry morning at
prcciscly six oclock).
8
Shortly bclorc Christmas, Nictzschc had attcndcd his lourth pcrlormancc ol Carmen in
thc Nicc pcras ncwly opcncd !talian thcatrc. ncc again it was a truc cvcnt ! lcarnt
and undcrstood morc in thcsc lour hours than in thc prcvious lour wccks,

hc wrotc,
sounding his oltcnrcpcatcd thcmc that music, or at lcast musical mood, cmotion, givcs
birth to thought. Rcccting on thc samc cxpcricncc a month latcr, hc wrotc K osclitz,
Music now givcs mc scnsations as ncvcr bclorc. !t lrccs mc lrom myscll, it sobcrs mc
up lrom myscll, as though ! survcy thc sccnc lrom a grcat distancc, ovcrwhclmcd. !t
Te Genealogy of Morals

,,
strcngthcns mc . . . and cvcry timc, altcr an cvcning ol music, ! am lull ol rcsolutc insights
and thoughts thc lollowing morning. !t is vcry strangc. !t is as though ! had bathcd in
somc natural clcmcnt. Lilc |and cvidcntly thought| without music is simply a mistakc,
cxhausting, an cxilc.
6o
Noticc, oncc again, Nictzschcs continuing attachmcnt to thc cxpcricncc ol sclltran
sccndcncc through music.
Iiterary Projects
A
s wc saw in thc prcvious chaptcr, with his sct ol ncw prclaccs to old books and with
thc cxpandcd ncw cdition ol thc Gay Science, Nictzschc lclt, in Junc +88, that hc
had pcrlormcd thc last ritcs ovcr, badc a lond larcwcll to, thc totality ol my writings to
datc.
6+
Hc had, hc wrotc, brought a scgmcnt ol my lilc to an cnd so that what lay bclorc
him, now, was thc vast task ol producing Te !ill to Po.er
6:
that philosophy ol thc luturc
to which all his work to datc, as thc subtitlc ol Beyond Good and E.il had announccd, was
mcrcly a prcludc. As notcd, this projcct makcs its rst appcarancc in his lcttcrs in August,
+886. Sincc that was thc month in which Beyond Good and E.il appcarcd, it sccms clcar
that thc original plan was that lulltimc work on thc magnum opus should immcdiatcly
succccd thc appcarancc ol its prcludc.
Tings did not, howcvcr, go to plan. For in spitc ol thc sixtysix complimcntary copics and
thc appcarancc ol a lcw rcvicws, Beyond Good and E.il s ccct on thc bookrcading public
at largc was, as usual, noncxistcnt. !n Junc, +88, Nictzschc complaincd to vcrbcck that
ol thc complimcntary copics, only a lth had produccd any rcsponsc at all, and that to datc
only ++ copics had bccn sold. Tc procccds, hc addcd, did not cvcn bcgin to covcr thc
+oo talcrs hc had paid lor thc privatc printing ol Zarathustra Part !\, thc oo lor Beyond
Good and E.il itscll, and thc +o lor corrccting and cxpanding oldcr works.
6
Accordingly,
Nictzschc dccidcd to intcrrupt his plans lor thc !ill to Po.er by writing a short work, thc
Genealogy of Morals, which would bc an cxpansion and claboration ol Beyond Good and E.il
and must thcrclorc bc printcd so as to look cxactly likc its prcdcccssor.

As its subtitlc announccs, thc Genealogy was intcndcd to bc A Polcmic whosc rclcvancc
to thc currcnt situation would stir up intcrcst in, and salcs ol, its prcdcccssors.
6
(Nictzschc
had, ! think, diculty in judging thc ccct his works had on rcadcrs, sincc onc could hardly
dcscribc any ol thcm as unpolcmical. Tc important thing about thc Genealogy, hc wrotc,
was that it was a dcclaration ol war on morality
6
but that war, surcly, had bccn wcll and
truly dcclarcd way back in Human, ll-Too-Human. His dcscription ol Beyond Good and E.il

KG8 !!!. 6. Sincc thc cxpansion and claboration . . . phrasc appcarcd on thc back ol thc titlc
pagc ol thc rst cdition ol thc Genealogy, and sincc this was thc only cdition to appcar undcr
Nictzschcs supcrvision, it is unlortunatc that it no longcr appcars in thc ColliMontinari collcctcd
works or in standard nglish translations. !n Fcbruary, +888, Nictzschc wrotc to Naumann, his
printcr, that instcad ol Genealogy of Morals, hc should, pcrhaps, havc rctaincd thc catchicr titlc
Beyond Good and E.il, couplcd to thc subtitlc: ppendix. Tree Essays (KG8 !!!. ). !t is a mattcr
ol rcgrct that in thc past dccadc, AngloSaxon moral philosophcrs havc bccomc obscsscd with thc
Genealogy but rarcly discuss Beyond Good and E.il.
,&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
as cxhibiting a studicd ncutrality in contrast to thc allegro feroce ol thc Genealogy
66
sccms
particularly widc ol thc mark.)
Tc substancc ol thc Genealogy was writtcn in thc thrcc wccks lrom July +o to o.
6
Hc
was, howcvcr, still adding bits and picccs at thc cnd ol August.
68
Sincc it is thc most organic
ol all Nictzschcs works, tightly organiscd, by his standards, in accordancc with a guiding
conccption ol thc wholc as no othcr, it is an cxtraordinary tour dc lorcc. !t appcarcd on
Novcmbcr +6, +88, again with Naumann, and again at Nictzschcs own cxpcnsc, sincc hc
now rcgardcd Fritzsch as, though wcllmcaning, incompctcnt.
Having writtcn thc Genealogy, Nictzschc now dccidcd that it, and not thc cxpandcd Gay
Science, was thc work that concludcd an cpoch, complctcd his narrativc ol dcvclopmcnt,
drcwa linc undcr my cxistcncc to datc.
6
! stand, hc wrotc at thc cnd ol cccmbcr, at high
noon: onc door closcs and anothcr opcns up, thc door to thc chicl thing ol my cxistcncc,
Te !ill to Po.er.
o
On the Genealogy of Morals
T
hc ccntral aimol thc Genealogy is to libcratc Nictzschcs as usual lcw propcr rcadcrs
lrom thc powcr ol Christian morality and point thcm towards a bcttcr morality. As wc
shall scc, it is dcnitivc ol thc highcr typc to whom thc Genealogy is addrcsscd that hc is
not complctcly takcn in by rcccivcd, Christian, morality but is, rathcr, thc battlcground ol
a ght bctwccn it and thc oldcr, classical morality that it supplantcd. Nictzschcs aim is to
bring into thc opcn thc subtcrrancan battlc bctwccn Romc and Judca and to makc surc
that Romc comcs out thc victor.
As with most ol Nictzschcs prclaccs, thc prclacc to thc Genealogy is not a particularly
rcliablc guidc as to its contcnt. My problcm, hc writcs, is undcr what conditions did man
invcnt thc valuc judgmcnts good and cvil: and .hat .alue do they themsel.es ha.e:
+
So,
wc arc lcd to bclicvc, thc aim is to cstablish thc (ol coursc ncgativc) valuc ol Christian
morality and thc mcthod consists in a gcncalogy, an account ol its origins.
:
nc thing
that is mislcading about this is that by making thc work sccm cntircly critical it obscurcs
its lundamcntally constructivc intcntion ol sccuring a victory lor Romc. Anothcr is that
thc gcncalogical invcstigation ol Christian morality is, in lact, conncd, almost cntircly,
to thc rst two ol its thrcc cssays. Principally in thc third cssay, that is, thc work contains
substantial and signicant discussions ol issucs that havc littlc or nothing to do with cithcr
thc origin or thc valuc ol Christian morality.
Still, thcrc is no doubt that thc gcncalogy ol Christian morality is thc ccntral lcaturc ol
thc work. And this, thc idca that valuc can bc dctcrmincd by an invcstigation ol origins,
is liablc to sct o alarm bclls. !s it not, onc is inclincd to ask, an armation ol thc wcll
known gcnctic lallacy: Takc nuclcar powcr. !t originatcd in thc intcntion to causc dcath
and dcstruction on an inhuman scalc. 8ut now it is incrcasingly valucd as a sourcc ol clcan,
grccn cncrgy. Tc vicious charactcr ol its origin docs not, thcrclorc, cstablish its currcnt
valuc. Givcn, thcn, that thc gcnctic lallacy is a lailurc in logic, plus thc lact that Nictzschc
sccms to bc awarc that it is,

plus thc lact that thc Genealogy is subtitlcd A Polcmic,

many scholars havc concludcd that Nictzschc is not intcrcstcd in logic or rationality. His
aim, thcy bclicvc, is to libcratc his choscn rcadcr lrom thc clutchcs ol Christian morality
by hook or by crook. And, in lact, thcy suggcst, his prclcrrcd mcthod is not thc hook ol
Te Genealogy of Morals

,&:
rational critiquc but rathcr thc crook ol cmotional rhctoric. Tc Genealogy, it is suggcstcd,
is a work addrcsscd not at all to thc hcad but only to thc hcart.
Tis vicw ol thc work sccms to mc cntircly wrong. As, howcvcr, it is impossiblc propcrly
to discuss thc rationality or othcrwisc ol Nictzschcs gcncalogical proccdurc until wc scc it
in action, ! shall postponc discussing thc issuc until wc gct to thc vcry cnd ol thc tcxt.
First Essay: Good and Evil, Good and Bad
T
hc Genealogys rst cssay is an cxpansion ol Beyond Good and E.il s account ol thc his
torical origins ol Christian morality in thc rcvolt ol thc ancicnt worlds slavcs against
thc morality ol thcir mastcrs.
Tc rst moralitics, Nictzschc suggcsts, originatcd with warriornoblcs: thc \ikings or
thc Homcric Grccks, lor cxamplc. xpcricncing thc pathos ol distancc bctwccn thcm
sclvcs and thc plcbcian or common,

thcy dcsignatcd thcmsclvcs as thc good and thcir

salicnt charactcristics as virtucs: hcalth, physical strcngth, couragc, military skill, truthlul
ncss, loyalty, and ruthlcssncss towards cncmics. Tosc who wcrc unlikc thcmsclvcs, cithcr
lorcign tribcs thcy kncw thcy wcrc strongcr than or clsc thcir own slavcs, thcy dcsignatcd as
bad. As in bad cgg, bad was an cxprcssion, not ol hatrcd, but rathcr contcmpt, contcmpt
oltcn tingcd with gcnuinc sympathy lor thc mislortunc ol not bcing likc us. To thc Grcck
nobility thc bad wcrc thc unlucky.

Calling on his training as a philologist, Nictzschcs cvidcncc lor thc priority ol mastcr
moralitics consists in thc claim that good in many, pcrhaps all, uropcan languagcs sccms
to lcad back ultimatcly to words lor dcscribing thc warrior nobility. Bonus in Latin probably
dcrivcs lrom duonus, warrior, and Gcrman gut, hc suggcsts, surcly dcrivcs lrom gott and so
originally mcant ol godlikc racc.
6
Tc conccpt ol social supcriority, Nictzschc suggcsts,
always gcncratcs thc conccpt ol psychological supcriority which can thcn, ovcr timc, bccomc
dctachcd lrom actual social standing.

Convcrscly, thc conccpt ol low social standing gcn

cratcs thc conccpt ol low psychological standing: schlecht (bad) is simply a typographical
variant on schlicht (plain, simplc).
8
(!n a notc at thc cnd ol thc rst cssay Nictzschc invitcs linguistics to considcr thc qucs
tion !hat signposts does linguistics, especially the study of etymology, gi.e to the history of the
e.olution of moral concepts? suggcsting that thc history ol morality skctchcd in thc rst
cssay is ocrcd, not as knowlcdgc, but rathcr as an hypothcsis proposcd as thc basis ol a
rcscarch programmc. 8randcs acccptcd thc invitation and consultcd anish ctymologists
about Nictzschcs claims. His cxpcrts conrm, hc wrotc Nictzschc, thc bonusduonus dcri
vation but say that in Gothic Gcrman gut and gott havc, in lact, no conncxion.

nc can
think ol othcr cxamplcs to support Nictzschcs casc: in both nglish and Gcrman, ol coursc,
noblc as a attributc ol charactcr dcrivcs lrom noblc as a dcsignation ol social status, vul
gar in thc scnsc ol uncouth dcrivcs lrom vulgar in thc scnsc ol lowcrclass, and villain
in thc scnsc ol scoundrcl must surcly dcrivc lrom villcin mcaning a typc ol lcudal scrl.)
So much lor noblc morality. Slavc morality originatcd, says Nictzschc, with thc
cnslavcd Jcws. !t was thcy who, out ol unlathomablc hatrcd, rst conqucrcd thc noblcs by
bringing about thc rcplaccmcnt ol noblc moralitys cquation, good = noblc = powcrlul =
bcautilul =happy =blcsscd, with slavc moralitys good =sucring =poor =powcrlcss =
lowly.
8o
Tis is what Beyond Good and E.il callcd thc rst rcvaluation ol valucs.
8+
(Noticc
,&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
that rcvaluation mcans simply rcvcrsal, which providcs a clcar signpost as to thc charac
tcr ol Nictzschcs sccond rcvaluation.) Tc rcason thc Jcws rcspondcd to opprcssion in this
way is that thcy wcrc a pricstly pcoplc, a nation lcd by pricsts.
Two charactcristics ol thc Jcwish pricsts which arc also charactcristics ol pricsts in
gcncral arc crucial to thc slavc rcvolt. First, lusting altcr powcr but bcing in a physi
cally powcrlcss, opprcsscd, situation, thc pricsts wcrc cauldrons ol unassuagcd hatrcd, thcir
souls poisoncd by a ccntral tcrm throughout thc Genealogy ressentiment.
8:
Sccond, thc
pricsts wcrc cle.er: only that cxplains thcir position ol inucncc within Jcwish socicty. !t
was thc pricsts intclligcncc that cnablcd thcm to work out a vcry dclibcratc act ol rcvcngc,
thc cunning plan ol cncrvating thc opprcssivc noblcs, and so rclicving thc opprcssion ol thc
Jcws, by pcrsuading thcm to adopt a ncw morality according to which qualitics thcy uscd
to rcgard as virtucs bccamc viccs, and qualitics thcy rcgardcd as viccs bccomc virtucs.
8
ntircly unanswcrcd in thc Genealogy is thc qucstion ol whcn thc Jcwish slavc rcvolt
occurrcd and against whom it was dircctcd. !n a lcttcr to vcrbcck Nictzschc admits
that thc Genealogy omits a grcat many dctails lor thc sakc ol thc ovcrall swccp ol thc
story.
8
8ut in Te ntichrist, writtcn thc lollowing ycar, hc makcs clcar that thc rcvolt in lact
occurrcd, not, as onc might think, in thc Roman mpirc but during thc 8abylonian xilc
( 8C).
8
Tc picturc is thus thc lollowing. Tc Jcws rst invcntcd slavc morality, a mor
ality that validatcd thc lilc thcy had no option but to lcad, during thc 8abylonian Captivity.
Hundrcds ol ycars latcr thc Christians took ovcr this wclldcvclopcd tool ol discmpowcr
mcnt, addcd somc rcncmcnts to it that wc will comc to shortly, and dircctcd it against thc
Roman nobility. Tc cxistcncc ol this carlicr history is why thc Genealogy says that Chris
tianity was thc hcir to thc slavc rcvolt
86
(and why, strictly, Christian morality is only onc
spccics ol slavc morality)
8
. And it is also why Nictzschc says that whcn Constantinc madc
Christianity thc ocial rcligion ol thc Roman mpirc in +: A, not Christianity, but
rathcr Israel triumphcd: with its rcvcngc and rcvaluation ol all lormcr valucs, !sracl was
victorious and continucs to bc so to thc prcscnt day.
88
Tc locus ol Nictzschcs intcrcst,
ccrtainly, is thc transition lrom thc morality ol classical antiquity to that ol thc Christian
Middlc Agcs. 8ut that transition hc vicws as thc complction ol a proccss that bcgan in
8abylon.

How cxactly did this rst rcvaluation ol valucs work: Vhat was thc mechanism ol valuc
rcvcrsal: Nictzschc points to two things: ! shall call thcm moral spin and thc invcntion ol
mctaphysical clipons.
\icwcd through thc poisonous cycs ol ressentiment thc noblc qualitics wcrc rctouchcd
and rcintcrprctcd:
8
in othcr words, spun. Scllassurancc bccomcs sclshncss, strcngth
bccomcs barbarism, habit ol command arrogancc, truthlulncss cruclty, and so on. Con
vcrscly, in imitation ol thc mastcrs scllglorication, thc slavcs turn thc charactcristics thcy
had to cxhibit into virtucs. Quitc litcrally, thcy madc virtucs out ol ncccssitics: huddling
togcthcr lor warmth with lcllow slavcs bccamc lovc ol ncighbour, timidity bccamc humil
ity, slavishncss bccamc obcdicncc, having to wait at thc door bccamc paticncc. !n gcncral

Tough hc would havc mct thc word in milc uhrings Te !alue of Life, which hc rcad in +8,
Nictzschc takcs thc conccpt lrom Hyppolytc Taincs thrccvolumc Te French Fe.olution, which is
why hc consistcntly uscs thc Frcnch word rathcr than thc Gcrman Groll. Tainc, to whom hc scnt a
complimcntary copy ol thc Genealogy, would havc bccn plcascd to scc his lundamcntal cxplanatory
conccpt at work in Nictzschcs book.
Te Genealogy of Morals

,&
impotcncc bccomcs goodncss.
o
(Noticc that spin amounts to a shilt in pcrspcctivc: onc
and thc samc charactcr trait that was oncc vicwcd lrom thc mastcrs pcrspcctivc is now
vicwcd lrom thc slavcs. Tis providcs a link to thc important discussion ol pcrspcctivism
in thc Genealogys third cssay.)
According to Christian morality, not only arc |thc slavcs| bcttcr, but thcy havc a bct
tcr timc, or at lcast will havc a bcttcr timc onc day.
+
As, that is, Christianity dcvclopcd
(according to Te ntichrist, St. Paul was thc chicl architcct ol this dcvclopmcnt), its mor
ality acquircd two mctaphysical clipons which incrcascd its grip.
Tc rst was thc attribution, to cvcry human bcing, ol a lrcc will. Tc aim was twolold:
rst, to makc thc noblcs lrcc, and thus rcsponsiblc, and thus guilty, and thus dcscrving
ol punishmcnt, lor thcir opprcssivc acts, and, sccond, to cnablc thc slavcs to rcprcscnt
thcir own wcakncsscs as accomplishments, lrccly choscn virtucs, dcscrving moral crcdit and
rcward.
:
Tc sccond clipon was thc supcrnatural: God, hcavcn, and thc immortal soul. Sincc thc
wickcd prospcr all too cvidcntly and all too oltcn in this lilc, lor justicc (i.c., rcvcngc) to
arrivc, thcrc has to bc anothcr, ctcrnal lilc in which thc tablcs will bc turncd. tcrnal hatc,
Nictzschc claims, crcatcd thc altcrlilc, in support ol which hc quotcs Aquinass claim that
thc blcsscd in thc hcavcnly kingdom will scc thc tormcnt ol thc damncd so that they may
e.en more thoroughly enjoy their blessedness,

a momcntary slip ol thc mask that rcvcals thc

rcality bchind Christian lovc.

Nictzschc thinks that thcrc arc two lundamcntal contrasts bctwccn slavc and noblc morality.
Tc rst lics in thcir dicrcnt crcativc origins. Vhcrcas with thc noblcs self-esteem is what
crcatcs, thc slavc rcvolt bcgins whcn ressentiment bccomcs crcativc. Vhcrcas thc noblc says
Ycs to himscll, thc slavc says No to thc othcr. So whilc noblc morality is selflocuscd slavc
morality is otherlocuscd, rcactivc. Tis is why, whilc thc local word in noblc morality is
good bad bcing just a palc and conccptually ncccssary contrast thc local word in slavc
morality is thc hatcllcd cvil good bcing just its palc and ncccssary contrast. Noblc
morality starts with thc .irtues and adds viccs as an altcrthought, slavc morality docs thc
oppositc.

Tc sccond lundamcntal contrast is bctwccn thc discascd condition ol thc slavcs and thc
psychological hcalth ol thc noblcs. Vhcrcas thc squinting souls ol thc slavcs, cspccially
thcir pricsts, arc disgurcd, poisoncd, and catcn away by canccrous worms ol ressenti-
ment,

thc noblcs arc psychologically magniccnt blond bcasts ol prcy avidly prowling
round lor spoils and victory, lor thc cxcrcisc, that is, ol thcir will to powcr. !t is truc that,
in contrast to thc untrammcllcd rapaciousncss ol thcir bchaviour towards outsidcrs, within
thc tribc thc warriornoblcs sucr thcir own kind ol opprcssion: thcy arc strongly hcld in
chcck by custom, rcspcct, habit, gratitudc and cvcn morc through spying on onc anothcr
and through pccr group jcalousy. Tis, howcvcr, did no lasting damagc to thcir hcalth sincc
thcir rcgular iniction ol barbaric savagcry on outsidcrs compcnsat|cd| lor thc tcnsion ol
bcing closcd in and lcnccd in by thc pcacc ol thc community.
6
8ccausc thcy wcrc ablc
to lct o stcam, to rclicvc thc lrustration ol thcir will to powcr quickly and oltcn, it did
not lcstcr, did not poison thcir souls.

(Noticc how this pcrhaps ovcrsimplc, hydraulic

modcl ol thc soul has sccpcd into much ol contcmporary psychothcrapy: thc psychodrama
tist invitcs onc to kill thc cushion in ordcr to vcnt oncs hatrcd ol an abusivc but nowdcad
parcnt.)
,&,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Te First Essays Contribution to a Vision of the Future
E
cce Homo dcscribcs thc Genealogy as comprising thrcc dccisivc prcliminary stud
ics . . . lor a rcvaluation ol all valucs,
8
lor thc rcplaccmcnt ol Christian morality with
a ncw kind ol morality. As, thcrclorc, with its mothcrwork, Beyond Good and E.il, wc
should cxpcct that collcctivcly, thc thrcc cssays will providc somc signposts to a morality
antithctical to that ol today.

Contrary to thc lrcc thinkcr who says, Look Nictzschc, you makc noblc morality
sound vcry attractivc but lcts lacc lacts thc Jcws havc won, thcrc is no turning thc clock
back,
+oo
Nictzschc thinks that, though slavc morality is indccd dominant within our cul
turc, thcrc arc still plcnty ol placcs whcrc thc battlc bctwccn slavc and noblc morality is
undccidcd. !ndccd, prcciscly what dcncd a potcntially highcr kind ol pcrson is that his
soul is a gcnuinc moral battlccld. As wc know, thc battlc to bc lought is Romc against
Judca (thc battlc, ! suggcstcd, bctwccn Plortas worship ol Grcccc, on thc onc hand, and its
Christianity on thc othcr (pp. :6 abovc.)). Tc wcllbcing and thc luturc ol thc human
racc, Nictzschc suggcsts, dcpcnds on a moral rcvolution which will bring about thc uncon
ditional rulc ol aristocratic valucs, Roman valucs.
+o+
(Vc will nccd to rcturn to thc uncx
plaincd jump lromthc \ikings to thc Romans, to thc assumption that, somchow, thcy sharc
thc samc kind ol morality.)
And thcn Nictzschc providcs us with a pottcd history ol uropc vicwcd through thc
prism ol Romc (and so, ol coursc, Grcccc) vcrsus Judca. Romc was dclcatcd by thc pious
Middlc Agcs, but thcn thcrc was a brilliant, uncanny rcawakcning ol thc classical idcal, ol
thc noblc mcthod ol valuing cvcrything in thc !talian Rcnaissancc. Soon, howcvcr, thc
Rcnaissancc was silcnccd by thc Rclormations rcinvigoration ol Christianity. Tat was
lollowcd by thc triumph ol an cvcn morc slavish kind ol morality in +8, thc Frcnch
Rcvolution. A nal, bricl arc up ol thc classical arrivcd with Napolcon, an cmbodimcnt
ol noblc morality in whom thc problcm ol thc noble ideal itself was madc csh, sincc (as
Tainc rcvcalcd (p. abovc)), Napolcon is a synthcsis ol Unmensch (thc inhuman) and

Ubermensch (thc supcrhuman).

As Nictzschc says, this dcscription ol Napolcon rcvcals in a nutshcll what is problcmatic
about his dcsirc lor a rcturn to Romc, lor a rcsurrcction ol noblc morality: thc prob
lcm is to how to do away with thc Unmensch without dcstroying thc possibility ol thc

Ubermensch. Nictzschc cmphasiscs timc and again thc incrcdiblc barbarism, thc savagc
dclight in dcstruction ol thc \ikings and ol thc Gcrmanic tribcs which invadcd thc dying
Roman mpirc. Tough thc blond bcast is magniccnt in its hcalth, strcngth, and joic
dc vivrc, it is also shockingly violcnt, so that wc arc cntircly justicd in wanting to protcct
oursclvcs lromit. Tc rcst ol uropc is cntircly right to vicwwith dccp and icy mistrust thc
risc ol Gcrman powcr, such mistrust bcing thc altcrmath ol that incxtinguishablc horror
with which, lor ccnturics, uropc vicwcd thc raging ol thc blond, Gcrmanic bcast.
+o:
(!n a
ycars timc Nictzschc will bc dcmanding that uropcan nations crcct a ring ol stccl around
thc aggrcssivc and powcrlul Gcrman Rcich.)
So, Nictzschc lrccly admits, onc can cmpathisc with thc moti.e ol thc slavc moralists and
cvcn admirc thc skill with which, lrom a position ol powcrlcssncss, thcy noncthclcss tamcd
thc bcast. 8ut prcciscly hcrc is thc point: thc victory ol slavc morality has had thc ccct ol
turning thc blond bcast into a tamc . . . houschold pct, a sick mcdiocrity, in othcr words,
Te Genealogy of Morals

,&
contcmporary Vcstcrn humanity: thc man ol today is stuntcd . . . wastcd away . . . poisoncd
with a soul that no longcr sccks to cxpand.
+o
Christian morality is dcstroying thc possi
bility ol thc crcativc lrcc spirit.
Vhat wc scc, thcn, is that wc uropc wcnt about civilizing thc blond bcast in thc
wrong way. Tis, ! think, is thc principal conclusion ol thc rst cssay. Vhat, thcn, is thc
right way: Tc answcr wc know alrcady: it is thc Grcck solution. Vhat wc nccd in placc ol
Christian cmasculation is Grcck sublimation: wc nccd not thc abolition ol ris but rathcr
thc translormation ol hcr bad into hcr good manilcstations, thc translormation ol war
into compctition. Vc nccd to preser.e war and thc warrior instinct, but, to rcpcat, it should
bc war without gunpowdcr and smokc.
+o
!n this way wc avoid thc Unmensch whilc not
dcstroying thc possibility ol thc

Ubermensch, a bcing that will bc bcyond thc morality ol
good and cvil though cmphatically not bcyond thc morality ol good and bad.
+o
!l wc do
this thcn wc can rctain our faith in mankind,
+o6
our laith that man uropcan man (scc
pp. ++8 abovc) has a luturc. 8ut othcrwisc wc will discovcr that wc arc thc last mcn,
that wc havc rcachcd thc cnd ol (Vcstcrn) history.
Second Essay: Te Morality of Custom and the Sovereign Individual
T
hc Genealogys sccond cssay has an odd bcginning: though thc titlc announccs an cssay
on Guilt, 8ad Conscicncc and Rclatcd Mattcrs, it bcgins with a discussion ol
promiscmaking and thc sovcrcign individual, ncithcr ol which is mcntioncd in thc titlc.
!n scction Nictzschc spcaks ol returning to thc issuc ol thc gcncalogy ol morality, so
thc rst thrcc scctions must constitutc a discussion ol thc promiscd Rclatcd Mattcrs as a
prcludc to thc main discussion.
Tc cssay bcgins by obscrving that, surprisingly, the problcm ol humanity, that ol brccd
ing an animal capablc ol making promiscs, has bccn largcly solvcd. Vhat makcs this sur
prising is that activc lorgctlulncss is not an isolatcd mallunction ol thc human mind but
is csscntial to happincss and chccrlulncss: wc bccomc dyspcptic without it.
+o
!l, that is,
wc rctain a vivid mcmory ol a past injury (thc Salom c aair, lor cxamplc), il wc dwcll on it,
wc bccomc consumcd by thc undischargcd thirst lor rcvcngc, by ressentiment. Nictzschcs
paradigm ol hcalthy lorgctting is givcn in thc rst cssay: thc alrcady mcntioncd Marquis
dc Mirabcau, a statcsman at thc timc ol thc Frcnch rcvolution, who, rcputcdly, could ncvcr
lorgivc an insult simply bccausc hc lorgot it.
+o8
Tc rcason promising is the problcmol humanity is that it alonc thc making and kccping
ol promiscs, cxplicit or implicit makcs man undcviating, unilorm, prcdictablc. From
prchistoric timcs, Nictzschc continucs, what madc man prcdictablc was thc morality ol
custom, which is hcrc hc rclcrs us back to Da.n thc rst proposition ol civilization,
prcscnt cvcn among thc most primitivc tribcs.
+o
As wc havc sccn, in ordcr to survivc in a
compctitivc, arwinian cnvironmcnt, a community must havc a morality which providcs
thc hardncss, unilormity and simplicity ol, as ! put it, a sharcd gamc plan (p. +8 abovc).
Nictzschc now adds prcdictability to thc list ol rcquircmcnts: unlcss thcrc is social trust,
unlcss individuals can bc rclicd upon to pcrlorm thc task allottcd to thcm, thc gamc plan
will bc inccctivc.
Sincc lorgctting is so powcrlul a lorcc and prcdictability so important, horrcndous mcans
wcrc nccdcd to burn into thc individuals psychc thc mcmory ol his promisc to thc
,&&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
community as a wholc: in ordcr to cnjoy thc advantagcs ol socicty hc implicitly prom
iscd to lollow thc rulcs ol its customary morality. Sincc pain is thc most powcrlul ol all
mncmonics, castration, hanging, drawing and quartcring, thc sacricc ol oncs rst born,
wcrc among thc typical mcans uscd to rcmind lawbrcakcrs ol thcir promisc.
++o
Nictzschcs tcrm morality ol custom rclcrs ol coursc, to any communal morality. Tc
sccond cssays locus, howcvcr, is on thc morality ol prchistoric,
+++
prcGrcck, tribcs. Vhat
wc arc trying to discovcr, hc says, arc thc rst origins ol rcsponsibility, rcsponsibility lor
kccping thc rulcs onc has implicitly promiscd to lollow. Tis gcncration ol rcsponsibility,
and so ol prcdictability, is what rst madc man a pccr among pccrs, a mcmbcr ol thc tribc
rathcr than an isolatcd individual.
++:
Rccall thc passagc in thc rst cssay which obscrvcd that whilc thc \ikings and Gothic
tribcs actcd as uncagcd bcasts ol prcy towards outsidcrs, within thc tribc thcy wcrc hcld
in chcck through custom, rcspcct and cvcn morc through spying on cach othcr and pccr
group jcalousy (p. 6 abovc). Vith this in mind onc can scc how thc prcscnt talk about
rcsponsibility and prcdictability wcavcs thc sccond cssay back into thc rst: thc discussion
ol thc morality ol custom is an cxpansion ol thc bricl carlicr rclcrcncc to thc internal
workings ol thc barbarian tribcs. Anothcr continuity bctwccn thc two cssays is thc sccond
cssays discussion ol thc bad conscicncc, which, as wc will shortly scc, is an account ol what
happcncd to thc bcast ol prcy whcn rapc and pillagc wcrc takcn o thc mcnu. 8clorc wc gct
to thc bad conscicncc, howcvcr, thcrc is an important digrcssion conccrning thc sovcrcign
individual.
++
Tc cnd, and ripcst lruit, ol thc immcnsc proccss covcring many millcnnia ol subor
dinating individuals to thc social straightjackct ol thc morality ol custom, is, says Nictz
schc, thc sovcrcign individual. Zarathustra says somcthing similar: crcators |ol moralitics|
wcrc rst pcoplcs, only latcr individuals, vcrily thc individual is itscll just thc most rcccnt
crcation.
++
Tc idca is this. vcr many millcnnia thc cnlorccmcnt ol custom ingraincd thc habit ol
rcsponsibility, ol lullling thc implicit promisc to obcy thc rulcs ol custom. Man bccamc
a bcing with an ingraincd habit ol bcing truc to his commitmcnts. nc day Nictzschc
makcs no attcmpt to cxplain how this happcns, thcrc is just, in thc languagc ! havc bccn
using, a random mutation an individual ariscs in whom thc habit ol rcsponsibility, thc
long, unbrcakablc will, xcs itscll onto a ncw targct: its o.n standard ol valuc. Tc indi
vidual, whilc cvcry bit as rcsponsiblc as thc customdrivcn pcrson, bccomcs lrcc, not, ol
coursc, in thc scnsc ol having an uncauscd lrcc will (an illusion, Nictzschc consistcntly
bclicvcs), but in scnsc ol autonomy, ol bcing a self- rathcr than customdrivcn individual.
Hc bccomcs, in thc languagc ol Te Gay Science, a lrcc spirit, lrcc to lollow his o.n dom
inant instinct. As lrcc, hc is supracustomary sincc autonomous and customary arc
mutually cxclusivc.
++
Nictzschc dcscribcs this proccss in thc notcbooks:
De.elopment of Humanity. (A) Conqucring naturc and thereby a ccrtain powcr ovcr oncscll.
Morality was ncccssary in ordcr lor humanity to prcvail in thc battlc with naturc and with
thc wild bcast |in itscll |. (8) . . . Powcr ovcr naturc achicvcd, onc can usc this powcr in
ordcr to shapc oncscll lrccly: will to powcr as scllclcvation and strcngthcning.
++6
Nictzschc spcaks ol thc long history ol customary morality as a mcans to thc sovcrcign
individual. Tis sounds likc Hcgcls tclling ol history as a story building up to a happy
Te Genealogy of Morals

,&
cnding, which sccms vcry odd coming lrom Nictzschc, sincc hc rcpcatcdly dcnics thc
cxistcncc ol purposc in thc world: as Te Gay Science put it, thc world is to all ctcr
nity chaos, and cvcry projcction ol pattcrn, ordcr, or purposc a mcrc anthropomor
phism.
++
Vhat, howcvcr, ! think hc mcans is that il, lrom thc point ol vicw ol willing
thc ctcrnal rcturn (always at thc back ol Nictzschcs mind), wc look at thc horrcndous
mcans uscd to cnlorcc thc habit ol rcsponsibility and wondcr how thcy can possibly bc
rcdccmcd in thc totality ol human cxistcncc, thcn lrom this, rctrospcctivc, point ol vicw,
a point ol vicw which docs not projcct any prior purposc or intcntion into thc world, wc
can scc thc morality ol custom as thc mcans to, i.c., justicd by, thc sovcrcign individual.
Nictzschc makcs an obliquc rclcrcncc to this rctrospcctivc arranging ol cvcnts into mcans
and cnds in a lcttcr: Tc intcntional charactcr ol . . . latc . . . is no lablc il wc undcrstand it as
such.
++8
Vho, cxactly, is thc sovcrcign individual: Givcn that thc Genealogy is an claboration ol
Beyond Good and E.il, hc is, surcly, a rcappcarancc ol thc philosophcr ol thc luturc. Rccall
that both conscicncc and rcsponsibility wcrc thcrc attributcd to him: thc philosophcr as
.e undcrstand him. . . |is| thc man with thc most comprchcnsivc rcsponsibility, whosc con
scicncc bcars thc wcight ol thc luturc dcvclopmcnt ol mankind.
++
Givcn that philosophcr
ol thc luturc rclcrrcd both to thc philosophcr visionary and thc philosophcr triumphant
(p. :: abovc), sovcrcign individual, ! suggcst, has a similar doublc rclcrcncc. Vhcn hc
talks ol thc sovcrcign individuals scllmastcry as qualilying him lor mastcry ovcr . . . all
crcaturcs ol lcss durablc and rcliablc will
+:o
hc is talking simultancously about thc spir
itual lcadcrship cxcrciscd by thc philosophcr visionary in lcading his lcllows towards thc
idcal community and about thc lcadcrship ol thc philosophcr triumphant within thc idcal
community.
Vhy has Nictzschc prclaccd thc discussion ol thc main busincss ol thc cssay, thc bad
conscicncc, with this discussion ol thc sovcrcign individual: Lct us rccall that, in onc way or
anothcr, virtually all ol Nictzschcs works arc conccrncd to prcscnt a prolc an, as it wcrc,
job dcscription which dctcrmincs whcthcr or not onc is a potcntially suitablc rccruit
lor his causc. Usually, thc prolc consists in an idcaliscd scllportrait. Hcrc, ! bclicvc, it
consists in thc portrait ol thc sovcrcign individual (which is actually a notsoidcaliscd scll
portrait.)

Tis bcing so, it is important lor him to cmphasisc that though thc bulk ol thc
cssay attcmpts to show thc bad conscicncc to bc a typc ol sickncss, he is by no means opposed
to conscience as such but, on the contrary, demands it. Hc has, that is, no intcrcst in attracting
anarchists, thosc lrcc thinkcrs (lrcc spirits ol thc sccond rank) who rcjcct currcnt moral
ity but havc no othcr morality, no conscicncc, no consistcnt pcrsonality or lilcstylc, to put
in its placc. Rathcr, a potcntial rccruit will only bc onc who can mcasurc up to thc sovcrcign
individuals scllmastcry, his disciplining ol thc soul into a cohcrcnt and unicd hicrarchy.
Tc sovcrcign individual will subordinatc all his drivcs to a dominant instinct which hc
will |rightly| call his conscience.
+:+
8cing answcrablc to oncscll, and proudly too,
+::
bcing
answcrablc to thc idcal that is oncs highcr scll and task, is thc condition ol bcing a sovcr
cign individual. nly thosc who can dcvclop this kind ol conscicncc havc thc potcntial to
bccomc philosophcrs ol thc luturc.

Nictzschcs biography is vcry much that ol a sovcrcign individual. PlortaPrussian sclldisciplinc

rcmains with him his cntirc lilc but, altcr +86, nds itscll harncsscd to a ncw, and vcry anti
Prussian, standard ol valuc.
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Origins of the Bad Conscience
H
aving complctcd thc discussion ol thc sovcrcign individual, Nictzschc nally gcts to
thc point, thc gcncalogy ol Christian guilt. Tc inspiration lor thc gcncalogy is oncc
again ctymology: thc lact that guilt (Schuld) dcsccnds lrom thc vcry matcrial conccpt ol
dcbt (Schuld).
,+:
Tis dcrivation is suggcstcd by thc lact that in modcrn Gcrman, Schuld
(still) mcans both dcbt and guilt. Tc SchuldSchuld conncction thus suggcsts thc idca ol
dcbt as thc origin ol guilt: ol thc bad conscicncc. Nictzschc now tclls what hc rcgards as
a compclling story ol how thc onc grcw into thc othcr.
!n thc carlicst communitics (wc sccm to start o, oncc again, insidc thc warrior tribcs),
promiscs ol rcpaymcnt wcrc madc, on thc basis ol which scrviccs wcrc rcndcrcd. 8ut sincc
thc dcbtor oltcn had nothing by way ol a commodity to ocr as sccurity lor thc promisc, hc
ocrcd instcad his wilc, lrccdom, lilc or cvcn his altcrlilc. !n gcncral, thc dcbtor ocrcd a
pound ol csh that was undcrstood to bc cquivalcnt to thc scrvicc and could bc claimcd in
thc cvcnt ol lailurc to kccp thc promisc ol rcpaymcnt. vcry socicty has, Nictzschc obscrvcs,
its crcditordcbtor (and so ol coursc promising) rclationships. !n all but thc most primitivc,
thcsc arc lormalizcd into an allcmbracing systcm ol justicc which ariscs on thc basis ol
thc prcmisc that cvcrything has its pricc, e.erything can bc compcnsatcd.
Nictzschc obscrvcs cn passant that thc horrcndous punishmcnts ol undischargcd dcbtors
lorcc us to lacc up to thc (oncc again dark and squidlikc) lact that cruclty, disintcrcstcd
malicc, is a basic ingrcdicnt in human naturc. To scc somconc sucr is nicc, to makc thcm
sucr cvcn niccr. !n thc ancicnt world no pain mcant no lcstival. Tc most dclcctablc gilt
thc Grccks could ocr thcir gods was thc Trojan wars as it wcrc, a horric scx and violcncc
movic scrccncd lor thcir cntcrtainmcnt. (Tc Grccks, Nictzschc cngagingly suggcsts, livcd
thcir cntirc livcs in thc omniprcscnt scnsc ol thc gods as thcir audicncc as it wcrc, thc
Truman Sho. with thc actors lully awarc that thcir world was a lm sct.)
+:
As wcll as obtaining bctwccn individuals, and bctwccn thc individual and thc community,
on account ol thc promisc to obcy customary morality, thc dcbtorcrcditor rclation obtaincd
bctwccn thc community as a wholc and thc lounding anccstor. Tc tribc lccls it cxists only
bccausc ol thc corts and sacriccs ol it loundcrs, who continuc to cxist as powcrlul guard
ian spirits. Tc morc ourishing thc tribc, thc morc powcrlul thc anccstor and thc grcatcr
thc dcbt that must bc paid through lcstivals and vcry major sacriccs, c.g., ol thc rst born.
(Abraham sccms to havc rcgardcd it as par lor thc coursc that Jchovah would dcmand that
hc sacricc his son, !saac.) vcntually, thc anccstor is pushcd into a rcalm ol divinc mystcry
and transccndcncc, transgurcd into a god. !n thc main, thcrclorc, gods originatc in lcar,
lcar ol what thcy will do il thc dcbt is not rcpaid.
+:
Tis is thc point at which Christianity comcs into thc picturc. Having inhcritcd thc pagan
idca ol dcbt to thc crcditorgod, Christianity invcntcd thc idca ol a maximal monothcistic
and so allpowcrlul god, and hcncc a maximal dcbt.
+:6
!ts strokc ol gcnius, howcvcr, was
thc crucixion: Gods sacricing himscll lor mans dcbt thc crcditor sacricing himscll
lor thc dcbtor supposcdly out ol lovc. Tc implication is that, worthlcss as wc arc, thc

Tis is not just a pcculiarity ol Gcrman. Tc ctymology ol thc nglish guilt is unccrtain. 8ut thc
choicc sccms to bc bctwccn an anccstry in thc ld nglish gieldan, dcbt, and in gylt, dclinqucncy.
Te Genealogy of Morals

,&,
possibility ol our rcpaying thc dcbt oursclvcs is lor cvcr lorccloscd. nly God himscll can
dischargc thc dcbt.
+:
Tis is thc point at which what Nictzschc calls thc moralization ol dcbt occurs, thc point
at which pagan Schuld, dcbt, is translormcd into Christian Schuld, guilt.
+:8
Tc csscntial
dicrcncc, ! think, is thc dicrcncc bctwccn necessary and contingent dcbt. Christian guilt
consists in our original sin, our in principle incapacity cvcr to rcturn to God what wc owc
him. Schuld has cxitcd thc rcalm ol cxchangc and cntcrcd that ol mctaphysics.

Mcanwhilc hcrc Nictzschcs complcx narrativc structurc takcs a stcp back in timc
anothcr dcvclopmcnt was taking placc. !mprisoncd in pcacc Nictzschc may wcll havc
in mind, hcrc, somcthing approximating to thc transition lrom huntcrgathcrcr to larm
ing communitics man nds himscll clumsy in discharging thc rcquircmcnts ol his ncw
lilc and alicnatcd within it. Hc lccls likc a sca animal lorccd to livc on land (a sh out ol
watcr).
,+:
Tc old warrior instincts arc thcrc but can no longcr nd thcir natural grati
cation. So thcy arc lorccd to scck an undcrground satislaction. 8ccausc it is allowcd no
cxtcrnal satislaction, aggrcssion bccomcs self-dircctcd.
+o
Varriorman is translormcd into
scllhating man. Aggrcssion in my languagc thc will to powcr
++
turns inwards.
+:
Likc
thc tigcr in thc zoo gnawing at its own loot, man (womcn sccm to play no part in this story)
bccomcs dccply sick.

8clorc us, now, arc two gcncalogical storics. nc tclls ol thc translormation ol anccstor
dcbt into undischargeable dcbt, into guilt bclorc thc Christian God. Tc othcr tclls ol thc
dcvclopmcnt ol scllhatrcd on thc part ol thc warrior noblcs lorccd into conditions ol pcacc.
(Vhat thcy should havc donc, ol coursc, is to continuc with otherdircctcd aggrcssion but,
likc thc Grccks, in sublimatcd lorm. Tcy should havc invcntcd thc lympic Gamcs or thc
tragic lcstival. 8ut thcn that was thc gcnius ol thc Grccks.)
!n scction :: thc two storics mcct (Nictzschcs coup dc th c atrc rcscmblcs that ol a
dctcctivcstory writcr suddcnly rcvcaling thc convcrgcncc ol plot and subplot). Tc scll
hating human bcing, with all thc natural outlcts lor his aggrcssivc instincts blockcd, scizcs
on rcligious prcccpts in ordcr to sharpcn his sclltormcnt, to givc locus and shapc to his
prcviously inarticulatc scllhatrcd. Tc God ol lovc bccomcs, on thc onc hand, Jcsus, thc
antithcsis ol his animal instincts (and as thc cmbodimcnt ol thc ncwidcal, scrvcs to intcnsily
his scllloathing), and on thc othcr, thc hangman God who scrvcs to tcrrily him with lcar
ol ctcrnal tormcnt. Tc world bccomcs wcirdly cxciting, but also a madhousc that wc havc
inhabitcd lar too long.

Tc rst ol thc Genealogys cssays contains two lacunac. Tc rst is thc lack ol any account
ol how Christian morality rst gaincd traction: ol what it was that cnablcd thc slavcs ol thc
Roman mpirc to succeed in winning ovcr thc hcarts and minds ol thc noblcs to thcir ncw
morality. As wc shall scc, this lacuna is rcmovcd in Nictzschcs nal works. 8ut sincc that

!n Stra. Dogs, John Grcy argucs that thc transition lrom thc lootloosc and lancylrcc lilc ol
huntcrgathcring to thc scdcntary lilc ol larming rcsultcd in a radical diminution ol human hcalth,
longcvity, and happincss. Hc agrccs with Jarcd iamond that thc introduction ol larming was, as
thc titlc ol thc lattcrs articlc in Disco.er magazinc (May, +8) puts it, Te !orst Mistake in the
History of the Human Face.
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
rcmoval rcquircd a major modication ol thc claim that lilc is will to powcr and nothing
bcsidcs, which did not happcn until thosc nal works, ! nccd to postponc discussing thc
mattcr until altcr ! discuss that modication in Chaptcr :6. Tc sccond lacuna conccrns thc
qucstion ol how Christian morality sprcad bcyond thc Roman mpirc, how it conqucrcd
thc hcarts and minds ol thc barbarian tribcs. Vc arc now in a position to undcrstand Nictz
schcs answcr to this sccond qucstion.
!n thc rst cssay, wc saw that thc intcrnal constraints ol custom did no lasting harm
to warrior individuals sincc thcy wcrc ablc to lct o stcam cxtcrnally. Tc sccond cssay
continucs thc story ol thcsc tribcs by moving on to thc timc whcn rapc and pillagc is no
longcr possiblc, a timc whcn lilc bccomcs nothing but constraint. And so aggrcssion turns
inwards. !t was this that constitutcd thc lcrtilc ground that cnablcd Christianity to cxpand
bcyond its original homc in thc Roman mpirc, to conqucr thc world. As Te ntichrist
puts it, what cnablcd Christianity to conqucr thc barbarian tribcs was thc lact that (having
turncd to larming) thcy had bccomc sclllaccrating and inwardly lcral.
+
Tc cxwarrior
tribcs nccdcd a stick to bcat thcmsclvcs with, and Christianity providcd a biggcr and bcttcr
stick than any onc clsc.
Te Second Essays Contribution to a Vision of the Future
A
t thc cnd ol thc sccond cssay Nictzschc asks, !s an idcal sct up or dcstroycd hcrc: Hc
answcrs, !l a shrinc is to bc sct up a shrine has to be destroyed.
+
Tis indicatcs two
things: rst, that hc has a ccrtain positivc altcrnativc a countcridcal
+
to Christian
ity in mind, and, sccond, givcn that shrinc is a rcligious tcrm, that Nictzschcs countcr
idcal will not simply rcplacc Christianity with athcism but will ocr somcthing likc an
altcrnativc rcligious outlook. !n ordcr to glimpsc somcthing ol this altcrnativc idcal, lct us
rcturn to thc origins ol rcligion in thc scnsc ol a dcbt to thc powcrlul, transccndcntaliscd
anccstor. Tcsc origins, hc points out, havc nothing to do with picty: rcligion originatcs in
lcar.
+6
Nictzschc, ol coursc, docs not want us to livc in lcar ol thc gods, so cvcn though
thc ultimate sickncss ol thc moralizcd bad conscicncc only arrivcs with Christianity, thc
rclationship to thc gods that prcccdcd it was lar lrom hcalthy.
r rathcr, mostly it was. For it turns out that ccrtain noblc tribcs providc cxccptions to
thc thcsis that rcligion originatcs in lcar.
+
Tat thcrc arc ways ol making usc ol thc invcn
tion ol gods othcr than scllcrucixion and scllabusc can, Nictzschc says, lortunatcly bc
dcduccd lrom a glancc at thc Greek gods, thcsc rccctions ol noblc and proud mcn in whom
thc animal man lclt dcicd.
+8
As wc havc sccn, thc Grcck gods, in Nictzschcs vicw, wcrc
gloricd scllportraits, cxprcssions ol prolound scllcstccm. From this wc can inlcr, yct
again, that gods who promotc, not human scllloathing, but rathcr human scllcstccm will
inhabit thc shrinc that bclongs to Nictzschcs idcal luturc. Tis is why hc spcaks ol his
own idcal as thc rcvcrsc ol Christianity:
+
his sccond rcvaluation ol valucs is, in outlinc,
simply a canccllation ol thc rst.
Noticc, hcrc, thc constructi.e rolc playcd by thc gcncalogical mcthod. 8y cnabling us
to idcntily thc points at which rcligion bccomcs, to onc dcgrcc or anothcr, antithctical to
human hcalth, thc points at which hcalth dissolvcs into sickncss, it signposts thc routc
to a hcalthicr conccption ol thc gods and our rclation to thcm. To rcpcat Beyond Good and
Te Genealogy of Morals

,:
E.il s obscrvation, il onc wants to prcparc lor a grcat lcap lorwards it is a vcry good idca
to go a long way backwards.
+o
Tird Essay: What Do Ascetic Ideals Mean?
E
cce Homo says that thc third cssay givcs thc answcr to thc qucstion ol thc trcmcndous
powcr ol thc ascctic idcal.
++
!n lact, howcvcr, thc cssay talks as much about ascctic
idcals as about thc ascctic idcal. !t is, ! think, clarilying to takc ascctic idcals to mcan
ascctic practiccs. Givcn this substitution, what thc cssays rst, introductory scction tclls
us is that ascctic practiccs, that is, practiccs cxhibiting thc traditional, monastic virtucs ol
povcrty, chastity, and humility,
+:
havc mcant many dicrcnt things. !l wc arc talking about
artists thcy havc mcant too many things lor a snappy summary, with philosophcrs and
scholars thcy arc signs ol a nosc lor lavourablc conditions ol highcr intcllcctuality (Nictz
schcs standard argumcnt against marriagc), with pricsts thcy arc thcir bcst instrumcnt
ol powcr and ultimatc sanction ol thcir powcr. Nictzschc also mcntions womcn thcir
chastity is just onc morc scductivc charm (hc has still not got ovcr Lou Salom cs allcgcd
coquctry (p. abovc)) and hc mcntions saints, whosc asccticism is supposcd to givc
thcm a lorctastc ol thc bcyond. Vomcn and saints, howcvcr, gurc no lurthcr in thc discus
sion. Nictzschcs ccntral conccrn is with pricsts, though hc says quitc a lot, rst ol all, about
artists and philosophcrs and, altcr thc discussion ol pricsts, about scholars and scicntists.
Wagner and the Ascetic Ideal
S
cctions : ol thc cssay arc supposcd to discuss subscriptions to thc ascctic idcal on
thc part ol artists. 8ut actually only onc artist (thc only onc who mattcrs) is discusscd:
Vagncr, ol coursc. Vhat is thc signicancc ol thc lact that, in old agc, hc pays homagc
to chastity: Nictzschc points out, corrcctly, thc contradiction bctwccn thc armation ol
animal and scnsual lilc by thc carly, worldarming, anarchistsocialist Vagncr (not to
mcntion a morc than avcragc numbcr ol lovc aairs in his pcrsonal lilc) and thc world
dcnial ol his latcr works, abovc all his last opcra, Parsifal, with its thcmc ol rcdcmption
through dcnial ol scx. Nictzschc attributcs this turn to Vagncrs discovcry ol Schopcnhaucr
in midcarccr (pp. ++: abovc).
For Vagncr, what was rcally important in Schopcnhaucrs philosophy was, Nictzschc
claims, thc sovcrcignty ol music ovcr drama. (According to Schopcnhaucr, as wc saw
(p. 8 abovc), whilc all thc othcr arts dcal in thc world ol mcrc rcprcscntation, music pcn
ctratcs to thc hcart ol thc thing in itscll , transports us to thc Absolutc.) Nictzschc now
says that Vagncrs cgoism, which would do anything lor thc grcatcr glory ol music ol,
that is, thc musician madc him latch on to this conccption ol thc composcr as an oraclc
and pricst, as Gods vcntriloquist, thc posscssor ol a tclcphonc |hot linc| to thc bcyond.
Sincc hc was thus sctting himscll up as a pricst, it is hardly surprising that hc adoptcd thc
trappings ol a pricst, in particular chastity.
+
Tc suggcstion hcrc is that thc latcr Vagncrs
asccticism is thc fake asccticism, thc asccticism ol Nictzschcs rcgular tcrm lor abusing
Vagncr an actor. Vagncr is likc thc guru with his simplc loincloth and bcgging bowl, but
with his whitc Rolls Roycc hiddcn around thc corncr.
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Sex and the Philosopher
T
hc main lunction ol thc Vagncr discussion (apart lromgctting a bit morc splccn out ol
Nictzschcs systcm) is to introducc Vagncrs and his own lormcr hcro, Schopcnhaucr,
and with him thc qucstion: Vhat is thc signicancc ol thc prcaching ol thc ascctic idcal
by philosophers: Tough thc qucstion is ostcnsibly a gcncral onc, Nictzschc rcally uscs it to
introducc a discussion ol Schopcnhaucr and, undcr a thin vcnccr ol impcrsonality, himscll.
Tough now his opponcnt, Nictzschc still has trcmcndous rcspcct lor Schopcnhaucr.
Vhcrcas Vagncr is a lakc, or at lcast dcrivativc lrom thc philosophcr hc took as his lront
man, with Schopcnhaucr wc comc to a morc scrious qucstion: Vhat docs it mcan whcn
a gcnuinc philosopher pays homagc to thc ascctic idcal, a gcnuinc, indcpcndcnt mind likc
Schopcnhaucr, a man and a knight ol brazcn countcnancc who has thc couragc to bc him
scll, knows how to stand alonc:
+
Tc locus ol thc Genealogys critiquc is Schopcnhaucrs philosophy ol art, spccically
his dcnition ol thc acsthctic statc as disintcrcstcd. Tough hc took this tcrm ovcr lrom
Kants acsthctic thcory, hc intcrprctcd it, claims Nictzschc, in a closcly pcrsonal way. Vhcn
hc writcs that acsthctic cxpcricncc is a modc ol pcrccption in which wc cclcbratc thc
Sabbath lrom thc pcnal scrvitudc ol willing (p. 8 abovc), what hc rcally mcans is rclcasc
lrom sexual willing.
+
!n thc notcbooks Nictzschc writcs: Tc Vorld as Vill and Rcp
rcscntation translatcd in a closcly pcrsonal way back into Shopcnhaucriancsc: thc Vorld
as Scxdrivc and Tranquillity.
Stcndhal, Nictzschc obscrvcs, was a scnsualist. Hc dcncd bcauty as a promisc ol hap
pincss, in othcr words, an crotic rousing ol thc will. Schopcnhaucr, too, was a scnsualist,
but, unlikc thc happily adjustcd Stcndhal, a guilty onc. Hcrc wc scc thc rst hint ol what
it mcans whcn a philosophcr pays homagc to ascctic practiccs: hc wants to cscapc a kind
ol torture.
+6
Nictzschc, hcrc, is implicitly rcpcating thc point that, though hc has lrccd
himscll lrom Christian mctaphysics, Schopcnhaucr rcmains saturatcd by Christian moral
ity. Vhat makcs scxual dcsirc a tormcnt lor him is thc Christian dcsignation ol physicality,
animality, scxuality, as sinlul.
!n scction this psychoanalysis ol Schopcnhaucr is lollowcd by anothcr coup dc th c atrc
philosophcrs as a type arc partial to ascctic practiccs. !l thcy arc not, thcy arc only so
callcd philosophcrs. !t turns out, howcvcr, that thc kind ol asccticism Nictzschc is talking
about, hcrc, is quitc dicrcnt lrom Schopcnhaucrian lilcdcnial: thc rcason that philoso
phcrs abhor marriagc a marricd philosophcr (thc hcnpcckcd Socratcs) is a comic gurc
is that a truc philosophcr rcluscs to allowhis indcpcndcncc to bc compromiscd. Vhat lcads
thc gcnuinc but nonguilty philosophcr to practicc asccticism is not Christian lilcdcnial
but rathcr a dcsirc to cnjoy thc conditions ol thc highcst and boldcst spirituality.
+
Tc
crucial point hcrc is that ascctic practiscs can havc radically dicrcnt motivcs and thcrclorc,
in thc languagc ol thc third cssays titlc, dicrcnt, cvcn oppositc, mcanings.
Scction 8 continucs a discussion ol thc asccticism ol thc gcnuinc philosophcr that is
alrcady closc to bcing conlcssional in a manncr that is to Nictzschcs lricnds at lcast
ovcrtly autobiographical. !n his own way thc philosophcr (aka Nictzschc) practiccs thc
monastic virtucs ol povcrty, chastity, and humility though not as .irtues but simply as
means to bcing a philosophcr: it is a mattcr ol his predominant instinct imposing itscll
on thc othcrs. Tc philosophcr practiccs povcrty, gocs, that it, into thc dcscrt. Tough
probably inclincd to scnsual luxury, hc takcs to thc mountains: not, howcvcr, dcad oncs but
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
oncs with cycs, by which ! mcan lakcs (thc lakcs ol Sils Maria). Hcrc hc takcs a Spartan
room in a hotcl. (!t is not madc cxplicit why such povcrty is conducivc to philosophising.
Probably it is a mattcr ol dcnying drivcs that arc liablc to conlusc and countcrmand oncs
ccntral drivc so that thcy cvcntually withcr, as rccommcndcd in Da.n (p. o abovc).) Hc
practiccs humility in that hc livcs in hotcls whcrc no onc knows who hc is, so hc can talk
to anyonc with impunity as Nictzschc did, whcn in thc mood, in Gcnoa, Nicc, and Sils.
Hc avoids shiny loud things (unlikc Vagncr) such as lamc and royal patronagc. Hc avoids
animositics, cvcn lricndships (as wc know, savc lor vcrbcck, Nictzschc had lost all his
intimatc lricndships by this timc). !n sum, thc philosophcrs humility consists in keeping a
lo. prole. (Actually, though, this is not rcal humility at all sincc hc inhabits his agc likc a
shadow: thc morc thc sun sinks thc grcatcr hc bccomcs. Nictzschcs will to powcr aims lar
abovc contcmporary cclcbrity.)
Tc philosophcrs avoidancc ol marriagc is partly, as wc havc sccn, a mattcr ol prcscrving
his indcpcndcncc, by which Nictzschc mcans, pcrhaps, lrccdom lrom distraction. And it
is also a mattcr ol humility, ol kccping a low prolc. (Tc incurablc sociability ol womcn
incvitably drags onc into socicty). 8ut it is also avoidcd on grounds ol maintaining chastity:
this has nothing to do with hatrcd ol thc scnscs but is rathcr cultivatcd bccausc, as cvcry
athlctc or jockcy knows, scx dissipatcs vital cncrgy nccdcd lor crcation. (Rugby coachcs
to this day lorbid thcir playcrs to havc scx on thc cvc or cvcn in thc wcck ol a big match.)
Vriting books is anothcr way ol having childrcn.
Tc main point ol this discussion ol asccticism and thc philosophcr sccms to bc Nictz
schcs somcwhat anxious attcmpt to distinguish himscll lrom thc Schopcnhaucrian ascctic.
Tough his lilcstylc may look vcry likc that ol a lilcdcnicr (though hc may havc kcpt his
loot in a buckct ol cold watcr through Plortas wintcr nights at Plorta), thc rcality bchind
thc appcarancc is, hc wants to convincc us, vcry dicrcnt.
Perspectivism and Objectivity
S
cction 6 obscrvcs that in making objcctivity, disintcrcstcdncss, thc hallmark ol art Kant
wantcd to attributc to it what hc took to bc thc glorics ol knowlcdgc, namcly, impcr
sonality and univcrsality. 8ut thcn Nictzschc drops thc subjcct ol knowlcdgc in lavour ol
thc justsurvcycd discussion ol Schopcnhaucrs scx lilc. !n scction +:, howcvcr, thc complcx
structurc ol thc cssay rcturns us to a discussion ol objcctivity and knowlcdgc.
Schopcnhaucr madc thc samc conncction bctwccn knowlcdgc and objcctivity as Kant,
dcscribing gcnius as purc objcctivity.
+8
!ndccd thc wholc Vcstcrn scicntic tradition
makcs thc conncction: scicncc, cvcryonc insists, must bc objcctivc, impcrsonal, disin
tcrcstcd, valuclrcc. Subjcctivity, intcrcst, thc tradition assumcs, distorts pcrccption and
thcrclorc undcrmincs knowlcdgc. !t is this cntirc tradition Nictzschc scts out to attack.
+
His basic point is that intcrcstlrcc knowlcdgc is impossiblc: thc purc willlcss painlcss
timclcss subjcct ol knowlcdgc (a dircct quotation lrom Schopcnhaucr), purc rcason, con
tcmplation without intcrcst, arc conccptual lairytalcs, nonconccpts, absurditics. Hcrc,
hc says, wc arc askcd to think ol an cyc turncd in no dircction at all, an cyc whcrc thc ac
tivc and intcrprctivc powcrs arc to bc supprcsscd, abscnt, but through which sccing still
bccomcs a sccingsomcthing. And thcn hc asscrts: Tcrc is only a pcrspcctival sccing, only
a pcrspcctival knowing.
+o
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Pcrspcctivism, to takc up thc discussion ol thc prcvious chaptcr (pp. o abovc),
sccms to cntail t.o things: rst, thc postKantian commonplacc that thcrc is no cpistcmic
cncountcr with thc world, a sccing something, that is not mcdiatcd by a particular con
ccptual schcmc or horizon, and, sccond, that thcrc arc no intcrcstlrcc cpistcmic cncoun
tcrs with thc world. Pcrspcctivism is thus a doublc dcnial: it dcnics both conccptlrcc and
intcrcstlrcc pcrccption ol thc world.
8ut thcsc dcnials arc surcly conncctcd. Conccpts arc tools, tools lor making scnsc ol
thc world. !n Gcrman thcir toollikc naturc is particularly obvious: thc word lor conccpt,
Begri, comcs lrom greifen, to grasp. Conccpts arc tools lor grasping thc world. 8ut how
onc grasps, which tool onc will usc, will dcpcnd on oncs intcrcst. !l onc is a larmcr onc will
grasp thc land by mcans ol conccpts to do with stocklccd, il a conscrvationist by mcans ol
conccpts to do with ccosystcms, il a rcal cstatc dcvclopcr by mcans ol conccpts to do with
apartmcntspacc pcr squarc mctcr. !n gcncral, thcn, conccpts arc always intcrcstrclatcd.
Nictzschc makcs this point cxplicitly in Te Gay Science, acknowlcdging it as somcthing hc
has lcarnt lrom Schopcnhaucr: part ol Schopcnhaucrs grcatncss, hc says, is his immortal
doctrinc ol thc intcllcctuality ol pcrccption |and| . . . thc instrumcntal naturc ol thc intcl
lcct.
++
Vhat hc criticiscs in Schopcnhaucr is his lailurc to makc this account ol things
comprehensi.e, his attcmpt to makc acsthctic pcrccption an escape lrom thc instrumcntal
ity, intcrcstimprcgnatcdncss, ol pcrccption.
!l Nictzschcs doctrinc ol pcrspcctivism stoppcd at this point (and il onc ignorcd thc
lact that hc calls sccpticism a nihilistic discasc (p. +6 abovc)) it might bc rcasonablc to
takc him to bc a postmodcrnist sccptic about truth and knowlcdgc: thcrc arc many world
intcrprctations, all scrving somc intcrcst or othcr, nonc ol which can claim to bc trucr than
thc othcrs. Hcncc no intcrprctation can claim to rcprcscnt rcality as it is and so it makcs
no scnsc to supposc thcrc is any particular way rcality is.

Tcrc is nothing but thc tcxt, no

rm land, only a sca ol intcrprctations. !n lact, though, Nictzschcs discussion docs not stop
at this point. Having criticiscd thc traditional idca ol objcctivity, hc lccls it incumbcnt on
him to dcvclop his own account. Rathcr than thinking ol objcctivity as disintcrcstcdncss,
hc suggcsts, wc should think ol it as ha.ing in our po.er our lors and againsts so that,
with rcspcct, prcciscly, to thc dierence in pcrspcctivcs and acctivc intcrprctations, onc
knows how to makc thcm usclul lrom thc point ol vicw ol knowlcdgc. Sincc thcrc is only
pcrspcctival knowing, hc continucs,
thc more accts wc allow to spcak about a thing, thc more cycs, various cycs wc know how
to bring to bcar on thc samc thing, thc morc complctc will bc our conccpt (Begri) ol thc
thing, our objcctivity. 8ut to climinatc thc will complctcly and turn o all thc cmotions
without cxccption, assuming wc could, would that not bc to castrate thc intcllcct:
+:

Actually, thcrc is somc scriously shonky rcasoning hcrc. For it docs not, in lact, lollow lrom thc lact
that thcrc arc many, cqually good, intcrprctations ol thc world that nonc can bc truthrcvcaling.
!t only lollows il onc adds thc prcmisc that no intcrprctation can bc truc unlcss it is uniquely truc.
Vhat this suggcsts is that thc postmodcrnist is, in lact, to dcploy a tcrm ! coincd in thc prcvi
ous chaptcr, a lrustratcd absolutiscr: somconc with thc bad tastc to want his own intcrprcta
tion to bc thc only rightlul intcrprctation ol thc world (GS ). Having had his mctaphysicans
ycarning to bc solc owncr ol thc truth lrustratcd by pcrspcctivism, hc gocs into a kind ol sulk
and claims that Vcll, thcn, no onc can say anything truc about thc world. Sincc postmodcrn
ism is thc rcsult ol scriously bad rcasoning onc should avoid saddling Nictzschc with it, il at all
possiblc.
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
Tc basic idca, thcn, is to admit thc pcrspcctival, intcrcstimprcgnatcd naturc ol knowing
and thcn asscmblc as many pcrspcctivcs as possiblc. Tc big qucstion is: how can a bunch
ol acctivc intcrprctations, pcrspcctivcs, possibly cnd up producing somcthing onc could
call objcctivity: How can adding a wholc lot ol, as onc might again call thcm, spins, add
up to somcthing that is unspun:
Tc rst thing to noticc is that bcing drivcn by intcrcst or cmotion by no mcans makcs an
intcrprctation ol thc world lalsc, or cvcn suspcct. Tis was always a wcak point in Schopcn
haucrs argumcnt that only disintcrcstcd pcrccption can yicld knowlcdgc: hc rcgularly spcaks
ol thc lalsication ol rcality by ordinary, intcrcstcd consciousncss but, in lact, his imprcssivc
cxamplcs only point to simplication. To thc travcllcr in a hurry, hc points out, thc bcautilul
bridgc ovcr thc Rhinc is rcduccd to littlc morc than a dash intcrsccting with a strokc, to
thc cngagcd chcss playcr thc bcautilully carvcd Chincsc picccs arc rcduccd to mcrc Xs that
play thcir dcning rolc, to most ol us most ol thc timc pcoplc arc rcduccd to thcir job
dcscription or social standing. !n sum, Schopcnhaucr points out, in pcrccption govcrncd
by practical intcrcst, thc world shows up as a landscapc docs on a gcncrals map ol a bat
tlccld.
+
Schopcnhaucrs gcncral with his simplicd worldvicw rcappcars in Nictzschcs
notcbooks:
Just as thcrc arc many things a gcncral docsnt want to know, so our conscious mind must
bc abovc all a drivc to cxcludc. Logic, our scnsc ol timc and spacc, arc prodigious capacitics
to abbrcviatc. A conccpt is an invcntion to which nothing corrcsponds wholly but many
things slightly. Yct with this invcntion ol thc rigid world ol conccpts . . . man scizcs a hugc
numbcr ol lacts by mcans ol signs.
+
Tcsc rccctions on thc gcncral and his simplilying map surcly providc thc cluc to
undcrstanding Nictzschcs conccption ol objcctivity as a mattcr ol building up a complctc
conccpt ol a thing. Maps, that is to say, rcprcscnt only an aspcct ol thc world thcy map,
onc rcprcscnts thc roads, anothcr thc contours ol hills and vallcys, anothcr thc typcs and
distribution ol vcgctation, anothcr thc gcological makcup ol thc tcrrain, anothcr thc cth
nic divcrsity ol thc population, anothcr its rcligious divcrsity, and so on. To movc towards a
complctc knowlcdgc ol thc tcrrain onc nccds to posscss all thcsc maps and morc.
+
!n
principlc thcrc is no limit to thc numbcr ol worldrcprcscntations, maps ol dicrcnt
typcs onc might asscmblc, so that although onc can acquirc more complctc knowlcdgc ol
thc world onc can ncvcr acquirc absolutely complete knowlcdgc. Scicncc, thc acquisition ol
knowlcdgc, can ncvcr comc to an cnd, sincc with thc rccognition ol pcrspcctivism, our world
has, as Te Gay Science puts it, bccomcs innitc.
+6
Tat this is thc corrcct undcrstanding
ol Nictzschcan objcctivity is suggcstcd by thc lollowing notcbook cntry:
Athing in itscll just as wronghcadcd as a mcaning in itscll. Tcrc is no lact in itscll. !nstcad,
lor thcrc to bc a lact a scnsc |horizon, pcrspcctivc| has rst to bc projcctcd into it. A thing
not dcncd until all possiblc pcrspcctivcs ol all possiblc bcings havc bccn considcrcd.
+
Tc lorcgoing discussion supports thc idca, canvasscd in Chaptcr + (p. 8 abovc), that
Nictzschc rcally is a plural rcalist. Rcality is multiaspcctcd.

Somc pcrspcctivcs (not all,

!n Te Gay Science hc calls it .ieldeutig: ambiguous is thc bcst nglish can do, but thc word actually
mcans, not ol two, but rathcr ol many mcanings (GS ). Alurthcr point: thc rst grcat Vcstcrn
philosophcr to vicw rcality as multiaspcctcd was Spinoza. !t is possiblc, thcrclorc, that plural
rcalism was part ol thc anity Nictzschc lclt lor thc Amstcrdam lcnsgrindcr (pp. +:o abovc).
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol coursc) gcnuincly rcvcal aspccts ol rcality. Tc morc gcnuinc pcrspcctivcs onc has com
mand ol, thc morc knowlcdgcablc onc is, thc closcr onc comcs to thc unattainablc but
inspiring goal ol complcting scicncc.
nc aspcct ol Nictzschcs discussion ! havc not yct attcndcd to: thc idca that asscmbling
oncs (intcrcstcd) pcrspcctivcs on a thing will bc a mattcr ol asscmbling oncs lors and
againsts. Tough it is not impossiblc to imaginc, onc docs not normally think ol a contrast
bctwccn hostilc and lavourablc pcrspcctivcs on, say, a tomato. For this rcason, whcn Nictz
schc spcaks ol asscmbling pros and cons hc has primarily in mind, ! think, his own spccial
topics, such as rcligion and morality. nc ol his grcat strcngths as a philosophcr, which
cocxists, paradoxically, with his tastc lor radically biascd polcmics, is his lairmindcdncss.
Consistcntly, his itcmising ol thc downsidc ol, lor cxamplc, Christianity is balanccd, sooncr
or latcr, by an admission ol its upsidc. (Hc has, ol coursc, to bc ablc to do this il hc is to
cmbracc thc ctcrnal rcturn.) Christianity gavc us a mcaning ol lilc, madc us morc spiritual,
morc intcrcsting, gavc us a scnsc ol rcvcrcncc lor holy things, thc Catholic Church was a
grcat, supranational institution, and so on. Tc morc aspccts ol Christianity onc asscmblcs
thc morc complctc is oncs knowlcdgc ol it and thc bcttcr placcd onc is to dccidc whcthcr
it has bccn, on balance, a good or a bad thing. !t is this roundedness and fair-mindedness
that makcs Nictzschcs ovcrall discussion ol his ccntral topics objcctivc rathcr than
merely polcmical, intcllcctually scrious rathcr than mcrc propaganda. !n sum, thcn, what
Nictzschcs complctcd doctrinc ol pcrspcctivism docs is to rcplacc thc traditional idca ol
objcctivity as a Godlikc gazc which pcnctratcs to thc hcart ol bcing and grasps it all at oncc,
ncat and cntirc thc vicw lrom nowhcrc and lrom no intcrcst with a ncw and imprcssivc
notion ol objcctivity as thc slow and carclul survcy ol a thing that builds up our knowlcdgc
ol it.
Anal qucstion: why would turning o thc cmotions castrate thc intcllcct: Vhy would
it rcprcscnt thc absence ol cognition: Tc point bccomcs clcar il wc rcturn to thc analogy
bctwccn conccpts and tools. !l onc docs not want to construct anything, onc docs not rcach
lor a hammcr. Analogously, il wc did not wish to survivc morc cxactly, il wc lackcd thc
drivc to incrcasc our powcr knowing would ncvcr start. As thc notcbooks put it, it is
thc will to powcr which interprets, thc point ol intcrprctation bcing to become master of
something.
+8
Te Ascetic Ideal as Practised and Propagated by Priests
T
hc discussion ol pcrspcctivism is a digrcssion lrom thc main topic ol thc third cssay,
thc ascctic idcal. Vith scction ++ wc rcturn to, and approach thc hcart ol that topic.
nly whcn wc turn to thc ascctic pricst, Nictzschc writcs, can wc scriously gct to grips
with our problcm, what docs thc ascctic idcal mcan: Savc in thc casc ol Schopcnhaucr,
in othcr words, wc havc bccn dcaling with ascctic idcals, ascctic practices, that arc in
varying ways usclul, and so life-arming. 8ut now wc comc to asccticism as gcnuincly
life-denying. Tc ascctic idcal, thc doctrinc prcachcd by thc pricst, is a valuation ol our
lilc:
Hc rclatcs this (togcthcr with all that bclongs to it, naturc, thc world, thc wholc sphcrc
ol what bccomcs and passcs away) to a quitc dicrcnt sphcrc ol cxistcncc which is opposcd
to it and cxcludcs it unless it should turn against itscll and deny itself, in this casc, thc casc
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
ol thc ascctic lilc, lilc counts as a bridgc to that othcr cxistcncc. Tc ascctic trcats lilc as a
wrong path.
+
Lilc and thc world arc, in othcr words, as Schopcnhaucr puts it, things that ought not to
bc.
Tc third cssays local qucstion is, thcn: Vhat docs thc ascctic pricsts dcnial ol lilc mcan:
Mcan is a vaguc word. !t sccms to mc that what Nictzschc is rcally asking is: how is it pos
siblc that a living bcing should disvaluc lilc: Hc thinks that this is somcthing astonishing,
paradoxical,
+6o
scllcontradictory whcn vicwcd lrom a physiological standpoint.
+6+
And
givcn that physiological mcans, csscntially, arwinian, it is casy to scc that it is: il a typc
ol human bcing rcally and uncquivocally did subscribc to thc vicw that cxiting lilc is bcttcr
than living, it would surcly havc bccn cithcr scll or othcrgcnocidcd by now. !t lollows
that lilc against lilc must in lact bc a mislcading dcscription, mcrcly provisional. !n rcal
ity thcrc must bc somcthing life-preser.ing about thc ascctic idcal.
+6:
!ts rcal mcaning will
bc, thcn, this lilcprcscrving lunction.
Vhat is rcally going on, Nictzschc says, is that the ascetic ideal springs from the protect-
i.e and healing instinct of a degenerate life.
+6
Hc continucs by saying that thc pricsts success
in gaining widcsprcad acccptancc ol thc ascctic idcal rcvcals a major lact, thc sickliness ol
thc typc ol man who has livcd up to now, at lcast ol thc tamcd man. Tc ascctic pricst is
thc incarnation ol his wish . . . to bc clscwhcrc, his nausca and latiguc. Tc ascctic pricst
makcs himscll thc lcadcr ol thc wholc hcrd ol lailurcs, thc disgruntlcd and undcrpriv
ilcgcd and in ways wc will comc to actually pcrsuadcs thcm to rctain thcir hold on
lilc. Hc achicvcs this bccausc thc ascctic idcals big No brings with it a host ol tcndcr
Ycscs.
+6
Tis talk ol thc tamcd man in scction :o Nictzschc talks ol thc cagcd animal rcturns
us to thc sccond cssays idcntication ol thc groundwork lor Christian guilt and thc bad
conscicncc as consisting in thc intcrnalization ol aggrcssion by thc lormcr warrior noblcs
no longcr ablc to lct o stcam in rapc and pillagc.
Now, howcvcr, thcrc is a surprisc: whcrcas thc animal bad conscicncc
+6
lookcd to bc
univcrsal to all humans whcn (as ! suggcstcd) huntcrgathcring gavc way to larming, wc
now lcarn that only a ccrtain group thc lailurcs thc disgruntlcd and thc undcrprivilcgcd
sucrcd it. 8ut it is not hard, ! think to grasp Nictzschcs point: cvcn in conditions ol pcacc
thc noblcs rcmain hcalthy bccausc thcy can carry on vcnting thcir aggrcssion: thc only
dicrcncc lrom thcir lootloosc and lancy lrcc days as wandcring warriors is that now thcy
vcnt thcir violcncc on thcir own slavc class rathcr than lorcign tribcs, throw thcm to thc
lions and so on. (As ! writc, thc cightyvcycarold Robcrt Mugabc continucs to torturc
and murdcr his lcllow Zimbabwcans. nc noticcs, howcvcr, his amazing skin tonc.) So
it sccms that thc nccd lor aggrcssion against oncscll only aicts thc undcrprivilcgcd, thc
unlortunatc.
+66
Tis rcturns us to thc slavc rcvolt ol thc rst cssay.
So how, contrary to appcaranccs, docs thc ascctic pricst with his Christian propaganda,
thc ascctic idcal, prcscrvc thc lilc ol thc slavc classcs: !n lour ways. First, thc pricst dclcnds
thc sick against thc hcalthy noblcs. Hc protccts thcm lrom sucring violcncc at thc hands
ol thc noblcs by mcans ol a war ol cunning which convcrts thc noblcs to slavc morality and
so makcs thcm sick, too, by dcpriving thcm ol thcir rclcasc ol aggrcssion. Tis (a) lcsscns
thc violcncc thc slavcs havc to sucr and (b) incrcascs thc lollowing, and so powcr, ol thc
pricsts.
+6
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Sccond, thc pricst protccts thc slavcs against cnvy ol thc hcalthy (and so against thc
lutility ol a ghctto uprising).
+68
Hc tclls thc slavcs its casicr lor a camcl to go through thc
cyc ol a nccdlc than lor a rich man to cntcr thc kingdom ol God,
+6
so that thc slavcs cvcn
comc, pcrhaps, to pity thcir opprcssors, thc noblcs.
Tird, thc ascctic pricst dclcnds thc hcrd against anarchy and thc cvcrprcscnt thrcat
ol inncr dissolution. Tc thrcat cxists bccausc, as Zarathustra puts it, thc wcak who havc
to scrvc thc strong scck to bc mastcrs ol thc wcakcr still.
+o
(nc can think, hcrc, ol thc
prcvalcncc ol child abusc in thc undcrclasscs ol thc contcmporary Vcst.) Tc pricst prc
vcnts inncr dissolution by dcploying thc conccpts ol guilt, sin, and damnation to dclusc
thc cxplosivc matcrial ol ressentiment. Hc dcluscs it by turning its dircction inwards, thus
making it rclativcly harmlcss. Finding somconc guilty lor oncs sucring is thc grcat ancs
thctizcr, but thc pricst says you yourscll arc to blamc. !n othcr words, intcrprcting my
miscry as my o.n lault on account ol my original sinlulncss lcads mc to agcllatc, lit
crally or mctaphorically, myscll rathcr than anothcr.
++
Tc lourth and, it sccms to mc, by lar thc most important lilcprcscrving ccct ol thc
ascctic idcal, Nictzschc rcscrvcs, lor dramatic ccct, to thc vcry cnd ol thc cssay, scction :8.
Vhatcvcr its downsidc, thc ascctic idcal gavc us a mcaning ol lilc. Tis mcant that thc
will was savcd, savcd lrom nonmcaning. And thc lact is that man would rathcr will
nothingncss than not will. Any mcaning, that is to say, is bcttcr than no mcaning at all.
!n Te Gay Science, as wc saw, Nictzschc says that wc nccd to construc oursclvcs as thc
hcro ol a lilcunilying narrativc. And thcn hc adds that at lcast thc lollowing can bc said lor
Christianity: by surrounding himwith ctcrnal pcrspcctivcs it taught man to vicwhimscll as
a dramatic, mcaninglul wholc, a grand criminal in qucst ol rcdcmption.
+:
!n othcr words,
it madc his lilc mcaninglul. Vhy do wc nccd mcaning: 8ccausc without it wc cannot .ill,
willing has to havc a dircction, a goal, it has to bc a willingto.ards. (!t has to havc a sens,
which, in Frcnch, mcans both mcaning and dircction.) Nictzschcs point, thcn, is that
Christianity madc our livcs exciting. !t gavc us a project to work on so that, in lact, wc did
not wish to cxit thc world bclorc our timc. !n othcr languagc, it cnablcd us to cxcrcisc our will
to powcr, to growth, cvcn il thc powcr in qucstion was only powcr ovcr oncscll. !t providcd
an outlct lor thc will to powcr without which wc sucr dcprcssion, a physiological lccling
ol obstruction.
+
Te Ascetic Ideal in Modernity
N
ictzschc is at pains to cmphasizc that thc discussion ol thc ascctic idcal is not mcrcly
an cxcursion into ancicnt history. vcn though wc havc givcn up thcological astron
omy, thc idcals dcnial ol lilc is still with us as thc dominant lorcc in our culturc. Far
lrom Copcrnican (i.c., modcrn) scicncc mcaning an cnd to mans sclldcprcciation, it has
actually incrcascd it by turning humanity into a mcrc animal rolling lastcr and lastcr away
lrom thc ccntrc . . . into nothingncss. Tc rcsult is that sincc Kant, cvcry sort ol transccn
dcntalism has had a winning hand.
+
Tc basic point, hcrc, is that bccausc wc havc rctaincd Christian morality wc havc incv
itably rctaincd thc thought ol man as a awcd, sinlul bcing. Tc gap bctwccn thc Chris
tian ought and thc natural is is as largc as cvcr. 8ut this, Nictzschc suggcsts, lcavcs
postmctaphysical humanity cvcn worsc o than bclorc. Vc havc rctaincd thc discasc, thc
Te Genealogy of Morals

,,
pcrccivcd nccd lor rcdcmption lrom thc csh, but havc lost thc rcmcdy. Tc rcsult is that
any kind ol an astcrn guru, or a salvationmongcring artist likc Vagncr, has a rcady mar
kct, sincc thc will to abandon this world lor a bcttcr onc lilcdcnial, in othcr words, nihil
ism in Nictzschcs most lundamcntal usc ol thc tcrm is thc basic charactcr ol modcrnity.
+
Tis claim sccms to mc to bc strongly locatcd in thc n dc si` cclc mood ol thc pcriod in
which Nictzschc was writing. !n thc last two dccadcs ol thc ninctccnth ccntury Schopcn
haucr was bccoming thc dominant uropcan philosophcr whilc d ecadence, thc cult ol dccay,
dcviancc, and dcath, was all thc ragc in art: in Francc with 8audclairc, and in ngland
with scar Vildc and Aubrcy 8cardslcy. !n music, Vagncr was writing Tristan and Parsi-
fal whilc Mahlcr the composcr ol !eltschmerz was writing his Fesurrection Symphony.
Nictzschc actually uscs !eltschmerz, which hc parscs as lcthargy and dcprcssion, to
dcscribc thc prcvailing mood ol thc uropc ol his timc.
+6
Tc qucstion is: How rclcvant is this to us: Arc wc still nihilistic or is Nictzschcs claim
about thc dominancc ol thc ascctic idcal merely a rcport on thc n dc si` cclc mood ol his
timcs: o wc still havc, in our culturc and psychcs, at lcast an clcmcnt ol thc !d rathcr
bc out ol hcrc lccling: !s global warming gcncrating in us a kind ol latalistic nihilism: r
is cnvironmcntalism bccoming thc ncw, mcaninggiving rcligion that is rcoccupying thc
gap lclt by thc dcath ol God, a ncw rcligion with thc powcr to rcscuc us lrom thc will to
nothingncss: Noticc that on Nictzschcs linc ol thinking onc might wcll concludc that .e
nccd cnvironmcntalism just as much as thc planct docs. Hcidcggcr calls cnvironmcntalists
guardians ol thc carth. Can guardian ol thc carth rcplacc grand criminal as a mcaning
giving dcscription ol thc human csscncc that will cnablc us to nd a ncw, and hcalthicr,
mcans ol cxprcssing our will to powcr:
What Is Wrong with the Ascetic Ideal?
!
n his customary, lairmindcd objcctivc way, Nictzschc has pointcd out scvcral
advantagcs ol thc ascctic idcal which, so lar as it conccrns mainstrcam uropcan his
tory, just mcans Christianity. !t prcscrvcs social ordcr, prcvcnts ghctto uprisings, prcvcnts
thc undcrclasscs lrom taking thcir miscry out on cach othcr, rcduccs thc violcncc ol mastcrs
against slavcs, and on top ol all that givcs us a mcaning ol lilc, a goal that allows thc will
to powcr to cxprcss itscll. Tc qucstion, thcrclorc, bccomcs acutc: Vhat, actually, is wrong
with thc ascctic idcal:
Nictzschcs lundamcntal objcction is simplc and has bccn with him sincc Human, ll-
Too-Human: thc pricst, thc doctor to thc sick who is sick himscll, combats only thc sucr
ing itscll, thc discomlort ol thc sucrcr . . . not its causc, not thc actual statc ol bcing ill this
must constitutc our most lundamcntal objcction to pricstly mcdication.
+
Tc main mcans
is to producc an cxccss ol lccling,
+8
strong cmotions, paroxysms ol unknown happincss,
which, whcn rclcascd, combat lcthargy. Altcrwards, howcvcr, likc a narcotic, thcy only
lcavc thc sick sickcr than thcy wcrc bclorc.
+
!n its most gcncral lorm, wc know, thc sucring in qucstion is thc caging ol thc wild
bcasts will to powcr,
+8o
Frcuds discontcnts that arc thc pricc ol civilization. Vhat is thc
rcligious narcotic uscd to combat this physiological lccling ol obstruction and conscqucnt
dcprcssion and (world) wcarincss:
+8+
Sincc, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc pcrsistcntly rclcrs
to Vagncrs music as a narcotic, what hc has in mind, ! think, is thc vision ol paradisc
,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ocrcd by Christian or quasiChristian art. Vhy docs thc narcotic makc thc sick sickcr:
Nictzschcs claim, it sccms to mc, is that though thc big picturc, which rcduccs our carthly
cxistcncc to a bricl chaptcr in a long story with a happy cnding, lilts dcprcssion lor a bricl
momcnt, its ovcrall ccct is to makc thc littlc picturc cvcn worsc. ncc onc has bccn in
paradisc, thc rcsulting nostalgia makcs it cvcn hardcr to bc cnthusiastic about mundanc
lilc that it was bclorc. Tc up ol all drugs, Nictzschc bclicvcs (hc had, as wc havc sccn,
considcrablc cxpcricncc ol drugs), is always outwcighcd by thc down ol thc withdrawal
symptoms.
Science and the Ascetic Ideal
V
hat, Nictzschc asks, is it about human naturc that has cnablcd thc ascctic idcal to
dominatc Vcstcrn culturc lor two millcnnia: Tc answcr hc suggcsts, is simplc: up
to now thcrc has bccn no altcrnativc, no countcridcal to thc ascctic idcal.
+8:
Givcn, thcn,
that man would rathcr will nothingncss than not will, thc lact that thcrc havc bccn no rival
candidatcs mcans that thc ascctic idcal has bccn, as it wcrc, clcctcd unopposcd.
+8
Tc up to now makcs clcar thc point ! havc bccn cmphasising throughout this book, that
Nictzschc is no mcrc critic, that hc conccivcs himscll as ocring a positivc countcridcal
to Christianity. !n Ecce Homos commcnts on thc Genealogy
+8
hc says thcrc had bccn no
countcridcal until the ad.ent of Zarathustra. Tis work, as wc know, is supposcd to dividc
history into two halvcs
+8
by, quitc cvidcntly, providing, or at lcast clcarly signposting, a
countcridcal.
Survcying thc currcnt sccnc, thc third cssay now asks: Vhcrc arc thc countcridcalists:
Arc thcrc any opponcnts ol thc ascctic idcal:
+86
Vhcrc is thc countcrpart to thc ascctic
idcal that mirrors it by ocring its own onc goal to ovcrridc all othcrs:
+8
(Noticc thc cqua
tion bctwccn opponcnt and countcridcalist, an cquation which implics that thc oppo
ncnt cannot bc a mere critic: to rcpcat Te Gay Sciences asscrtion oncc again, only as crcators
can wc dcstroy.)
+88
Nictzschc bcgins with a ncgativc point: scicncc is not a gcnuinc opponcnt ol thc ascctic
idcal. Tc modcrn agc scts up scicncc as thc opponcnt ol thc ascctic idcal with its own
onc goal (namcly truth), but in lact scicncc is only thc ascctic idcals most rcccnt and
noblc manilcstation.
+8
Undcr scicntist Nictzschc includcs philosophcrs and scholars
and charactcriscs thcm as unbclicvcrs and athcists.
+o
So hc is talking about human as
wcll as natural scicntists, and particularly about thosc ol an antimctaphysical cast ol mind.
Conspicuously, thcrclorc, hc is talking about himscll.
Vhy arc scicntists manilcstations rathcr than opponcnts ol thc ascctic idcal: 8ccausc
thcy havc an unconditioncd will to truth and so, without knowing it, thcy arm anothcr
world. To undcrstand this, Nictzschc rclcrs us to scction ol Te Gay Science,
++
which
wc discusscd in thc prcvious chaptcr (pp. + abovc). Tcrc, to rccapitulatc, hc argucd
that sincc lalsc bclicls arc somctimcs morc bcnccial to lilc than truc oncs, a commitmcnt
to truth at whatcvcr cost commits onc to valuing somcthing highcr than lilc. !n arming
truth at any pricc wc arc arming a principlc that is hostilc to lilc. !n doing so hcrc thcrc
appcars lor thc rst timc a phrasc that plays a crucial rolc in Nictzschcs nal works thcrc
cxists a hiddcn will to dcath.
+:
Far, thcn, lrom opposing it, scicncc is a closct armer ol
thc ascctic idcal.
Te Genealogy of Morals

,:
As ! pointcd out in thc prcvious chaptcr, Nictzschc knows pcrlcctly wcll that thc rcallilc
motivcs ol scicntists only rarcly includc thc will to truth at any pricc. Vhat, thcrclorc, hc
is rcally attacking, ! suggcstcd, is himself and F ee, who really did subscribc to truth, intcl
lcctual clcanlincss, at any pricc in thcir programmc ol psychological obscrvation morc
accuratcly, ol psychological undcrmining. Vhat, howcvcr, about thc author ol thc Gene-
alogy of Morals: ocs he lail to bc a gcnuinc opponcnt ol thc ascctic idcal bccausc, covcrtly,
hc still subscribcs to it:
All grcat things, Nictzschc writcs, succumbing to a Hcgclian momcnt, bring about thcir
own dcmisc through an act ol scllcanccllation (Selbstaufhebung).
+
So it is that, through
thc agcncy ol modcrn scicntists, Christianity has ovcrcomc itscll. Christian morality has
ovcrcomc Christian mctaphysics. Christian morality itscll, thc conccpt ol truthlulncss
hcrc Nictzschc quotcs dircctly lrom scction ol Te Gay Science translatcd and sub
limatcd into scicntic conscicncc, into intcllcctual clcanlincss at any pricc, is what has
conquered thc Christian god.
+
Arc wc thcn to concludc that (a) Nictzschc appro.es ol this nal manilcstation ol thc
ascctic idcal and (b) sccs himscll as part ol it: Not so. For at this point hc idcntics a
lurthcr task lor Christian truthlulncss: having dcmolishcd thc Christian God, it must now
turn its attcntion to Christian morality including the .ery .ill to truth itself. Vhat wc
must now rccognisc is that thc will to truth is itscll a problcm.
+
Tus, Nictzschc would
say, by qucstioning thc validity ol thc unconditional will to truth, hc has raiscd himscll
out of thc ascctic idcal. Having uscd thc laddcr ol Christian truthlulncss to climb out ol
Christian mctaphysics, hc is now kicking it away bcncath him. Noticc, hcrc, thc plausibility
ol my carlicr suggcstion that Nictzschc is bcst sccn as, not an opponcnt, but rathcr a radical
continuation ol thc Protcstant Protcstant tradition in which hc was brought up. Vhat
ovcrcomcs, rst Christian mctaphysics, and thcn Christian morality, is Christian morality
Christian truthlulncss

itscll.
Vhat docs qucstioning thc will to truth, turning it into an issue, mcan lor Nictzschc: !t
mcans clcvating lilc, healthy life, into a highcr valuc than truth. !l sclldcccption, illusion,
is what bcst promotcs your psychic hcalth that is what you should go lor. Tis, howcvcr, by
no mcans rcprcscnts thc dcmisc ol thc will to truth, lor hcrc is Nictzschcs vcry last word,
in Ecce Homo, on thc qucstion ol thc rclativc valuc ol truth and illusion:
How much truth can a spirit bear, how much truth can a spirit dare: Tat bccamc lor mc
morc and morc thc rcal mcasurc ol valuc. rror ( bclicl in thc idcal

) is co.ardice . . . vcry
stcp lorward in knowlcdgc is thc rcsult ol couragc, ol scvcrity towards oncscll, ol clcanlincss
with rcspcct to oncscll.
+6

Tc idca that thc Christian virtuc ol truthlulncss cntails tclling thc truth at all costs strikcs mc
as an cvidcnt and strangc wcakncss in Nictzschcs argumcnt. For onc would think it obvious that
Christian compassion would accommodatc, cvcn cncouragc, thc occasional whitc lic. ! can only
assumc that an unconditional prohibition on lictclling was part ol thc Protcstant tradition in which
Nictzschc grcw up. (Kant, his lcllow Protcstant and lcllow Prussian, lamously wrotc an cssay dcny
ing that thcrc could e.er bc a right to tcll a whitc lic.) ! havc suggcstcd alrcady that thc scicntic
conscicncc Nictzschc is talking about is, ccntrally, that bclonging to thc author ol Human, ll-Too-
Human. nly, ! think, il thc argumcnt is takcn in this autobiographical way is it at all plausiblc.

!n othcr words, thc scntimcntalizcd lalsication ol rcality by darling idcalists such as Malwida von
Mcyscnbug (pp. o8 abovc).
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
!l, in othcr words, onc is a suprcmcly hcalthy, suprcmcly noblc, typc onc .ill havc thc
will to truth at any pricc sincc onc will bc condcnt that onc can pay any pricc. As Te
Gay Science puts it, Hc who is richcst in lullncss ol lilc, thc ionysian god or man, can
aord thc sight ol what is most tcrriblc and qucstionablc bccausc hc is conscious ol an
ovcrowol procrcating lcrtilizing lorccs capablc ol translorming cvcry dcscrt into bountilul
larmland.
+
Unlikc thc wcakcr spirit who nccds thc crutch ol illusion and thc convalcsccnt
who nccds supcrciality out ol prolundity (p. o abovc), thc suprcmcly hcalthy can
(in a manncr that will bc discusscd in thc ncxt chaptcr) will thc ctcrnal rcturn in lull and
uninching knowlcdgc ol all that is black and squidlikc in thc world. At thc cnd ol thc
story, thcrclorc, thc unconditional will to truth bccomcs thc critcrion ol psychic hcalth.
Masters of the Universe
S
omc timc ago wc sct out to discovcr what thc third cssay has to say by way ol charactcr
ising Nictzschcs countcridcal to Christianity, his vision ol a bcttcr luturc. !ts rcally
positivc contribution occurs in scction .
All good things wcrc oncc bad things, Nictzschc writcs, cxpounding oncc again his thc
ory ol cultural dcvclopmcnt. Marriagc uscd to bc considcrcd an inlringcmcnt ol communal
rights, law was oncc vicwcd as an inlringcmcnt ol thc right to a vcndctta. !t is thus impcr
ativc that wc protcct and promotc thc lcw spiritually cxccptional pcoplc, mans strokc|s| ol
luck (random mutations as ! havc callcd thcm), as thc agcnts ol thc capacity lor cultural
changc that is csscntial to a hcalthy community. Tc lorccs ol conscrvatism will, ol coursc,
turn most ol thcm into martyrs but with luck, among thc survivors, thcrc will bc thosc
who promotc thc changc that wc nccd.
nc ol thc good things which uscd to bc bad, Nictzschc continucs, is our will to mas
tcry ol thc carth. Tough wc arc rightly, hc sccms to say proud ol this, lor prcmodcrn
man, cvcn using thc yardstick ol thc ancicnt Grccks, our wholc modcrn cxistcncc
is nothing but hubris and godlcssncss in so lar as it is strcngth and awarcncss ol strcngth
. . . hubris today charactcriscs our wholc attitudc towards naturc, our rapc ol naturc with
thc hclp ol machincs and thc complctcly unscrupulous invcntivcncss ol tcchnicians and
cnginccrs. Hubris charactcriscs our attitudc to God, or rathcr somc allcgcd spidcr ol pur
posc and cthics . . . and it charactcriscs our attitudc to oursel.es lor wc cxpcrimcnt on our
sclvcs in a way wc would ncvcr allow on animals, wc mcrrily viviscct our souls out ol curi
osity . . . Altcrwards wc hcal oursclvcs . . . Vc violatc oursclvcs . . . wc arc nutcrackcrs ol thc
soul, qucstioning and qucstionablc, trcating lilc as though it wcrc nothing but thc cracking
ol nuts.
Tc rst obscrvation to makc about this passagc is that it docs not endorse hubris
ovcrwccning, unjusticd pridc, which, in Grcck tragcdy, lcads to rctribution and down
lall. Rathcr, it says that modcrnitys stancc to naturc and to human naturc .ould ha.e been
considered hubris cvcn by thc Grccks, who wcrc by no mcans dccicnt in pridc. Tc sccond
thing to bc noticcd is that sincc Nictzschc himscll Nictzschc thc undcrmining psycholo
gical obscrvcr and gcncalogical dcconstructor ol cthics is thc nutcrackcr ol thc soul par
excellence, thc passagc has to bc scllrccxivc. Tis mcans that though thc usc ol thc word
Te Genealogy of Morals

,
qucstionablc might suggcst that hc intcnds to condcmn thc modcrn stancc to naturc this
cannot in lact bc thc casc sincc that would bc to condcmn all his own work.
Vhat thc passagc docs, it sccms to mc, is to endorse modcrnitys unlimitcd will to powcr
ovcr both naturc and human naturc. !t is onc ol thosc things which uscd to bc considcrcd
bad playing God but is rcally good. And hcrc, it sccms, Nictzschc ocrs us a ncw onc
goal to ovcrridc all othcr goals, an ultimatc goal to rcplacc thc onc goal ol Christianity:
making oursclvcs mastcrs ol thc univcrsc.
A glancc into thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod makcs this clcar. So wc rcad, lor cxamplc,
that what is ncccssary in placc ol thc old morality is a rcvcrsal ol valucs which will pro
ducc a morality that has thc intcntion ol brccding a ruling castc thc luturc masters of the
earth.
+8
!n Te Gay Science Napolcon is admircd lor wanting to makc uropc mistrcss ol
thc carth,
+
an admiration which incorporatcs thc dcsirc lor thc domination ol thc globc
by uropcan culturc that gocs back to Human, ll-Too-Human (pp. :66 abovc). !n thc
notcbooks ol +886 wc scc Nictzschc drcaming ol a timc whcn scicncc will havc such a
supcrabundancc ol |c.g., nuclcar| lorcc at its disposal that man will bc ablc to bring about
thc sla.ery of nature.
:oo
And sincc mastcry ol naturc includcs mastcry ol human naturc,
hc drcams ol a mastcr racc, thc luturc mastcrs ol thc carth, who will bc thc artists who
sculpt hcrd typcs into cxiblc tools and humanity in gcncral into a morc pcrlcct, that is
morc powcrlul, spccics.
:o+
Rccall Human, ll-Too-Humans cnthusiasm lor cugcnics.
Nictzschcs languagc ol rapc, violation, and mastcry closcly rcscmblcs that uscd by
Martin Hcidcggcr to dcscribc thc world ol modcrn tcchnology. Tc dicrcncc, howcvcr,
is that whcrcas Hcidcggcr condcmns modcrnitys unlimitcd will to powcr, hcrc at lcast,
Nictzschc cndorscs it.
Living in thc timcs wc do, wc may wcll nd oursclvcs agrccing with Hcidcggcrs con
dcmnation. Vc may wcll nd Nictzschcs approval ol thc unlimitcd will to powcr rcpcllcnt,
nd it to bc indeed hubris, thc latclul rccompcnsc lor which thc mcltdown ol our cli
matc wc arc now cxpcricncing. Tat, howcvcr, is somcthing wc havc to livc with. For
all his criticisms ol many ol thc cccts ol modcrn tcchnology, at lcast somc ol thc timc,
Nictzschc inhabitcd thc modcrnist spirit ol thc agc that invcntcd railways, clcctric powcr,
thc tclcphonc, and thc burcaucratic statc, thc agc in which thc world sccmcd tcchnologys
incxhaustiblc oystcr. Pcrhaps thc bcst that can bc said lor him is that il hc wcrc alivc now
hc would ccrtainly classily thc unlimitcd will to powcr as onc ol thosc things that uscd to
bc considcrcd good but is now bad.
Te Question of Method
L
ct mc bring this discussion ol thc Genealogy to a closc by rcturning to thc issuc raisc at
thc bcginning, thc qucstion ol whcthcr thc gcncalogical mcthod cmploycd in thc rst
two cssays is, lroma rational point ol vicw, lallacious, whcthcr thc antiChristian pcrsuasivc
powcr ol thc work is, whcthcr by dcsign or accidcnt, rhctorical rathcr than rational.
!n thc rst cssay, as wc saw, Nictzschc takcs it as a datum that thc man ol today is
sick, stuntcd . . . wastcd away . . . poisoncd.
:o:
And hc obscrvcs that, in thc past, humanity
cnjoycd blooming good hcalth. Hc thcn rccall that hc lrcqucntly dcscribcs himscll as thc
doctor ol culturc scts out to diagnosc thc origin ol thc paticnts sickncss. And so hc, as it
wcrc, asks thc paticnt: did you ingcst anything ncwand unusual at about thc timc you bcgan
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
to lccl sick: And thc paticnt rcports that it did indccd ingcst somcthing ncw and unusual,
namcly slavc morality. Lcad poisoning providcs an analogy ol Nictzschcs proccdurc. !l lcad
is what you ingcstcd shortly bclorc you rst bccamc sick thcn, quitc probably, that is thc
rcason you arc still sick.
Nictzschc backs up this by looking at thc origins ol slavc morality in ressentiment. Hc
cxhibits it as a kind ol dcvicc dclibcratcly dcsigncd lor thc purposc ol poisoning and so
discmpowcring thc opprcssivc noblcs. Tc intcntion with which a dcvicc is dcsigncd is, gcn
crally, a rcliablc indicator ol its cccts.
:o
!l wc know that thc canistcr ol gas was dcsigncd
as a wcapon ol war wc can concludc that, almost ccrtainly, thc gas it contains is poisonous.
And so, undcrstanding bcttcr thc potcntial cccts ol slavc morality, wc can add to thc lact
that Vcstcrn culturc bccamc sick altcr ingcsting slavc morality thc lact that what it ingcst
cd was in lact poisonous. Clcarly thcrc is not thc slightcst hint ol irrationality in this pro
ccdurc. !t is, on thc contrary, a paradigm ol powcrlul, rational, mcdical rcasoning.
Tc argumcnt ol thc sccond cssay is a slightly morc complicatcd application ol thc samc
diagnostic proccdurc. Tc datum is a spccic aspcct ol modcrn humanitys sickncss, our
bad conscicncc, lack ol scllcstccm. Tc qucstion oncc again is, what has causcd it: And
thc answcr is that it originatcd in thc intcrnalizcd aggrcssion ol thc human animal cagcd
bchind thc bars ol civilization, an aggrcssion that was thcn shapcd, cndorscd, and massivcly
intcnsicd by Christianity. From this, Nictzschc concludcs that Christianity is thc major
contributory causc ol our currcnt sickncss. His thcrapy is a morality that rcturns humanity
to an cstccm lor its basic instinct ol aggrcssion, but onc which has thc samc civilization
prcscrving eect as Christian morality by cndorsing cultural rathcr than natural, sublimatcd
rathcr than crudcly physical lorms ol its cxprcssion. ncc again wc arc prcscntcd with
a paradigm ol mcdical rcasoning, a paradigm that contains not thc slightcst hint ol thc
irrational or thc mcrcly polcmical.
24
+888
Winter in Nice
T
nv vv~v +888 bcgan, as its prcdcccssor had nishcd, cold. Sitting in his room in
thc Pcnsion dc Gcn` cvc, rcdccoratcd with his own choicc ol dark, rcddishbrown
wallpapcr, Nictzschc lound thc stovc importcd lrom Naumburg dc rigucur with
rcspcct to thc othcrwisc intractablc blucngcr problcm. Scatcd at his largc writing tablc
hc had bcgun scrious work on what was intcndcd to bc thc main cvcnt ol his lilc, thc pro
duction ol his systcmatic mastcrwork,
+
Te !ill to Po.er, to which all his prcvious works
wcrc thc mcrc prcludc. Tis was to bc a lourvolumc work ol cxtrcmc and rigorous scrious
ncss
:
that would providc a grounding and synoptic cxposition ol his cntirc philosophy. 8y
Fcbruary + hc had complctcd thc rst dctailcd plan (with thc titlc now altcrcd to ttempt
at a Fe.aluation of ll !alues). 8ut though hc continucd to work stcadily, hc sucrcd lrom
diarrhoca and insomnia, with his spirits not improvcd by lailing to win thc hallmillion
lranc prizc in thc Nicc lottcry undcr thc wcathcr.
Sincc many ol his lcllowgucsts wcrc, likc him, hoping thc Nicc climatc would amclioratc
thcir various conditions, dinncrtablc convcrsation in thc pcnsion ccntrcd on climatc and
hcalth. A lady lrom 8crlin, lor cxamplc, sucring lrom a kind ol mclancholic dcspcration
at homc and scarccly ablc to lcavc thc housc, had, shc claimcd, bccn complctcly curcd by thc
dry air ol Nicc. Ashort sharp changc ol air, Nictzschc agrccd, had much to rccommcnd it.

As wcll as thc right climatc, a rigorous and unchanging daily routinc was, hc lclt, csscn
tial: to bcd at ninc, up at sixthirty, tca with two rusks, an hours walk in thc morning, lunch
at noon, thrcc hours walking in thc altcrnoon, always thc samc routc, dinncr at six, no winc,
bccr, spirits, or cocc, always thc samc, day altcr day.

To rclicvc thc monotony, at thc bcginning ol January hc took himscll o to anothcr

conccrt in Montc Carlo. Tis, howcvcr, provcd a disastcr: C csar Franck and othcr mod
crn Frcnch music or, to spcak morc clcarly, bad Vagncr . . . ncrvous, brutal, insucrablc,
dcmanding, and boastlul and so tartcd up.

!t was, hc concludcd, purc d ecadence, just likc

8audclairc libcrtinc, mystical, satanic, but abovc all Vagncrian.
6
(n thc 8audclairc
Vagncr anity scc pp. bclow.) A couplc ol months latcr, on thc othcr hand, hc was

,
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
charmcd by thrcc picccs by cnbach, buooncry but in thc lorm ol classical tastc, com
plctcly logical . . . wondcrlully Parisian,

a commcnt manilcsting thc cvcrincrcasing tastc

lor light music that markcd his nal ycar ol sanity. (Te Gay Science, wc know, spcaks ol
wc convalcsccnts as nccding supcrciality out ol prolundity, as nccding an untroublcd,
divincly articial art.
8
!t is possiblc to suspcct that it was a dim intimation ol thc approach
ing abyss that lcd to Nictzschcs incrcasing nccd lor supcrcial music.)
As +888 progrcsscd, Nictzschc bccamc cvcr morc conccrncd by thc uropcan political
situation, by thc armcd pcacc bctwccn, on thc onc sidc, Russia and Francc, and on thc
othcr, thc Triplc Alliancc ol Gcrmany, Tc AustroHungarian mpirc, and !taly. Triplc
Alliancc with thc Feich an intclligcnt pcoplc can only cntcr a m esalliance hc wrotc at thc
cnd ol thc ycar.

8ristling likc a hcdgchog with wcapons undcr thc aggrcssivc policics ol

8ismarck and thc ninctyycarold mpcror Villiam!, Gcrmany, hc bclicvcd, was thc prin
cipal dangcr to uropcan pcacc. His cxpcricnccs on thc battlccld ol thc FrancoPrussian
war scarcd into his mcmory, Nictzschc lcarcd that uropc was on thc brink ol a catastrophc
ol unprcccdcntcd scalc. His nal hopc lor thc housc ol Hohcnzollcrn was thc crown princc,
Fricdrich, who nally bccamc mpcror ol thc Feich on March , +888. 8y this timc, how
cvcr, hc had dcvclopcd throat canccr, lrom which hc would dic ninctyninc days latcr in
San Rcmo.
Nictzschc admircd Fricdrich. Hc was distraught by thc ncws that hc was dying and, lcd
inlormation by his ncighbour at dinncr, a 8aroncss Pl anckcr who claimcd to bc a closc
lricnd ol thc mprcss, suspcctcd that dark lorccs, cithcr nglish or Gcrman, wcrc con
niving to obstruct a potcntially lilcsaving trachcotomy.
+o
You will bc surpriscd, hc wrotc
K osclitz, that ! am scriously acctcd by thc ncws lrom San Rcmo.
++
Nictzschcs conccrn
is indccd surprising, sincc Fricdrich, unlikc his antiquatcd and ultraconscrvativc lathcr,
was a libcral. Marricd to Princcss \ictoria, Quccn \ictorias daughtcr \icky, and strongly
inucnccd by his lcllow Gcrman, thc cstimablc Princc Albcrt, hc was an admircr ol 8ritish
cabinct govcrnmcnt and parliamcntary dcmocracy. (Had hc not dicd and bccn succccdcd
by his arrogantly macho son, Villiam !!, thc First Vorld Var might ncvcr havc happcncd.)
As wcll as bcing a supcrb horscman and gcncral, Fricdrich was a man ol widc culturc
with a command ol vc languagcs. Vhat Nictzschc admircd in him was not his political
but rathcr his cultural libcralism thc last glimmcr ol lrccthinking in Gcrmany
+:
as
wcll as his lrccdom lrom antiScmitism. Tc dcath ol thc mpcror |Fricdrich|, hc wrotc
K osclitz in midJunc, has grcatly movcd mc: in thc cnd, hc was thc last hopc lor Gcrmany.
Now bcgins thc rcgimc ol St ockcr: ! draw thc conclusion and know alrcady that now
my Vill to Powcr is going to bc conscatcd rst ol all in Gcrmany.
+
(As notcd alrcady,
St ockcr appropriatcly christcncd Adoll was a lcading antiScmitc.)
Iirst Visit to Turin
S
pring and autumn, thc intcrmczzi bctwccn his summcr and wintcr homcs, wcrc, as wc
know, thc worst timcs ol thc ycar lor Nictzschc. As it oncc again bccamc timc to lcavc
Nicc, hc lay awakc a wholc night agonising about his spring problcm. Tc !talian lakcs
wcrc too humid and dcprcssing, Zurich was impossiblc at all timcs ol ycar, and, in spring,
cvcrywhcrc clsc in Switzcrland was still too cnvclopcd in lowcloud, mist, and wintcr.
+
And
thcn camc a suggcstion lrom K osclitz: Turin.
:

,
Tc journcy thcrc was morc than usually disastrous. Shortsightcd and dithcry, Nictz
schc changcd into thc wrong train and cndcd up in Gcnoa whcrc, too sick to continuc, hc
wandcrcd around lor two days, lost in old mcmorics. His clcarhcadcd luggagc, on thc othcr
hand, kcpt to thc original intcntion and arrivcd, as planncd, in Turin.
+
Vhcn, howcvcr,
hc nally arrivcd, on April , it was lovc at rst sight:
Vhat a noblc and scrious town! Not at all a big city |its population was about oo,ooo|, not
at all modcrn, as !d lcarcd. Rathcr, a princcly rcsidcncc ol thc +th ccntury which has only
onc commanding tastc cvcrywhcrc, that ol court and nobility. An aristocratic quictncss is
prcscrvcd in cvcrything: thcrc arc no shabby suburbs, a unity ol tastc down to thc mattcr
ol colour (cvcrything is cithcr ycllow or rcdbrown).
+6
As il dcsigncd cxprcssly lor his nccds, Turin posscsscd ovcr a kilomctrc ol covcrcd arcadcs
through which hc could walk in all wcathcrs. And thc sight ol thc Alps, thc mountain air
and watcr, thc bookshops, wcllstockcd in thrcc languagcs, thc cxccllcnt lood chcap on
account ol thc many young pcoplc attcnding thc univcrsity and thc military acadcmy
thc scrcnc rivcr Po bounding thc city on thc ast with parkland and a shadcd boulcvard
on thc othcr sidc, all occasioncd ccstasics ol praisc. vcnings on thc Po bridgc, hc wrotc,
hcavcnly! 8cyond good and cvil!!
+
Hc lovcd thc cal c lilc (as hc had as a studcnt in Lcipzig),
bccamc a connoisscur ol gclato, which hc lound to bc ol thc highcst culturc, and lovcd thc
palm court orchcstra which somctimcs accompanicd it (without raising thc pricc abovc thc
usual thirty ccnts).
+8
Tc cal c . . . a dcmitassc ol paradisc hc wrotc in his notcbooks.
+
Nictzschc lovcd Turins rich musical lilc. Hc listcncd to Rossini, Tchaikovsky, and Gold
mark (a hundrcd timcs bcttcr than Vagncr),
:o
and congratulatcd thc city lor cxtcnding
Carmens run at thc Tcatro Carignano to two months at thc cxpcnsc ol thrcc othcr opcras.
And hc lovcd thc lact that opcrctta was availablc almost all thc timc duc to thc cxistcncc
ol two compcting opcrctta companics. !n Turin his tastc lor light music bccamc cvcr morc
indiscriminatc, to thc point whcrc hc lovcd almost anything, as long as it was thc oppo
sitc ol Vagncrian portcntousncss. Tc only cxccption was Johann Strauss: sincc Gcrmanic
scntimcntality is as bad as Gcrmanic carncstncss, !ienerei = Sch.eineri, hc dccidcd.
:+
Strangcly, Nictzschc lound, his hcalth rapidly improvcd cvcn though thc wcathcr, miscr
ablc on arrival and continuing oltcn ovcrcast, rainy, and loggy, was thc oppositc ol what hc
had prcscribcd lor himscll. (Hc ncvcr sccms to havc propcrly conccdcd, howcvcr, thc rclu
tation ol all his thcorics about thc dcpcndcncc ol hcalth on climatc.) Hc took up rcsidcncc
in thc apartmcnt ol a ncwspapcrkiosk owncr, avidc Fino, on thc supcrb Piazza Carlo
Albcrto. His balconicd window on thc lourth oor (thc Fino lamily livcd bclow on thc
third) ol 6 \ia Carlo Albcrto prcscntcd thc suitably aristocratic sight ol thc statuc ol Carlo
Albcrto, King ol Picdmont lrom+8+ to +8, in lull military unilormwith his sabrc raiscd
to thc sky.
Sic Incipit Gloria Mundi
F
romTurin, Nictzschcs corrcspondcncc with 8randcs continucd to ourish. Tcy agrccd
that modcrn civilisation is a problcmrathcr than a solution. Nictzschc told 8randcs that
Part !\ ol Zarathustra could wcll bcar thc titlc Tc tcmptation ol Zarathustra and that it
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
is thc bcst answcr to his doubts about Nictzschcs critiquc ol pity. Hc told him that thc
goldmakcr such as himscll, who makcs goldcn what mankind most lcars and dcspiscd,
is its grcatcst bcnclactor.
::
Tc most cxciting ncws 8randcs dclivcrcd was that hc had hcld a cyclc ol vc lccturcs
bctwccn April +o and May 8 dcvotcd to Nictzschcs cntirc philosophy up to and includ
ing thc Genealogy, and that it had bccn a trcmcndous succcss, cach lccturc bcing attcnd
cd by ovcr thrcc hundrcd pcoplc. Nictzschc was givcn to claiming that whilc composcrs
without lamc arc likc girls no onc will dancc with, philosophcrs nd lamc mcrcly bur
dcnsomc.
:
Noncthclcss, bursting with joy, hc rcportcd ncws ol thc lccturc scrics with
imaginativc cmbcllishmcnts to ncarly cvcry corrcspondcnt. !n his notcbooks hc adopts
thc pompous tonc ol a public proclamation:
!t will bc ol valuc to thc lricnds ol thc philosophcr Fricdrich Nictzschc to hcar that last
wintcr thc intclligcnt anc, r. Gcorg 8randcs, dclivcrcd an cxtcndcd lccturc cyclc at thc
Univcrsity ol Copcnhagcn dcvotcd to thc alorcmcntioncd philosophcr . . . Tc audicncc ol
ovcr oo pcoplc showcd such livcly intcrcst lor this ncw and bold modc ol thinking in
Gcrman philosophy that thcy gavc thc spcakcr and his thcmc a standing ovation.
:
K osclitz pointcd out that 8randcss lccturcs constitutcd Nictzschcs brcakthrough to lamc.
To havc caught thc cyc ol a man ol uropcwidc rcputation, a man who wrotc in Frcnch,
Gcrman, Swcdish, Russian, and Polish, as wcll as in his nativc anish, cnsurcd that hc
would bccomc lamous. Nictzschc agrccd. Sic incipit Gloria mundi, hc wrotc with acctcd
indicrcncc on a postcard to cusscn Tus bcgins worldly glory, a pun on thc lamiliar
antidotc to hubris, Tus passcs (Sic transit) worldly glory.
:
To aid thc PR proccss, Nictzschc dccidcd 8randcs nccdcd an uptodatc curriculum
vitac, which hc providcd, mixing truth and ction in cqual proportions. Hc was born on
thc battlccld ol L utzcn (ncar, not on) dcsccndcd lrom Polish nobility (complctcly lalsc).
His grandmothcr bclongcd to thc SchillcrGocthc circlc in Vcimar (a modicd vcrsion ol
thc grandma was Gocthcs lovcr story, but still lalsc). And so on.
:6
Usually as a rcsult ol 8randcss corts, Nictzschc bcgan to rcccivc lcttcrs lrom Ncw York
and St. Pctcrsburg which (though in thc cnd thc suggcstions ol translating himinto nglish
and Russian camc to nothing) lcd him to bclicvc hc was bccoming lamous in Amcrica and
Russia cvcrywhcrc, indccd, savc in Gcrmany. Tis had thc ccct ol incrcasing his lury
against thc country ol his languagc and birth. Tough thcy havc cclcbratcd mc this wintcr
in cnmark |as| . . . thc most indcpcndcnt spirit in uropc and thc only Gcrman writcr,
hc wrotc Malwida, and though somcthing similar is about to happcn in Ncw York, in
thc dcar Fathcrland, il thcy noticc mc at all, thcy trcat mc as somconc who bclongs in a
mad housc (a rcvicwcr, rccall, had dcclarcd Beyond Good and E.il to bc bordcring on thc
pathological (p. o6 abovc)). Tc crctinism ol 8ayrcuth, hc continucd, riding roughshod
ovcr Malwidas known loyalty to Vagncr, stands in my way. Tc old scduccr, Vagncr, cvcn
altcr his dcath, takcs away lrommc thosc rcmaining mcn on whom! could havc an ccct.
:
8randcs pcrsuadcd thc grcat Swcdish playwright August Strindbcrg, onc ol thc lathcrs
ol modcrn rcalistic thcatrc, to rcad Nictzschc, with thc rcsult that hc bccamc an ardcnt
lan, parroting Nictzschcs own judgmcnt (p. + bclow) that Zarathustra was undoubtcdly
thc most prolound book man posscsscs.
:8
Sincc 8randcs had dcscribcd Strindbcrg as a
:

,,
truc gcnius, cvcn il slightly mad,
:
this morc than anything, pcrhaps, pcrsuadcd Nictz
schc that hc had nally arrivcd. A livcly corrcspondcncc grcw up bctwccn thc two slightly
mad writcrs. Nictzschc rcad Strindbcrgs play, P ere, a domcstic tragcdy conccrning a powcr
strugglc bctwccn husband and wilc. ! was dccply movcd, hc wrotc Strindbcrg, and was
amazcd to nd a work cxprcssing in such a grand way my own conccption ol lovc thc
mcans arc war and thc ground is dcadly hatrcd bctwccn thc scxcs.
,o
To vcrbcck hc
braggcd, Tc Swcdish gcnius, Strindbcrg, holds mc to bc thc grcatcst psychologist ol thc
ctcrnal lcmininc
+
with in lact somc justicc, sincc Strindbcrg wrotc 8randcs, Nictz
schc is my man . . . naturally a womanhatcr likc all giltcd mcn. (Strindbcrg borc thc scars
ol thrcc marriagcs and thrcc bittcr divorccs.)
n onc occasion Nictzschc addrcsscs 8randcs as honourcd Hcrr Cosmopoliticus
:

thcrcby turning a lamiliar antiScmitic slur into thc virtuc ol bcing a good uropcan. (As
cosmopolitan in outlook, Jcws, thc antiScmitcs claimcd, had no loyalty to thc statc, a slur
that undoubtcdly contributcd to thc rcylus aair about to brcak out in Francc.) nc
major ground ol Nictzschcs antiantiScmitism was his gratclul knowlcdgc that whatcvcr
lamc hc might achicvc was duc, almost cntircly, to thc corts ol Jcws: among othcrs,
Lipincr, Zimmcrn, Lansky, Pancth, and abovc all, 8randcs. Vithout Jcws thcrc is no
immortality,

hc wrotc K osclitz.
lizabcth was awarc ol thc samc thing. Vriting to vcrbcck at Christmas, +888, Nictz
schc rcportcd that thc Paraguay vcnturc was collapsing: thc scttlcrs, scduccd thcrc by lalsc
promiscs, wcrc dcmanding thcir moncy back, but it had all vanishcd and violcncc had
brokcn out. Yct, Nictzschc continucd, this had not dctcrrcd lizabcth lrom writing with
thc utmost contcmpt, that ! might wcll want to bccomc lamous. Tats vcry nicc! And
what a rabblc !vc choscn as a mcans Jcws, likc Gcorg 8randcs, who havc lickcd in cvcry
pot

(a vcrsion, prcsumably, ol thc cosmopolitan slur). Clcarly, in his last wccks ol rcla
tivc sanity, rclations bctwccn Nictzschc and his sistcr wcrc at thc lowcst possiblc cbb. As a
rcsponsc to hcr slur on 8randcs, hc skctchcd a lcttcr bidding hcr a nal larcwcll.

Iast Summer in Sils Maria

A
s Junc arrivcd, it was again timc lor Nictzschc to cscapc thc summcr hcat. Hc kncwthat
thc cvidcncc no longcr supportcd his scllprcscription ol pcrmancnt mild wintcr
Strangc, hc wrotc K osclitz, though it was + dcgrccs day altcr day going down only to
:: at night !, thc most scnsitivc pcrson to hcat, didnt sucr at all
6
but stuck doggcdly
to his routinc. As usual, thcrclorc, hc dccidcd on summcr in thc mountains, on his scvcnth
summcr in my old summcr rcsidcncc, Sils Maria: thc uppcr ngadinc my landscapc, so
distant lrom lilc, so mctaphysical |mctaphysical|.

Tc movc, howcvcr, provcd a bad onc. Tough thcrc was now a dircct train lrom Turin to
Chiavcnna, just short ol thc Swiss boardcr, thc long train journcy, lollowcd by thc post coach

Tis vicw ol lovc nds its way into thc sccond scction ol Te !agner Case. Unlikc Vagncr, who
rcprcscnts lovc as scllsacricing Scntascntimcntality Carmen prcscnts lovc as it rcally is:
fatality, cynical, innoccnt, crucl. . . . Lovc whosc mcthod is war, whosc basis is deadly hatred bet.een
the sexes. nc may gucss that this rcprcscnts Nictzschcs currcnt lcclings towards Lou Salom c and
surmisc that, as only dcath tcrminatcs on Joscs lovchatc lor Carmcn, only his own spiritual
dcath tcrminatcd his lovchatc lor Lou.
,,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
to Sils, whcrc hc arrivcd on Junc , prostratcd him with a wccklong attack ol hcadachcs
and vomiting. And lor thc ncxt couplc ol months, indccd, his hcath continucd in vcry bad
shapc indccd, absurd,
8
as hc put it.
Tc wcathcr that grcctcd him was also absurd. !ts cxccptional warmth and humidity
causcd many avalanchcs onc stoppcd just short ol thc urisch housc which rcmovcd
wholc lorcsts lrom thcir hillsidcs. (Nictzschc notcs with intcrcst a local law to thc ccct
that trccs uprootcd by an avalanchc arc dccmcd to bclong to thc owncr ol thc land thcy
cnd up on, so that many landowncrs rcccivcd uncxpcctcd gilts ol rcwood.) 8y midJunc,
howcvcr, it was snowing. Nictzschc rcportcd that ! sat in my cavc wondcring whcthcr thc
wcathcrman had takcn lcavc ol his scnscs.

Hc changcd into his wintcr clothcs and put

two duvcts on his bcd at night.
Somcthing that took his brcath away in midJuly was thc rcccipt ol two thousand
marks, via Paul cusscn, as a contribution to thc costs ol his programmc ol scll
publication.
o
(Mcta von Salis latcr donatcd a lurthcr thousand marks.) Nictzschc suspcct
cd cusscn himscll ol having giltcd thc moncy, but in lact it camc lrom a young, rcccntly
graduatcd Dozent ( junior lccturcr) in 8crlin, Richard M. Mcycr yct anothcr Jcwish con
tribution to thc promotion ol his carccr.
Visitors
L
caving thc lamily castlc in Chur, Mcta von Salis visitcd lor thc rst thrcc wccks ol
August. Togcthcr thcy did thc vchour walk lrom Sils to thc post occ in Silvcrplana
villagc, and on anothcr occasion walkcd lrom Maloja to scc, lor thc rst and only timc in
Nictzschcs lilc, thc dark Lakc Cavloccio. And in rough watcr thcy rowcd round his bclovcd
Chast c pcninsula in Lakc Sils. Givcn his solitary lilc, Mcta rccalls, cvcry intcrruption ol his
workllcd days was a spccial cvcnt.
+
Shc noticcd, shc latcr rccallcd, no signs ol mcntal
dcrangcmcnt at all.
:
Nictzschcs othcr walking companion was Julius Kaltan, who visitcd lor thc samc thrcc
wccks ol August. Formcrly a closc collcaguc ol vcrbccks, now prolcssor ol thcology in
8crlin, Kaltan had known Nictzschc in 8ascl. n thcir walks thcy cngagcd in scrious philo
sophical convcrsations ccntring, lrom thcir opposing vicwpoints, on thc topic ol rcligion
convcrsations which may havc stimulatcd thc writing ol thc ntichrist and possibly, too,
T.ilight of the Idols, both ol which wcrc bcgun vcry soon altcr his dcparturc. Kaltan rccalls
that, onc day,
wc walkcd up thc Fcx vallcy towards thc glacicr . . . 8y a littlc |symbolic| bridgc . . . hc camc
to a halt on thc narrow strcct and spokc in a quict voicc ol thc grcat translormation hc
had cxpcricnccd. !t was as whcn a pious pcrson discovcrs thc nothingncss ol thc world and
givcn his soul to God. Vhat hc had in mind was thc |+86| transition lrom No to Ycs.
Tat is thc basis ol all his tcaching.

!n his mcmoir, Kaltan, noting that hc was almost ccrtainly thc last pcrson to havc an cx
tcndcd philosophical convcrsation with Nictzschc, makcs a point ol stating, likc Mcta, that
hc saw not thc slightcst hint ol thc mcntal collapsc that was but lour months away.

Two othcr visitors caught Nictzschcs attcntion. nc was thc Hamburg pianist Karl
von Holtcn, who playcd a privatc conccrt ol cxccrpts lrom K osclitz compositions
:

,,:
K osclitziana, Nictzschc calls thcm, altcr Schumanns Krcislcriana.

Tcy also discusscd

thc inucntial thcory ol musical phrasing propoundcd by Hugo Ricmann, which, with its
insistcncc that cvcn thc smallcst musical clcmcnt should bc strcsscd and phrascd, Nictz
schc lclt, dissolvcd thc musical wholc into its atomic clcmcnts, a typical manilcstation ol
Vagncrian d ecadence.
Hc also continucd a long intcrmittcnt discussion ol this samc issuc with Carl Fuchs,
which had startcd way back in ctobcr +88,
6
thc lattcr writing tcn or morc pagcs at a
timc. Hc had bccomc somcwhat cool towards Fuchs on account ol thc lattcrs trying to
rcmain in good standing with thc Vagncrians. Morcovcr, Nictzschc suspcctcd (possibly
unlairly) that as organist ol thc synagoguc in anzig (Gdansk), Fuchs had spokcn ol thc
Jcwish scrvicc in thc dirticst possiblc way.

vcntually, ovcrwhclmcd by pagc altcr pagc

ol Fuchs on musical phrasing, hc trcatcd him to a dosc ol Monty Python:
Lcttcrs about phrasing to thc philosophcr ol thc rcvaluation ol all valucs! . . . !n Nicc thcy
tricd to intcrcst mc in thc qucstion ol Martians thcy had thc largcst stcllar tclcscopc in
uropc. Vhat is actually closcr to mc, Martians or phrasing: !d likc to continuc to intcrcst
myscll in r. Fuchs but with thc cxclusion ol his Martians . . . P.S. Tcy try to intcrcst
mc hcrc in thc largcst trout cvcr caught, o pounds in wcight: who knows, in this casc,
supposing thcrc to bc a good mayonnaisc saucc . . .
8
Anothcr visitor who intcrcstcd Nictzschc lrom alar was Fritz 8acdcckcr, thc Lcipzig pub
lishcr ol thc lamous 8acdcckcr travcl guidcs and son ol thc rms loundcr. Hcrr 8acdcckcr
and wilc distinguishcd, starrcd, my hotcl (Alpcnrosc) thc wholc summcr, hc wrotc von
Scydlitz, cxcitcdly.

Two rccords ol Nictzschcs nal stay in Sils allow us to stcp out ol thc pcrspcctivc ol his
lcttcrs and catch a glimpsc ol how local pcoplc saw him. A Frau F umm rccallcd, in +8,
that
thcrc wcrc thrcc womcn lrom Gcncva, a Frau Choindron with hcr two daughtcrs staying
with us in thc Fcx vallcy. n account ol thc Gcncva ladics with whom Nictzschc was
lricndly, hc camc to us thc wholc summcr twicc a wcck to drink lrcsh milk. Tc lricndly
convalcsccnt ncvcr spokc a grcat dcal . . . Vith us hc spokc Sch.yzerd utsch |Swiss dialcct,
impcnctrablc to most Gcrmans|. !n thc cnd hc sought cvcr morc to bc alonc. Vc had grcat
rcspcct lor thc strangc man with thc bushy cycbrows. Latcr, hc sucrcd hcadachcs all thc
timc. Vhcn hc did, hc walkcd without a hat and with largc damp lcavcs on his lorchcad
and hcad. Hc would stand lor a long timc motionlcss as il rootcd to thc spot staring into thc
sky. And whcn hc walkcd, swinging his arms and lcgs in a strangc way, cvcryonc laughcd at
thc poor man. Latcr thcy wantcd to crcct a mcmorial to him on Chast c |scc Platc :6 and
p. 8 abovc| . . . Tats thc way it gocs: onc only bccomcs lamous altcr onc is dcad.
o
A sccond pcrspcctivc is through thc crucl cycs ol childrcn. A Hcrr Zuan, son ol thc local
schooltcachcr, told thc visiting philosophcr Tcodor Adorno, many ycars latcr, that
a band ol childrcn, to which hc |Zuan| bclongcd, had lun by practicing throwing stoncs
into Nictzschcs closcd umbrclla, so that as soon as hc opcncd it thcy all lcll on his hcad.
,,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tcn hc would run altcr thc childrcn, thrcatcning thcmwith a raiscd umbrclla, but hc ncvcr
caught thcm.
+
!n anothcr rccollcction rccordcd in +8, Zuan rccalls that Nictzschc
walkcd lor hours cvcry day mostly in thc dircction ol Chast c. Tcrc on thc hugc stonc,
known now as thc Nictzschcstonc |Platc :6|, hc would sit staring thoughtlully in lront ol
him. And wc childrcn would thcn makc lun ol him, tcasing him, pulling at his rcd umbrclla,
and would try to put stoncs in his pockct without him noticing. For thc man with thc hugc
moustachc didnt noticc what was going on around him. Vc callcd him just thc idiot.
:

As autumn approachcd, Nictzschcs dcparturc lrom Sils was dclaycd by massivc oods.
Much ol thc villagc was undcr watcr, thc Chast c pcninsula (Halbinsel, hallisland, in
Gcrman) bccamc a complctc island. Vith his ncvcragging tastc lor statistics, Nictz
schc rcportcd to cusscn that ::o millimctrcs ol watcr had lallcn in lour days, whcrcas
thc wholc ol Scptcmbcr normally rcccivcd only 8o.

Finally, on Scptcmbcr :o, thc watcrs

rclcntcd a littlc, and so hc dcpartcd oncc morc lor Turin.
Writings in Sils Maria: Te Wagner Case
T
owards thc cnd ol thc Turin spring, Nictzschc dccidcd to takc timc out lrom work
on thc mastcrwork to writc Te !agner Case. Vhy hc did this is unclcar. n thc onc
hand, hc dcscribcs it as a rccrcation

, on thc othcr as (yct anothcr) dcclaration ol war

on Richard Vagncr.

Sincc, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc was still lull ol rcscntmcnt against

thc old scduccr lor, cvcn posthumously, continuing to dcprivc him ol potcntial lollowcrs,
onc would hardly think thc dcclaration ol war a mcrc rccrcation. Tc truth, ! think, is that
rclativc to thc as Nictzschc was nding incrcasingly dicult task ol making thc !ill to
Po.er thc mastcrpiccc hc wantcd it to bc, dcsccnt to thc lcvcl ol polcmics was a rclaxation,
a rclcasc ol intcllcctual tcnsion.
Var with Vagncr, and all hc now stood lor Gcrman chauvinism, antiScmitism,
d ecadence in art was, thcn, onc motivc lor thc work. 8ut anothcr, prctty clcarly, was thc
dcsirc to bc noticcd. !n thc +88os, Vagncr rcmaincd a hot cultural topic. Tc Gcrman
mpcror (Fricdrich) had dcclarcd thc Vagncr movcmcnt a mattcr ol national impor
tancc.
6
Morcovcr, thc last ol Nictzschcs works to havc bccn widcly rcad was his !agner
at Bayreuth a work in which hc appcarcd as a protagonist for Vagncr. Vhy not, thcn,
rccntcr thc lray, but this timc on thc othcr sidc: Anything to do with Vagncr, onc way or
thc othcr, could bc guarantccd to scll.
And Nictzschcs calculations wcrc not wrong. Naumanns bookscllcrs cataloguc produccd
ovcr a thousand advancc ordcrs bclorc thc pamphlct had cvcn bccn printcd. Malwida, too,
kncw that it would bc a causc c cl` cbrc, writing to lga Hcrtzcn that, lor bcttcr or worsc, it
would put Nictzschc back on thc map. !n tandcm with 8randcss corts, Te !agner Case
madc a considcrablc contribution to thc lamc or notoricty that would soon bc Nictz
schcs.
Nictzschc complctcd much ol a rst dralt in Turin thc work is subtitlcd Lcttcr lrom
Turin, May +888 but nishcd it in Sils, lrom whcncc hc scnt it to Naumann on July +th.
:

,,
Tc printcr, howcvcr, promptly rcturncd it as complctcly unrcadablc. Tcrcupon Nictzschc
rcwrotc thc wholc manuscript with a ncw, thicknibbcd pcn (a S onncckcn Rundschrilt
Numbcr ), which lorccd him to givc up thc microscopic chickcnscribblc his prcvious nibs
had pcrmittcd. Tc nal parts ol thc ncw manuscript was rcturncd to thc Lcipzig printcr
on August : and appcarcd on Scptcmbcr ::. As with all his works lrom Beyond Good and
E.il onwards, it was publishcd at his own cxpcnsc. To datc, hc wrotc Malwida in July, scll
publishing had cost him ,ooo lrancs

a thousand lrancs morc than thc annual incomc

lrom his 8ascl pcnsion.
D ecadence
A
s thc dcscription Lcttcr suggcsts, Te !agner Case is a rclativcly slight work. To
somconc lamiliar with his carlicr works lrom Human, ll-Too-Human onwards, most
ol thc Vagncrcritiquc is lamiliar, cvcn tircsomcly so: Vagncr is thc purvcyor ol chcap lccl
ings ol transccndcncctobliss that ocr his worldandworkwcary audicncc a vaguc sub
stitutc lor thc nownolongcrbclicvablc rcdcmption ol Christianity. (!n +888, ol coursc,
hardly anyonc .as lamiliar with thosc carlicr works, so rcadcrs then would havc lound
nothing tircsomc in thc critiquc.) Not only Vagncrs art is criticiscd, but also his char
actcr. Abovc all, Nictzschc tclls us, yct again, that Vagncr is an actor, which mcans that his
cccts arc not mcrcly chcap but also lakc. (Somcthing similar might bc said ol that othcr
Fing saga: Tolkicncsquc comcs to mind as a summation ol Nictzschcs actorcritiquc ol
Vagncr.) !n addition to thc actor criticism, Nictzschc attcmpts to hoist Vagncr with his
own antiScmitic pctard: Vagncr was probably thc son ol his supposcd stcplathcr, Ludwig
Gcycr, who was probably Jcwish. (Vagncr may havc condcd worrics about his patcr
nity to Nictzschc in thc days ol thcir intimacy.) So hc was not rcally Gcrman, mcrcly acted
bcing Gcrman, gavc a vcry good imitation ol Gcrmanncss
8
prcciscly thc objcction to
Jcwish musicians in gcncral, and Mcndclssohn in particular, raiscd in Vagncrs inlamous
n Jcwishncss in Music.
Mixcd in, howcvcr, with thcsc csscntially lamiliar claims arc two mattcrs that arc both
ncw and intcrcsting. Tc rst conccrns thc notion ol d ecadence, thc sccond thc gcncsis and
naturc ol thc Fing cyclc.

Vagncr is an intcrcsting cascstudy, Nictzschc holds, bccausc thc d ecadence ol his art sums
up and its ovcrwhclming succcss provcs thc d ecadence ol modcrnity in gcncral. nly
thc dccadcnt apprcciatc thc dccadcnt. 8ut just what is d ecadence:
As thc Frcnch acccnt indicatcs, Nictzschc takcs ovcr thc tcrm which lrom now on
bccomcs his lavouritc summation ol all that is wrong with modcrnity lrom thc Frcnch
litcrary movcmcnt ol thc latcr ninctccnth ccntury pcrsonicd by 8audclaircs Fleurs du mal, a
movcmcnt charactcriscd by a tastc lor thc gothic, a n dc si` cclc obscssion with dccay, dcvi
ancc, and dcath. As thc virtually contcmporary imprcssionists dcantly dcscribcd thcm
sclvcs with a tcrm originally uscd to abusc thcm, so thc d ecadents worc that tcrm as a badgc
ol honour.

Nictzschc dcncs d ecadence as a ncurosis in which thc cxhaustcd arc attracted by what is
harmlul to lilc.
6o
!n T.ilight of the Idols hc says somcthing similar: to choosc instinctivcly
what is harmlul to yourself . . . is practically thc lormula lor d ecadence.
6+
Tis is an accuratc
,,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
dcscription ol thc (mainly) Frcnch litcrary movcmcnt: obscsscd with thc dcathinlcctcd,
cxhibiting a kind ol dcathwish, Kcatss bcing hall in lovc with casclul dcath, thc acsthctic
dccadcnts wcrc prcciscly attractcd to thc harmlul. vcn morc d ecadent than 8audclairc,
howcvcr, is Vagncr, who, altcr rcading Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschc points out, is ovcrcomc
by thc ycarning lor nothingncss which hc prcscnts, at thc cnd ol thc Fing (and cvcn morc
cxplicitly in Tristan), as his nal account ol salvation. Vagncr, in short, is thc cmbodimcnt
ol thc dcning lcaturc ol d ecadence, thc will to dcath.
6:
Noticc that, thus dcncd, d ecadence
implics thc scismic shilt in Nictzschcs mctaphysics that will bc discusscd in Chaptcr :6: thc
abandonmcnt ol thc claim that lilc and thc world arc will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs.
Now, thcrc is somcthing bcsidcs thc will to dcath.
Tc dcath wish, thc hiddcn will to dcath, makcs its rst appcarancc in scction ol
8ook \ ol Te Gay Science and is thcn incorporatcd into scction : ol thc Genealogys third
cssay, whcrc it is trcatcd as idcntical with thc ascctic idcal. !n thc Genealogy, howcvcr,
Nictzschc still adhcrcs to his willtopowcr mctaphysics and so, in a ccrtain scnsc, hc can
not takc thc ascctic idcal scriously: sincc cvcryonc wills powcr, and so ol coursc lilc, thc
appearance that thc ascctic idcal dcnics lilc, wills dcath, has to bc dcccptivc. So, as wc saw,
thc ascctic pricsts big No is actually outwcighcd by a host ol tcndcr Ycscs (p. abovc)
and Vagncrs purported subscription to thc idcal is mcrc prctcncc (p. + abovc). Now,
howcvcr, having (without anywhcrc announcing thc lact) abandoncd thc univcrsality ol his
willtopowcr mctaphysics, hc nally trcats thc ascctic idcal, thc will to dcath, with thc scri
ousncss it mcrits. Vagncr rcally does will dcath, thc ycarning lor nothingncss is genuine,
and so gcnuincly d ecadent.
So much lor Te !agner Cases most promincnt cxplication ol d ecadence. Vhat makcs thc
notion tricky, howcvcr, is that hc now procccds to ocr a sccond cxplication ol thc conccpt
which at rst sight sccms to havc nothing to do with thc rst. Tis is dcrivcd lrom thc
long discussion with Carl Fuchs ol Ricmanns thcory ol musical phrasing (p. + abovc)
Ricmann is mcntioncd by namc in scction ++ and procccds as lollows. Tc inlalliblc sign
ol d ecadence in litcraturc is that
lilc no longcr dwclls in thc wholc. Tc word bccomcs sovcrcign and lcaps out ol thc pagc,
thc pagc gains lilc at thc cxpcnsc ol thc wholc thc wholc is no longcr a wholc. 8ut this
is thc similc ol cvcry stylc ol d ecadence: thcrc is always thc anarchy ol atoms, disintcgration
ol thc will, lrccdom ol thc individual, to usc moral tcrms cxpandcd into political thcory,
equal rights lor all. Lilc, equal vitality, thc vibration and cxubcrancc ol lilc pushcd back
into thc smallcst lorms, thc rcst poor in lilc. vcrywhcrc paralysis, torpidity or hostility and
chaos: both morc and morc obvious thc highcr onc asccnds . . . thc wholc no longcr livcs at
all, it is compositc, calculatcd, articial, and artclact.
6
Applying this cxplication ol d ecadence to Vagncr, Nictzschc says that hc is inlcctcd by thc
dcclinc in thc powcr to organizc charactcristic ol all aspccts ol modcrn lilc.
6
Tc rcsult is
that his works arc structurclcss thc principlc ol innitc mclody is mcrcly an attcmpt to
makc a virtuc out ol ncccssity. !n rcality Vagncr is nothing morc than a giltcd miniaturist.
6
Tc cxtcnsion ol this sccond charactcrisation ol d ecadence into thc rcalm ol politics and
modcrn lilc in gcncral is, ol coursc, just a ncw lormulation ol thc motlcy critiquc. Tc
dcmocratisation ol Vcstcrn modcrnity has rcduccd it to an anarchy ol atoms. And sincc
it lacks thc disciplincd unity ol a sharcd morality (a gamc plan as ! callcd it) that is ncccssary
to survivc in a compctitivc world, it sucrs lrom dcclining lilc,
66
and is moving incxorably
:

,,
towards collapsc and dcath. (As somcthing that is articial and imposcd rathcr than an
organic cxprcssion ol communal morality, thc modcrn statc, Nictzschc bclicvcs, cannot
command thc loyalty ol its subjccts and so cannot arrcst its dcclinc towards dcath.)
Tc introduction ol dcath, hcrc, hclps onc to scc that thcrc is, in lact, a conncxion bctwccn
thc two cxplications ol d ecadence. iscussion ol thc prccisc charactcr ol thc conncxion,
howcvcr, ! shall rcscrvc lor Chaptcr :6 (pp. 8 bclow).
Te Story of Te Ring
T
hc sccond passagc in which Te !agner Case ocrs somcthing morc than thc routinc
casc against Vagncr is scction , which ocrs thc story ol thc Fing, an analysis ol thc
gcncsis and naturc ol his Fing cyclc.
Likc all Vagncrs opcras, Nictzschc obscrvcs, thc lour opcras ol thc cyclc add up to a
story ol rcdcmption. Hallway through its composition, howcvcr, Vagncr radically altcrcd
his conccption ol thc naturc ol rcdcmption. For thc rst hall ol his crcativc lilc, hc bclicvcd
in rcvolution as much as any Frcnchman. !n Sicglricd hc thought hc had lound thc csscncc
ol thc rcvolutionary. All thc worlds problcms comc lrom old contracts. nly by dcclaring
war on thcm on morality, on tradition can thc old socicty bc abolishcd. Tis is what
Sicglricd docs: hc ovcrthrows all rcvcrcncc lor tradition and authority, ovcrthrows all fear.
(Tc rcvolution is complctcd whcn hc brcaks Votans spcar, thc guarantor ol thc old con
tracts.) Sicglricds rcvolutionary naturc, his war on morality,

is alrcady prcgurcd in his

inccstuous birth. His lovc aair with 8runhildc signics thc birth ol a ncw goldcn agc with
lrcc lovc as its ccntral lcaturc. Tis is thc agc that will succccd thc twilight and dcath ol
thc old gods and thc old contracts.
Tus thc original story linc. 8ut thcn, midway through thc composition ol thc Fing,
Vagncrs ship struck thc rccl ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy. Undcr Schopcnhaucrs spcll,
Vagncr rcaliscd with shamc that what hc had donc was to translatc optimism into music.
Tcn, howcvcr, thc inspiration camc to him that pcrhaps thc shipwrcck was in lact the goal.
And so hc translatcs thc Fing into Schopcnhaucrs tcrms. vcrything gocs wrong,
cvcrything pcrishcs, thc ncw world is as bad as thc old: thc nothing, thc !ndian Circc,
bcckons. riginally 8runhildc was supposcd to takc hcr larcwcll with a song in honour ol
lrcc lovc, comlorting thc world with thc vision ol a socialist utopia in which all turns out
wcll but now shc gcts somcthing clsc to do. Shc has to study Schopcnhaucr rst: shc
has to transposc thc lourth book ol Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation |Schopcnhaucrs
advocacy ol worlddcnial and asccnt into thc nothing| into vcrsc.
6
Rcdcmption in thc Fing is thus translormcd lromsocialist utopianisminto dcath and noth
ingncss which is what makcs it a work ol d ecadence par cxccllcncc. (Noticc that Vagncrs
turn to lilcdcnial, his shamc at his prcvious optimism, is hcrc trcatcd as genuine. Tc
pcrsistcncc ol thc actor, lakc, critiquc
68
introduccs inconsistcncy into Te !agner Case.)

Hcrc, pcrhaps, wc havc thc origin ol thc lion ol Zarathustras Trcc Mctamorphoscs (pp. 6o
abovc). As Sicglricd slays thc dragon, Falncr, so thc lion slays thc dragon, Tou Shalt. And also
thc origin ol thc Mctamorphoscs child: knowing ncithcr his parcntagc nor lcar, Sicglricd has
thc innoccncc ol a child.
,,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tis pcnctrating and complctcly corrcct account ol thc impact ol Schopcnhaucr on thc
composition ol thc Fing

is, il my account ol Te Birth of Tragedy in Chaptcr is corrcct,

somcthing Nictzschc had bccn awarc ol sincc +8:. As ! argucd thcrc, carly Nictzschc tricd
as hard as possiblc to squarc thc circlc by showing how Vagncr could bc both a socialist and
a Schopcnhaucrian. Now hc sccs Vagncr as abandoning thc lormcr lor thc lattcr, and so
lapsing into d ecadence.
Noticc, to makc a small digrcssion, how casy, in a scnsc, it was lor Vagncr to achicvc thc
translormation ol thc Fing Nictzschc attributcs to him. Sincc thc dcstruction ol \alhalla
(thc dcath ol thc gods) at thc cnd ol thc cyclc could rcprcscnt either thc cnding ol cvcrything
or thc bcginning ol thc ncw and bcttcr agc, cithcr thc onsct ol night or arrival ol dawn, it
rcmains opcn to a dircctor to prcscnt thc cyclc as cithcr a socialist or a Schopcnhaucrian
work. All it nccds is a slight incction at thc cnd to lcan it onc way or thc othcr. Harry
Kuplcrs +6 cutschc Staatsopcr production, lor cxamplc, portraying thc dcstruction
ol \alhalla as thc nuclcar holocaust, nccdcd only to introducc a small and appcaling child
(who appcars to havc wandcrcd in lrom Le Mis erables) cmcrging lrom thc rubblc at thc vcry
cnd to ocr thc suggcstion that ultimatcly, all turns out wcll. Sincc, howcvcr, thc child has
absolutcly no justication in thc librctto, onc might wcll lccl that thc production pandcrs
to an audicncc assumcd to bc incapablc ol stomaching Vagncrs nal nihilistic mcssagc.

A notablc dccicncy in Te !agner Case is thc abscncc ol any discussion, any mcntion,
cvcn, ol Te Mastersingers,
6
Vagncrs most obviously lilcarming, untransccndcntalist,
cclcbration ol a community and art cxiblc cnough to acccpt novclty whilc prcscrving tradi
tion. (Tc mcssagc, hcrc, is virtually idcntical with, possibly cvcn thc inspiration lor, Nictz
schcs own thcory ol cultural dcvclopmcnt.) vcn il thc Fing cnds up bcing d ecadent, it
would bc most implausiblc to apply that cpithct to Te Mastersingers. Tis, onc suspccts, is
prcciscly why Nictzschc prctcnds it docs not cxist: its admission would dcstroy thc simplic
ity ol thc polcmical ow.
A lurthcr wcakncss in thc work is thc absurdity ol calling Vagncr a musical miniaturist,
incapablc ol largcscalc organisation. !t is truc that his music is not unicd by thc logic ol
Mozart and Haydn. 8ut, likc Te Mastersingers Valthcr von Stolzing, Vagncr was in thc
busincss, not ol lollowing thc old, but ol invcnting a ncw musical logic. Nictzschcs dcnying
him thc right to do so mcrcly rcvcals, oncc again, his own innatc musical conscrvatism. Tc
pcrson who rcally was a miniaturist was Nietzsche himself. As a composcr ol anything longcr
than vc minutcs hc ramblcs,

his music cxhibiting ncithcr thc old logic nor a ncw onc, and

!n +8: Vagncr crcatcd thc socallcd Fcucrbach cnding to thc Fings librctto, in which 8runhildc
sings ol thc dcath ol thc gods and thcir rcplaccmcnt by a human socicty rulcd by lovc. !n +86, two
ycars altcr discovcring Schopcnhaucr, hc skctchcd a Schopcnhaucr cnding in which shc now sings
ol will and worlddcnial and rcdcmption through absorption into nirvana. !n thc cvcnt, ncithcr
cnding was sct to music. 8oth, howcvcr, wcrc includcd as lootnotcs to thc nal vcrsion ol thc scorc,
togcthcr with thc rcmark that though thc Schopcnhaucr cnding was thc right onc, its sctting was
unncccssary sincc thc mcaning was bcttcr cxprcsscd by thc music alonc.

His Zurich conductor lricnd Fricdrich Hcgar, through lricndlicr towards Nictzschcs Manfred
Meditation than von 8 ulow (scc pp. + abovc), commcntcd noncthclcss that thc wholc is miss
ing thc architcctural conditions to givc lorm to thc musical idcas, so that it givcs mc thc imprcssion
ol bcing an atmosphcric improvisation rathcr than a propcrly thoughtout artwork ( J ! pp. 8o
8+).
:

,,
as a philosophcr, his works casily dcgcncratc into a chaos ol atoms, ol aphorisms. vcn
thc, by his standards, organically organiscd Genealogy somctimcs loscs thc plot on account
ol an cxccss ol digrcssions. !n Chaptcr :6 wc will scc how his onc attcmpt to producc a
largcscalc, gcnuincly systcmatic mastcrpiccc cndcd in disastcr.
Writings in Sils Maria: Twilight of the Idols

n Scptcmbcr Nictzschc wrotc Malwida that on two rcccnt nights hc had wokcn up
at two oclock with idcas buzzing around in his hcad and had immcdiatcly committcd
thcm to papcr. Tcn on a third night, hc continucd, ! hcard my landlord, Hcrr urisch,
carclully opcning thc lront door as hc slippcd out to hunt chamois. Vho knows! Pcrhaps !
too was out hunting chamois . . .
o
Tc chamoishunt, anothcr rclaxation
+
lrom work on
thc mastcrwork,
:
was T.ilight of the Idols. !t was bcgun, Nictzschc rcports, on August +8
and nishcd twcnty days latcr on Scptcmbcr .

Tough it incorporatcs notcbook matcri

al that was originally intcndcd lor thc mastcrwork, thcrc arc no notcbook skctchcs ol this
spccic work, so Nictzschcs implication that it was a work ol inspiration rathcr than pcr
spiration is partially corrcct.
riginally it was to havc had thc rathcr downbcat titlc Idleness of a Psychologist. 8ut it took
littlc cort on K osclitzs part to pcrsuadc Nictzschc that this was inadcquatc to thc major
signicancc ol its contcnt. Sincc, hc quickly agrccd, hc had dcploycd his hcavy artillcry
against thc highcst mountains, thcrc was nothing idlc in thc book and thc lalsc modcsty
ol thc original titlc was inappropriatc.

So thc work bccamc T.ilight of the Idols. Tough

this brilliant pun on Vagncrs T.ilight of the Gods was intcndcd to allow thc work to lollow
Te !agner Case in cashing in on thc Vagncr markct hc callcd it a twin ol that work,
which should bc publishcd in a lormat that madc this clcar

it is actually a somcwhat
mislcading titlc sincc, lor oncc, Vagncr hardly appcars.
Tc work, Nictzschc wrotc K osclitz, containcd many contcmporary rclcrcnccs and spokc
somc hard truths to thc Gcrmans that providc thc justication lor his low opinion ol thcir
Feichsdeutsch ( jingoistic) mcntality.
6
Tough this is truc it is again somcwhat mislcading,
sincc, as thc Prclacc notcs, thc work is, in thc main, conccrncd to dcmonstratc thc hollow
ncss ol not just idols ol our agc but eternal idols. Unlikc Te !agner Case, polcmics against
contcmporary targcts lorm a rclativcly minor part ol thc book.
Tc stylc, Nictzschc wrotc K osclitz, is light and charming Frcnch rathcr than Gcr
man so that thc work can bc guarantccd to whct thc appctitc lor thc mastcrwork.

As
thc Prclacc puts it, though thc subtitlc is, How nc Philosophiscs with a Hammcr, thc
hammcr that sounds out thc idols is uscd as il it wcrc a tuning lork (a railwayman chccking
carriagcs to scc il thcy havc whccls ol clay, pcrhaps).
Sincc it would bc inappropriatc to producc an at lcast sccmingly light work altcr thc
appcarancc ol thc mastcrwork, thc lattcr a trcatisc ol rigorous scriousncss . . . a hundrcd
milcs bcyond all tolcrancc and plcasantncss,
8
Nictzschc dccidcd that T.ilight should bc
publishcd as soon as possiblc. !n thc cvcnt, as wc shall scc, othcr clcmcnts ol his publishing
plans intcrvcncd, dclaying its appcarancc until January :, +88.

Although it was nishcd but a lcw wccks bclorc his collapsc into madncss, T.ilight is a
brilliant work. Unlikc its succcssors, thcrc arc no prccchocs ol thc approaching madncss,
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
which conrms thc tcstimony ol both Mcta von Salis and Julius Kaltan that Nictzschc
cxhibitcd no traccs ol mcntal dcrangcmcnt during his nal summcr in Sils (p. o abovc).
Tc stylc is cortlcss and gracclul, thc concision and comprcssion mastcrly. Tc majority ol
his most lamous cpigrams comc lrom T.ilight. nc suspccts that thc cuphoria ol rclcasc
lrom thc unrcwarding slog on thc mastcrwork produccd a momcnt ol cortlcss crcativc
intcnsity.
Though light in stylc, Nictzschc was undcr no illusions that it was light in contcnt. Hc
calls it a complctc introduction to my philosophy,

a summary ol my csscntial hctcrodox

ics,
8o
which indccd it is. !n Ecce Homo Nictzschc commcnts that in T.ilight, you do not
gct hold ol things that arc opcn to qucstion any morc, you gct hold ol dccisions.
8+
Vhat
arc thcsc dccisions: ! shall try to bring thcm to light by thinking ol thc work as a scrics ol
answcrs to qucstions that might havc bccn put to Nictzschc by an intclligcnt rcadcr ol his
carlicr works 8randcs, lor cxamplc. Tought ol in this way, it sccms to mc, at lcast ninc
important qucstions rcccivc dccisivc answcrs.
What Is the Nature of Reality?
T
hc lourth ol thc works clcvcn parts, which runs to hall a pagc, is titlcd How thc
Truc Vorld 8ccamc a Fablc. Tcrc arc six stagcs. First thc truc (thc tcrm is ol coursc
ironic), supcrnatural world ol bcing, thc oppositc ol this natural world ol pain and bccom
ing, was immcdiatcly acccssiblc to thc sagcs Platos mcntal gazc. Tcn it bccamc somc
thing to onc had to wait lor, Christianity postponcd thc truc world, transmutcd it into thc
luturc homc ol thc virtuous. Vith Kant it rcccdcd lurthcr, sincc it could no longcr bc kno.n
to cxist. Yct as a consoling hope and as somcthing wc had to belie.e in lor morality to makc
scnsc, it lingcrcd on in a twilight statc. 8ut thcn camc thc cockcrow ol positivism, thc
thought that somcthing unknown could hardly bc consoling. Gray morning, Nictzschcs
stagc dircction, as it wcrc, rcads at this point, rst yawn ol rcason, cockcrow ol positiv
ism. Tis lcad to thc coup dc gr acc. Positivism, whcn it nally arrivcs, abolishes thc truc
world (dcnics it, onc might say, rights ol citizcnship in scicncc). Nictzschc applauds lrom
thc sidclincs: 8right day, brcaklast, rcturn ol good scnsc, Plato blushcs in shamc, pandc
monium ol all lrcc spirits. And now thc conclusion ariscs that sincc thcrc is no truc world,
it makcs no scnsc to call this onc a mcrcly apparcnt world. Tcrc is only onc world and
this is it.
8:
As Ecce Homo puts thc conclusion: thc truc world is a made up world, so that
what uscd to bc callcd thc world ol appcaranccs is, in truth, rcality.
8
Tis is not only thc most brilliant !ery Short History of !estern Philosophy cvcr writtcn
but also, savc lor thc rst stagc, autobiography. !t rccounts Nictzschcs own passagc lrom
thc Christianity ol his boyhood, via a KantianSchopcnhaucrian truc world, to positivism,
and lrom thcrc to thc naturalism ol his maturc philosophy. For Nictzschc, too, this world
is thc only world.
8ut what is this world: Nictzschc continucs to promotcs scicntic ovcr commonscnsc
rcalism. !t is not just thc truc world that is a lablc, things arc as wcll, a projcction ol our
inncr lilc. Vc mistakcnly think thcrc is a thing callcd thc ! which causcs our actions

and

Tc Genealogy argucs that this is an illusion ol grammar. 8ccausc grammar dcmands a subjcct lor
cvcry prcdicatc, wc think that cvcry action dcmands a substantial thing which causcs it to happcn.
:

,,,
thcn cxtcnd this schcma to thc outcr world so that it bccomcs populatcd with a wholc lot
ol !likc things causing actions to happcn. 8ut this is mcrc projcction. Tings in gcncral,
including matcrial atoms, not to mcntion Kants thing in itscll , arc projcctions. 8osco
vitchs conccption ol a world ol lorccs rcmains our bcst account ol thc naturc ol lundamcntal
physical rcality.
8
8ut what is thc charactcr ol thcsc lorccs: At thc timc ol writing Beyond Good and E.il thc
conccpt ol lorcc nccdcd supplcmcnting by thc notion ol will to powcr (p. + abovc). Yct
in T.ilight Nictzschc is strangcly rcticcnt. Tcrc is no mcntion ol supplcmcntation, indccd
thc vcry phrasc will to powcr only occurs lour timcs in thc cntirc work, and ncvcr in con
junction with natural lorccs. Tc suggcstion ariscs, oncc again, that thc grand mctaphysics
ol rcality as will to powcr and nothing clsc has bccn abandoncd, lcaving us to undcrstand
lorccs purcly in tcrms ol thcir cccts.
What Is Freedom?
A
lundamcntal prcsupposition ol all scicncc, Nictzschc assumcs, is causal dctcrminism.
Tis mcans that lrcc will, undcrstood as oncs bcing thc uncauscd causc ol oncs own
actions, must bc rcjcctcd. !t was, in any casc, a thcological invcntion dcsigncd to makc us
lccl rcsponsiblc, and so guilty, and so dcscrving ol punishmcnt, and so dcpcndcnt on thc
intcrccssion ol thc pricst lor our salvation. So to undcrstand oursclvcs as nothing morc than
a piccc ol latc, thc summation ol thc causal history ol thc world to datc, rcstorcs (as was
argucd way back in Human, ll-Too-Human) our lost innoccncc.
8
l coursc, somc parts ol thc past arc morc dircctly rclcvant to thc pcrson onc is than
othcrs. From thc gcncral rcjcction ol things it lollows that individuals arc not atoms, not
links in thc chain. An individual is, rathcr, thc cntirc singlc linc ol humanity up through
himscll .
86
Singlc linc looks to bc anothcr tcrm lor a lamily. And Nictzschcs idca, hcrc,
looks to bc somcthing likc what wc would now call gcnctic dctcrmination: thc idca that
an individual is thc sum ol thc gcncs inhcritcd lrom both parcnts, which thcy havc inhcr
itcd lrom thcir parcnts, and so on. Noticc that this idca cxplains Nictzschcs continucd
bclicl in thc importancc ol cugcnics.
8
Frccdom, thcn, cannot bc thc lrccdom ol thc thco
logians, thc nonscnsc ol thc causa sui, thc scllcauscd causc.
88
8ut Nictzschc by no mcans
rcjccts thc notion ol lrccdom as such. My idca ol lrccdom, hc writcs, is that it is a mat
tcr ol bcing rcsponsiblc lor oncscll , maintaining oncs distancc, bccoming indicrcnt to
hardship, bcing prcparcd to sacricc pcoplc to your causc, yourscll includcd. To bc lrcc
mcans that thc instincts which takc plcasurc in war and victory havc gaincd control ovcr
thc othcr instincts, thc instinct to happincss, lor instancc, happincss, at lcast, as conccivcd
by groccrs, Christians, cows, lcmalcs, nglishmcn, and othcr dcmocrats. Frccdom is not
a birthright. Rathcr onc becomes lrcc by bcing a warrior on thc intcrnal battlccld ol thc
soul. Tc dcgrcc ol lrccdom onc posscsscs is mcasurcd by thc dcgrcc ol rcsistancc onc has
ovcrcomc, thc amount ol cort it costs to stay on top.
8
Philosophcrs distinguish bctwccn positivc and ncgativc lrccdom. Tc lattcr consists in
lrccdom lrom external barricrs to doing what onc wants morc gcncrally, in bcing who onc
8ut this, hc suggcsts, is likc thinking that thc lightning in Tc lightning ashcd is somcthing ovcr
and abovc thc ashing (GM ! +).
cc

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
wants to bc thc lormcr in thc abscncc ol internal barricrs to bcing who onc wants to bc. !l
onc is a slavc in thc ninctccnthccntury Amcrican South onc lacks, to a vcry largc dcgrcc,
ncgativc lrccdom. !l onc is cnslavcd by dcsirc, by, lor cxamplc, an uncontrollablc lust lor scx
or drugs, onc lacks, to a vcry largc dcgrcc, positivc lrccdom. Tc idca ol positivc lrccdom
gocs back to Platos Fepublic. For Plato, lrccdomto bc thc pcrson you arc dcmands long and
arduous disciplining ol thc passions. nc is not born lrcc but rathcr makcs oncscll lrcc
or docs not.
Tc valuing ol ncgativc lrccdom, say Nictzschc, thc modcrn conccpt ol lrccdom as any
thing gocs, is mcrcly a prool ol thc d ecadence ol modcrn socicty and is what ! do not mcan by
lrccdom.
o
Rathcr, thc lrccdom Nictzschc cndorscs is vcry clcarly positivc lrccdom, closcly
rclatcd to Platos conccption. nc must bccomc a warrior, cngagc, rst and lorcmost, in
thc battlc with oncs own dcsircs, thc battlc to arrangc thcm into a cohcrcnt hicrarchy in
which it is oncs lcading dcsirc that achicvcs satislaction at thc cxpcnsc, whcrc ncccssary, ol
subordinatc dcsircs.
Noticc that onc cannot bccomc lrcc unlcss onc has a lcading dcsirc, onc that is morc
important than anything clsc, that dcncs oncs lilc, dctcrmincs oncs idcntity. nc cannot,
as it wcrc, shapc thc soul into a pyramid unlcss onc knows what should constitutc its apcx.
Tis is why Nictzschc spcaks ol oncs causc, oncs lilcshaping mcaning, lor which onc
must makc sacriccs.
Noticc that positivc lrccdomis complctcly compatiblc with univcrsal causal dctcrminism,
with oncs bcing a piccc ol latc. All that lollows lrom thc truth ol dctcrminism is that il
onc succccds in bccoming lrcc thcrc arc causally sucicnt grounds, antcccdcnt to oncs
birth, lor that to happcn.
What Is Happiness?
A
s thc abovc rcmarks suggcst, Nictzschcs notion ol lrccdom is closcly conncctcd to his
notion ol happincss. Formula lor my happincss, hc writcs, a ycs, a no, a straight linc,
a goal :
+
in othcr words a lilcdcning causc. (As notcd, hc told Malwida that thc lilc hc
cnvicd most was that ol thc !talian patriot Giuscppc Mazzini, on account ol his absolutc
conccntration on a singlc idca that ol !talian Unication which burncd within him
likc a powcrlul amc.)
:
Tis samc point cmcrgcs in onc ol T.ilights most mcmorablc
aphorisms:
!l you havc your .hy? in lilc you can put up with almost any ho.? Man docs not strivc lor
happincss, only thc nglishman docs.

Tc nglishman, hcrc, is John Stuart Mill,

protagonist ol thc Utilitarian principlc that

wc should all scck to producc thc grcatcst happincss ol thc grcatcst numbcr. Tc aphorism
is a rcappcarancc ol thc paradox ol happincss (pp. o8 abovc). Tc only kind ol happincss
that can bc dircctly sought is nglish happincss,

a stupid casc and contcntmcnt doctrinc,

stupid bccausc thc pursuit ol nglish happincss lcads ultimatcly to borcdomand lrustration.
Truc happincss, is always a by-product ol oncs work, ol activc commitmcnt to thc straight
linc ol oncs lilc, oncs lilcdcning goal.
Morc, howcvcr, than locusscd commitmcnt is rcquircd lor happincss. As Nictzschc
cmphasiscs ovcrcmphasiscs a socialist may bc committcd to thc causc ol thc workcrs
:

c:
rcvolution, yct bc consumcd by ressentiment against thc capitalist opprcssors and so bc lar
lromhappy. Happincss rcquircs thc ovcrcoming ol ressentiment, ol rcprcsscd hatrcd and lust
lor rcvcngc: onc must rcdccm cvils donc to onc in thc past (lor cxamplc, thc Salom c aair)
by showing that, as Nictzschcs most lamous (but not bcst) cpigram puts it, Vhat docs
not kill mc makcs mc strongcr.
6
And it rcquircs, too, thc ovcrcoming ol guilt. St. Paul,
lor cxamplc (my cxamplc, not Nictzschcs), was committcd to thc causc ol sprcading thc
gospcl, but thc commitmcnt was motivatcd by dccp guilt ressentiment against himscll
at his lormcr pcrsccution ol thcm. Again, thcrclorc, such a pcrson must bc lar lrom happy.
!l you want to bc happy, T.ilight instructs, ont bc cowardly about your actions! ont
abandon thcm altcrwards! Tc pang |bitc in Gcrman| ol conscicncc is obsccnc.

As onc
must rcdccm cvils donc to onc, so onc must rcdccm actions donc by onc. !n short, thc
straight linc that dcncs both oncs goal and oncs idcntity must narratc oncs lilc in such
a way that cvcrything that is donc to or by onc nds its justication, its rcdcmption, within
oncs lilc as a wholc.
Nictzschc sums all this up with a pancgyric to Gocthc thc human pcrsonality hc
admircs morc than any othcr. A spirit likc Gocthc, hc says,
who has become free, stands in thc middlc ol thc world with a joylul and trusting latalism,
in thc faith that only what is individual is rcprchcnsiblc, that cvcrything is rcdccmcd and
armcd in thc wholc he does not negate any more . . . a laith likc this is thc highcst ol all
possiblc laiths: ! havc christcncd it with thc namc Dionysus.
8
Tis highcst laith is ol coursc thc laith that constitutcs amor fati (lovc ol latc), thc laith
that allows onc to will thc ctcrnal rcturn. Pcrlcct happincss is thc ability to will thc ctcrnal
rcturn.
Noticc two things. First, that Gocthcs laith has cxpandcd to cmbracc not mcrcly things
donc dircctly to and by him but e.erything that happcns. nc cannot bc perfectly happy
unlcss oncs laith in rcdcmption bccomcs uni.ersal, cmbraccs thc cntirc univcrsc. !l somc
thing in thc world sccms to mc irrcdccmablc (Auschwitz, lor cxamplc) thcn, whcthcr or not
it bclongs dircctly to my individual lilc, my happincss is lcss than complctc. Noticc, sccond,
Nictzschcs cmphasis on faith. At any point in timc thcrc will always bc glaringly unrc
dccmcd phcnomcna (Auschwitz, again) so that, sincc wc posscss no crystal ball, wc can
ncvcr kno. for certain that thcy will bc rcdccmcd in thc wholc. To claim such knowlcdgc
would bc to claim that optimism is true. And that, Nictzschc points out, likc all judgmcnts
ol thc valuc ol lilc, can ncvcr bc known: judgmcnts, valuc judgmcnts conccrning lilc, lor
and against, can ultimatcly ncvcr bc truc: thcy havc valuc only as symptoms . . . |sincc| the
.alue of life can ne.er be estimated .

Vhat is important, thcn, about Gocthcs laith, about

willing thc ctcrnal rcturn, is not that it rcprcscnts supcrior cognition but rathcr that it is a
symptom, thc dcning tcst, ol thc idcally happy statc ol mind.
Why Is Willing the Eternal Return Dionysian?
V
hy docs Nictzschc christcn Gocthcs laith, thc prccondition ol willing thc ctcrnal
rcturn, ionysus: Agrcat dcal ol T.ilight convcys thc scnsc ol closing thc circlc, ol
rcturning thc bcginning ol Nictzschcs path ol thinking, ol rccmbracing thc ccntral insights
c:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol Te Birth of Tragedy, albcit cast in a ncw, naturalistic lorm. Tc inlormcd and insightlul
Lou Salom c undcrstood this: Nictzschcs philosophy, shc wrotc, lorms a circlc . . . towards
thc cnd, thc man again approachcs thc youth through scvcral ol his most intimatc and
conccalcd cxpcricnccs.
+oo
nc aspcct ol this circling back to thc bcginning (cancclling thc
rapprochement ol thc positivist pcriod) is a rcturn to Te Births asscssmcnt ol Socratcs as
rcprcscnting thc dccay ol Grcck culturc.
+o+
Most strongly, howcvcr, thc scnsc ol rcturn is
gcncratcd by thc rcappcarancc ol thc ionysian. ! was, Nictzschc obscrvcs, looking back
to Te Birth, thc rst to takc scriously thc wondcrlul phcnomcnon that bcars thc namc
ionysus. Vithout undcrstanding this fundamental fact ol thc Hcllcnic instinct its will
to lilc which cxprcsscs itscll only in thc ionysian mystcrics, in thc psychology ol thc
ionysian statc, onc cannot undcrstand thc Grccks. !n thc ionysian lcstivals, Nictzschc
continucs, thc Grccks communicatcd thcir lcarlcssncss in thc lacc ol thc lcarlul.

!n thc
lcstivals, that is, thcy
guarantccd lor thcmsclvcs . . . eternal lilc, thc ctcrnal rcturn ol lilc: thc luturc promiscd by
thc past, thc past consccratcd in thc luturc: thc triumphal ycs to lilc ovcr and abovc all dcath
and changc: thc true lilc as thc ovcrall continuation ol lilc through procrcation, through thc
mystcry ol scxuality. Tis is why thc sexual symbol was thc symbol to bc vcncratcd abovc
all othcrs, thc truly prolound clcmcnt in thc wholc ol ancicnt picty. All thc dctails about
thc acts ol procrcation, prcgnancy and birth inspircd thc highcst and most solcmn lcclings.
!n thc doctrinc ol thc mystcrics, pain is pronounccd holy: thc wocs ol a woman in labour
sanctily pain in gcncral, all bccoming and growth, cvcrything that guarantccs thc luturc
involvcs pain . . . thcrc has to bc thc agony ol thc woman in labour so thcrc can bc an ctcrnal
joy ol crcation. Tc word ionysus mcans all ol this.
+o:
And thcn, at thc conclusion ol thc wholc book, Nictzschc turns lrom thc ionysian mys
tcrics in gcncral to Grcck tragcdy in particular:
Tc psychology ol thc orgiastic, as an ovcrowing lccling ol lilc and strcngth whcrc cvcn
pain acts as a stimulus gavc mc thc kcy to thc conccpt ol tragic lccling . . . Saying ycs to lilc
cvcn in its strangcst and harshcst problcms, thc will to lilc rcjoicing in its own incxhaust
ibility through thc sacrice ol its highcst typcs that is what ! call ionysian, that is thc
bridgc ! lound to thc psychology ol thc tragic poct.
As Te Birth of Tragedy showcd, T.ilight continucs, what drcw onc to tragcdy was not
Aristotlcs catharsis, thc purgation ol pity and lcar. !t was rathcr,
bcyond all lcar and pity, to be oneself the eternal joy of becoming that joy which includcs
cvcn joy in dcstruction. And with this ! rcturn to thc placc that oncc scrvcd as my point
ol dcparturc thc Birth of Tragedy was my rst rcvaluation ol all valucs: and now ! am
back on that soil whcrc my wants, my abilities grow ! thc last disciplc ol thc philosophcr
ionysus, ! thc tcachcr ol ctcrnal rcturn.
+o
And so thc circlc closcs.

Kants Critique of Judgment uscs this phrasc to dcnc thc lccling ol thc sublimc, thc lccling ol
transccnding oncs cvcryday scll.
:

c
Two things arc to bc noticcd about thcsc passagcs. First, cogniti.e insight occurs in thc
ionysian statc. !n thc statc, onc guarantccs to oncscll ctcrnal lilc by rising abovc all
dcath and changc. nc transccnds lilc as an individual by idcntilying with, identifying one-
self as, thc ovcrall continuation ol lilc. Tis bcing oneself thc ctcrnal joy in bccoming, is
thc statc in which onc idcntics with, undcrstands, what oncs true lilc is. As ! cmphasiscd
carlicr, a grcat dcal ol Nictzschcs philosophy has bccn a prcparation lor this validation ol
ionysian lccling, lor validation ol thc idca that oncs truc lilc is univcrsal, that individual
lilc is untruc: thc pcrsistcnt thcmc ol thc individual as thc summation ol thc causal history
ol thc univcrsc to datc, thc individual as nothing substantial but rathcr a tcmporary con
glomcration ol lorccs that will soon rccongurc itscll, a momcntary wavc in thc ncccssary
wavcplay ol bccoming.
+o
Tis anatta, noscll ontology, as wcll as thc broadcr rcjcction
ol things in gcncral, is a mccting point bctwccn Nictzschcan and 8uddhism ontology.
8ut it is groundcd in solid Vcstcrn philosophising, in thc thinking ol thc philosophcr,
ionysus, thc thinking ol all thosc who lollow Hcraclitus (in whosc company Nictzschc
lccls warmcr and in bcttcr spirits than anywhcrc clsc)
+o
in rcjccting bcing and bcings as
an cmpty ction.
+o6
Tc sccond point consists in noticing how much this ontological insight indccd rccapit
ulatcs Te Birth of Tragedy. Saying ycs to lilc cvcn in thc lacc ol its hardcst problcms
rcquircs transccndcncc ol thc cgo, transccndcncc to, indccd, a primal unity. nly now,
Schopcnhaucrian mctaphysics having bccn lclt bchind long ago, thc primal unity in qucs
tion is nothing behind thc phcnomcna but is, rathcr, the totality of natural phenomena, thc
ctcrnal . . . continuation ol lilc, itscll.
Saying thc triumphal ycs to lilc cvcn in thc lacc ol its most tcrriblc aspccts is, ol coursc,
willing thc ctcrnal rcturn. So, to rcturn to our original qucstion, in calling Gocthcs laith,
willing thc ctcrnal rcturn, ionysian, Nictzschcs point is that it can only bc achicvcd
through transccndcncc ol thc cgo, idcntication with thc totality ol cxistcncc. Vhy should
this bc so: Ultimatcly, as ! havc suggcstcd, bccausc ol thc intractablc problcm ol dcath. !l
! lovc lilc thc last thing ! want to do is to lcavc it and so thc last thing ! can cmbracc is my
own dcath thc ultimatc dclcat ol my will to powcr. As long, thcrclorc, as ! rcmain attachcd
to my cgo, willing thc ctcrnal rcturn rcmains bcyond my grasp. nly by transccnding thc
cgo, only by bccoming oncscll thc ctcrnal joy ol bccoming, can ! guarantcc lor |myscll |
eternal lilc. Tc happincss, ol wc Hypcrborcans,

Nictzschc writcs at thc bcginning ol Te

ntichrist, consists in dwclling in a rcalm that is bcyond dcath.
+o
How Can an Immoralist Deal with Harmful Actions?
N
ictzschc, wc know, objccts to thc domcstication ol human bcings by Christian mo
rality. 8ut this raiscs thc urgcnt qucstion: how docs he proposc to dcal with thc dispo
sition ol human bcings to inict harm on othcrs and on thcmsclvcs:
Nictzschc conccdcs thcrc is a problcm: all passions go through a phasc whcn thcy arc just
a disastcr, whcn thcy drag thcir victim down with thc wcight ol thcir stupidity.
+o8
Aggrcs
sion lands onc in a ght in thc pub, jail, and thc cnd ol oncs cducation. Grccd lcads to lraud
and a similar dcstination. Tcrc arc, hc continucs, two ways ol dcaling with thc stupidity ol

Hypcrborca is a paradisc in Grcck mythology locatcd bcyond (hyper) Tracc, whcrc thc north
wind (Boreas) comcs lrom. 8cyond thc black stump, as Australians would say.
c,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
drivcs and cmotions: thc Christian prcscription ol cxtcrmination and his own prcscription
ol spiritualization, sublimation.
Christian indoctrination dirccts onc to bccomc, likc Christ, free ol ncgativc drivcs such
as aggrcssion and (cspccially) scxual lust. To thc cxtcnt onc has such drivcs (cvcn il oncs
adultcry is only in thc hcart), onc is supposcd to lccl bad. Tc ultimatc aim is thcir castra
tion, bccoming unablc cvcr to cxpcricncc thcmagain. Castration is thc prclcrrcd tcchniquc
ol thc wcakwillcd in gcncral. Trappists havc so littlc laith in thcir ability not to bc corrupt
cd by worldly things that thcy havc to lcavc thc worldly world cntircly.
+o
Tc disastrous,
incrcdibly wastclul, mistakc undcrlying Christian castration, howcvcr, is its lailurc cvcr to
ask how thc passions might bc spiritualizcd, bcauticd, dcicd:
++o
Tc spiritualization ol scnsuality is callcd lo.e. !t is a grcat triumph ovcr Christianity.
Anothcr triumph is our spiritualization ol hostility. !t consists in a dccp apprcciation ol
thc valuc ol having cncmics: in bricl, onc comcs to act in thc oppositc way to thc way onc
uscd to act.
+++
nc valucs oncs cncmics, Nictzschc continucs, bccausc onc only discovcrs oncs idcntity
whcn laccd with opposition. Tis is as truc ol individuals as ol political partics.
Spiritualization, sublimation, is a mattcr ol providing a drivc with a ncw, spiritual cxprcs
sion in placc ol its old, crudcly physical onc, so that it bccomcs no longcr harmlul. Noticc,
howcvcr, an clcmcnt in Nictzschcs conccption ol sublimation not prcviously madc lully
cxplicit: sublimation docs not mcrcly .ent thc dangcrous drivc (so that it bccomcs somc
thing mcrcly ncutral, as whcn aggrcssion is vcntcd on thc lootball cld) but rathcr trans
lorms it into somcthing that is thc oppositc ol what it uscd to bc, somcthing positi.ely
benecial. Tus this prcsumably is what Nictzschcs cryptic rcmark mcans thc sctting ol
thc scxdrivc in thc contcxt ol lovc translorms thc othcr lrom a scx objcct to bc uscd into
a pcrson to bc rcspcctcd and carcd lor. And thc spiritualization ol hostility bccomcs a kind
ol compctitivc lricndship.
Tis sccond cxamplc takcs us back to Nictzschcs rccctions on bad and good ris, and
shows why spiritualization is a bcttcr solution to thc problcm ol violcncc than castration.
As wc havc sccn on scvcral occasions, thc Grccks spiritualizcd aggrcssion into compctition,
and it was this agonistic cncrgy that lucllcd, not mcrcly thc lympic Gamcs, but thc tragic
lcstival and Grcck cultural lilc in gcncral. To dcal with violcncc via castration is to dcprivc
humanity ol thc cncrgy it nccds to lucl crcation. Tc samc idca appcar in thc notcs lrom
thc pcriod ol T.ilight with rcspcct to scx:
Tc artist is, ol ncccssity pcrhaps, a scnsual man . . . Yct usually, undcr thc prcssurc ol his
task, ol his will to mastcry, hc is actually modcratc, cvcn chastc. His dominant instinct
dcmands this ol him. . . Tc lorcc that onc cxpcnds in artistic conccption is thc samc as
that cxpcndcd in thc scxual act: thcrc is only onc kind ol lorcc. An artist bctrays himscll il
hc squandcrs himscll hcrc.
++:
As thc Genealogy obscrvcd, it is a commonplacc known to cvcry athlctc or jockcy that scx
dissipatcs vital cncrgy that is nccdcd lor crcation (p. abovc). !l thcn scx is squandcrcd
in a crudcly physical manncr, thcn thcrc is no art. 8ut cqually, il scx is cxtcrminatcd, thcrc
can bc no art.
:

c
Isnt Selshness Harmful?
S
piritualisation is thc rcsponsc, thcn, to thc chargc that Nictzschc ocrs nothing to dcal
with thc harmlul cccts ol human drivcs and passions. 8ut wc arc not yct nishcd with
thc qucstion ol thc harmlul, lor wc havc still to dcal with thc issuc ol sclshncss. !s not, thc
worricd qucstioncr might pcrsist, thc rcjcction ol uncgoism and advocacy ol sclshncss a
positivc ad.ocacy ol thc harmlul: ocs not thc positivc admiration ol Ccsarc 8orgia
++
givc
thc gamc away:
At thc ccntrc ol all rcligions and moralitics, says Nictzschc, is thc idca that virtuc is thc
path to happincss: do this, dont do that and thcn youll bc happy! thcrwisc . . . . Vc,
howcvcr, hc continucs, say cxactly thc oppositc:
a wclllormcd pcrson, a happy onc, has to pcrlorm ccrtain acts and will instinctivcly avoid
othcrs. !n a word: his virtuc is thc eect ol his happincss.
Nictzschc cmphasiscs thc importancc ol this insight by calling it thc rst cxamplc ol his
rcvaluation ol all valucs,
++
mcaning, prcsumably, that thc rst injunction ol his ncw mo
rality is: 8ccomc a happy, wclllormcd, (in his lavouritc tcrminology) hcalthy pcrson!
Socratcs asscrtcd that no man knowingly docs cvil. Nictzschc proposcs a modicd vcrsion
ol this: no lully healthy (wclllormcd, happy) pcrson knowingly docs cvil. Vhy, howcvcr,
should wc bclicvc this to bc truc:
Nictzschc writcs: Sclshncss (or scllsccking Selbstsucht) is worth only as much as
thc physiological valuc ol thc sclsh pcrson: it can bc worth a lot or it can bc worthlcss
and dcspicablc.
++
Tis rcpcats thc distinction going back to Zarathustra and thc positivist
pcriod bctwccn thc hungry, cat sclshncss that wants to take, and thc holy sclshncss
ol, lor instancc, Zarathustra that wants to gi.e, to ovcrow, and so cxprcsscs itscll as gilt
giving lovc (pp. abovc). As obscrvcd carlicr, it is thc lact that thc giltgivcr is doing
what hc .ants to do that movcs Nictzschc to usc thc word sclsh. Tis, to rcpcat, is an
unlortunatc usc ol thc word sincc, givcn that cvcry action is motivatcd by somc dcsirc or
othcr, it rcduccs cvcryonc always acts cgoistically to a vacuous tautology.

Vc just havc to
put up with thc lact, howcvcr, that sclsh is thc word Nictzschc uscs, bcaring in mind that
all it actually mcans is somcthing onc wants to do.
Tc sclshncss ol lully hcalthy pcoplc has, says Nictzschc, cxtraordinary valuc sincc
thc wholc ol lilc ad.ances through thcm.
++6
Hcalthy, happy pcoplc bcnct us all. Vho
arc thcy: Tc answcr to this qucstion wc know alrcady: thcy arc pcoplc likc Gocthc and
Mirabcau who, thc Genealogy obscrvcs, bcing lrcc ol thc worm ol ressentiment, cxhibit
true lovc ol thcir ncighbours.
++
Tc pcoplc who bcnct us all arc thosc who arc ncvcr
motivatcd by guilt, lcar, hatrcd, or ressentiment, pcoplc who, trusting that cvcn thc most
rcpcllcnt things and pcrsons contributc to somc grcatcr good, display an cxtraordinary and
univcrsal bcncvolcncc towards thc world that ncgatcs nothing. Tc morc likc Gocthc wc
bccomc, thc grcatcr thc valuc ol our (unsclsh) sclshncss. l coursc, thc bcst laid plans
ol micc and mcn somctimcs go astray. Fools, too, may posscss giltgiving lovc. So lar as

Rcvcalingly, Nictzschcs account ol bcing unsclsh is applying Kants catcgorical impcrativc

without any inncr nccd, any dccp pcrsonal choicc, any plcasurc, bcing an automaton ol duty
(A ++). !n othcr words, only computcrs can bc unsclsh: human action is, by denition, sclsh.
c&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
motivation is conccrncd, howcvcr, thc joylul and trusting latalism that can will thc ctcrnal
rccurrcncc is thc idcal to which wc should aspirc.
Vhat, though, about Ccsarc 8orgia (not his sistcr, Lucrczia, thc amboyant poisoncr,
but rathcr thc gcncral admircd by Machiavclli lor thc uttcr ruthlcssncss ol his mcthods):
Vhat indccd about thc Genealogys \ikings and Goths: Vcrc thcy not, likc Ccsarc, hcalthy
and happy, and yct a barbaric blight upon thc carth: !n a passagc dcsigncd to bc dclibcratcly
audacious, T.ilight calls Ccsarc a highcr man . . . a typc ol supcrman.
++8
!n Beyond Good
and E.il, on thc othcr hand, hc calls him a hcalthy . . . monstcr.
++
Tis conjunction ol
cpithcts, supcrman and monstcr, puts him in thc samc catcgory as Napolcon: hc is a
synthcsis ol monstcr (Unmensch) and supcrman (

Ubermensch).
+:o
So what, thcn, docs Nictzschc havc to say about such hcalthy monstcrs: o thcy not
rcprcscnt a countcrcxamplc to his claim that no hcalthy pcrson knowingly docs cvil, that a
wclllormcd pcrson, a happy onc, ncvcr knowingly pcrlorms harmlul actions: ! think not.
For 8orgia, Napolcon, thc \ikings, though hcalthy and happy, arc not, in Nictzschcs scnsc,
wclllormcd. And lor that rcason (just as von 8 ulow thought that Nictzschcs Manfred
Meditation was not wclllormcd cnough to count as music (pp. + abovc)) thcy arc
not, in thc lull scnsc, persons. So long, that is, as onc rctains clcmcnts ol thc Unmensch onc
is not lully a Mensch, lct alonc an

Ubermensch. To bc lully a human pcrson onc must havc
sublimatcd oncs subhuman drivcs into oncs that arc human and humanc.
Tis, howcvcr, lcavcs a qucstion unanswcrcd: why should onc bc bothered about bccoming,
in Nictzschcs scnsc, a lully human pcrson: nc can imaginc a 8orgiatypc rcsponding by
suggcsting, rst, that Nictzschcs account ol pcrson is stipulativc rathcr than dcscriptivc
and, sccond, that hc himscll has no intcrcst in bccoming a pcrson in thc stipulatcd scnsc,
but prclcrs to carry on with rapc and pillagc. !l hc was lccling clcvcr hc might cvcn takc a
lcal out ol Nictzschcs own book and suggcst that thc procrcd conccpt ol a pcrson is a sla.e
conccption and that hc himscll has his own mastcr conccption, which hc much prclcrs.
Nictzschcs likcly trcatmcnt ol this rcsponsc ! shall discuss at thc cnd ol Chaptcr :6.
Whats Wrong with the Germans?
T
hc modcrn stcrcotypc ol Gcrmany placcs tcchnology in thc ccntrc ol thc picturc. As
Audi tcll us, Gcrmany is thc placc ol Fortschritt durch Technik, a hightcch powcrhousc.
uring thc cightccnth and thc rst hall ol thc ninctccnth ccntury, howcvcr, thc stcrcotypc
was quitc thc oppositc. Tc Gcrmans wcrc, cvcn to thc Gcrmans thcmsclvcs, Das !olk .on
Dichten und Denken, thc pcoplc ol pocts and thinkcrs, to bc lound, not in laboratorics or
lactorics or on battlcclds, but wandcring about in thcir dark and mystcrious lorcsts, in
lcdcrhoscn, carrying pcns rathcr than swords. sscntially it is thc transition to thc mod
crn stcrcotypc, which happcncd with rcmarkablc spccd at about thc timc ol thc Franco
Prussian war, that Nictzschc lamcntcd in thc rst ol thc Untimely Meditations,
+:+
and it
is thc loundation ol T.ilights critiquc: undcr 8ismarck, hc complains, thc Gcrmans havc
abandoncd thc lilc ol thc spirit lor powcr politics. (Notc that, had hc bccn a contcmporary
gurc, Nictzschc would havc lcvcllcd this samc complaint against Ccsarc 8orgia.) ncc
a indccd thc nation ol thinkcrs, thcrc arc no longcr any Gcrman thinkcrs (apart lrom
Nictzschc and hc, ol coursc, is Polish). Deutschland, Deutschland uber lles (thc rst linc
ol thc Gcrman national anthcm) was, Nictzschc claims, thc cnd ol Gcrman philosophy.
:

c
Tc Gcrman intcllcct has bccn dcstroycd by thc chauvinistic Feichsdeutsch mcntality and
by bcing llcd up with bccr and pyjamas.
+::
(Vhat Nictzschc had against pyjamas will
ncvcr bc known.)
!t is no mcrc coincidcncc that, with thc arrival ol Gcrman powcr, Gcrman spirit, Gcrman
culturc, has disappcarcd. For, as wc know, thcrc is an cithcror choicc to bc madc. !l
cithcr as an individual or a nation onc cxpcnds all oncs cncrgy on cconomics, world
commcrcc . . . powcr, and powcr politics, onc will havc nonc lclt lor culturc. Sincc no onc
can givc morc than thcy havc . . . culturc and statc lct us bc honcst with oursclvcs . . . arc
advcrsarics.
+:
Good ris or bad ris onc cannot havc both.

As always, a major locus ol Nictzschcs critiquc ol thc currcnt Gcrman sccnc is highcr cdu
cation. Rcpcating thc critiquc ol On the Future of our Educational Institutions (pp. +:)
thc vicws cxprcsscd thcrc rcmain rcmarkably constant throughout his carccr hc obscrvcs
that whcrcas thc truc goal ol thc univcrsity is to crcatc nc human bcings, thosc ol both out
standing intcllcct and charactcr, thc univcrsity ol thc Feich has bccomc a lactory lor turning
mcn into machincs, machincs dcsigncd lor thc civil scrvicc. (Hc adds a niccly satirical sum
mary ol Kants Prussian mctaphysics ol duty: thc civil scrvant as thing in itscll raiscd up
in judgmcnt ovcr thc civil scrvant as phcnomcnon.)
+:
!n linc with its lunction as a lactory,
thc univcrsitics havc bccn llcd with scholarly morons. And this is a disastcr, lor what wc
nccd is educators .ho are themsel.es educated Jacob 8urckhardt is thc onc cxccption to
thc rulc. l coursc thc dcmocratisation ol thc univcrsitics makcs this impossiblc gcnu
inc highcr cducation and horde arc contradictions. To cducatc, to promotc thc growth
ol highcr typcs ol humans (thosc random mutations, rcmcmbcr, on whom thc luturc ol
community and culturc dcpcnds), thc univcrsity must rcmain thc privilcgc ol thc lcw rathcr
than thc right ol thc masscs.
+:

A nal strand in Nictzschcs critiquc ol modcrn Gcrmany, and by implication Vcstcrn
modcrnity in gcncral, a critiquc ol what hc takcs to bc a dcvcloping trcnd, is his rcjcction
ol libcral institutions by libcral hc sccms to mcan institutions govcrncd by thc idca
ol cqual rights lor all, which makcs this critiquc part ol thc ongoing critiquc ol cqual
rights. Libcral institutions would thus sccm to includc womcns cmancipation, univcrsal
cducation, parliamcntary dcmocracy, social wcllarc, tradcs unions, and thc likc.
Modcrn institutions, Nictzschc writcs, arc no good:
For thcrc to bc institutions, thcrc nccds to bc a typc ol will, instinct, impcrativc, that is
antilibcral to thc point ol malicc: thc will to tradition, to authority, to a rcsponsibility
that spans thc ccnturics, to solidarity in thc chain that links thc gcncrations, lorwards and
backwards ad innitum. Vhcrc this will is prcscnt onc nds somcthing likc thc Imperium
Fomanum: or likc Russia, thc only powcr that can wait, that can still makc promiscs, whosc
body can cndurc.
Adumbratcd hcrc is thc conscrvativc sidc ol Nictzschcs thcory ol communal hcalth: along
with thc occasional random mutation, a thriving community rcquircs a powcrlul will to
tradition, a tough, authoritarian conscrvatismthat makcs dcparturc lromtradition dicult.
Tis is whcrc libcral institutions lail. Takc marriagc. !t uscd to bc indissolublc lor lilc with
solc juridical authority invcstcd in thc husband, a clarity in thc chain ol command which
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
gavc it a ccntrc ol balancc. Now, howcvcr, it is bascd on lovc, a notoriously cklc loundation
on which to basc anything at all. And with cqual rights lor womcn its lormcr clarity ol
purposc has gonc. !nstcad ol walking, modcrn marriagc limps along on both lcgs. !t is,
conscqucntly, disappcaring, social dcgcncration (thc dccay ol lamily valucs, a similar spirit
would say today) is thc ccct.
+:6
Noticc thc rationalc, hcrc, lor authoritarian conscrvatism as his rcvicwcrs thought, a
kind ol Junkcr philosophy (p. o abovc), lor all Nictzschcs loathing ol 8ismarck. Vithout
it, thc capacity lor rcsolutc collcctivc action disappcars, so that thc community dcgcncratcs
and cvcntually disappcars. !n thc languagc ol Platos Fepublic, a socicty or soul that lails
to makc itscll onc man can do nothing, nothing in particular to protcct itscll lrom cxtcrnal
and intcrnal collapsc. Tis is why, in thc modcrn world, only Tsarist Russia is capablc ol
making promiscs: only its promiscs will bc bclicvcd, lor only it has thc capacity to kccp
thcm.
What Would You Like to See Replace Modern Culture?

vidcntly, T.ilights bcttcr socicty will bc onc ol illiberal institutions. !t will bc a socicty
that, whilc supporting clitist cducational institutions that nurturc thc cxccptional typcs
who carry thc sccds ol its luturc dcvclopmcnt, will at thc samc timc makc it dicult lor thcm
to carry out thcir task. !t will bc, morcovcr, a socicty ol rmly maintaincd hicrarchy. Takc
thc qucstion ol thc workcrs. Vhat thc modcrn machinc cconomy dcmands is, ccctivcly,
industrial sla.es. 8ut at thc samc timc, wishywashy libcralism insists on providing thcm
with cducation, thc right to votc and thc right to unionisc. Tc rcsult is that thcy dcvclop thc
dcsirc to bccomc thcmsclvcs thc mastcrs. And thc conscqucncc ol that is social strilc and
miscry. !l you want slavcs, Nictzschc concludcs, it is stupid to train thcm to bc mastcrs.
+:
Vhat any socicty nccds, hc continucs, is a stratum ol modcst and scllsucicnt typcs,
Chincsc typcs
+:8
coolics. As wc havc sccn, thc basic shapc ol socicty nccds to bc thc
pyramid ol Platos Fepublic with a stratum ol workcrs lorming its broad basc (p. +6o
abovc and p. + bclow). Vithin that basic shapc, howcvcr, thcrc will bc many ncgraincd
distinctions. Sincc rcality shows us an cnchanting wcalth ol typcs it is stupid to say, as
moralists do, that man ought to bc thus and thus! to paint a picturc on thc wall and say
ecce homo.
+:
Vhatcvcr morality thc ncw socicty posscsscs, it will havc dicrcntial rights
and dutics lor dicrcnt kinds ol pcoplc. Tough hicrarchical, it will bc thc oppositc ol
homogcncous.
What Is the Place of Art in Your New Society?
A
rt lor arts sakc is, Nictzschc says, a lcgitimatc protcst against thc subordination ol art
to Christian morality. (Hc is rclcrring to thc acsthctic movcmcnt, an aspcct ol thc
d ecadent movcmcnt which was in high lashion as hc was writing.) From thc lact, howcvcr,
that art should not bc Christian propaganda it by no mcans lollows that it has no ultcrior
purposc at all. Vhat art docs, good art, is to sclcct and dignily. !t strcngthcns ccrtain
valuations and wcakcns othcrs. Spccically, it strcngthcns lilccnhancing valuations and
wcakcns lilcdcnying oncs. Tc subjcct mattcr ol Raphacls wondcrlul art was, ol coursc,
:

c,
Christian. 8ut lct us not bc childish: Raphacl said ycs, Raphacl did ycs, crgo Raphacl was
no Christian.
+o
vcry hcalthy morality, Nictzschc asscrts, cvcry natural morality, scrvcs somc rulc ol
lilc.
++
!t is, wc know, thc voicc ol a pcoplcs will to powcr (p. + abovc), its will to livc
and thrivc. And so too, wc havc just sccn, is its art. Tcrc is thus a coincidcncc bctwccn
hcalthy art and hcalthy morality: thc valuations that arc validatcd by a communitys art arc
thc valuations ol its morality. Tis takcs us back to thc task assigncd to art in Human, ll-
Too-Human ol imaginativcly dcvcloping shining imagcs ol thc grcat and bcautilul soul,
back to thc monumcntal gurcs ol thc sccond Untimely Meditation and, ultimatcly, back
to Vagncr and thc Birth of Tragedys asscrtion that, art and pcoplc, myth and morality
arc ncccssarily and closcly intcrtwincd (p. +o abovc) in a hcalthy community. n thc
conncction bctwccn art and socicty nothing has changcd.
Iast Stay in Turin
A
s notcd (p. : abovc), scrious ooding dclaycd Nictzschcs dcparturc lrom Sils lor
Turin until Scptcmbcr :o. As usual, thc journcy was a disastcr involving, ncar Como,
a nighttimc crossing ol a narrow lootbridgc ovcr oodcd tcrrain just thc thing lor a
blind cow likc mc! hc lamcntcd. (vidcntly, not all ol thc !talian lcg ol thc journcy could
bc complctcd by train.) Tc arrival, howcvcr, instantly madc up lor thc journcy. Strangc!
Nictzschc rcportcd, as bclorc, in a momcnt cvcrything in ordcr. Vondcrlul clarity, autumn
colours, an cxquisitc lccling ol wcllbcing sprcading ovcr all things. Tc wclcomc in thc
Fino houschold and in his local trattoria was all that could bc dcsircd. As bclorc, hc lovcd
bcing just two minutcs walk lrom thc magniccnt castlc on thc Piazza Castcllo, lovcd thc
opcnair thcatrc whcrc onc could cat gclato whilc watching a pcrlormancc, lovcd going to
opcrctta altcr opcrctta (thc only y in thc ointmcnt bcing Strausss Gipsy Baron).
+:
For thc
rst timc in his lilc hc had his own tailor.
Tough thc wcathcr was bad on arrival, this had no ccct on cithcr his hcalth or pro
ductivity.
+
And it soon pickcd up, dcvcloping into a glorious autumn: lrom thc bcgin
ning ol ctobcr until wcll into Novcmbcr thcrc was goldcn bcauty, day altcr day, da
capo.
+
Vhcn not working, Nictzschc playcd lourhandcd piano with Finos twclvcycar
old daughtcr, !rcnc, lor whomhc had dcvclopcd thc samc acction as lor Adricnnc urisch.
(Sixtccnycarold Giulia, on thc othcr hand, rcgardcd him as wcird and would sit staring
at him lor long pcriods.) Hc lrcqucntly visitcd thc cxccllcnt bookshops, browsing through
ncw books, though ncvcr buying anything. And ol coursc, hc was a rcgular visitor to his
lavouritc cal cs, cal c Livorno in thc altcrnoons, cal c Florio (lamous, still, lor its gclato) in
thc cvcnings.
Te Antichrist
T
hroughout +888 Nictzschc rcgards himscll as at war, cngagcd in a spiritual war to thc
knilc against thc prcscnt, but morc spccically against thc Gcrman prcscnt, against
Gcrman chauvinism and antiScmitism and thc dccay ol its culturc.
+
n Scptcmbcr o
hc nishcd lashioning onc ol his major artillcry picccs, Te ntichrist (or ntichristian thc
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Gcrman has both mcanings), which at that timc hc rcgardcd as 8ook ! ol thc projcctcd
lourbook, mastcrwork (now, lor rcasons that will bc cxplorcd in Chaptcr :6, rctitlcd
Fe.aluation of ll !alues). 8y midNovcmbcr, howcvcr, hc had comc to rcgard it as con
stituting thc totality ol thc mastcrwork. Tis makcs it an important documcnt, in a scnsc,
Nictzschcs last will and tcstamcnt.
Te ntichrist is an uncvcn work in both tonc and contcnt. Somc passagcs, thc account
ol thc historical Jcsus, lor instancc, arc as nc as anything hc wrotc. 8ut othcrs amount to
littlc morc than a ragc against Christianity that gocs on much too long and says nothing
has not bccn said bclorc. Tc subtitlc, A Cursc on Christianity, addcd at thc last momcnt
as Nictzschc was dipping into insanity, capturcs thc quality ol this ragc. Gonc is thc lormcr
judicious wcighing up ol Christianitys pros and cons (scc p. 6 abovc), in its placc is
simply thc crudc judgmcnt that Christianity is thc grcatcst corruption conccivablc.
+6
Tc
work cnds with thc promulgation by Tc Antichrist ol a scvcnpart Law against Chris
tianity, subtitlcd Givcn on thc ay ol Salvation, on thc rst day ol thc ycar onc ( oth
Scptcmbcr, +888, according to thc lalsc calculation ol timc).

Tc laws contradict cach

othcr, sincc whcrcas thc rst calls lor all pricsts to bc lockcd up, thc lth calls lor thcm
to bc ostraciscd at mcaltimcs. !t is hard to bclicvc Nictzschc had propcr posscssion ol his
lacultics whcn hc wrotc this addcndum to thc work.
Judaism and the Origin of Slave Morality
T
hc csscntial thing about Christianity, writcs Nictzschc, is its Jcwish origin. !t was thc
Jcws who invcntcd slavc morality, thc morality ol ressentiment.
+
riginally invcnt
cd during thc 8abylonian xilc,
+8
it was subscqucntly adoptcd by thc Christians in thc
carly Roman mpirc. Te ntichrist now procccds to ocr an account ol thc origin ol slavc
morality in ressentiment which, sincc hc rclcrs us back to that, hc clcarly bclicvcs to bc no
morc than an cxpansion ol thc account prcscntcd in thc Genealogys rst cssay (pp. 6:
abovc):
Lookcd at psychologically thc Jcws arc thc pcoplc with thc toughcst lilc lorcc, whcn trans
plantcd into impossiblc conditions thcy took sidcs with all thc instincts ol d ecadence . . . out
ol thc most proloundly shrcwd scnsc ol scllprcscrvation not bccausc thcy wcrc domi
natcd by thcsc instincts, but bccausc thcy scnscd that thcsc instincts had a powcr that could
bc uscd to prcvail against thc world. Tc Jcws arc thc oppositc ol d ecadents thcy had to act
likc dccadcnts, to thc point ol illusion . . . a non plus ultra ol thcatrical gcnius . . . lor thc typc
ol pcrson who wiclds powcr insidc Judaism. . . a pricstly typc, d ecadence is only a mcans.
+
riginally, thcn, wc now lcarn, slavc morality was just theatre, a noblc lic that thc Jcwish
pricsts uscd to discmpowcr thcir 8abylonian opprcssors. 8y cncouraging and validating thc
d ecadent instincts ol thc noblcs (pp. 8 bclow), thcy pcrsuadcd thcm to translcr thcir
allcgiancc lrom mastcr to slavc morality and so ccasc thcir opprcssion.

Rccall that Zarathustra is supposcd to split history into two halvcs (pp. 8, 8o abovc): 8clorc
and Altcr Zarathustra is supposcd to rcplacc thc old 8C/A systcm.
:

::
Vhat makcs this story initially startling in rclation to thc Genealogys account ol thc
slavc rcvolt is that thcrc, thc Jcwish pricsts cauldrons ol unassuagcd hatrcd, thcir souls
poisoncd by ressentiment against thcir opprcssors appcarcd as paradigms ol sickness (p. 6
abovc). Hcrc, howcvcr, what look to bc thosc samc pricsts sccm to appcar as paradigms ol
health thc oppositc ol d ecadent . Has Nictzschc thcn changcd his mind about thc slavc
rcvolt: Contrary to appcarancc, ! think not that what hc is doing hcrc, actually, is cxpand
ing rathcr than contradicting thc Genealogy.
Crucial is thc lact that Te ntichrist is talking about, not thc Christian rcvolt against
thc Romans, but Judaisms rcvolt against thc 8abylonians. Nictzschc portrays thcsc early
Jcwish pricsts as, though naturally resentful ol thcir opprcssion by thc 8abylonian mastcrs,
not inlcctcd by thc poison ol ressentiment. Tc rcason thcy arc not, cvidcntly, is that thcy
do something somcthing eecti.e about thcir opprcssion, and so assuagc, .ent, thcir
rcscntmcnt. l coursc, thcy do not do so in thc manncr in which thc \ikings vcnt thcir
rcscntmcnt against thc intcrnal constraints imposcd by thc tribc (p. 6 abovc). Undcr
thcir impossiblc conditions, that option is not availablc to thcm. Rathcr than thc sword,
thcir wcapon is, and has to bc, thc pcn black propaganda. Vhat this mcans, in ccct,
is that likc Nictzschc himscll thcy arc cngagcd in a spiritual agon. Tcy vicw thcir
opprcssors as cncmics, to bc surc, cvcn hatc thcm, but thcy do not poison thcir souls with
thc un.ented hatrcd that is ressentiment.
Vhcn wc turn to thc later Jcwish pricsts, howcvcr, thc Christian oncs, thc story is vcry
dicrcnt. Vhat makcs it dicrcnt is thc lact that thc Christian pricsts havc internalised
slavc morality: what lor thcir prcdcccssors was mcrc thcatrc is lor thcm thc ultimatc truth.
And that dcmands, ol coursc, that onc turn thc othcr chcck, it lorbids thcm thc practicc
ol hcalthrcstoring rcvcngc.
Tc crucial contrast, thcn, is bctwccn thc pricsts ol Judaism and thc pricsts ol Christian
ity. Tat Te ntichrist calls Jcwish pricsts hcalthy whilc thc Genealogy calls Jcwish pricsts
sick is not a contradiction sincc thc lormcr locuscs on pricsts ol Judaism whilc thc lattcr
locuscs on thc pricsts ol Christianity. Te ntichrist is, ! think, making this point whcn it
says that, whilc thc pricsts ol Judaism arc thc oppositc ol d ecadents, thc Christianity ol
Paul is a movcmcnt ol d ecadence.
+o
And pcrhaps thc Genealogy makcs thc samc point
by spccilying thc targct ol its attack as, not, in lact, pricsts in gcncral, but rathcr ascctic
pricsts (p. abovc).
Te Historical Jesus
T
hc rcal, historical Jcsus, Nictzschc claims, had nothing to do with idcas ol sin and
punishmcnt. Aictcd by a ncurotic ovcrscnsitivity to sucring, hc prcachcd a doc
trinc ol univcrsal lovc, ol ncvcr rcsisting, always turning thc othcr chcck. Prcsumably thc
sucring, hcrc, is thc sucring ol division, ol cnmity. !l onc lovcs, lorgivcs, cvcryonc thcn
whatcvcr thcy do thcy can ncvcr bc oncs cncmy. Nictzschc calls this a kind ol hcdonism,
closcly rclatcd to picurcanism. 8oth Jcsus and picurus arc d ecadent,
++
on thc grounds,
cvidcntly, that thcy lack thc will that cravcs victorics and thcrclorc cncmics. Tcy lack, in
a word, thc will to powcr (scc lurthcr pp. 8 bclow).
+:
Tc rcal Jcsus was no mctaphysician, had no supcrnatural bclicls whatsocvcr. For him,
thc kingdom ol hcavcn is a statc ol thc hcart. !t lics ncithcr abovc thc carth nor altcr
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
dcath but is achicvcd hcrc and now in thc practicc ol univcrsal lovc. Jcsus taught by par
ablc and by cxamplc. His dcath was not an cxpiation ol human sins but rathcr thc ultimatc
dcmonstration ol his doctrinc ol nonrcsistancc.
+
Hc was, in short, a kind ol 8uddhist,
8uddhism bcing also a nonmctaphysical lilcpracticc cngcndcrcd by hypcrscnsitivity to
pain.
+
Jcsus rcprcscntcd a 8uddhistic pcacc movcmcnt.
+
Tis truc, original Christianity
rcprcscnts a lilc that is still possiblc today, lor certain pcoplc it is cvcn a ncccssity.
+6
Pos
siblc and in thc +6os, surcly, actual. n Nictzschcs imprcssivc account, Jcsus turns out to
bc thc rst hippic.
Pauls Perversion
!
n thc immcdiatc altcrmath ol Jcsus dcath, Nictzschc continucs, thc traumatiscd disciplcs
askcd: who killcd him: Tc answcr was: thc Jcwish uppcr classcs. Grippcd by ressenti-
ment, thcy quickly bcgan to misundcrstand Jcsus as a radical opponcnt ol thc Jcws. Jcsuss
dcath could not, thcrclorc, bc thc cnd ol thc mattcr: thcrc would bc a sccond coming,
judgmcnt and punishmcnt. Tis is thc torch that soon passcd to that pricstly tyrant Paul,
who, wclding Jcwish notions ol judgmcnt to Platos mctaphysics, invcntcd Christianity as
wc know it: original sin, a supcrnatural hcavcn and hcll, an allpowcrlul judgc, and Christs
dcath as thc hopc ol rcdcmption. Abovc all, Paul propagatcd that ridiculous attcry ol
human vanity, thc idca ol pcrsonal immortality. Tis provcd thc trump card in thc sprcad
ol Christianity.
+
Te Charges against Christianity
T
hc tropc in tcrms ol which Te ntichrist is constructcd is that ol a law court. Tc
prosccution brings scrics ol chargcs upon which (thcrc is no dclcncc) thc prisoncr
in thc dock is condcmncd as thc grcatcst corruption conccivablc. Tough thcrc is nothing
ncw in thc chargcs, thcy do providc a usclul compcndium ol Nictzschcs main objcctions
to Christianity. Tcrc arc cight ol thcm.
First, and most casily ovcrlookcd, Nictzschc complains ol Christianitys (Malwidas, lor
cxamplc (scc p. o abovc)) idcalist arrogancc, an arrogancc that docs not allow any scrap
ol rcality to bc honourcd, or cvcn cxprcsscd.
+8
As Ecce Homo puts it, to thc cxtcnt onc
fabricates an idcal world onc dcprivcs rcality ol its mcaning, valuc and truthlulncss.
+
Sccond, Christianity both produccs and intcnsics thc sickncss ol scllhatrcd.
+o
!t
dcmoniscs all thc natural instincts, in particular scx,
++
intcrprcting thcm as sins that puts
us in dangcr ol ctcrnal damnation savc lor thc intcrscssion ol Christ i.c., thc pricsts. !n
so doing, as wc saw (p. o abovc), it catcrs to, and so intcnsics, thc scllloathing ol thc
inwardly lcral human bcing caught in thc cagc ol civilization, providcs him with a stick
with which to satisly thc dcsirc to inict pain that has, pcr lorcc, turncd inwards.
+:
Tird, Christianity dcstroys all lilccnhancing instincts, all public spirit. Faccd with thc
task ol saving oncs immortal soul all attcmpts to promotc thc common good shrink into
irrclcvancc. !ndccd, conccrn to improvc worldly things might wcll comc to bc sccn as a
positivc distraction lrom thc rcal task ol saving oncs soul.
+
(No doubt thc doctrinc ol
salvation by works was introduccd to countcract this kind ol thcology.)
:

:
Fourth, via thc poisonous doctrinc equal rights lor cvcryonc (noticc that Nictzschc
docs not objcct to rights), thc idca that wc arc all cqually valuablc in thc cycs ol God,
Christianity has wagcd a dcadly war on cvcry lccling ol rcspcct and distancc bctwccn
pcoplc, which it to say thc presupposition ol cvcry clcvation, ol cvcry growth ol culturc.
8y dcstroying all aristocratism ol mind thc cvangcl ol thc lowly makes things lowcr,
+
a
proccss which, as wc know, is carricd on by thc modcrn idcas.
Filth, Christianity is an incrcdibly cunning lorm ol hypocrisy. !l ye lorgivc not mcn thcir
trcspasscs, ncithcr will your lathcr lorgivc your trcspasscs (Matthcw 6:+). And Vhoso
cvcr shall ocnd onc ol thcsc littlc oncs that bclicvc in mc, it is bcttcr lor himthat a millstonc
wcrc hangcd about his ncck and hc wcrc cast into thc sca (Mark ::). !n pronounccmcnts
such as thcsc Chandala hatrcd disguiscs itscll as lovc. Jcsuss original mcssagc ol lovc is
pcrvcrtcd into a slavcs thrcatcning thc powcrlul with hcll rc and damnation.
+
Sixth, modcrn Christian thcologians lic through thcir tccth. Tcy kno.thcrc is no God
anymorc, that thc Godhypothcsis is incompatiblc with all thc othcr lurniturc ol thc
modcrn, cducatcd mind. vcryonc knows that thcrc is no last judgmcnt, no sin, and no
rcdccmcr, yct cvcrything gocs on as bclorc. !t is notablc that thc Law against Christianity
that concludcs Te ntichrist rcscrvcs thc harshcst punishmcnts lor liberal Christians, on thc
grounds that thc criminality ol bcing Christian incrcascs with oncs proximity to scicncc.
Scvcnth, Christianity docs not mcrcly lic, it lics to a bad cnd. All thc grcat world rcligions,
Nictzschc suggcsts, indulgc in thc holy lic: !slam, Christianity, Conlucius, thc Lawbook
ol Manu, not to mcntion that wouldbc loundcr ol a ncw rcligion, Plato. !t makcs a trc
mcndous dicrcncc, though, why thc lic is told.
Takc thc Lawbook ol Manu. (Nictzschcs sourcc, hcrc, is undoubtcdly cusscns book
on Hinduism, which hc had rcad thc prcvious ycar (p. 6 abovc).) At a ccrtain point, thc
spiritual lcadcrs ol ancicnt !ndian socicty dccidcd that thc agc ol moral cxpcrimcntation
should bc brought to a closc: that thcir socicty had now arrivcd at the codc that bcst scrvcd
thc hcalth ol thcir community. And so thcy rccordcd that codc as thc Laws ol Manu,
thc ccntral lcaturc ol which is thc division ol socicty into vc lcvcls: 8rahmins (pricsts),
Kshatriya (rulcrwarriors), \aishya (mcrchants) Schudra (craltsmcn and larmcrs), and thc
Chandala, untouchablcs. !n rcality, thc Lawbook was an cmpirical summary ol thc social
ordcr which long cxpcricncc had suggcstcd to work bcst. 8ut to prcvcnt lurthcr cxpcri
mcntation (thc conscrvativc dynamic in Nictzschcs account ol cultural hcalth), this cmpir
ical charactcr had to bc disguiscd. Tc Lawbook was, thc pricsts pronounccd, thc product
ol divinc rcvclation and had oncc, in a past goldcn agc, bccn laithlully lollowcd by thc
anccstors. Rcvclation and tradition wcrc two walls thc pricsts crcctcd to prcvcnt lurthcr
cxpcrimcntation.
+6
Tus Manus holy lic. Shortly wc will scc that Nictzschc docs not, in lact, support any
kind ol holy lic. Yct, at lcast on thc surlacc, hc obscrvcs, thcrc sccms to bc a hugc dicrcncc
bctwccn Manus lic and that ol Christianity: whcrcas Christianitys lic is dcsigncd lor thc
poison, slandcr |and| ncgation ol lilc, Manu at lcast sccms to aim at promoting human
wcllbcing, sccms to say Ycs to lilc.
+
Rccction on Manu show that somc holy lics arc
worsc than othcrs, and that Christianitys lic is thc worst ol all.
Te ntichrists cighth, nal, and in thc cnd, by lar thc most scrious chargc against Chris
tianity (thc rootcausc ol Nictzschcs hatrcd) is that it chcatcd us out ol thc lruits ol ancicnt
culturc.
+8
Manu, Nictzschc writcs, was an attcmpt to ctcrnalisc thc suprcmc condition
lor a thri.ing lilc, a grcat organisation ol socicty. 8ut, ultimatcly, it docs not providc a
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
modcl wc should lollow, givcn that it crcatcs and pcrsccutcs an undcrclass ol untouchablc
Chandalas. Tis not only rcprcscnts a trcmcndous social harm, somcthing wc, quitc prop
crly nd, outragcous, but also prcparcs thc sccds ol its own dcstruction at thc hands ol thc
Chandala rcvcngc, a slavc rcvolt.
+
Tc samc is truc ol a much ncr cxamplc ol thc cort to ctcrnalizc thc conditions ol
thriving lilc, thc Roman mpirc: !n this socicty, thc rcvcnuc ol rcason lrom long agcs ol
cxpcrimcnt and unccrtainty should havc bccn invcstcd lor thc grcatcst longtcrm advan
tagc, and thc grcatcst, richcst, most pcrlcct crop possiblc should havc bccn harvcstcd.
+6o
Tc Roman mpirc, Grccccs hcir, brought thc moral wisdom ol thc ancicnt world,
antiquitys wondcrlul undcrstanding ol thc art ol lilc, into a political structurc morc cndur
ing than bronzc,
+6+
a dcsign that ought to havc lastcd lor, and pro.ed its worth ovcr, mil
lcnnia. (!t should, in othcr words, havc bccomc a Tousand Ycar Rcich.) No onc sincc had
cvcn drcamt lrom thc ctcrnal point ol vicw in such a grand stylc, no onc has drcamt ol
such a magniccnt piccc ol social architccturc. 8ut wc wcrc dcstincd ncvcr to cnjoy thc
lruits ol this wondcrlul uropcan bcginning on account ol its onc dcsign aw, thc crc
ation ol a Chandala undcrclass. Tough thc structurc was strong cnough to survivc both
bad cmpcrors and barbarian attacks, it was not ablc to rcsist thc worm ol intcrnal corrup
tion, Christianitys Chandala rcvcngc, thc sprcad ol slavc morality which gradually alicn
atcd thc souls |ol thc Roman nobility| lrom that trcmcndous structurc.
+6:
Romc dicd,
Nictzschc agrccs with Gibbon, on account ol Christianity, thc vampirc within it which
gradually suckcd out its lilcblood.
+6
And so thc Vcsts magniccnt bcginning turncd
into a tragic cnd.
Te Great Noon
!
n thc light ol this casc lor thc prosccution (thcrc is, as ! said, no dclcncc), Tc Antichrist
dclivcrs his judgmcnt that Christianity is thc worst disastcr cvcr to havc bclallcn thc
human racc. !n promulgating his concluding Laws against Christianity hc condcmns it
to having all its pricsts cithcr cxpcllcd or imprisoncd, along with all prcachcrs ol chastity.
All its churchcs arc to bc razcd to thc ground with larms lor poisonous snakcs crcctcd on
thcir sitcs (holocaust mcmorials, as it wcrc). 8ut thcn what: Vhat kind ol postChristian
world should wc hopc lor and work towards:
Nictzschcs lury at thc loss ol thc grcat bcginning (H oldcrlin and Hcidcggcr uscd thc
samc word to lamcnt thc samc loss, though ncithcr blamcs it on Christianity) suggcsts thc
point ! havc bccn cmphasising throughout this book that our ncwbcginning should dcrivc
its inspiration lrom classical antiquity. Vhat, Nictzschc asks in thc notcbooks, do wc nccd
in ordcr to construct a ncw and strongcr kind ol human bcing out ol thc chaos ol modcrn
ity: Vhat wc nccd is a rcvival ol classical tastc . . . thc will to simplication, strcngthcning,
to thc visibility ol happincss.
+6
!n Ecce Homo thc back to thc Grccks thcmc is cvcn morc
cxplicit: thc worldhistorical task, announccd alrcady in !agner at Bayreuth, is thc immi
ncnt rcturn ol thc Grcck spirit, thc nccd lor counter-lexanders

to retie thc Gordian knot

ol Grcck culturc altcr it had bccn undonc.
+6
How arc wc to achicvc this work ol rccovcry
that will rcstorc thc hcalth ol our culturc: How arc wc to achicvc Tc Grcat Noon: (!n thc

Nictzschc vicws thc Alcxandrian pcriod as thc dccay ol high Grcck culturc.
:

:
vcry last ol Nictzschcs skctchplans lor a book to bc callcd Te !ill to Po.er, thc lourth
and nal book, cvidcntly intcndcd to contain his vision lor thc luturc, is cntitlcd Te Great
Noon.)
+66
Manu, Nictzschc bclicvcs, rcprcscnts a lar lrom pcrlcct social ordcr. Yct thc gcncral idca
ol a castc systcm is absolutcly right, castc ordcr, ordcr ol rank, is just a lormula lor thc
suprcmc lawol lilc itscll, a natural order, lawlulncss par excellence.
+6
Vhat naturc dictatcs,
howcvcr, is not thc lour (or vc, counting thc Chandala) social strata ol Manu but rathcr
thrcc:
!n cvcry hcalthy socicty, thrcc mutually conditioning physiological typcs scparatc out and
gravitatc in dicrcnt dircctions, cach onc having its own hygicnc, its own arca ol work,
its own lccling ol pcrlcction and cld ol mastcry. Naturc, not Manu, scparatcs lrom cach
othcr: prcdominantly spiritual pcoplc, pcoplc charactcriscd by muscular and tcmpcramcntal
strcngth, and a third group ol pcoplc who arc not distinguishcd in cithcr way, thc avcragc.
+68
Tc smallcst ol thc thrcc castcs arc thc rulcrs. Tcy do not rulc bccausc thcy want to,
but rathcr bccausc thcy exist, thcy arc not lrcc to bc sccond. 8uoycd up by a natural cha
risma that, in a hcalthy socicty gcncratcs natural rcspcct, ncithcr thcir naturc nor thcir
lcllows allow thcm not to rulc. Vhat, hcrc, is mcant by rulc: !n Ecce Homo Nictzschc
rcpcats Zarathustras bcautilul and prolound statcmcnt that thoughts that comc on dovcs
lcct guidc thc world.
+6
So thc kind ol lcadcrship thc rulcrs Beyond Good and E.il s phi
losophcrs ol thc luturc (pp. :: abovc) cxcrcisc is spiritual rathcr than dircctly political
in charactcr. Rathcr likc, as ! suggcstcd, thc suprcmc lcadcr ol an !slamic rcpublic, Nictz
schcs philosophcrking is a spiritual king, which is why, in thc luturc, thc conccpt ol
politics will . . . mcrgc into spiritual warlarc.
+o
Tc sccond castc, thc spiritually or physically muscular typcs, arc thc attcndants, thc
right hand and bcst pupils ol thc spiritual lcadcrs and providc thc custodians ol thc law as
wcll as thc military. Tcy arc thc cxccutivcs ol thc most spiritual, and takc ovcr cvcrything
crude in thc work ol govcrnmcnt. Tc third castc is rcsponsiblc lor cralt, tradc, larming,
scicncc, and most ol art. 8ccausc this castc is by lar thc most numcrous, a high culturc is
a pyramid with a broad basc.
++
Tis is an cxact rcpctition ol Tc Grcck Statc ol +8:
(scc p. +6o abovc), indicating that Nictzschcs political vicws at thc cnd ol his carccr arc
idcntical with thosc at thc bcginning.
To anyonc lamiliar with Platos Fepublic, this schcmc ol things looks to approach pla
giarism. Tc castcs arc not mcrcly thc samc in numbcr as Platos castcs but idcntical in
lunction. Tc idca that onc bclongs by nature rather than inherited social pri.ilege to onc ol
thc castcs is what Plato cmbodics in thc noblc lic ol souls bcing born as cithcr gold, silvcr,
or bronzc. (Noticc that lromNictzschcs point ol vicwthis is not rcally a lic at all but rathcr
a mctaphorical cxprcssion ol a natural truth.) vcn thc dctails arc takcn lrom Plato: that
thc lcadcrs lcad out ol ncccssity rathcr than mcrc dcsirc, and that thcrc is a natural anity
bctwccn thc rst and sccond castcs.
To us thcrc is somcthing cxtraordinary in taking a twoandahallthousandycarold
documcnt as a blucprint lor thc luturc ol thc Vcst, as indccd thcrc would havc bccn lor
many ol Nictzschcs contcmporarics: this is why, as wc havc sccn, hc lclt compcllcd to
dclcnd himscll against thc supcrior smirk with which our historicallycducatcd rcjcct
such a lruit ol antiquity (p. : abovc). Vhat wc nccd to undcrstand is that to thosc
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
mouldcd by thc rcvcrcncc lor Grcccc that pcrmcatcd, almost dcncd, thc Gcrman Gym-
nasium wcll into thc twcnticth ccntury, thc idca was quitc normal that political thcory (likc
gcomctry and logic) had bccn complctcd by thc Grccks. Martin Hcidcggcr bclicvcd thc
samc thing.

Vhat Nictzschc ocrs, howcvcr, is not, in lact, purc plagiarism. For Plato, thc rcason phi
losophcrs must rulc is that thcy alonc havc knowlcdgc ol thc Forms: thc ctcrnal and pcrlcct
paradigms ol justicc and virtuc, knowlcdgc ol which is thc prcrcquisitc ol bcing a wisc rulcr.
8ut Nictzschc, as wc know, dismisscs this truc world as a lablc. And so hc ocrs somcthing
clsc as a condition ol lcadcrship:
Tc highcst cast which ! call the fe. bcing thc pcrlcct castc also has thc privilcgc ol thc
lcw: this includcs bcing |cxcmplary| modcls ol happincss, bcauty, goodncss on carth. nly
thc most spiritual human bcings arc allowcd . . . to bc |morally| bcautilul: only among thcm
is goodncss not a wcakncss . . . n thc othcr hand nothing can bc tolcratcd lcss in this typc
than ugly manncrs or a pcssimistic look . . . !ndignation is thc privilcgc ol thc Chandala,
pcssimism too. Te .orld is perfect this is how thc instinct ol thc most pcrlcct spcaks,
thc ycssaying instinct.
+:
Finding thc world pcrlcct is, ol coursc, just Gocthcs highcst ol all possiblc laiths (p. o+
abovc), thc laith that all is rcdccmcd in thc totality ol cxistcncc that cnablcs onc to cmbraccs
thc ctcrnal rcturn. Tis brings out anothcr, pcrhaps thc most important, aspcct ol thc tcst
ol willing thc ctcrnal rcturn.
!l onc rcjccts dcmocracy, as both Nictzschc and Plato do, il onc bclicvcs to call a spadc
a spadc in dictatorship, thc qucstion ariscs ol how to cnsurc it is a bene.olent dictatorship.
Platos answcr, wc havc sccn, is not availablc to Nictzschc sincc thc Forms arc a myth.
Morc broadly, it sccms to mc, Nictzschc docs not bclicvc that thc most csscntial thing to
good politics is any kind ol cognitivc cxpcrtisc. Tough thc spiritual rulcrs must indccd bc
thc most circumspcct (which is to say larsightcd and hindsightcd),
+
thcir most csscntial
lcaturc is a quality ol thc hcart. Vhat wc nccd arc lcadcrs who arc genuinely good, thosc in
whom goodncss is not a wcakncss, thosc who arc thc kindcst and who trcat thc avcragc
morc dclicatcly than thcy trcat thcmsclvcs or thcir cquals.
+
Tc idcal lcadcr, thcrclorc, is
somconc likc Zarathustra or Gocthc (or King Ludwig, as Vagncr wishcd him to bc (p. ++
abovc)), who looks upon thc world with univcrsal lovc who, that is to say, can will thc
ctcrnal rcturn.
+
Transportcd into politics, bcing ablc to will thc ctcrnal rcturn is thc crucial
critcrion ol tncss to rulc.
+6
Noticc that this is csscntially a rcstatcmcnt ol Nictzschcs vicw
that virtuc is a consequence ol happincss (p. o abovc). !l this is truc, thcn thc suprcmc
virtuc ol thc idcal lcadcr dcmands suprcmc happincss.
!t might sccm that onc can look on thc world with univcrsal lovc and yct rcmain an
cntircly privatc pcrson, but this is not so. Lovc is action, nccds, as in thc casc ol Zarathus
tra, to ovcrow. Lovc lor thc community (lor humanity) as a wholc dcmands action lor
thc sakc ol thc community as a wholc. Hcncc thc idcal lcadcr will bc likc thosc valuablc,
thosc masculincnoblc naturcs that saw Romcs busincss as thcir own busincss, thcir own
scriousncss, thcir own pride.
+
For thc idcal lcadcr, indccd lor any truly hcalthy pcrson,
thc prospcrity ol thc community (ol humanity) as a wholc is thc dcning mcaning ol thcir
livcs. For thc hcalthy pcrson, pcrsonal mcaning is communal mcaning.
:

:

Vhat, howcvcr, about thc avcragc: Sincc Nictzschcs Rcpublic dcnics thcm cqual
rights,
+8
do thcy not, in lact, lor all thc claimcd bcncvolcncc ol thc lcadcrs, lorm a class
ol opprcsscd slavcs: As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc argucs that thc latal dcsign aw in both
thc socicty ol Manu and in thc Roman mpirc was thc crcation ol a Chandala class: by
allowing thc dcvclopmcnt ol an alicnatcd undcrclass both socictics sowcd thc sccds ol thcir
own downlall. Hc nccds, thcrclorc, to bc ablc to dcmonstratc that his own luturc socicty is
lrcc ol this dcsign aw.
ach ol thc thrcc natural castcs has, hc say, a kind ol happincss spccic to itscll. nc
mans mcat is anothcr mans poison, as hc cmphasiscs in Beyond Good and E.il (p. :o
abovc). An avcragc typc, lor instancc, would bc crushcd by thc burdcn ol lcadcrship and
ascctic lilcstylc that is thc happincss ol thc spiritual typc: lilc bccomcs incrcasingly dicult
thc higher up onc gocs it gcts coldcr, thcrc arc morc rcsponsibilitics.
+
For thc avcragc,
thosc with avcragc dcsircs and abilitics, bcing avcragc is happincss. For onc born an intcl
ligcnt machinc, a whccl in thc systcm, living thc lilc ol a whccl (or cog) is happincss.
Tis is a principal objcction to socialism it makcs thosc it purports to bcnct unhappy,
undcrminc|s| workcrs instincts and plcasurcs, thcir lcclings ol modcsty about thcir littlc
cxistcnccs. !njusticc, concludcs Nictzschc, cndorsing, cxactly, Platos dcnition ol justicc
as cvcryoncs adhcring to thc station in socicty to which thcy arc, by naturc, suitcd, is ncvcr
a mattcr ol uncqual rights but is a mattcr ol claiming equal rights.
+8o
Religion in Nietzsches Republic
T
hc Christian God, wc havc sccn, is thc grcatcst corruption. 8ut docs Nictzschc also
rcjcct gods in gcncral, will his ncw world bc a rcligionlrcc zonc: Sincc thc ntichrist
is, csscntially, his last crcativc work ol philosophy, it will bc as wcll to gct his nal word on
thc subjcct ol gods.
A pcoplc, writcs Nictzschc,
which still bclicvcs in itscll |i.c., posscsscs a unilying morality in which to bclicvc| still also
has its own god. !n him it vcncratcs thc conditions through which it has prospcrcd, |i.c.|
its virtucs it projccts its joy in itscll, its lccling ol powcr, onto a bcing whom onc can
thank lor thcm. Hc who is rich wants to bcstow, a proud pcoplc nccds a god in ordcr to
sacrice . . . Vithin thc bounds ol such prcsuppositions rcligion is a lorm ol gratitudc. nc
is gratclul lor oncscll: lor that onc nccds a god. Such a god must bc ablc to bc both usclul
and harmlul, both lricnd and loc.
+8+
Nictzschc is talking, hcrc, about what thc Genealogy callcd a noblc rcligion, thc rcligion ol
a hcalthy pcoplc: thc rcligion, paradigmatically, ol thc Grccks (pp. o abovc), who rcpay
with intcrcst thcir loundcrs, thcir anccstors (hcrocs and gods) with all thc attributcs which,
in thc mcantimc, had bccomc manilcst in thcmsclvcs, thc noble attributcs.
+8:
Tc rcason
thc god has to bc capablc ol both harm and hclp is that onc would not undcrstand a god
who kncw nothing ol angcr, rcvcngclulncss, cnvy, mockcry, cunning, acts ol violcncc. nc
nccds a natural god as opposcd to thc anti-natural god ol Christianity.
+8
Tis is just thc
point, rst cxprcsscd in Te Birth of Tragedy, that a non-human rolc modcl is an anti-human
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
rolc modcl sincc thc ccct ol such a gurc is dcprcssing rathcr than inspiring, thc point that
a gcnuincly inspiring modcl with whom wc can idcntily must bc human, with a dash, cvcn,
ol thc alltoohuman.
Nictzschc makcs thc point that bclorc thc 8abylonian captivity dcnaturcd him, thc god
ol thc Jcws, too, was a hcalthy god:
riginally, particularly in thc timc ol thc kings, !sracl had a correct, which is to say, nat
ural rclation to all things. !ts Yahwch allowcd pcoplc to cxprcss a consciousncss ol powcr,
!sracls joy in itscll and hopc lor itscll: Yahwch allowcd pcoplc to cxpcct victory and sal
vation, hc allowcd pcoplc to trust that naturc would providc what thcy nccdcd abovc all
rain . . . Fcstival cults cxprcsscd thcsc two sidcs ol a pcoplcs scllarmation: thcy arc gratc
lul lor thc magniccnt dcstiny that clcvatcd thcmto thcir prcscnt position, thcy arc gratclul
lor thc ycarly cyclc and all thc luck thcy havc had in agriculturc and brccding cattlc.
+8
Hcalthy socictics ol thc past havc had, thcn, gods who allowcd thcm, in onc way or anothcr,
to cclcbratc thcmsclvcs. Tcrc has ncvcr bccn a |succcsslul| pcoplc without a rcligion hc
writcs in thc notcbooks,
+8
culturc means thc gods.
+86
And a hcalthy socicty ol thc luturc
will bc thc samc: Almost two thousand ycars and no ncw god! hc lamcnts. Tat wc havc
had only thc samc old monotothcism says vcry littlc lor uropcs skill in rcligion.
+8
Noticc thc gcsturc, hcrc, towards Grcck polythcism: sincc Judaism, likc Christianity (and
!slam), is monothcistic,
+88
Yahwch will not, in thc cnd, count as an idcal god. Sincc thc
principal lunction ol hcalthy gods is to bc cxcmplary cmbodimcnts ol thc virtucs ol thc
community, and sincc Nictzschc insists that virtuc, likc happincss, is rclativc to oncs station
in thc social totality,

thcrc must bc, in thc cnd, no onc sizc ts all kind ol god but rathcr,
as in Grcccc, a plurality and prcsumably a hicrarchy ol gods.
Tat it is thc gods ol Grcccc who arc Nictzschcs primary lovc and inspiration is conlcsscd
in a dircctly pcrsonal way in thc nal notcbooks:
Vc lcw or many, wc who darc oncc again to livc in a de-moralized .orld, wc pagans ol laith:
wc arc pcrhaps thc rst who grasp what a pagan laith is: having to imaginc higher beings
than man, but thcsc as bcyond good and cvil, having to asscss all bcinghighcr as also bcing
|in Christian tcrms| immoral. Vc bclicvc in lympus and not in thc crucicd.
+8
Tc rcturn ol thc Grcck gods in and through thc rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy was, ol coursc,
thc aspiration ol Nictzschcs rst book. Vith rcspcct to thc gods, it is clcar, nothing csscntial
has changcd.
Ecce Homo
A
wcapon in his war against thc prcscnt which Nictzschc rcgardcd as cvcn morc potcnt
than Te ntichrist was, in thc ordcr ol composition, his last work, Ecce Homo. 8cgun
on his birthday, ctobcr +th, hc rcgardcd it as, in principlc, nishcd by Novcmbcr ,
though hc continucd to makc altcrations up until January 6, +88.

A man as hc ought to bc: that sounds to us as tastclcss as a trcc as it ought to bc, hc writcs in thc
notcbooks (KSA + ++ |+:|).
:

:,
!n thc Prclacc, Nictzschc writcs that Sincc ! plan shortly to havc to conlront humanity
with thc hcavicst dcmand that has cvcr bccn madc on it, it sccms indispcnsablc to say .ho
I am. Tc rclcrcncc, hcrc, is to thc immancnt appcarancc ol thc mastcrwork (rcduccd, wc
shall scc, in sizc) and its urgcnt dcmand that wc rcvaluc all valucs. Sincc hc anticipatcd
thc mastcrwork bcing cvcn morc black and squidlikc than Beyond Good and E.il, hc lclt
it impcrativc rst to abolish thc notion that its author was, as thc rcvicwcr had suggcstcd
(p. o6 abovc), a sadistic misanthropc, a pathological casc. Tc idca that hc is a bogcy
man or moral monstcr, hc says in thc Prclacc,
+o
somconc who (as hc now summariscs
Vidmanns rcvicw ol Beyond Good and E.il ) strivcs to abolish all dcccnt lcclings, is com
plctcly mistakcn.
++
8y prcscnting a human, cvcn intimatc, portrait ol himscll as somconc
with a normal human background, who has had to strugglc cvcry stcp ol thc way with
ill hcalth, and who has himself bccn inlcctcd with thc d ecadence hc criticiscs, hc wants to
show, ! think, that thc lundamcntal impulsc ol his work is (as hc wrotc lizabcth, in onc
last attcmpt to pcnctratc that thick skull) not hardncss but thc oppositc, a truc humanity
which strivcs to prcvcnt nccdlcss disastcr.
+:
Ecce Homo bchold thc man, thc words with which Pilatc prcscntcd Jcsus to thc crowd
baying lor his crucixion is, thcn, a scllprcscntation. Tc subtitlc Ho. One Becomes
!hat One Is indicatcs that this will bc donc by mcans ol a kind ol autobiography. 8ut sincc
scllrcalisation is, lor Nictzschc, our primary task, it also indicatcs thc exemplary naturc ol
thc narrativc. !n tclling thc story ol my lilc
+
Nictzschc intcnds to sct himscll lorth, oncc
again, as a lilc modcl, as, in his own languagc, an cducator.

Givcn that Nictzschcs collapsc camc right on thc hccls ol Ecce Homo, thc qucstion incvi
tably ariscs as to whcthcr, or to what cxtcnt, thc work is inlcctcd by thc approaching mad
ncss. Vhat sharpcns thc qucstion is thc lact that thc work contains what look to bc manilcst
dclusions: that hc was dcsccndcd lrom Polish aristocracy, that cvcn in childhood hc ncvcr
took thc Christian God scriously, that thc inucncc ol Schopcnhaucr on Te Birth of Tragedy
was minimal, that hc ncvcr had any cncmics, that his grcatncss is obvious to cvcryonc hc
mccts, and many morc.
Vhat, howcvcr, complicatcs thc situation is thc lact that, givcn that hc is prcscnting his
lilc as cxcmplary lor thc rcadcr, ctionalising, idcalising, staging oncs lilc so that thcrc is
a good dcal onc no longcr sccs and much our cyc has to add il wc arc to scc |anything| . . . at
all,
+
is a lcgitimatc, indccd csscntial, part ol thc projcct, as it was in thc +886 prclaccs.
Tus, givcn that hc is prcscnting himscll as having bccomc a modcl ol ionysian hcalth
and puissancc, a ccrtain amount ol Mohammcd Ali hypcrbolc thc chaptcr hcadings Vhy
! Am So Visc, Vhy ! Am So Clcvcr, Vhy ! Am a cstiny, thc claim that Zarathustra
is bcttcr than Gocthc, Shakcspcarc and thc \cdas combincd
+
might bc rcgardcd as a
lcgitimatc part ol thc projcct. And thc samc might bc claimcd, too, lor thc apparcnt lics or
dclusions mcntioncd abovc.
Tis bcing said, howcvcr, a grcat dcal ol thc ctionalising actually has no particular lit
crary justication. Tc claim to dcsccnt through his lathcr lrom Polish nobility,
+6
to bc
surc, allows him to nd nothing rcdccming about thc Gcrmans, allows almost cvcry pagc
to drip in thc cnd, it has to bc said, tcdiously with bilc against thcsc vulgar cattlc who

Ecce Homo rcmarks that sincc it is rcally a portrait not ol Schopcnhaucr but ol himscll, Schopenhauer
as Educator could bc morc accuratcly titlcd Nietzsche as Educator (H !!! UM ). !n ++, a work
cntitlcd Nietzsche as Educator did in lact appcar, writtcn by thc lilcrclormcr Valthcr Hammcr.
:c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
havc pcrpctratcd all thc cultural crimcs ol thc last lour hundrcd ycars. 8ut givcn that hc is
supposcd to bc a picturc ol psychic hcalth, hc ought to bc lrcc ol ressentiment and should
not, thcrclorc, havc had any bilc to spit in thc rst placc. Fessentiment is, it should bc notcd,
cxactly thc right word hcrc. For, lar too obviously, thc bittcrncss that hc is rcad, as hc thinks,
by nothing but choice intclligcnccs . . . in \icnna, St. Pctcrsburg, Stockholm, Copcnhagcn,
Paris and Ncw York, cvcrywhcrc except in uropcs atland, Gcrmany,
+
bctrays thc lact
that thc rcadcrs who really mattcr to him arc nonc othcr than his lcllow Gcrmans who,
howcvcr, cithcr ignorc him or dismiss him as a madman.
Vhat, morcovcr, has to bc rccogniscd is that a grcat dcal ol thc hypcrbolc has a mcgalo
maniac charactcr which, as wc shall scc in thc ncxt chaptcr, is dircctly continuous with
thcmcs in thc lcttcrs hc wrotc as hc was unmistakably losing his mind. Tc claim, lor
instancc, that whcrcvcr ! go, hcrc in Turin, lor cxamplc, cvcry lacc grows morc chccr
lul and bcncvolcnt at thc sight ol mc . . . thc old markct womcn takc grcat pains to sclcct
togcthcr lor mc thcir swcctcst grapcs
+8
appcars, as wc shall scc, scvcral timcs in thc so
callcd crazy lcttcrs, as docs thc claim to bc God: thc idca hc is rclatcd to his mothcr and
sistcr is, Ecce Homo claims, in a passagc lizabcth managcd lor many ycars to supprcss, a
blasphcmy against my divinity.
+
Ecce Homo is, thcn, a awcd work. thcr signs ol Nictzschcs lailing powcrs arc rcpctition,
wandcring organisation, scllquotation at disproportionatc and scllindulgcnt lcngth, and,
whcn hc comcs to rcvicw his carlicr works, a lack ol a scnsc ol thcir rclativc importancc:
whcrcas thc Genealogy rcccivcs lcss than a pagc, Te !agner Case rcccivcs six. For all this,
howcvcr, Nictzschc bcing still, lor thc most part, Nictzschc, it rcmains a book lull ol intcrcst
and sublimc momcnts.
8asically, thc work docs two things, rst, it tclls thc rcadcr how Nictzschc bccamc
what hc is, how one bccomcs what onc is. And sccond, it tclls us .hat it is that hc has
bccomc.
How One Becomes What One Is
!
n Schopenhauer as Educator Nictzschc tclls onc to bccomc oncscll by living up to oncs
truc scll. Tis is not somcthing conccalcd dccp within you but is, rathcr, immcasurably
high abovc you, or at lcast abovc that which you usually takc yourscll to bc. !t is that idcal
and task which draws thc soul alolt (p. + abovc). !n !agner in Bayreuth (which, hc
now says, was not rcally about Vagncr but about himscll )
:oo
hc applicd this lormula to
Vagncr, cxplaining howhc ovcrcamc his lowcr inclinations and bccamc his idcal scll. Tis
undcrstanding ol bccoming what onc is through passionatc moral idcalism is prcscrvcd
unchangcd in Ecce Homo: to bccomc who wc arc wc must bccomc, hc says, argonauts ol thc
idcal.
:o+
How docs onc bccomc oncs truc, idcal scll : Trough scll (Selbst)sccking (sucht) thc
standard translation ol Selbstsucht as sclshncss lails to convcy thc tautological charactcr
ol this claim. Scllsccking is how onc discovcrs oncs scll . And il onc is Nictzschc, or
onc ol thc highcr typcs who arc his propcr rcadcrs, oncs highcr scll is thc worldhistorical
dcstiny that onc is. !n Schopenhauer as Educator onc discovcrcd oncs truc scll by allowing
oncs admiration lor cducators to disclosc what onc has truly lovcd.
:

::
Vithout rcjccting thc importancc ol rolc modcls, Ecce Homo cxpands on thc tcchniqucs
ol sclldiscovcry in an intcrcsting way:
Tat onc bccomcs what onc is prcsupposcs that onc docs not havc thc rcmotcst idca .hat
onc is. From this point ol vicw cvcn lilcs mistakes havc thcir own mcaning and valuc, thc
occasional sidc roads and wrong turns, thc dclays, thc . . . scriousncss wastcd on tasks that
lic bcyond the task.
:o:
To, as it wcrc, discovcr who onc is by discovcring who onc is not, onc must kccp thc surlacc
ol consciousncss . . . lrcc ol all thc grcat impcrativcs and big words, othcrwisc onc will
undcrstand oncscll too carly, oncs sclldcnition will run down worn, alltooworn, paths.
To bccomc a highcr typc, somcthing ncwand uniquc, onc must prcscrvc a kind ol passivity
whilc, in thc mcan timc, thc organizing, govcrning idca that is thc mcaning ol oncs lilc
kccps growing dccp insidc. Soon it starts commanding and slowly lcads back lrom out ol
thc sidc roads and wrong turns.
:o
!n a word, scllsccking is, through a proccss ol trial and
probably lots ol crror, a mattcr ol nding rathcr than creating oncscll, rathcr as thc sculptor
nds rathcr than crcatcs thc gurc slumbcring in thc marblc. spccially il onc livcs thc
lilc ol thc mind: a book likc Zarathustra is a mattcr not ol crcation but ol rcccption, ol
rcvclation in thc scnsc ol somcthing suddcnly bccoming .isible and audiblc . . . you listcn,
you do not look lor anything, you takc, you do not ask who is thcrc, a thought lights up
in a ash, with ncccssity . . . ! ncvcr had any choicc . . . All ol this is involuntary . . . things
approachcd on thcir own and ocrcd thcmsclvcs up.
:o
Thc idca ol allowing oncs scll and dcstiny to cmcrgc through oncs mistakcs providcs thc
narrativc structurc ol thc work, a narrativc that ccntrcs, incvitably, on Vagncr. Tc most
acctionatc and prolound rclation ol his lilc, Nictzschc says, was with Richard Vagncr.
Nonc ol my othcr pcrsonal rclationships amounts to much, but ! would not givc up my
Tribschcn days lor anything.
,:o
8ut thcn camc thc 8ayrcuth lcstival:
Vhcrc was !: ! did not rccognisc anything. ! hardly rccogniscd Vagncr. ! siltcd through
mcmorics in vain. Tribschcn a distant !slc ol thc 8lcsscd: not a shadow ol similarity. Tc
incomparablc days whcn wc laid thc corncrstonc |ol thc opcra housc noticc that Nictzschc
still cndorscs thc original cntcrprisc| a small socicty ol pcoplc who bclongcd thcrc . . . !hat
had happened:
Vhat had happcncd was that Vagncr had bccn translatcd into Gcrman,
:o6
had allowcd
himscll to bc capturcd by thc Vagncrians and in thc proccss bccomc Feichsdeutsch,
:o
an
antiScmitic Gcrman chauvinist. (Vith Parsifal things wcnt lrom bad to worsc, on top

Altcr a lilctimc ol administcring Nictzschcs nanccs, ocring him, on a momcnts noticc, a bcd
and a shouldcr to cry on, considcrablc intcllcctual companionship, and unlailing loyalty, this must
havc cut poor vcrbcck to thc quick. K osclitz was probably too much in awc to bc much acctcd.
::

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
ol cvcrything clsc Vagncr slid back into Christian picty.)
:o8
And so, as wc know, Nictz
schc cd thc lcstival hallway through lor Klingcnbrunn, saw that it was timc to considcr
whcthcr his lilc had takcn a scriously wrong turn. Hc bcgan writing Human, ll-Too-
Human, thc work in which ! libcratcd myscll lrom that in my naturc which did not bclong
to mc.
:o
Noticc thc phrasc in my naturc. Vagncrian d ecadence, thc impulsc to world
dcnial, is, Nictzschc cmphasiscs, in rathcr than outsidc his naturc. 8ccoming what onc
is is morc a mattcr ol ordcring thc inncr world than ol rcsisting alicn inucnccs.
Undcr thc guiding spirit ol \oltairc, Nictzschc continucs, hc madc, in Human, ll-Too-
Human, thc turn lromVagncrian romanticismto nlightcnmcnt thinking. (Hc might havc
mcntioncd, hcrc, thc inucncc ol Paul R cc, but, unlorgiving to thc cnd, gocs out ol his way
to dcny that Human rcprcscntcd any kind ol highcr r ccalism.)
:+o
Shortly altcr, through thc
lortunatc intcrvcntion ol sickncss and lading cycsight, hc had to givc up thc bookwormish
lilc ol philology anothcr wrong turning and bcgan writing his own philosophy.
And that, csscntially, is that: thc cnd ol Ecce Homos, in lact, rathcr mcagrc narrativc.
Sincc thc rcst ol Nictzschcs lilc was writing books, all that rcmains is to rcvicw thc books.
Vith thc turn away lrom Vagncr, thc turn away lrom d ecadent, lilcdcnying romanticism
and towards hcalth and lilcarmation, Nictzschc had csscntially bccomc what hc was.
8ut cxactly what was that: Vho did hc bccomc:
What Nietzsche Became
!
am, Nictzschc dcclarcs, a bearer of glad tidings as no onc cvcr was bclorc.
:++
(Givcn
this allusion to thc angcls announccmcnt ol thc impcnding birth ol Christ as wcll as thc
Ecce Homo titlc, thc diagnosis Mcssiah complcx hovcrs in thc air.) Vhat arc thcsc tidings:
Vhat is Nictzschcs mcssagc to thc world: Most ol it, ol coursc, is by now lamiliar. Yct, as
always, Nictzschcs pronounccmcnt ol his basic mcssagc rcccivcs a novcl nuancc.
So lar, hc writcs, rclcrring to Christian morality, humanity has worshipp|cd| valucs
that arc thc rcvcrsc ol thosc that might bcgin to guarantcc it prospcrity, a luturc, a high right
to a luturc.
:+:
Sincc hc has cxcmptcd uropcan antiquity lrom this critiquc, and has no
knowlcdgc ol what valucs arc worshippcd in contcmporary, say, Alrica, what hc must mcan
by humanity is thc European, post-antiquity spccics ol humanity. As ! havc cmphasiscd
bclorc, Nictzschcs philosophy is dccply uroccntric.
Vhat, thcn, is wrong with thc currcnt statc ol Vcstcrn culturc is that its luturc is in
doubt. Tc good, as dcncd by currcnt standards, livc at thc cxpcnsc ol both thc truth
and thc luturc. !n this scnsc, hc cxplains, Zarathustra somctimcs calls thc good mcn thc
last mcn, and somctimcs thc bcginning ol thc cnd.
:+
Tcy arc thc bcginning ol thc
cnd bccausc, to rcpcat, without thc capacity to adapt to its changing cnvironmcnt which
rcquircs, ol coursc, a clcarcycd acknowlcdgmcnt ol thc truth about that cnvironmcnt
:+

a spccics ol humanity, a pcoplc, must go undcr.
To adapt and grow, wc know, a pcoplc must givc birth to a star,
:+
to a lrcc spirit: in
my languagc, a random mutation. Ecce Homo idcntics supcrman as just anothcr namc
lor this bcarcr ol thc luturc: thc supcrman is a supcrman spccically whcn comparcd to
thc good hc stands supcr, abovc, thcir morality. Nictzschc adds, rccalling thc Genealogys
point that most lrcc spirits will bc martyrcd by thc lorccs ol social conscrvatism, that thc
good and just would call |Zarathustras| . . . supcrman a de.il.
:+6
:

:
Vhat will a supcrman proposc in thc way ol cultural rclorm: !n a nutshcll, thc immincnt
rcturn ol thc Grcck spirit. Community will bc oncc morc crcatcd, gathcrcd togcthcr, and
prcscrvcd by thc authentic collcctivc art work, thc suprcmc art in thc armation ol lilc,
tragcdy, will bc rcborn. And this takcs us back, yct again, to Vagncr, to a Vagncr puricd
ol chcap showmanship, antiScmitism, Gcrman chauvinism, romanticism, Christianity and
lilcdcnial: thc idca ol 8ayrcuth |will havc| translormcd itscll into . . . that great noon . . . who
knows: thc vision ol a lcstival that ! will livc to scc somcday.
:+
!l, howcvcr, wc arc to abandon thc Christian worldvicw what arc wc to do about that
most problcmatic ol all lilcs lcaturcs, its nitudc, to which, it has to bc admittcd, Chris
tianity providcd a solution: Tc answcr, again, is ionysus: cntcring into thc psychology
ol thc tragic poct in which ovcr and abovc all lcar and pity one is oneself thc ctcrnal joy ol
bccoming, thc will to lilc rcjoicing in its own incxhaustibility through thc sacrice ol its
highcst typcs. To bccomc lully hcalthy, to cntcr thc ionysian statc, is to bc ablc to rcjoicc,
inter alia, ovcr thc cvcntual sacricc ol oncs own, cvcryday scll. Trough transccnding thc
illusion ol individuality, through rcalising oncs idcntity with thc totality ol cxistcncc, onc
not mcrcly ovcrcomcs dcath but achicvcs a positivc armation ol |in particular, ones o.n|
passing away.
:+8
eploying the Artillery
8
y midNovcmbcr Turins halcyon autumn a pcrmancnt Claudc Lorrainc, Nictzschc
callcd it
:+
was ovcr and wintcr had arrivcd. Tc Alps wcrc alrcady covcrcd with a
light wig.
::o
Nictzschc acquircd his rst gas stovc, amazcd that all onc had to do to gct
it going was light a match.
::+
Complctcly lrcc lor thc rst timc in twcnty ycars lrom thc
appalling attacks ol hcadachcs and vomiting, hc abandoncd giving hcalth bullctins in his
lcttcrs. Hcalth, hc wrotc Mcta von Salis, is a standpoint that had bccn ovcrcomc.
:::
!n
thc mirror hc lookcd tcn ycars youngcr.
::
Mcntal wcllbcing lollowcd thc physical. Gratitudc lor rclcasc lrom pain cast a bcnign
glow ovcr cvcrything. vcryonc, it sccmcd, trcatcd him as a pcrson ol distinction, lor
cxamplc, opcning thc door lor him whcncvcr hc cntcrcd a building. To livc up to his ncw
dignity hc bought a supcrb pair ol nglish lcathcr glovcs and attcndcd thc luncral ol Count
Robilant, thc bcst sort ol Picdmont aristocrat, hc condcd to Mcta.
::
(Count Robilant,
thc natural son ol King Carlo Albcrto, had bccn ambassador to London, whcrc hc dicd on
ctobcr +.) For thc rst timc in his adult lilc hc lclt complctcly at homc. His days as a
nomad wcrc ovcr. !n Turin hc lclt (as Socratcs did about Athcns) that hc had discovcrcd a
placc onc ncvcr wants to lcavc, not cvcn to walk in thc countrysidc, a placc whcrc it is a joy
just to walk along thc strccts! Prcviously ! would havc hcld that to bc impossiblc.
::
An cvcnt occurrcd, howcvcr, which, lor a momcnt, intcrruptcd thc halcyon mood. n
ctobcr : Nictzschcs Lcipzig publishcr, Fritzsch (scc pp. o+: abovc), allowcd to appcar
in his !eekly Musical Fe.ie.a rcvicwol Te !agner Case by a rabid Vagncrian, onc Richard
Pohl. (!n Fritzschs dclcncc it nccds to bc rcmcmbcrcd (a) that hc was also Vagncrs pub
lishcr and (b) that controvcrsy sclls books.) ntitlcd Tc Nictzschc Casc: A Psychological
Problcm, thc rcvicw claimcd Nictzschc to bclicvc himscll to bc thc grcatcst composcr alivc,
whcrcas hc was, in lact, complctcly unmusical. Pohl asscrtcd lurthcr claiming to havc
this dircctly lrom Vagncrs mouth that Nictzschc had shown Vagncr thc opcra hc had
:,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
composcd, which Vagncr had bccn obligcd to tcll him was rubbish, thcrcby gcncrating
Nictzschcs antiVagncr animus. Tough somc Vagncrians bclicvc this story to this vcry
day, Nictzschc had, ol coursc, ncvcr cvcn attcmptcd to writc an opcra.
Nictzschc was paralytic with lury whcn hc discovcrcd thc rcvicw. You havc, hc wrotc
Fritzsch, thc distinction ol having thc rst man ol thc ccntury in your publishing housc.
Tat you can allow an uttcr lool likc Pohl to writc about mc is onc ol thosc things that
could only happcn in Gcrmany. Particularly galling was thc appcarancc ol thc rcvicw at
thc vcry timc whcn lcttcrs ol homagc arc arriving lrom all quartcrs calling it |Te !agner
Case| a mastcrpiccc ol psychological sagacity without cqual.
::6
(Prcdictably, this is high
cxaggcration most ol thc lcttcrs wcrc cithcr lrom lricnds or wcrc acknowlcdgmcnts ol
rcccipt ol complimcntary copics. Nonc wcnt in lor hypcrbolc.) Tc rcsult ol this insult was
that Nictzschc dccidcd to takc all his works out ol Fritzschs owncrship and spcnt thc nal
days bclorc his collapsc trying to raisc thc hugc sum ol +o,ooo talcrs Fritzsch dcmandcd
lor thc salc ol copyright.
!n midcccmbcr anothcr articlc on Te !agner Case appcarcd, writtcn by Fcrdinand
Avinarius, yct anothcr ol Nictzschcs Jcwish supportcrs. Tough gcncrally apprcciativc,
Avcnarius lamcntcd thc lact that a dccp thinkcr such as Nictzschc could cxprcss his rcccnt
changc ol mind about Vagncr in thc stylc ol a mcrc journalist. !ndignantly, Nictzschc
pointcd out that that his publishcd criticisms ol Vagncr wcnt back a lull dccadc, to Human,
ll-Too-Human.
::
Sincc this trivialising misundcrstanding was likcly to bc widcsprcad and
might undcrminc thc rcccption ol Ecce Homo, Nictzschc dccidcd that its publication must bc
dclaycd so that Nietzsche contra !agner (subtitlcd Fromthe Files of a Psychologist), a collcction
ol scvcntccn cxccrpts lrom carlicr books dating back to +88, could appcar rst. Tc point
was to dcmonstratc thc long and dccply considcrcd naturc ol his Vagncrcritiquc.
::8
!t
would also, ol coursc, cnablc Nictzschc, yct again, to cash in on thc Vagncr markct.
::
A quitc dicrcnt motivation lor dclaying thc publication ol Ecce Homo is suggcstcd by
a strangc rcmark in a lcttcr to K osclitz writtcn on cccmbcr +6: ! dont scc why ! should
accclcratc too much thc tragic catastrophc ol my lilc which bcgins with ccc.
:o
Tis
suggcsts that Nictzschc kncw that his mind was slipping away lrom him

and kncw that

Ecce Homo was thc appropriatc closurc to his lilcs work. Tc implication is that by dclaying
its publication hc could cxtcnd his lilc a littlc longcr. Lilc would, as it wcrc, imitatc art.
And pcrhaps hc was right: it is wcll known that thc tcrminally ill oltcn cling to lilc until a
signicant cvcnt, Christmas or a birthday, has passcd.
Tc manuscript ol Nietzsche contra !agner was scnt to Naumann on cccmbcr +. Fivc
days latcr, howcvcr thc gcncralship ol his war against thc prcscnt bccoming incrcasingly
crratic Nictzschc dccidcd, lor barcly comprchcnsiblc rcasons, that altcr all Ecce Homo
should appcar rst.
:+
!n thc cvcnt, though both works appcarcd whcn hc was bcyond
caring about thcm, thc original ordcr was maintaincd. Nietzsche contra !agner appcarcd
in Fcbruary +88, whilc Ecce Homo did not appcar until +o8.

rnst Hornccr, a collaborator on thc rst attcmpt to producc an cdition ol Nictzschcs collcctcd
works, commcnts on thc ncrvous cxcitcmcnt that trcmblcs through all thc last manuscripts, on
how, in +888, his handwriting changcs complctcly. Hc suddcnly uscs thc most incrcdiblc abbrc
viations, lcaving out lcttcrs and syllablcs, and nally writing almost only in consonants (Gilman
(+8) p. :6). Tis, togcthcr with his incrcdiblc rush ol productivity and thc rclusal to listcn to
anything but vcry light music, lurthcr suggcsts that Nictzschc in somc scnsc kncw, somc timc in
advancc, that his lilc was rushing towards its ccctivc closc.
:

:
!n his nal wccks ol at lcast intcrmittcnt sanity, Nictzschc had ccctivcly givcn up scrious
philosophical thinking, lccling cithcr that hc had complctcd cvcrything hc had to say or that
hc was no longcr capablc ol saying it. Hc still wrotc luriously, but sincc thc task was now
to dcploy his artillcry rathcr than to manulacturc it, what hc wrotc wcrc lcttcrs. 8ctwccn
cccmbcr +, +888, and January 6, +88, hc wrotc morc lcttcrs than in thc wholc ol cithcr
+88 or +88. Tc objcctivc ol most ol thcsc lcttcrs was to win to his causc ol rcvaluing all
valucs opinionmouldcrs throughout uropc and to arrangc lor translations ol his works
into rst two, thcn thrcc, thcn scvcn, thcn nally all lorcign languagcs
::
by thc lcading
writcrs ol uropc such as August Strindbcrg. (Strindbcrg told him thcrc was littlc point in
translating into Grccnlandcsc (i.c., Swcdish, Norwcgian, and anish) sincc no onc rcad
it.)
Hand in hand with thc projcct ol winning opinionmakcrs to his causc wcnt a rcvival
ol thc idca ol a monastcry lor lrcc spirits in a ncwly institutionaliscd lorm: a nctwork ol
Nictzschc socictics (mirroring thc nctwork ol Vagncr socictics) was to bc sct up. !n Ecce
Homo hc looks lorward to thc day whcn thcrc will bc institutions in which pcoplc livc and
tcach in thc way ! undcrstand living and tcaching, as wcll as chairs ol philosophy dcvotcd
to thc intcrprctation ol Zarathaustra.
:
A last word, hc wrotc in his cccmbcr notcbooks:
From now on ! will nccd unlimitcd numbcrs ol hclping hands immortal hands. Tc
Fe.aluation shall appcar in two languagcs. !t will bc a good idca to lound socictics cvcry
whcrc so as to dclivcr into my hands at thc right timc a million disciplcs. !t is particularly
important to rccruit rst ol all occrs and Jcwish bankcrs. 8oth togcthcr rcprcscnt thc will
to powcr. !l ! ask who my natural allics arc ! scc that abovc all thcy arc occrs. Vith military
instincts in thc body onc cannot bc a Christian . . . !n thc samc way, Jcwish bankcrs arc my
natural allics, as thc only intcrnational powcr which, by origin and instinct, binds nations
togcthcr altcr accurscd intcrcstpolitics has madc thc arrogancc and cgoism ol nations into
a duty.
:
Vhcn rclaxing lrom thc strcsscs ol bcing on campaign, Nictzschc spcnt his last days ol
sanity cnjoying Turins cal c lilc:
!n thc cvcnings |hc wrotc K osclitz on cccmbcr +6| ! sit in a splcndid highccilingcd
room: an cxccllcnt, small orchcstra (piano, strings, two woodwind) which produccs a
mutcd sound, just as onc would wish. Tcrc arc thrcc salons ncxt to cach othcr. Tcy bring
mc my Journal des d ebats |a contributor was Jcan 8ourdcau, his, as hc thought, inucntial
Frcnch disciplc| ! cat a portion ol cxccllcncc icccrcam: it costs o ccnts including thc tip
(a practicc ! obscrvc sincc it is thc custom hcrc) !n thc Galcria Subalpina (which ! look
across to whcn ! lcavc my lront door) arc thc lovclicst rooms ol this sort that ! know, thcy
play thc Barber of Se.ille cvcry cvcning.
:
Nietzsches Mental Condition
S
cvcral strands arc cntwincd in Nictzschcs mcntal statc during thc nal wccks ol +888.
nc was thc alrcady notcd statc ol almost continuous cuphoria produccd (or lcast con
tributcd to) by thc rclcasc lrom, as hc oltcn callcd it, thc animal torturc ol his body. Tis
:&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
not only cast a halcyon glow ovcr all things but also madc thc production ol thrcc major
works, onc minor work, and scvcral othcr publications within thc ycar virtually cortlcss:
! am hc wrotc vcrbcck in ctobcr, sounding an unmistakablc notc ol closurc, thc most
gratclul man in thc world in autumnal mood in thc bcst scnsc ol thc word. !t is my grcat
harvcst timc. vcrything comcs casily . . . cvcn though, probably, no onc has cvcr had such
grcat things in hand.
:6
At thc samc timc thc tcndcncy to mcgalomania, ashcs ol which, rccall, go back to
thc Zarathustra pcriod, bccomcs morc and morc pronounccd. Tc thcmc that his work
will cxplodc thc history ol thc world into two halvcs
:
sincc hc is morc dynamitc than
man
:8
bccomcs morc and morc stridcnt, as docs thc claim that hc is thc rst man ol thc
ccntury latcr ol thc millcnnium, nally, ol all millcnnia.
:
Commcnsuratc with thc
scnsc ol his own worldhistorical importancc is thc bclicl that it is cntircly visiblc to othcrs:
!ts strangc |hc writcs vcrbcck| that hcrc in Turin ! cxcrcisc thc most complctc lascination
on pcoplc although ! am thc most modcst and undcmanding pcrson. !l ! cntcr a largc shop
cvcry lacc changcs, thc womcn in thc strcct look at mc my old markct ladics scarch out
thc swcctcst grapcs lor mc and rcducc thc pricc.
:o
!n gcncral, thcy trcat mc likc a princc as pcrhaps ! am.
:+
Accompanying a scnsc ol cxccptional importancc is a bclicl in his tclckinctic powcr: !
rcad thc Journal des d ebats it was brought to mc instinctivcly on my rst visit to my rst
cal c. Tcrc arc no accidcnts any morc: whcn ! think ol somconc a lcttcr appcars promptly
through thc door.
::
(!n thc Gay Science (p. abovc) hc talks about thc importancc ol
intcrprcting oncs lilc so that cvcrything that happcns is nonaccidcntal, signicant. Now,
howcvcr, rctrospcctivc interpreti.e powcr is rcplaccd by causal powcr.)
l coursc, thc morc mcgalomania took ovcr, thc wcakcr bccamc his grasp ol rcality. Tc
tcntativc contacts 8randcs had madc on his bchall with, savc lor Strindbcrg, quitc avcragc
pcoplc pcoplc, morcovcr, who wcrc gcncrally intcrcstcd in, but hardly convcrts to, his
philosophy wcrc translormcd into a disciplcship composcd solcly ol thc most clcvatcd
naturcs: ol cxclusivcly highplaccd and inucntial pcoplc in St. Pctcrsburg, in Paris, in
Stockholm, in \icnna, in Ncw York. !n his mind hc had bccomc incrcdibly lamous, a
supcrstar: thcrc is no namc that is trcatcd with such rcvcrcncc as minc.
:
Jcan 8ourdcau,
actually no morc than an occasional contributor, got promotcd to thc cditorinchicl ol thc
Journal de d ebats and thc Fe.ue des deux mondes and as such thc most inucntial man in
Francc.
:
And in rcality, lar lrom admiring Nictzschc, 8ourdcau rcgardcd his writings as
crucl and pcrvcrsc.
l coursc, in a vcry lcw ycars Nictzschc .ould bc a supcrstar, in part, indccd, prcciscly
on account ol his scllasscssmcnt: sooncr or latcr, isracli rcmarkcd, thc world takcs a
man at his own cstimatc ol himscll. Nonc ol this, howcvcr, altcrs thc lact that Nictzschcs
cstimation ol his cclcbrity in +888 was almost cntircly dclusional.
Conncctcd with thc mcgalomania wcrc cruptions into thc bcnign landscapc ol lahars
ol moltcn lury, lury dircctcd against thosc who lailcd to rccognisc his gcnius. First and
lorcmost against thc Gcrmans, hcrd pcoplc, idiots, swinc, worldhistorical criminals
(Luthcr killcd o thc Rcnaissancc, thc misnamcd wars ol libcration killcd o Napolcon,
and Kant killcd o scicntic thought)
:
who lail to rccognisc that Nictzschc and Nictzschc
:

:
alonc justicd thcir miscrablc cxistcncc
:6
by having writtcn thc proloundcst book in thc
Gcrman languagc.
:
utbursts ol lury wcrc also dircctcd against individuals. Against Fritzsch, as wc havc
sccn, lor allowing Pohl to criticizc thc lorcmost man ol thc millcnnium. Against von 8 ulow
who, living thc lilc ol a travclling conductor, had bccn slow to rcspond to an as it wcrc
rcgal rcqucst to takc an intcrcst in K osclitzs Lion of !enice. You havc not answcrcd my
lcttcr, Nictzschc wrotc. ! shall not troublc you again, ! promisc you that. ! think, you
undcrstand that thc lorcmost spirit ol thc agc has cxprcsscd a wish to you.
:8
Unlorgiv
ably, Malwida von Mcyscnbug bccamc a targct ol abusc. Always attcmpting to squarc thc
circlc by rcmaining loyal to both Vagncr and Nictzschc, Malwida had rcspondcd to Te
!agner Case by gcntly suggcsting that hc dcvalucd his own lormcr lovc lor Vagncr by
applying thc word tomlool (Hans.urst) both to him and to Liszt.
:
Nictzschc rcplicd
impcriously that Vagncr is not a mattcr in which ! pcrmit contradiction. And, going out
ol his way to bc ocnsivc, hc rclcrs to Vagncr oncc again as this Hans.urst (litcrally
Hanssausagc) ccctivcly, and lor such a politc pcrson astonishingly, calling his lricnd
and surrogatc mothcr ol morc than ltccn ycars a silly old cow.
:o
As wc havc sccn (p. o
abovc), Nictzschc (wrongly) bclicvcd thc :,ooomark donation towards thc costs ol scll
publication hc had rcccivcd via cusscn camc lromcusscn himscll. Tis cmboldcncd him
to approach his old lricnd lor thc +o,ooo talcrs nccdcd to buy back thc rights to his books
lrom Fritzsch. cusscn, ol coursc, rcplicd that (as a marricd man on a prolcssorial salary)
hc had unlortunatcly no mcans ol raising such an cnormous sum, whcrcupon Nictzschc
dismisscd him in a lcttcr to K osclitz as too stupid lor us too common.
:+
25
Catastrophe
Becoming God
T
nv vivs: timc thc Finos noticcd that all was not wcll with thcir tcnant thcy wcrc,
ol coursc, unawarc ol thc incrcasingly strangc lcttcrs hc had bccn writing lor somc
timc was at thc bcginning ol cccmbcr, +888. Nictzschc askcd thcm to rcmovc
all thc hangings lrom thc walls ol his room sincc hc was cxpccting a visit lrom thc king and
quccn ol !taly, and thc room nccdcd to look likc a tcmplc to rcccivc thcm.
+
Tcy also bcgan
to nd tornup banknotcs in his wastcpapcr baskct. arkncss did not, howcvcr, dcsccnd
all at oncc, thcrc wcrc still momcnts ol lucidity. vcn though, at thc bcginning ol cccm
bcr, hc had bcgun to writc lcttcrs that wcrc unmistakably dcrangcd onc to 8ismarck, lor
instancc, was signcd, Tc Antichrist/ Frcdcrick Nictzschc/ Fromcntin
:
(thc last a Frcnch
romantic paintcr who dicd in +86) hc was still capablc ol writing an cntircly normal lct
tcr to mily Fynn on cccmbcr 6 and a rcasonably normal onc to K osclitz on cccmbcr
+6.

Progrcssivcly, though, his loss ol contact with rcality bccamc cvcr morc markcd.
Vith rcspcct to his body, lor instancc, hc himscll notcs a sporadic loss ol control, a
kind ol cmotional incontincncc. Such idiotic, privatctomloolnotions, camc to him as hc
walkcd thc strccts, hc writcs on Novcmbcr :, that lor a lull hall hour hc would bc unablc to
stop grinning. nc ol thcsc inspirations was thc truly crazy, quasiobsccnc idca ol having
Malwida (thc most virginal ol womcn) appcar in Ecce Homo as Kundry, thc cvil (though
ultimatcly rcdccmcd) whorc lrom Vagncrs Parsifal: ! couldnt kccp a straight lacc lor lour
days, hc tclls K osclitz.

n anothcr occasion, lollowing a wondcrlul conccrt, hc rcports,

again, dissociation lrom his body: my lacc was making continual grimaccs in ordcr to try
to control my cxtrcmc plcasurc including, lor tcn minutcs, thc grimacc ol tcars.

Tc mcgalomania notcd in thc prcvious chaptcr took him incrcasingly into a rcalm ol
political lantasy. To 8randcs hc writcs, at thc bcginning ol cccmbcr,
! am prcparing an cvcnt which will vcry probably split history into two halvcs, to thc point
whcrc wc will havc a ncw way ol rcckoning timc: +888 will bc thc ycar onc |scc p. +o
abovc| . . . Vc will havc war likc no othcr, but bctwccn ncithcr nations nor classcs. All that
:

Catastrophe

:,
is cxplodcd ! am thc most tcrriblc dynamitc thcrc is. ! will instruct thc printing ol Te
ntichrist: Fe.aluation of ll !alues to procccd in thrcc months timc. !ts a sccrct it will
scrvc as a work ol agitation. ! will nccd translations into all uropcan languagcs . . . in thc
rst cdition ! rcckon a million copics in cach languagc.
Tc war, Nictzschc continucs, will bc a war ol cxtcrmination against Christianity. Vorld
widc laws banning it will bc promulgatcd, thc brown lool ol an mpcror will bc dcposcd
and thc Triplc Alliancc (thc politicalmilitary ordcr ol contincntal uropc) will bc abol
ishcd. Nictzschc concludcs with thc alrcady quotcd scntcncc:
!l wc win, wc will havc worldgovcrnmcnt in our hands world pcacc will bc cstab
lishcd . . . wc |will| havc ovcrcomc thc absurd boundarics bctwccn racc, nation, and class,
only an ordcr ol rank bctwccn man and man will rcmain, indccd an cxcccdingly long laddcr
ol rankordcring.
6
Tis cxcrcisc in worldhistorical politics, grand politics par cxccllcncc,

is lollowcd by
lurthcr lcttcrs abolishing thc mpcror, indccd thc wholc housc ol Hohcnzollcrn,
8
and,
again, thc Triplc Alliancc. n cccmbcr + hc writcs Strindbcrg that hc has ordcrcd a
public holiday to cclcbratc thc cxccution ol thc young mpcror, signing thc lcttcr Nictz
schc Cacsar.

Strindbcrg, who himscll only narrowly cscapcd conncmcnt in a psychiatric

institution, rcplicd that !t somctimcs hclps to bc mad.
8y January victory has bccn achicvcd and world pcacc cstablishcd: o you not scc how
thc hcavcns rcjoicc: hc writcs Mcta von Salis. ! havc cntcrcd into posscssion ol my rcalm,
! am throwing thc Popc in jail and having Vilhclm |thc mpcror|, 8ismarck and St ockcr
|thc antiScmitc| shot.
+o
Tc lollowing day (his own kind ol nal solution) hc is just now
having all antiScmitcs shot.
++
All this, ol coursc, is madncss. Yct thcrc is mcthod in it, a vcin ol lragmcntcd sanity that
runs back to his bcst writings. Tcrc rcmains, rst ol all, a vcin ol political sanity, gcncratcd
by his cxpcricncc ol thc FrancoPrussian battlcclds. His rcmarks in thc closing pagcs ol
thc notcbooks on thc madncss ol thc dynastic squabblcs which placc thc owcr ol youth
and cncrgy and powcr in thc cannons mouth,
+:
and on thc madncss ol spcnding twclvc
billion marks a ycar on prcscrving thc armcd pcacc ol thc Triplc Alliancc, a pcacc which is
no pcacc at all but mcrcly a rccipc lor luturc war,
+
arc modcls ol sanity. And thc undcrlying
prcscntimcnt ol thc Grcat Var that would brcak out a mcrc lourtccn ycars altcr his dcath
is prophctic. ntircly sanc, too, is thc idca that war can only nally bc ovcrcomc through
thc abolition ol national and dynastic cgoisms, an abolition that rcquircs uropcan uni
cation and, in thc cnd, world govcrnmcnt. Tcsc idcas, Nictzschcs cosmopolitanism and
his undcrstanding that only thc abandonmcnt ol armcd nationalism can producc gcnuinc
pcacc, arc paragons ol sanity that rcach all thc way back to Human, ll-Too-Human.
+
Sanc, too, is what wc may call thc books makc a dicrcncc thcsis, thc thcsis that thc
spiritual lcadcrship ol grcat thinkcrs can and docs makc a dicrcncc to culturc, politics,
and lilc, that thc idcas that changc thc world comc on dovcs lcct. Nictzschc callcd his war
against Christianity and thc housc ol Hohcnzollcrn a war ol thc spirit. Vhat, howcvcr,
was insanc was thc idca that spiritual warlarc could achicvc rcsults ovcrnight rathcr than
ovcr ccnturics, that all hc nccdcd to do to bring about thc collapsc ol govcrnmcnts and ol thc
Church was to scnd complimcntary copics ol Ecce Homo and Te ntichrist to thc crowncd
c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
hcads ol uropc and to thc Popc.
+
And totally insanc, ol coursc, was thc conviction that
thc ncw ordcr was alrcady happcning.
!ncrcasingly, thcn, Nictzschc lost contact with his body and with political rcality. And in
thc cnd hc lost contact with his own idcntity. n cccmbcr + hc wrotc K osclitz that hc
could no longcr rcmcmbcr his strcct addrcss, but addcd, Lcts assumc its thc Palazzo dcl
Qurinalc
+6
(thc rcsidcncc, in Romc, ol thc King ol !taly). Many lcttcrs wcrc signcd Tc
Crucicd,
+
and cvcn morc ionysus.
+8
(nc link bctwccn Jcsus and ionysus is that
both ovcrcamc dcath. 8oth wcrc killcd ionysus was torn to picccs by thc Titans and
wcrc thcn rcsurrcctcd to ctcrnal lilc.) !n his last lcttcr to 8urckhardt, writtcn on January 6,
hc cxplains what has happcncd to his idcntity:
car Hcrr Prolcssor, ultimatcly, ! would rathcr bc a 8ascl prolcssor than God. 8ut ! havc
not vcnturcd to push a privatc cgoism so lar as, on its account, to ccasc crcating thc world.
8ut ! havc rcntcd a small studcntroomdircctly oppositc thc Palazzo Carignano ( in which
! was born as \ictor mmanuclc). ont takc thc casc ol Prado too scriously |Prado had
bccn condcmncd to dcath in Paris on Novcmbcr + lor thc murdcr ol a prostitutc|. ! am
Prado, ! am also thc lathcr ol Prado . . . basically ! am cvcry namc in history . . . cvcrything
in Gods rcalm comcs lrom God. Tis autumn, as modcstly drcsscd as possiblc, ! was
twicc at my luncral: rst as count Robilant (No, that is my son insolar as ! am Carlo
Albcrto) . . .
+
Two things arc notcworthy about this cxtraordinary lcttcr. First, it rcports a kind ol out
ol body cxpcricncc (which pcrhaps cxplains Nictzschcs loss ol control ovcr his body), a
transccndcncc ol thc cvcryday cgo. Sccond, thc transccndcncc Nictzschc undcrgocs is a
transccndcncc to a ncw kind ol univcrsal idcntity: hc bccomcs a kind ol primal unity.
Tis shows a ccrtain continuity bctwccn his philosophy and his madncss: that thc circling
back ol his nal philosophy to thc most intimatc and conccalcd cxpcricnccs undcrlying
its bcginning, notcd by Lou Salom c (p. o: abovc), continucs in thc crazy lcttcrs. Tc
ccstatic sidc ol Nictzschcs madncss consistcd in a habitation ol thc ionysian statc. Tat
habitation is now, howcvcr, a conluscd onc. n thc onc hand, thc primal unity hc bccomcs
is an immanent, natural unity: hc is Cacsar, Robilant, Carlo Albcrto, Prado, Prados lathcr,
whocvcr comcs to mind thc totality ol all natural bcings. Tis is thc non-metaphysical
undcrstanding ol thc ionysian statc prcscntcd by his nal philosophy. 8ut on thc othcr
hand, hc bccomcs thc nature-transcendent, meta-physical primal unity ol Te Birth of Tragedy.
Hc bccomcs thc supcrnatural childartistgod who thc vcry phrasc uscd in thc lcttcr
crcatcs thc world, crcatcs, and so can altcr at will, thc battlccldpainting that is thc
world wc, as individuals, all inhabit (p. +:6 abovc). Tc ccstatic sidc ol Nictzschcs madncss
can thus bc dcscribcd as an cntry into thc ionysian statc that is thc loundation ol his
philosophy. 8ut it has bccomc, now, a conluscd, oscillating, vcrsion ol that statc.
As +888 turncd into +88, thcn, Nictzschc, in a conluscd way, bccomcs thc god
ionysus. And with this ncw idcntity comcs an intcnsication ol thc mood ol holy joy that
hc has inhabitcd sincc his arrival in Turin at thc cnd ol Scptcmbcr. Sing mc a ncwsong: thc
world is transgurcd and all thc hcavcns rcjoicc,
:o
hc commands K osclitz, rcvcrting to
thc Ncw Tcstamcnt languagc ol his upbringing. And hc commands Cosima to announcc
thc glad tidings lrom 8ayrcuth.
:+
(As in Te Birth of Tragedy, onc lccls, thc ncw song
ought to sound vcry likc 8ccthovcns dc to Joy (p. +:8 abovc)).
Catastrophe

:
!n linc with this transguration ol thc world into pcrlcction and with his ncw idcn
tity as both thc ionysian and thc Crucicd God, Nictzschc now cngagcs in a gcncral
lorgivcncss ol sins, combincd, somctimcs, with a littlc wit and mischicl. To Malwida hc
writcs that much is lorgivcn, lor you havc lovcd mc much.
::
To von 8 ulow (Cosimas rst
husband, rcmcmbcr) hc scnds a complcx, acrostic jokc: as thc third \cuvc CliquotAriadnc
|thc third bottlc ol champagnc, i.c., husband ol Ariadnc, i.c., Cosima| ! dont want to
spoil your gamc: rathcr ! condcmn you to |pcrlorm lor cvcr| thc Lion of !enice (K osclitzs
opcra which von 8 ulow had lailcd to takc an intcrcst in).
:
To cusscn (who, rccall, had
bccn too stupid to supply thc moncy to buy thc books back lrom Fritzsch) hc writcs that
hc, too, has bccn assigncd a placc in thc ncw worldplan as a satyr.
:
Placing thc blamc
lor thcir squabblc ovcr Tainc on his own blindncss, Nictzschc assigns Rohdc a placc among
thc gods, right ncxt to thc niccst goddcss.
:
vcn Vagncr is lorgivcn, or at lcast cxcuscd,
on grounds ol bcing ol unsound mind.
:6
All this is, ol coursc, Nictzschcs lullling his own injunction to amor fati, to cmbracing
thc ctcrnal rcturn. mor fati rcappcars in thc nal pagcs ol thc notcbooks:
A last point ol vicw, thc highcst pcrhaps. ! myscll justily thc Gcrmans, ! alonc . . . !
would not bc possiblc without thc oppositc kind ol racc . . . without 8ismarck, without
+88, without thc |antiNapolcon| war ol libcration, without Kant, without Luthcr him
scll . . . Tc grcat cultural crimcs ol thc Gcrmans justily thcmsclvcs in a highcr cconomy ol
culturc. ! want nothing to bc dicrcnt, not backwards cithcr . . . mor fati . . . vcn Chris
tianity was ncccssary, thc highcst lorm, thc most dangcrous, thc most scductivc No to lilc
challcngcs lorth its highcst armation myscll.
:
Te Horse Story
A
s Christmas turncd to Ncw Ycar, lilc at thc Finos bccamc impossiblc. Nictzschcs
pianoplaying had progrcsscd lromcndlcss Vagncr, always lrommcmory, to thc lrcn
zicd bashing out ol tonc clustcrs, oltcn with his clbows, accompanicd by wild singing and
shouting at all hours ol day and night. For thrcc nights in a row no onc in thc housc was
ablc to slccp. n onc occasion Fino pccrcd through thc kcyholc ol Nictzschcs room to nd
him shouting, jumping, and dancing round thc room, stark nakcd, in what sccms to havc
bccn a oncman rccrcation ol a ionysian orgy. vcrbccks rcstraincd rcport ol this cvcnt
casts a vcil ovcr othcr things too vulgar to bc mcntioncd. Vhat hc may havc conccalcd was
thc satyrs crcct pcnis.
n or about January , +88, mattcrs camc to a hcad. Sccing a coachman thrashing his
horsc with a whip in onc ol Turins piazzas, Nictzschc thrcw his arms around thc horscs
ncck, tcars strcaming lrom his cycs, and thcn collapscd onto thc ground.
Tc uncanny thing about this story is that, il it is truc, Nictzschc partially scriptcd thc
sccnc hall a ycar carlicr. (Rccall, hcrc, his own youthlul suggcstion that H oldcrlins madncss
was partially scriptcd by his idcntication with mpcdoclcs (p. : abovc) and his own closc
idcntication with H oldcrlin.) !n thc middlc ol a lcttcr to von Scydlitz, hc abruptly brcaks
o chatting about mundanc things to rccount a vision ol moral tcarlulncss that camc to
him out ol thc bluc: wintcr landscapc. An old coachman with an cxprcssion ol thc most
brutal cynicism, hardcr than thc surrounding wintcr, urinatcs on his horsc. Tc horsc, thc
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
poor, ravagcd crcaturc, looks around, thanklul, vcry thanklul.
:8
An cvcn morc cxact script
lor thc sccnc rccall Te Gay Sciences talk ol staging oncscll
:
is to bc lound in Crime and
Punishment, whcrc Raskolnikov has a drcam in which, ovcrcomc by compassion, hc throws
his arms around a horsc that has bccn bcatcn to dcath. (T.ilight of the Idols discussion ol thc
criminal as a strong typc madc sick by unlavourablc circumstanccs attributcs this insight to
thc profound ostoycvsky, which strongly suggcsts that, by +888, hc had includcd Crime
and Punishment in his rcading ol thc Russian.)
o
Tc rcliability ol thc horsc story has bccn qucstioncd on thc grounds that thc original
sourcc is an anonymous ncwspapcr articlc writtcn clcvcn ycars altcr thc supposcd cvcnt.
Yct it docs havc a ring ol truth lor, as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc had an unusually powcrlul
disposition to compassion (a lcading motivc lor his critiquc ol its dcbilitating cccts on thc
compassionatc, ! suggcstcd) and had always bccn casily movcd to tcars.
Rcturncd to thc housc on thc \ia Carlo Albcrta by two policcmcn, Nictzschc was pcr
suadcd to go to bcd to await thc arrival ol thc psychiatrist r. Carlo Turina. Tc momcnt
hc appcarcd, howcvcr, Nictzschc shoutcd Pas malade! Pas malade! and rcluscd to scc him.
nly by latcr prcscnting Turina as a lricnd ol thc lamily did Fino nally pcrsuadc Nictz
schc to rcccivc him. 8romidc, widcly uscd as a tranquilizcr in thc ninctccnth ccntury, was
ordcrcd lrom thc Rossctti pharmacy (still) in thc Piazza Carignano.
Mcanwhilc, in 8ascl, 8urckhardt, much pcrturbcd by thc !d rathcr bc a 8ascl prolcssor
than God lcttcr, visitcd vcrbcck on January 6. Tc lattcr, who had bccn worricd about
Nictzschcs mcntal condition lor scvcral wccks, consultcd his collcaguc Ludwig Villc, pro
lcssor ol psychiatry at thc univcrsity and dircctor ol thc local psychiatric clinic. Tc lattcr
adviscd him to bring Nictzschc back to 8ascl immcdiatcly, lcst hc nd himscll incarccratcd
in somc dubious !talian institution.
n thc altcrnoon ol January , vcrbcck arrivcd at Nictzschcs lodgings, to thc grcat
rclicl ol avidc Fino, who, solthcartcd but dcspcratc, had bccn on thc point ol calling thc
policc. vcrbcck lound his old lricnd, a shadow ol his lormcr scll, sitting in thc corncr
ol a sola, chcwing, and rcading what turncd out to bc thc nal prools ol Nietzsche contra
!agner. Nictzschc cmbraccd him passionatcly and thcn collapscd back on thc sola, whcrc
hc lay shivcring and groaning. vcrbccks knccs gavc way too. Tc sick man was givcn a
lurthcr dosc ol bromidc and nally bccamc quictcr. Hc bcgan to spcak chccrlully ol thc
grcat rcccption hc had planncd that cvcning (prcsumably lor thc !talian king and quccn).
Hc livcd, vcrbcck wrotc K osclitz thc lollowing wcck,
cntircly in his dcrangcd world lrom which, in my prcscncc, hc ncvcr again cmcrgcd. Quitc
clcar about who ! and othcr pcoplc wcrc, hc was in complctc darkncss about himscll . . . !n
cvcr morc intcnsc attacks ol singing and crashing about on thc piano, hc camc lorth with
lragmcnts ol thc world ol thought hc had rcccntly inhabitcd. Somctimcs, in a whispcr, hc
produccd scntcnccs ol wondcrlul luminosity. 8ut also uttcrcd tcrriblc things about himscll
as thc succcssor ol thc nowdcad God, thc wholc pcrlormancc continuously punctuatcd
on thc piano, lollowing which thcrc would bc morc convulsions and a ncw outbrcak ol
unspcakablc sucring.
+
n January , vcrbcck dccidcd Nictzschc must bc rcmovcd lrom !taly without dclay.
Sincc thc policc wcrc alrcady appriscd ol his condition, thc altcrnativc was a Turin jail.
Catastrophe


Mildmanncrcd vcrbcck was, howcvcr, unablc to cxcrcisc any control ovcr thc paticnt
so that, alonc, hc could ncvcr havc managcd thc journcy. Fortunatcly, howcvcr, a dcus cx
machina appcarcd, a r. 8cttmann, rccommcndcd by thc Gcrman consul as having a way
with thc mcntally disturbcd, and ocrcd to accompany thc paticnt to 8ascl. (8cttmann was,
in lact, a Jcwish dcntist, thc last in thc long linc ol Jcws who had promotcd and protcctcd
Nictzschc throughout his adult lilc.) Sincc Nictzschc lollowcd all 8cttmanns instructions
with thc childlikc obcdicncc Countcss Mansuro had, in happicr days, lollowcd his own
(p. : abovc), thc journcy was now possiblc. 8cttmann pcrsuadcd Nictzschc that a grcat
rcccption was bcing prcparcd lor him at thc cnd ol thc journcy and so brought him to thc
railway station.
uring thc journcy Nictzschc was kcpt scdatcd with chloral hydratc, though whcn thc
drug bcgan to wcar o hc wantcd to cmbracc cvcryonc and kcpt singing a gondolicr song
which vcrbcck latcr rcaliscd was his own pocm lrom Ecce Homo.
:
Arriving in 8ascl on
January +o, Nictzschc was brought without luss into Villcs sanatorium.
26
Te Rise and Fall of
Te Will to Power
!
x cn~v:vv : wc saw that, during his nal ycars, thc projcct ol writing a book to
bc callcd Te !ill to Po.er bccamc Nictzschcs principal philosophical projcct. Tis
chaptcr is dcvotcd to invcstigating thc rcasons it was ncvcr complctcd.
Tc idca ol thc will to powcr rst occurs in Nictzschcs publishcd works in +88, in
Human, ll-Too-Humans discussion ol sclcctcd psychological phcnomcna: dccp down, wc
lcarn, gratitudc is thc cqualising rcvcngc ol thc powcrlul, thc dcsirc to cxcitc pity is a qucst
lor control on thc part ol thc wcak, ostcntatious asccticism is thc qucst lor spiritual powcr
on thc part ol thc saint, and thc bad conscicncc is thc qucst lor powcr lorccd to turn
inwards.
+
Tc phrase will to powcr rst appcars in January +88 in Part ! ol Zarathus-
tra. Hcrc, in thc contcxt ol group psychology, thc idca bcgins to takc on a morc systcmatic
look. A pcoplcs morality, wc arc told, is thc voicc ol its will to powcr, ol its will to rulc
and conqucr and shinc, to thc horror and cnvy ol its ncighbour.
:
8y thc summcr ol +88,
in Part !! ol Zarathustra, thc idca has cxpandcd to cmbracc thc wholc ol lilc:
Vhcrcvcr ! lound thc living, thcrc ! lound will to powcr: cvcn in thc will to scrvc ! lound
thc will to bc mastcr . . . And lilc itscll condcd this sccrct to mc: 8chold, it said, I am
that .hich must al.ays o.ercome itself .

Two ycars latcr, in April, +88, Nictzschc conccivcs thc idca ol cxtcnding will to powcr
so that it would bc thc undcrlying ground not just ol thc biological, but ol thc inorganic
rcalm, too: in his notcbook shorthand hc writcs: that thc will to powcr is what govcrns
thc inorganic world, or rathcr that thcrc is no inorganic world.

8y August ol that ycar, hc

camc up with thc rst ol about twcnty plans lor a book with Te !ill to Po.er as its main
titlc.

And by thc summcr ol +886 hc conccivcd thc work as a massivc, lourvolumc cntcr
prisc
6
, a mastcrwork

that would providc a synoptic

8
account ol his cntirc philosophy.
Tis task bccamc both his ccntral litcrary projcct and, as wc havc sccn, thc mcaning ol his
lilc until shortly bclorc his collapsc into madncss.
8ut though hc produccd wcll ovcr a thousand pagcs ol prcparatory notcs lor thc mas
tcrwork, hc ncvcr publishcd it. Tc posthumous work that appcarcd in +o+ undcr thc
,

Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er


titlc Te !ill to Po.er: ttempt at a Fe.aluation of ll !alues, and again in +o6 and +++
cxpandcd cvcntually to contain +o6 snippcts lromhis notcbooks was a philologically dis
gracclul

concoction on thc part ol thc appalling lizabcth, aidcd by, in particular, K osclitz,
who had by now gonc ovcr to thc cncmy.
Givcn thc scriousncss with which Nictzschc took thc projcct and thc apparcnt plausibility
ol attributing its nonappcarancc to thc onsct ol madncss, it is by no mcans unrcasonablc
that many philosophcrs and Nictzschc scholars havc takcn thc unpublishcd notcbooks, thc
Nachlass, to bc thc rcpository ol Nictzschcs rcal philosophy.

Martin Hcidcggcr took this

vicw, writing at thc bcginning ol his lourvolumc Nictzschc study that
Nictzschcs philosophy propcr, thc lundamcntal position on thc basis ol which hc spcaks
in . . . all thc writings hc himscll publishcd, did not assumc a nal lorm and was not itscll
publishcd in any book . . . Vhat Nictzschc himscll publishcd during his crcativc lilc was
always lorcground . . . His philosophy propcr was lclt bchind as posthumous, unpublishcd
work.
+o
Allrcd 8 aumlcr, thc Nazi Nictzschc scholar, also took this vicw and on thc basis ol thc
Nachlass turncd Nictzschc into a protoNazi. From a dicrcnt pcrspcctivc, Hcidcggcr also
turncd Nictzschc into a protoNazi. At thc cnd ol his lourvolumc study, nally waking up
to thc horror ol thc Nazi rcality gathcring around him in thc carly ycars ol thc war (though
rcmaining a mcmbcr ol thc Nazi Party), hc dccidcs that his lilclong admiration ol Nictz
schc has bccn misplaccd: at thc cnd ol |Nictzschcs| mctaphysics, hc writcs, stands thc
statcmcnt Homo est brutum bestiale, thc blond bcast.
++
Tc cmbodimcnt ol thc Nictz
schcan supcrman hc claims, is thc SS tank commandcr. (Tis rcading ol thc Nachlass
produccd somcthing closc to a ncrvous brcakdown: Nietzsche hat mich kaputt gemacht, hc
lamcntcd.)
!t is not mcrcly dubiously motivatcd Gcrman philosophcrs, howcvcr, who havc takcn thc
rcal Nictzschc to bc locatcd in thc notcbooks. Anglophonc philosophcrs with backgrounds
in thc analytic tradition havc, morc oltcn than not, donc thc samc. !n Richard Schachts
monumcntal study, lor instancc, out ol a total ol +,+8 Nictzschcquotations, 86+ ovcr
hall arc takcn lrom thc book Nictzschc ncvcr publishcd. And in thc chaptcr dcvotcd
to Nictzschcs allcgcd mctaphysics, out ol + quotations, +: arc takcn lrom lizabcths
potpourri.
+:
Schacht and Hcidcggcr sharc a common pcrccption ol Nictzschc. For both ol thcm hc
is a philosophcr in thc traditional mould, according to which thc hcart ol thc disciplinc
is mctaphysics. Although thcy havc dicrcnt stanccs to mctaphysics Hcidcggcr thinks it
somcthing to bc ovcrcomc, Schacht is morc ncutral both scc Nictzschc as, rst and lorc
most, a mctaphysician. Spccically, thcy bclicvc hc ocrs a cosmological doctrinc accord
ing to which cvcrything is, at bottom, will to powcr. Sincc, in thc ,+o pagcs Nictzschc
chosc to publish,
+
only onc passagc, totalling barcly a pagc, Scction 6 ol Beyond Good and
E.il, actually argucs lor thc cosmological doctrinc, and cvcn that in a somcwhat qualicd
way,
+
thc dctcrmination to rcad Nictzschc as ocring a mctaphysical cosmology has to bc
bascd on thc Nachlass.

Tis idca was cncouragcd by lizabcth, who, trying to bolstcr thc lcgitimacy ol hcr own !ill to
Po.er projcct, put it about that Franz vcrbcck had dcstroycd a complctc manuscript ol thc work.
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tc HcidcggcrSchacht approach to Nictzschc is by no mcans silly. For, as ! now want
to show, Nictzschcs own original impctus to thc !ill to Po.er projcct was prcciscly to t
himscll into thc traditional mould ol philosophical grcatncss. 8ut as ! shall go on to show,
it was an impulsc that hc cvcntually rcjcctcd, and, with it, thc cntirc !ill to Po.er projcct.
!t was not thc onsct ol madncss but rathcr Nictzschcs conscious, sanc, and, as ! shall show,
wcllgroundcd dccision that dcprivcd us or ought to havc dcprivcd us ol Te !ill to
Po.er.
Te Casaubon Impulse
T
hc Rcvcrcnd dward Casaubon spcnds thc duration ol Gcorgc liots Middlemarch
slaving ovcr his Key to ll Mythologies a book hc ncvcr nishcs. Tis impulsc to dis
covcr thc onc kcy to unlock an cntirc univcrsc is what lay bchind Nictzschcs rst conccp
tion ol thc mastcrwork. Tc +88 notcbook cntry in which thc conccption makcs its rst,
grandiosc appcarancc rcads:
Te !ill to Po.er
Attcmpt at a ncw xplanation
+
ol all vcnts
+6
by
Fricdrich Nictzschc.
+
Tc samc titlc and subtitlc arc prcscrvcd in a sccond skctch lor thc work a month or so
latcr.
+8
Nictzschcs only lilclong lricnd, his unlailing support in cach and cvcry cmcrgcncy, Franz
vcrbcck, produccd a surprisingly qualicd posthumous asscssmcnt ol Nictzschcs charac
tcr. Hc was not, vcrbcck writcs, a grcat man in thc gcnuinc scnsc. Rathcr, what rcally
govcrncd and posscsscd him was thc aspiration to grcatncss, ambition in thc compctition
ol lilc.
+
Tat Nictzschc had to an cxtraordinary dcgrcc a ycarning lor grcatncss is bcyond
doubt. Ambition vcrging on thc mcgalomania that bccamc a ccntral lcaturc ol his madncss
was, as wc havc sccn, alrcady prcscnt in +88: Zarathustra, hc said ycarning disguising
itscll as prophcsy would split history into two halvcs (p. 8 abovc).
To bccomc grcat in ninctccnthccntury Gcrmany was to writc a big book. Nonc ol
Nictzschcs publications prior to thc projcctcd mastcrwork ttcd thc bill brcvity alonc
disqualicd thcm. So thc task which camc to absorb all his cncrgics altcr thc complction
ol thc Genealogy of Morals in August, +88 was to producc somcthing which would cqual,
indccd surpass, thc Critique of Pure Feason, thc Phenomenology of Spirit, and particularly
Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation.
As an cxclassicist who ncvcr had a propcr cducation in thc history ol philosophy, Nictz
schc only rcally kne.thc Grccks his admiration bcing rcscrvcd lor thc prcSocratics and
his onc and only cducator, Arthur Schopcnhaucr. Vith this background, it was incvitablc
that grcatncss as hc, likc Casaubon, conccivcd it, would bc a mattcr ol producing a thcory
ol cvcrything, a thcory ol thc lorm its all X. Tc prcSocratics had dcvclopcd thcsc kinds
ol thcorics lor thcm cvcrything is cithcr watcr, mattcr, atoms, bcing, or bccoming as
did Schopcnhaucr, lor whom cvcrything is will, will to livc.
Nictzschc spccically cndorscs this tastc lor thc swccping statcmcnt, obscrving in thc
notcbooks that cmocritus and mpcdoclcs criticiscd and improvcd on Anaxagorass work
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er


on thc basis ol thc conviction that thc hcart ol scicntic mcthod is thc law ol parsimony,
thc law that thc hypothcsis which dcploys thc smallcst numbcr ol prcsuppositions and
mcans to cxplain thc world takcs prcccdcncc ovcr all rivals.
:o
Schopcnhaucr, too, appcals
to thc law ol parsimony in justilying his cxpansion ol will bcyond its natural homc in
thc rcalm ol human motivation to bccomc thc mctaphysical ground ol all cvcnts. Tc jus
tication lor this cxpansion, hc writcs, lics in thc divinc Platos law ol homogcncity,
which rcquircs us to scck out thc highcst gcnus undcr which all natural spccics can bc
subsumcd.
:+
!ncvitably, thcn, Nictzschcs qucst lor grcatncss rcquircd him to producc, as
his proposcd subtitlc put it, an cxplanation ol all cvcnts that would rcducc thcm to a singlc
principlc, and with thc cxciting conccpt ol will to powcr to hand, hc thought hc had a good
chancc ol providing such a rcduction.
Te Explanation of All Events
A
s notcd, Nictzschcs thcory ol cvcrything bcgins to appcar in thc notcbooks in thc
summcr ol +88. Hc continucs his undcrground work on it until about thc middlc
ol +888, but only oncc, in thc middlc ol +886, in Scction 6 ol Beyond Good and E.il,
is it allowcd to pokc its hcad, and thcn, as rcmarkcd, only tcntativcly, into thc light ol
publication.
Tc construction ol thc thcory bcgins with an attack on substantival thinking, which, as
wc know, had long bccn a thcmc in both thc notcbooks and thc publishcd works. Sub
stanccs, things, arc, Nictzschc holds, crrors: illusions, myths, ctions. Tough usclul,
indccd csscntial, lor purposcs ol survival, thcrc is nothing corrcsponding to thcm in rcal
ity. vcn thc substanccs ol natural scicncc arc myths: to 8oscovichs rcplaccmcnt ol thc
matcrial atom by cxtcnsionlcss puncta ol lorcc, hc says in Beyond Good and E.il, wc owc
thc insight that mattcr docs not cxist (p. + abovc).
8cncath thc lolk mythology ol common scnsc, thcn, rcality consists ol lorccs. 8ut what
arc lorccs: To attach any mcaning to thc kcy tcrm ol 8oscovichian physics, Nictzschc
rcccts, wc must rcndcr lorcc intclligiblc in tcrms ol our own scnsc cxpcricncc: a lorcc
wc cannot imaginc is an cmpty word and should bc dcnicd rights ol citizcnship in sci
cncc.
::
From this it lollows, to rcpcat thc quotation, that
thc victorious conccpt ol lorcc with which our physicists havc crcatcd God and thc world
nccds a supplcmcnt: it must bc givcn an inncr world which ! dcsignatc as will to powcr,
i.c. thc insatiablc drivc to manilcst powcr or as thc cmploymcnt and cxcrcisc ol powcr, as
crcativc drivc ctc..
:
Up to this last point Nictzschcs train ol thought lollows cxactly in Schopcnhaucrs loot
stcps. For hc, too, had argucd that mattcr is a ction, that lundamcntal rcality is lorcc
(hc attributcd thc discovcry to Joscph Pricstlcy, but Pricstlcy was in lact inucnccd by
8oscovich), and that, lclt to thcir own dcviccs, thc lorccs ol natural scicncc arc mcrc
unknown Xs.
:
So, Schopcnhaucr concludcs, in ordcr to rcscuc scicncc lrom mcaning
lcssncss, lorccs must bc thought ol in tcrms ol will, sincc that is thc only plausiblc cxpcr
icntial candidatc. Schopcnhaucrs will, howcvcr, is thc will to livc, thc will to mcrc scll
prcscrvation, and at this point Nictzschc makcs his claim to originality, his claim to outdo
his onctimc Mastcr: thc world is not will to li.e but rathcr will to po.er: scllprcscrvation,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
hc writcs in Beyond Good and E.il, is only onc ol thc indircct and most lrcqucnt con
scqucnccs ol this. nc should, hc adds, appcaling again to thc law ol parsimony, watch
out lor superuous tclcological principlcs.
:
l coursc, il thc will to livc wcrc thc basis ol an adequate thcory ol cvcrything it would
not bc supcruous. Schopcnhaucrs thcory would thcn havc a singlc principlc and bc just
as parsimonious as his rivals. Nictzschcs vicw must bc, thcrclorc, that Schopcnhaucrs thc
ory cannot savc thc phcnomcna, cannot in lact cxplain thc charactcr ol thc world as wc
obscrvc it. Tc rcason lor this, hc thinks, is that thc world ol our cxpcricncc is not thc cclc
bratcd strugglc lor cxistcncc postulatcd with onc voicc by Schopcnhaucr and that mcdiocrc
nglishman
:6
Charlcs arwin, but rathcr a strugglc lor po.er, bccausc what wc obscrvc
is that lilc oltcn cnough risks and sacriccs scllprcscrvation lor thc sakc ol an expansion
of po.er.
:
!n thc undcrground world ol thc notcbooks, Nictzschcs powcrthcory bcgins with thc
translormation ol 8oscovichs puncta into quanta, quant|a| ol will to powcr.
:8
Tcsc strivc
to dominatc, to mastcr, cvcry othcr quantum, to incorporatc it, takc it ovcr. Tc rcsults
ol thcsc powcr strugglcs, thcsc subatomic corts at colonisation, arc organiscd systcms
ol quanta thc things ol cvcryday cxpcricncc which try to dominatc othcr systcms ol
powcrquanta. Tis cxplains thc obscrvcd charactcr ol lilc as onc cnormous powcr strugglc.
!t cxplains why, il wc look at thc world with an unscntimcntal cyc, wc cannot avoid scc
ing that, to rcpcat thc words ol Beyond Good and E.il, lilc itscll is essentially a proccss ol
appropriation, injuring, ovcrpowcring thc alicn and thc wcakcr, opprcssing, bcing harsh,
imposing your own lorm, incorporating, and at lcast, at thc vcry lcast, cxploiting.
:
Two lurthcr lcaturcs ol this grand thcory mcrit mcntion. Sincc thc will to powcr is, as wc
havc sccn, insatiablc
o
(thc will to powcr is always thc will to morc powcr) and sincc thc
morc complcx systcms ol quanta bccomc thc morc unstablc thcy arc, it lollows that cvcry
organiscd powcr structurc in thc cnd collapscs. Tcy grow biggcr and biggcr until likc thc
Roman mpirc or Gcncral Motors thcy cxplodc and cvcrything rcturns, morc or lcss, to
thc bcginning. Tis lcads Nictzschc to spcculatc as to whcthcr thc rcturn to thc bcginning
might not bc an exact rcturn, whcthcr, in othcr words, thc ctcrnal rcturn ol thc samc,
no morc than a thought cxpcrimcnt dcsigncd as a tcst ol spiritual hcalth in thc publishcd
works, might not also bc a mctaphysical truth. And according to at lcast onc notc it is, sincc
thc total quantity ol lorcc in thc world is nitc, it lollows, Nictzschc postulatcs, that cvcry
possiblc statc is rcaliscd ovcr innitc timc, so that thc rcturn ol thc exact prcscnt statc ol
thc world is guarantccd.
+
Nictzschc sums up this vision ol thc totality ol things in a notc ol +88 which, ignoring
thc lact that Nictzschcs thought continucd to changc and dcvclop lor a lurthcr thrcc ycars,
lizabcth chooscs as thc ccstatic nalc ol her !ill to Po.er:
Tis world: a monstcr ol cncrgy without bcginning, without cnd, a rm iron mag
nitudc ol lorcc that docs not grow biggcr or smallcr . . . a play ol lorccs, and wavcs ol
lorccs . . . incrcasing hcrc and at thc samc timc dccrcasing thcrc . . . ctcrnally changing, ctcr
nally ooding back, with trcmcndous ycars ol rccurrcncc, with an cbb and ow ol lorms
out ol thc simplcst lorms striving towards thc most complcx . . . and thcn rcturning homc
to thc simplc . . . out ol thc play ol contradictions . . . thc ctcrnally scllcrcating, thc ctcrnally
sclldcstroying, bcyond good and cvil . . . Tis .orld is the .ill to po.er and nothing besides!
And you yourscll arc will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs!
:
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,
Revaluation of All Values
T
hus thc ncw cxplanation ol all cvcnts. 8y thc summcr ol +886, howcvcr, Nictzschc
had comc to prclcr a ncw subtitlc lor thc projcctcd mastcrwork: Fe.aluation of ll
!alues.

Tis was not bccausc hc had abandoncd thc idca ol univcrsal cxplanation, lor it
was during this summcr that hc actually published thc claim that thc world . . . is will to
powcr and nothing bcsidcs in scction 6 ol Beyond Good and E.il. Rathcr, it is bccausc hc
has somcthing to add to it, somcthing that bcars on valucs.
Vhat might Nictzschcs ncw cxplanation ol all cvcnts havc to do with valucs: Mo
dcrnity, wc know, is in a condition ol nihilism. Tc upsidc ol thc dcmisc ol Christianity
is thc dcmisc ol a systcm ol bclicl that has madc humanity sick with scllloathing lor two
millcnnia. 8ut thc downsidc is that wc havc lost our account ol thc mcaning ol lilc. Tc
highcst valucs dcvaluc thcmsclvcs. Tc aim is lacking, why: nds no answcr.

8ut now,
as a rcsult ol thc lorcgoing mctaphysics, wc at lcast know what lilc is: will to powcr and
nothing bcsidcs. From this it lollows, Nictzschc bclicvcs, that thc mcaning ol lilc has to bc
thc acquisition ol (cvcr morc) powcr.

Morcovcr, sincc valucs arc just thc voicc ol |cithcr

an individuals or| a pcoplcs will to powcr lcss poctically, thc conditions ol prcscrvation
and growth with rcspcct to complcx structurcs ol rclativc pcrmancncc ol lilc within bccom
ing
6
it lollows that morals arc just, as it wcrc, an instruction manual lor thc prcscrvation
and growth ol cithcr ol an individual or a community. Tc ncw undcrstanding ol what thc
world is, thc ncw ontology, thus providcs a ncw mcaning ol lilc and dcmands ol us a ncw
morality, a rcvaluation ol all valucs. !t dcmands a rcturn to thc world ol Machiavclli (that
Hcnry Kissingcr ol thc Florcntinc Rcnaissancc), a rcturn to virtuc in thc Rcnaissancc stylc,
virt` u |in othcr words, ccicncy|, moralinclrcc virtuc.

According to tradition, thc thrcc lundamcntal qucstions ol philosophy arc: Vhat is thcrc:
Vhat can wc know: and Vhat should wc do: Vith thc introduction ol thc rcvaluation
thcmc, it bccomcs clcar that Nictzschc has answcrcd all thrcc. For thc rst timc thc grandcur
ol his vision and ambition stands bclorc us in its stark simplicity. Tc answcr to cach thc
rst two qucstions is Tc world is thc will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs, and thc answcr
to thc third qucstion is: Vill powcr!
8ut, onc might objcct, is not this inlcrcncc lrom lilc is thc will to powcr to powcr is
what wc ought to pursuc, this attcmpt to dcrivc cthics lrom ontology, a blatant instancc ol
thc wcllknown naturalistic lallacy, thc lallacy ol trying to dcrivc an ought lrom an is:
Tat powcr is dcsircd docs not, surcly, makc it a fortiori dcsirablc.
Nictzschc gocs out ol his way to cmphasisc that, in rclation to currcnt moral scnsibilitics,
scnsibilitics which, to somc dcgrcc, hc himscll sharcs, his mctaphysical vision is onc ol hor
ror: a hundrcd milcs bcyond . . . cvcrything plcasant, hc dcscribcs thc massivc thing taking
shapc in thc notcbooks,
8
and thc book in which thc tip ol that submcrgcd mass bccomcs
visiblc, Beyond Good and E.il, is, wc know, vcry black and squidlikc. !n thc skctch ol a
possiblc prclacc to thc mastcrwork, hc writcs:
Tc conccption ol thc world, which onc discovcrs in thc background ol this work is
cxtraordinarily gloomy and unplcasant: among thc typcs ol pcssimism known up to now,
nonc appcars to havc rcachcd this dcgrcc ol malignancy. Tc contrast bctwccn a truc and
apparcnt world is missing hcrc |thcrc is no cxit to a saving bcyond|, thcrc is only onc
world, and it is a lalsc, crucl, contradictory world . . . without mcaning.

,c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Tis cmphasis on thc blackncss ol Nictzschcs vision, as wc know, is intcndcd to bring
to thc lorc thc radical naturc ol thc disjunction bctwccn, on thc onc hand, thc traditional
Christian morality ol sclcss lovc and, on thc othcr, thc rcality ol thc world, as discloscd
by modcrn, postarwinian scicntic thinking. And thc point ol highlighting thc dis
junction is to compcl that rarc bcing, Nictzschcs propcr rcadcr, to a choicc bctwccn two
lundamcntal stanccs towards thc world. Tc rst option is to rcmain loyal to traditional
morality. 8ut in this casc, sincc sclcssncss is impossible in a world in which lilc itscll is
essentially a proccss ol appropriating, injuring, ovcrpowcring thc alicn and thc wcakcr,
opprcssing . . . cxploiting,
o
onc is lorccd to dcny lilc, to concludc, with Schopcnhaucr,
that thc world is somcthing which ought not to bc and our cxistcncc in it is a kind ol
crror . . . or mistakc.
+
Tc sccond stancc to thc world is to insist on arming lilc, in which
casc onc is compelled to advancc bcyond |traditional| good and cvil and is committcd to
Nictzschcs lundamcntal rcvaluation ol valucs. nc has no option but to adopt thc ncw
morality, according to which only powcr has valuc
:
and good simply means incrcascs
powcr and bad mcans dccrcascs powcr.

To makc thc rst ol thcsc choiccs, howcvcr, is

to succumb to thc sickncss ol nihilism, a sickncss that is thc road to dcspair and suicidc. !t
lollows that making thc sccond choicc, rcvaluing all valucs, is a condition ol mcntal hcalth,
somcthing a hcalthy human bcing must do. Tat hcalth rcquircs worldarmation is thus
thc prcmisc that mcdiatcs thc inlcrcncc lrom thc ontology ol powcr to thc cthics ol powcr.
Tis is thc lcsson rnst J ungcr took lromNictzschc. As a spccial opcrations occr during
thc First Vorld Var (woundcd lourtccn timcs, hc was onc ol Gcrmanys most dccoratcd
war hcrocs), hc cxpcricnccd himscll as a cog in a giant proccss which was thc cosmic will
to powcr cxprcssing itscll in its latcst, mcchaniscd lorm. !nitially hc lound this proccss to
bc onc ol utmost horror. Yct uncxpcctcdly, as hc rccords in Storm of Steel, his mcmoir ol thc
trcnchcs, hc lound that by submitting to thc proccss, hc cxpcricnccd a lccling ol unparallclcd
clcvation and intcnsity which sccmcd to him an cncountcr with his truc bcing. And this
bccamc his guiding cthic lor lilc in modcrnity. Sincc not just ovcrt war, but thc totally
mobilizcd world ol modcrnity in gcncral, is nothing but thc mcchaniscd (clcctronic, hc
might now say) will to powcr in action, it lollows that to livc in harmony with such a world
onc must arm cvcn ccstatically arm thc will to powcr in its currcnt, tcchnological
cxprcssion. !n a nutshcll, thc lcsson J ungcr took lrom Nictzschc was: !l you cannot mould
thc world to t your morality you must mould your morality to t thc world. (!l you cant
bcat thcm, join thcm!)
Tis, thcn, was thc philosophy gathcring itscll in thc notcbooks lascist (or pcrhaps
ncocon) philosophy, onc might agrcc with Hcidcggcr, bcaring in mind that J ungcr was
onc ol Hitlcrs hcrocs. Tis was thc mastcrwork almost rcady to spring out and astonish thc
world, almost rcady to do what Zarathustra had lailcd to do, namcly, split history into two
halvcs. 8ut apart lrom its momcntary surlacing in Beyond Good and E.il, it ncvcr saw thc
light ol day. Nictzschc dccidcd to abandon Te !ill to Po.er.
History of a Failed Literary Project
V
ork on thc !ill to Po.er projcct rcachcd a pcak in Fcbruary, +888, with, as notcd,
a planncd total ol aphorisms dividcd up into lour books.

8ut Nictzschc was

dccply dissatiscd with what hc had produccd. Vriting to K osclitz on Fcbruary +, hc says
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,:
that thc rst vcrsion ol my Attcmpt at a Rcvaluation is rcady: it was, all in all, a torturc,
! havcnt had thc audacity lor it. !n tcn ycars timc !ll makc it bcttcr.

(Notc thc usc ol

thc subtitlc rathcr than thc main titlc, itscll an indication that somcthing is amiss with thc
original schcmc.) Tirtccn days latcr hc tclls K osclitz that hc has abandoncd all thought ol
publishing thc work.
6
ccply rcluctant, howcvcr, to abandon his brilliant kcy to thc unravclling ol all mystcrics,
Nictzschc compcllcd himscll to soldicr on with thc projcct as originally conccivcd until thc
cnd ol August, +888. 8ut it wcnt lrom bad to worsc. n August ::, hc wrotc Mcta von
Salis lrom Sils Maria that thc work ol thc cntirc summcr was
down thc plug holc |ins !asser gefallen|. !m dcvastatcd by this |hc continucd| sincc com
parcd with last ycar, thc rst ol my spring

visits |to Sils| to turn out rcally wcll, ! brought

cvcn morc cncrgy with mc this timc. Also, cvcrything had bccn prcparcd lor one grand and
.ery specic task.
8
n August :6 Nictzschc skctchcd onc nal plan lor a book with !ill to Po.er as its main
titlc.

8ut just lour days latcr, hc wrotc his mothcr that a wcll and long prcparcd work
which should havc bccn complctcd this summcr, has litcrally gonc down thc plug holc.
o
!n thc samc lcttcr Nictzschc told his mothcr that hc was oncc again lully in action
thcrc is an unmistakablc lccling ol libcration now that hc has nally cut his losscs with
rcspcct to Te !ill to Po.er. Tc locus ol his rcncwcd productivity was a ncw publishing
stratcgy which cmcrgcs in thc notcbooks at thc bcginning ol Scptcmbcr. Tc plan was
to publish salvagcablc bits ol thc !ill to Po.er matcrial in a scrics ol cxccrpts lrom my
philosophy.
+
nc ol thcsc collcctions ol rcpackagcd matcrial was to bc callcd Idleness of a
Psychologist (soon, wc know, to bc rctitlcd T.ilight of the Idols), anothcr Fe.aluation of ll
!alues, with Te ntichrist as thc titlc ol thc rst ol its lour books.
Tough this Fe.aluation was to bc somcwhat shortcr than thc original !ill to Po.er,
Nictzschc still thought ol it as thc mastcrwork which, as hc wrotc Paul cusscn on Scptcm
bcr +, by dcmanding a valuc dccision ol thc rst ordcr, would (yct again!) split thc history
ol humanity into two halvcs. All his othcr publishing intcntions, hc wrotc, rcprcscntcd
mcrc rclaxations and divcrsions lrom this main task.
:
Tc continucd ccntrality ol this
work to Nictzschcs conccption ol his lilcdcning task, thc continucd grandcur ol ambi
tion, and thc continucd prcscncc ol Rcvaluation in thc proposcd titlc makc it lcgitimatc, !
think, to rcgard thc Fe.aluation as a continuation ol thc mastcrwork projcct.
n Scptcmbcr o, +888, Nictzschc complctcd both T.ilight of the Idols and Te nti-
christ, continuing to dcscribc thc lattcr as thc rst book ol thc Fe.aluation of ll !al-
ues.

n Novcmbcr :o, howcvcr, hc wrotc Gcorg 8randcs rclcrring to Te ntichrist

that thc Fe.aluation of ll !alues lics complctc bclorc mc and claimcd that in a couplc ol
ycars |it| will bring thc wholc carth into convulsions.

And six days latcr hc wrotc cusscn

that my Fe.aluation of ll !alues, with thc main titlc Te ntichrist is rcady, adding that a
million copics in scvcn languagcs will nccd to bc produccd.

Tc planncd lourvolumcd
work had thus contractcd into thc onc book ol Te ntichrist.
n or about cccmbcr : closc to thc timc ol his tcarlul cmbracc ol thc bcatcn horsc
in thc Turin piazza and complctc mcntal brcakdown Nictzschc madc onc nal adjustmcnt
to thc mastcrwork projcct: hc crosscd out Te ntichrists subtitlc, Fe.aluation of ll !alues,
and rcplaccd it with Curse on Christianity.
,:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
nc might wcll, thcrclorc, comc to thc conclusion that thc last ol thc many pcrmutations
ol thc mastcrworkprojcct rcsultcd in cutting Te ntichrist loosc as a lrccstanding work
and thcrclorc in thc complctc abandonmcnt ol thc projcct. ! am, howcvcr, inclincd to rcsist
this conclusion in spitc ol thc rclativc brcvity ol Te ntichrist. ! am inclincd, that is,
to discount thc Cursc on Christianity subtitlc on scvcral grounds. First, bccausc Nictz
schc was almost ccrtainly insanc whcn hc crcatcd it outbursts ol lury would incrcasingly
bccomc onc ol thc charactcristics ol his insanity. Sccond, bccausc Cursc on Christianity
is an inaccuratc guidc to thc works contcnt, which compriscs, as wc havc sccn, a grcat dcal
morc than a critiquc ol Christianity. And third, bccausc this additional matcrial contains
signicant amounts ol thc matcrial which had bccn planncd lor thc Fe.aluation. Tc vcry
last plan, that is, lor a lourbookcd Fe.aluation has Te ntichrist as 8ook !, a critiquc ol
morality as 8ook !!, a critiquc ol philosophy hithcrto as 8ook !!!, whilc 8ook !\is cntitlcd
ionysus. Philosophy ol thc tcrnal Rcturn.
6
As wc havc sccn, howcvcr, in abbrcviatcd
lorm thc philosophy ol ctcrnal rcturn is incorporatcd into Te ntichrist: bcing ablc to will
thc ctcrnal rcturn as thc condition ol bccoming a lcadcr ol Nictzschcs idcal community
turns out to providc thc apcx ol his political philosophy (p. +6 abovc). And thc matcrial
ol 8ooks !!! and !\ had, in any casc, bccn prcscntcd alrcady in many prcvious works. ! am
inclincd to concludc, thcrclorc as wc havc sccn, Nictzschc kncw on cccmbcr +6, il not
bclorc, that thc tragic catastrophc was last approaching (p. : abovc) that hc packcd
cvcrything hc now lclt csscntial to thc mastcrwork projcct but had not yct publishcd into
Te ntichrist.

Nictzschc, thcn, abandoncd thc !ill to Po.er projcct, transmuting it into thc Fe.aluation
projcct, which in thc cnd abbrcviatcd itscll into Te ntichrist. Tis lcavcs us with two qucs
tions. First, what was it that causcd Nictzschc so much troublc and causcd him, nally, at
thc cnd ol August +888, to abandon thc attcmpt to publish a book callcd Te !ill to Po.er:
And sccond, what il anything, rcmains, in thc philosophical works produccd altcr that
abandonmcnt Te !agner Case, T.ilight of the Idols, Ecce Homo, and Te ntichrist ol thc
original projcct: Vhat rolc, il any, is playcd by thc will to powcr in thc works complctcd
during thc nal lour months ol +888:
Intellectual Cleanliness
V
hy, thcn, rst ol all, did Nictzschc abandon Te !ill to Po.er: !l wc rcturn to thc
point at which his dissatislaction with thc projcct rst cmcrgcd, Fcbruary, +888,
two things stand out as important. First, thc lact that ncarly all ol thc timc lrom that point
onwards (though with momcnts ol nostalgia lor his original titlc) hc thinks ol thc pro
jcct as thc Fe.aluation rathcr than Te !ill to Po.er. And sccond, thc lollowing notcbook
commcnt on, and apparcntly lor, thc projcctcd work:
! mistrust all systcmatiscrs and go out ol my way to avoid thcm. Tc will to systcm, lor
a thinkcr at lcast, is somcthing compromising, a lorm ol immorality . . . Pcrhaps onc will
gucss by looking undcrncath and bchind this book which systcmatiscr it is doing its bcst
to avoid mc myscll.

Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,
As wc saw, thc original impctus bchind thc mastcrwork projcct was uttcrly systcmatic. Tc
rcduction ol all cvcnts to a singlc principlc was, lollowing thc prcSocratics and Schopcn
haucr, a dcning condition ol thc grcatncss lor which Nictzschc ycarncd. Tc rcjcction ol
his own systcmatising ambitions in carly +888 is thus an indication that thc projcct was in
dccp troublc.
Tis aphorism also lcts us undcrstand somcthing ol thc charactcr ol that troublc. Prcss
ing on with thc systcmatic rcduction ol cvcrything to will to powcr would, it tclls us, com
promisc Nictzschcs intcgrity as a philosophcr, would bc a lorm ol intcllcctual immorality.
Vhat wc scc, thcn, is that, at thc bcginning ol +888, Nictzschc was in a statc ol spiritual
turmoil causcd by a clash bctwccn, on thc onc hand, his will to grcatncss, grcatncss in thc
traditional mould, and, on thc othcr, his intcllcctual intcgrity, which was in dangcr ol bcing
compromiscd.
!n Nictzschcs publishcd works, as wc havc sccn, intcllcctual intcgrity honcsty, thc
intcllcctual conscicncc,
8
intcllcctual clcanlincss,

thc will to knowlcdgc

6o
is prcscntcd
timc altcr timc as thc highcst pcrsonal virtuc ol both himscll and thinkcrs hc admircs.
6+
And
in thc cnd a lact grcatly to his crcdit altcr a long and agonising strugglc, it is his will to
intcllcctual intcgrity, his will to truth, that wins out ovcr his will to grcatncss and causcs him
to abandon thc original projcct. Vhat, howcvcr, was it that convinccd him that intcllcctual
intcgrity rcquircd him to rcjcct his original, allcmbracing systcm:

Tc grand, synoptic attcmpt to cxplain all cvcnts as will to powcr involvcs thrcc clc
mcnts, thrcc, in Schopcnhaucrs languagc, cxtcnsions
6:
ol thc will. ! shall rclcr to thcm as
lollows:
(+) Te psychological doctrine: thc cxtcnsion ol will to powcr lrom bcing thc dcpth psy
chology ol sclcctcd cvcnts such as gratitudc, pity, and asccticism to bcing thc dcpth
psychology ol all human motivation. Tis thcsis is clcarly statcd in Beyond Good and
E.il as thc programmc ol grasp|ing| psychology as thc morphology and doctrine of the
de.elopment of the .ill to po.er.
6
(:) The biological doctrine: thc claim that not just human actions but rathcr all organic phc
nomcna arc to bc rcduccd to will to powcr, Beyond Good and E.il s claim that life all
lilc is will to powcr, and nothing bcsidcs.
6
() Te cosmological doctrine: thc claim that absolutcly cvcrything the .orld is will to
powcr, and nothing bcsidcs.
6
Vith rcspcct to cach ol thcsc incrcasingly daring cxtcnsions, onc can ask whcthcr thcrc
was somcthing, and il so what, that ocndcd Nictzschcs intcllcctual intcgrity and causcd
him to rcjcct it. ! shall work backwards, lrom thc third doctrinc to thc rst.
Te Cosmological Doctrine
!
n Scction 6 ol Beyond Good and E.il, Nictzschc rccapitulatcs his routc to thc cosmolog
ical doctrinc in thc lorm ol an argumcnt. Tc csscncc ol a not vcry clcar prcscntation is
thc lollowing:
,,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
(+) !t is possiblc to cxplain our cntirc lilc ol drivcs as thc organization and outgrowth ol
onc basic lorm ol will (namcly thc will to powcr which is my claim). !t is possiblc, that is,
to portray thc cntircty ol human motivation in tcrms ol thc causality ol thc will to powcr
(Tc psychological doctrinc).
(:) !t lollows lrom thc dcnition ol scicntic mcthod that multiplc varictics ol causation
should not bc postulatcd until thc attcmpt to makc do with a singlc onc has bccn takcn as
lar as it will go ( ad absurdum il you will)
66
(Tc law ol parsimony (p. abovc)).
So () wc should makc thc attcmpt to rcgard all lorccs undcrlying thc manilcst world,
including thosc undcrlying thc socallcd mcchanistic world, as csscntially thc samc as
thosc undcrlying our own psychological lilc and hcncc rcgard thc inncr naturc ol thc wholc
world as will to powcr, and nothing bcsidcs (Tc cosmological doctrinc).
!n short a proccdurc that mimics cxactly Schopcnhaucrs cxtcnsion ol will all thc way to
inorganic naturc (p. abovc) thc psychological doctrinc, plus thc principlc ol parsimony,
givcs birth to thc cosmological doctrinc.
Nictzschcs own lormulation ol this argumcnt is, in lact, cvcn morc tcntativc than ! havc
rcprcscntcd it. Vhat hc actually says is: supposing
6
that thc prcmiscs arc truc then thc
cosmological doctrinc lollows. Tat at this stagc hc still lccls rcasonably condcnt about
thc psychological doctrinc is indicatcd by thc parcnthctical rcmark this is my claim in
prcmisc (+). 8ut that hc is alrcady worricd by thc law ol parsimony is indicatcd by thc
appcarancc ol thc dclcnsivc ad absurdum, il you will in prcmisc (:). Vhat might havc
worricd him about thc principlc:
nc ol thc many bad things about lizabcths !ill to Po.er is that, by arranging hcr
brothcrs aphorisms thcmatically rathcr than chronologically, shc disguiscs thc lact that
thc notcbooks arc notebooks, a conluscd and oltcn contradictory jumblc ol experiments in
thc laboratory ol thought, not cx cathcdra pronounccmcnts ol nal doctrinc. Likc most
philosophcrs, Nictzschc jots down an idca but thcn scts it asidc lor a pcriod ol timc whilc
haring o in a dicrcnt, oltcn opposing, dircction.
Nowin lact, alrcady in +88, Nictzschc had doubts about thc lawol parsimony, obscrving
in a notc thc sclldcccption involvcd in thc bclicl that a complcx ol idcas is trucr whcn it
can bc organiscd into a grcat systcm. Tc lundamcntal prcjudicc on which thc notion
is bascd, hc continucs, thc idca that ordcr, clarity ol arrangcmcnt, thc systcmatic, must
rccct thc truc bcing ol things whilc thc oppositc disordcr, thc chaotic, thc incalculablc
brings to appcarancc only a lalsc or inadcquatcly undcrstood world, is a pcdantic and quitc
unprovablc moral prcjudicc which vicws things according to thc prcscription ol a modcl
civil scrvant.
68
Tis is a critiquc ol thc will to systcm, and so ol thc law ol parsimony, as such. Accord
ing to thc point hc himscll makcs (but thcn lorgcts or rcprcsscs), Nictzschc thc systcmatiscr
cvinccs thc mcntality ol a Prussian civil scrvant onc ol his satircs on Kants moral philos
ophy, rccall, consists in summarising it as thc civil scrvant as thing in itscll raiscd up in
judgcmcnt ovcr thc civil scrvant as phcnomcnon.
6
A rclatcd mattcr that may havc contributcd to Beyond Good and E.il s uncasc about thc
cosmological doctrinc is Te Gay Sciences conviction that cvcry kind ol acsthctic anthro
pomorphism lcads to a lalsc (or, at lcast, unjusticd) conccption ol rcality: that thc total
charactcr ol thc world is to all ctcrnity chaos, in thc scnsc not ol lack ol ncccssity but
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,
ol a lack ol ordcr, arrangcmcnt, lorm, bcauty |or| wisdom.
o
For nothing, surcly, is morc
anthropomorphic than Beyond Good and E.il s usc ol thc law ol parsimony to cxhibit thc
mcchanistic world as bclonging on thc samc planc ol rcality as our accts thcmsclvcs
as a . . . pre-form ol lilc.
+
And is thcrc not, morcovcr, thc projcction ol an ccric kind ol
bcauty onto thc world in picturing it as lorming and rclorming itscll in a giant circlc: As
with Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschcs vcrsion ol thc cosmological doctrinc is anthropomorphic
as wcll as systcmatic, which makcs it doubly suspcct.
Te Biological Doctrine
!
turn now to thc biological doctrinc, thc claim that not just human but all organic lilc
is will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs. Tc basic problcm with this, as Nictzschc must
surcly havc comc to rcalisc, is that it is obviously lalsc. (Tis cntails, ol coursc, that thc
cosmological doctrinc is obviously lalsc too.)
As wc saw carlicr, in thc grip ol his will to systcmatic grcatncss, Nictzschc claimcd that
his own conccpt ol will to powcr was supcrior to both Schopcnhaucr and arwins strugglc
lor cxistcncc in doing justicc to thc obscrvcd lact that lilc is a univcrsal powcrstrugglc. !n
linc with this notion ol what thc lacts arc, wc nd him claiming in thc notcbooks that what
trccs in thc primcval lorcst ght cach othcr lor . . . |is not mcrc cxistcncc but rathcr| lor
powcr.
:
Tis is, ol coursc, absurd. Tough trccs do, ! supposc, in thc languagc ol Beyond Good
and E.il, injurc, opprcss, and ovcrpowcr wcakcr trccs, as wcll as appropriating thcir
light and soil, thc point ol such activity is simply to sur.i.e, not to grow, sprcad, win domi
nancc,

to bccomc lord ol thc lorcst. Nictzschc claims, contra Schopcnhaucr, that thc will
to livc is mcrcly a means to thc will to powcr (p. + abovc). 8ut in nonhuman, organic
naturc, ! suggcst, onc nds prcciscly thc oppositc: thc drivc to powcr, in so lar as it cxists
at all, is a mcans to satislying thc drivc to survivc. !n short, to thc cxtcnt onc is willing to
spcak at all ol a will in nonhuman, biological naturc, Schopcnhaucrs will to livc looks a
much bcttcr bct than Nictzschcs will to powcr.
!l wc look morc closcly at thc train ol thought that lcads Nictzschc to thc idca that trccs
ght cach othcr lor powcr, wc scc that thc suggcstion that thc idca is groundcd in cmpirical
cvidcncc is rcally a sham. Hc writcs:
Man strivcs lor happincss what is truc about that! To undcrstand what lilc is, what kind
ol striving and tcnsion lilc is, thc lormula must apply just as wcll to trcc and plant . . . Vhat
do thc trccs in thc primcval lorcst ght cach othcr lor: For happincss: For powcr . . .

Vhat, in othcr words, is rcally motivating thc biological doctrinc is oncc morc thc psycho
logical thcsis plus thc law ol parsimony: human lilc is drivcn by powcr, mcthod dcmands
thc homogcnising ol rcality, that it bc human naturc writ largc,

crgo, plant and animal

lilc must bc drivcn by powcr.
Nictzschc continucs to bc antiarwin in thc works complctcd at thc cnd ol +888. 8ut
in thcsc works, his objcction is cntircly to social arwinism. T.ilight of the Idols, lor cxamplc,
claims that arwin (whom, as ! notcd, hc almost ccrtainly ncvcr rcad) lorgot thc spirit,
lorgot that thc mcdiocrc hcrd cunningly gang up to undcrminc thc highcr typc so that
,&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
spccics do not grow morc pcrlcct.
6
Tis, ol coursc, is a silly objcction arwins thcory is
not a thcory ol cultural cvolution, and in any casc hc claims not that spccics bccomc morc
pcrlcct but only that thcy bccomc morc adapti.e. 8ut thc introduction ol spirit makcs it
cvidcnt that thc locus is cntircly on spccics ol humanity. !n thc works publishcd altcr thc
abandonmcnt ol thc !ill to Po.er projcct thc biological doctrinc, lor vcry good rcasons,
disappcars without tracc.
Te Psychological Doctrine
!
ntcllcctual intcgrity, thcn, lorccd Nictzschc to abandon both thc cosmological and thc
biological doctrincs. Ncithcr is cvcn mcntioncd, lct alonc cndorscd, in thc publishcd
works ol +888. Vhat, thcn, ol thc psychological doctrinc, thc claim that all human moti
vation can bc rcduccd to will to powcr: Tat, too, is abandoncd in thc works ol +888. Vc
nccd now to discovcr why.
Two important things happcn in thcsc latc works. First, thc antisystcmatiscr aphorism
rcappcars but .ithout, now, thc carlicr idcntication ol Nietzsche himself as thc systcmatiscr
par excellence: ! distrust all systcmatiscrs and avoid thcm. Tc will to systcm is a lack ol
intcgrity is all hc writcs in T.ilight of the Idols.

Tis modication ol thc aphorism is a lair

indication, ! think, that his own will to allcmbracing systcm has now bccn ovcrcomc, his
intcgrity rccovcrcd.
Tc sccond thing that happcns is that hc bccomcs opcn to thc rich varicty ol human
motivations and no longcr trics to lorcc thcm all onto thc procrustcan bcd ol thc will
to powcr. !n discussing thc psychology ol thc artist, lor instancc, T.ilight of the Idols
rccogniscs three lundamcntal impulscs: Apollonian intoxication, which cxcitcs thc cyc and
inspircs grcat visual art, ionysian intoxication, which inspircs music and dancc and thc
highcst lccling ol powcr, which inspircs grcat architccturc but, it sccms, nonc ol thc
othcr arts.
8
Troughout +888, morcovcr, scxual intoxication (as distinct lrom marriagc
which, wc havc sccn, is vicwcd as a powcr strugglc) is vicwcd as a causc ol pcrccption and
action alongsidc, and not rcduciblc to, will to powcr: a notc lrom thc spring ol that ycar, lor
instancc, itcmiscs thc ycssaying accts as pridc, joy, hcalth, scxual lovc, cnmity and war,
rcvcrcncc . . . thc strong will as .ell as thc will to powcr as accts which transgurc things,
makc thcm goldcn, ctcrnal and divinc.

Anothcr motivc lor action rccogniscd by thc latc works as bcing distinct lrom thc will
to powcr hcrc, it sccms to mc, thcy lacc up to an obstaclc to Nictzschcs rcductivc drivc
that had bccn lurking in his thought lor ovcr a dccadc is Mitleid (pity or compassion).
arlicr works, to bc surc, madc a valiant cort to cxhibit pity as an attcmpt to humili
atc thc othcr, thcrcby gaining thc lccling ol powcr and hcncc, onc might arguc, powcr
itscll.
8o
8ut thc attcmpt to makc all compassion an cxcrcisc ol, or qucst lor, powcr was
always an uphill battlc which, ! think, Nictzschc ncvcr lully bclicvcd in. Tc rcason lor
this lics in thc thcmc, prcscnt lrom thc carlicst discussions, that pity harms thc piticr as
wcll as thc piticd. !nucnccd by Schopcnhaucrs notion that compassion produccs a trans
ition lrom virtuc to asccticism,
8+
Nictzschc holds, wc saw (p. o: abovc), that pity, sym
pathctic idcntication with thc sucring ol othcrs, causcs dcprcssion. !l ! takc to hcart,
thc cntirc pain ol Alrica, thcn ! bccomc ovcrwhclmcd by thc quantity ol pain in thc world
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,
and thcrcby rcndcrcd incapablc ol any acts ol bcncvolcncc. Nictzschc alludcs to this thcmc
in Ecce Homo, whcrc hc points out that pity lor humanitys cry ol distrcss is Zarathustras
nal tcmptation (scc pp. 88 abovc): hc must rcsist it bccausc it thrcatcns to scducc
him lrom thc clcvation ol his task ol lcading humanity to a ncw and bcttcr world, both
by divcrting him into shortsightcd acts ol bcncvolcncc and by dcstroying his laith in thc
possibility ol improving thc human condition.
8:
Truc lovc is tough lovc.
8
Clcarly this thcmc prcsupposcs thc rcality ol pity as genuine cmpathy with thc pain ol
othcrs, as an cmotion that has nothing to do with thc attcmpt to lccl supcrior to or gain
powcr ovcr thcm. As wc havc sccn, thc lact that Nictzschc himscll was cxccptionally pronc
to bcing ovcrwhclmcd by lcclings ol compassion is what makcs thc story ol his cmbracc ol
thc tormcntcd horsc in thc Turin piazza inhcrcntly plausiblc.
What Remains of the Will to Power?
T
hc latc works abandon, thcn, thc rcductivc psychological doctrinc and allow human
motivation to blossom into thc richncss it actually has. Yct bcncath this richncss
Nictzschc dctccts an undcrlying pattcrn. Tis pattcrn, howcvcr, abandons thc monism ol
will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs in lavour ol a dualism bctwccn two kinds ol human
lilc, a dualism which, ! think, is intcndcd to gathcr human motivcs into two camps. n
thc onc hand, thcrc is hcalthy or asccnding lilc, thc govcrning principlc ol which is thc
will to powcr.
8
Hcalthy lilc, says Te ntichrist, is an instinct lor growth, lor thc accu
mulation ol lorcc, ol po.er.
8
8ut as a countcrbalancc to thc will to powcr, thcrc now
appcars what Frcud would latcr call thc dcath instinct. Vhcrc thcrc is no will to powcr, thc
ntichrist tclls us notc thc explicit rcjcction ol thc psychological doctrinc thcrc is dcclinc,
d ecadence.
86
D ecadence makcs its rst appcarancc as a signicant philosophical tcrm in Nictzschcs
publishcd works in +888. As alrcady obscrvcd (p. abovc), what makcs thc notion a di
cult onc is that Nictzschc dcncs it in two ways. According to thc rst dcnition, d ecadence
is thc ycarning lor nothingncss, thc will to dcath, that is implicit in 8audclaircs tastc
lor dccay and dcviancc, and cxplicit in Vagncrs latcr opcras. According to thc sccond,
d ecadence is dcncd in tcrms ol atomisation: whcthcr wc arc talking ol art or socicty, thc
d ecadence ol modcrnity consists in thc dccay ol thc powcr to maintain complcx unitics, in
thc cxubcrancc ol lilc bcing pushcd back into its smallcst lorms and so rcducing lormcr
wholcs to rubblc, to chaos.
8
Tcsc charactcrisations do not, howcvcr, sccm to mc incompatiblc. Nictzschc says that
thosc who bccomc d ecadent arc thc wcak and cxhaustcd.
88
Tcy dcvclop a hatrcd ol lilc and
thc will to cxit it bccausc thcy arc no longcr ablc to lacc up to its challcngcs. And thc rcason
lor that, lor thcir n dc si` cclc !eltschmerz and lilcwcarincss, lics in atomisation: in thc
anarchy ol thcir instincts,
8
thcir lailurc to organisc thcmsclvcs into disciplincd wholcs,
capablc ol thc cohcrcnt, singlcmindcd action ncccssary to victory and condcncc in
victory ovcr lilcs challcngcs. D ecadents arc thosc who, as thcy might havc said at Plorta,
can no longcr pull thcmsclvcs togcthcr. Tcy havc lorgottcn how to bc warriors.
Togcthcr with Vagncr and 8audclairc, wc havc sccn, (thc rcal) Jcsus and thc 8uddha
arc also classicd as d ecadents on account ol thcir inability to conlront opposition,
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
cnmity.
o
And thc succcss ol Christianity (nally thc qucstion ol how thc slavc moral
ists wcrc ablc to capturc thc hcarts and minds ol thc noblcs (scc p. +o abovc) rcccivcs an
answcr) was in part duc to d ecadence. Tc rcason, that is, that thc Jcwish pricsts wcrc ablc to
pcrsuadc thcir lormcr opprcssors to adopt thc Christian mctaphysicomoral packagc was
by appcaling to thcir worldwcary instincts ol d ecadence.
+
Tc morbid
:
condition ol thc
souls ol thcir targct audicncc, thcir will to nothingncss, was thc lcrtilc soil in which Chris
tianity that sanctication ol thc will to nothingncss took root.

!n thc latc works, wc havc now sccn, Nictzschc abandons cach ol thc thrcc clcmcnts that
had constitutcd thc grand vision ol thc world as will to powcr and nothing bcsidcs. Tis
should not, howcvcr, bc undcrstood as rcturning thc will to powcr to thc modcsty ol its
rolc in thc works ol thc +8os no morc than a usclul tool lor uncovcring thc dcpth psy
chology ol sclcctcd kinds ol human bchaviour. For thc will to powcr rcmains, to thc cnd,
thc govcrning principlc ol healthy lilc. Vhat rcally happcns to it in thc nal works is that
it is translormcd lrom a principlc ol univcrsal explanation into a principlc ol demarcation,
dcmarcation bctwccn thc hcalthy lilc and d ecadent lilc.
Healthy lilc, that is, rcmains thc insatiablc qucst lor powcr or growth

rcmains
that which must always ovcrcomc itscll .

Morcovcr, Nictzschc assumcs, hcalth is thc

highcst dcsidcratum. vcn thc d ecadent, ! think hc assumcs, would prclcr to bc hcalthy,
and only bccomc d ecadent whcn thc capacity lor hcalth dcscrts thcm. From this it lollows
that thc constant qucst lor powcr rcmains thc mcaning (hcalthy) ol lilc, thc why: that
makcs hcalthy lilc ablc to withstand any how:

and hcncc thc standard ol valuc.

6
Vith
a ccrtain incction, all this can still bc said by thc lormula lilc is thc will to powcr. 8ut
now lilc has cxchangcd dcscription lor cvaluation. !t lunctions as it docs whcn onc tclls
somconc to stop bcing a ncurotic pcdant and Gct a lilc!
Te Problem of the Healthy Monster
A
s wc havc sccn, Nictzschc holds that morality, virtuc, compriscs thc most basic laws
ol thc prcscrvation and growth ol cithcr a community or an individual. 8ut, opposing
Kants oncsizctsall conccption ol morality in Te ntichrist, hc argucs that sincc thc
naturc ol growth varics lrom individual to individual and community to community, it
lollows that cach individual or community should invcnt its o.n virtucs, its o.n catcgorical
impcrativcs,

its own prcscription lor thc growth ol its own kind ol powcr. Yct not just
any kind ol cxcrcisc ol powcr gocs. 8ismarcks powcr politics, wc havc sccn, is absolutcly
rcjcctcd. n two grounds. First, bccausc it is a squandcring ol thc cncrgy, disciplinc, and
intclligcncc nccdcd to crcatc what T.ilight of the Idols calls cultural po.er.
8
And sccond,
bccausc it is incompatiblc with onc ol Nictzschcs most lundamcntal aims, world pcacc.
Tc good uropcan thcmc which runs through all his writings lrom +88 onwards, and
cvcn into thc crazy lcttcrs (p. : abovc), is, wc havc sccn, thc dcsirc to ovcrcomc thc pctty
nationalisms that lcad to militarism and war.
Vhat, thcn, Nictzschc approvcs, as wc know, is thc sublimated or, as hc calls it, spiritu
aliscd

cxprcssion ol thc will to powcr: war, by all mcans hcalthy pcoplc arc always,
likc Nictzschc himscll, warriors but war without gunpowdcr.
+oo
Tc strongcst instinct
Tc Risc and Fall ol Te !ill to Po.er

,,
ol thc Grccks, lor cxamplc, was thc will to powcr. Yct thc high point ol thcir marvcllous
culturc arrivcd whcn thcy sublimatcd it into thc agonistic instinct that gavc risc to culturc,
to thc tragic lcstival, philosophy, art and scicncc.
+o+
Nictzschcs hcart, thcn, is in thc right placc. \iolcncc, brutality, and barbarism ought to
bc cxpcllcd lrom human lilc. Tc qucstion, though, is whcthcr his hcad is, too, whcthcr hc
can in lact justily such an cxpulsion in tcrms ol his lundamcntal principlc ol valuc. !l thc
good lor mc is whatcvcr lostcrs my kind ol powcr, why should ! not dccidc particularly
il ! havc big musclcs and am not particularly good at dialcctics or writing tragcdics that
brutal rathcr than sublimatcd powcr is thc thing lor mc: Altcr all, Ccsarc 8orgia, wc havc
bccn told, though a monstcr, was onc in whom no tracc ol discasc is to bc lound.
+o:
And
on othcr occasions, hc says thc samc ol thc marauding \ikings.
Nictzschcs answcr to this qucstion is, ! think, simplc. All passions, hc says, go through
a phasc . . . whcn thcy drag thcir victim down with thc wcight ol thcir stupidity.
+o
And thc
truth about thc brutal cxcrcisc ol powcr is that it is, almost ccrtainly, stupid. Rcpcatcdly, that
is, hc cmphasiscs how thc mcdiocrc gang up on thc cxccptional individual, martyr
+o
him
lor thc sakc ol convcntional norms. How much morc, thcrclorc, will thcy do so il his cxccp
tionality takcs a violcntly sociopathological lorm. Tc barbaric individual may bc hcalthy.
8ut hc is likcly to comc to a bad cnd. Ccsarc 8orgia dicd, in cxilc, at thc agc ol thirtyonc.
Nictzschcs vicw is not only that this almost ccrtainly .ill happcn. !t is also that it should
happcn. Sincc, as ! havc argucd throughout this book, his ovcrriding conccrn is thc our
ishing ol thc community as a wholc, thc community is right to supprcss thosc who thrcatcn
it with dcstruction, thosc who thrcatcn its will to powcr. Gcncrally hc lamcnts thc hcrds
dcstruction ol thc cxccptionality ol thc cxccptional individual. 8ut not always. About its
right to protcct itscll lrom criminal harm hc has no doubts.
27
Te Ind
In the Basel Clinic

x J~xi~vv ++, +88, Franz vcrbcck inlormcd Nictzschcs only othcr rcmain
ing human contact, Hcinrich K osclitz, that thc prcvious day hc had dclivcrcd
Nictzschc,
or morc cxactly thc rubblc ol what only a lricnd would rccognisc as him, to thc psychiatric
clinic |in 8ascl|. Hc sucrs lrom dclusions ol innitc grandcur, but also lrom much clsc
its hopclcss. ! havc ncvcr sccn such a horric picturc ol dcstruction.
+
Hc dclivcrcd his lricnd to thc carc ol r. Ludwig Villc, whomNictzschc rccogniscd immc
diatcly. ! bclicvc wc havc mct, hc grcctcd Villc with thc urbanc dignity ol a 8ascl prolcssor,
but ! am sorry to say that ! havc lorgottcn your namc. Vould you !ille, ! am Villc,
rcplicd thc doctor. Ah ycs, Villc, Nictzschc agrccd. You arc a psychiatrist. Somc ycars
ago wc had a convcrsation about rcligious insanity.
:
Clcarly, though thc rccollcction was
pcrlcctly corrcct, Nictzschc had no idca ol whcrc hc was or why.
Villc diagnoscd progrcssivc paralysis, in othcr words, ncurosyphilis, a diagnosis that
was possibly cncouragcd by thc lact that this was his rcscarch spcciality. (To thosc good at
hammcring, it is said, cvcrything is inclincd to look likc a nail.)
According to thc paticnt rccords, Nictzschcs volublc convcrsation during his wcck in thc
asylum was a colourlul conlusion ol lormcr cxpcricnccs jumblcd togcthcr without logical
conncxion. Knowlcdgc ol his philosophy docs, howcvcr, rcvcal a kind ol pattcrn to his
bchaviour, a continuation ol thc parody ol thc ionysian statc that markcd his nal wccks
in Turin.
Tcrc was, rst ol all, a continuation ol thc cuphoric mcgalomania ol his last days in
Turin. Tc paticnt lccls cxtraordinarily wcll and clcvatcd, thc paticnt book rccords. And
it also rccords that, apologising to thc sta lor thc tcrriblc wcathcr thcy had bccn having,
hc told thcm hc had prcparcd thc most splcndid day lor tomorrow. Vhcn his mothcr
arrivcd hc spokc at lcngth and cntircly cohcrcntly about lamily mattcrs bclorc suddcnly
c

Te End

:
cxclaiming 8chold thc tyrant ol Turin! and thcn lapsing into incohcrcnt mumbling.
Sccond, thc psychology ol thc orgiastic

continucd to manilcst itscll. Hc lovcd, wantcd to

cmbracc, cvcryonc hc saw and was givcn to singing, dancing, and lcaping about in goatlikc
bounds in an apparcnt rccrcation ol thc ionysian orgy. And hc cxpcricnccd a hcightcncd
scnsuality (akin, pcrhaps, to thc ccct ol marijuana). Hc atc massivcly, constantly askcd lor
morc lood, rcportcd crotic drcams, and rcgularly dcmandcd lcmalcs (onc morc nail in thc
con ol thc Nictzschcwasgay thcory).
n January + hc was takcn to thc 8ascl railway station to bc translcrrcd to thc clinic in
Jcna, closc to Naumburg, whcrc his mothcr would bc ablc to visit him on a rcgular basis.
Hc was accompanicd by Franziska, a young r. M ahly (whom Nictzschc had taught in
sccondary school), and a wardcr. vcrbcck wcnt to thc station to say a nal goodbyc. Tc
dcparturc, hc wrotc K osclitz,
was thc most tcrriblc and unlorgcttablc momcnt. ! saw Nictzschc at about ninc oclock in
thc luridly lit cntrancc hall ol thc ccntral station closcly lcd by his two companions. Hc had
a quick but stumbling walk and an unnaturally sti bcaring, his lacc was likc a mask . . . !
am plagucd by thc thought that it would havc bccn thc occ ol a lricnd to takc his lilc
rathcr than dclivcring thc poor man to thc asylum. ! now havc no othcr wish than that it
will soon bc takcn . . . Vith Nictzschc its all ovcr (Mit Nietzsche ist es aus).

vcrbcck lound his lricnd in his compartmcnt on thc train, upon which hc prcsscd mc
stormily to his hcart and said that ! was thc man whom hc had lovcd most ol all

an
acction vcrbcck had carncd many timcs ovcr.
In the ]ena Asylum
T
hc psychiatric clinic ol thc Univcrsity ol Jcna was dircctcd by Prolcssor tto 8in
swangcr. Nictzschc was admittcd on January +8, +8o, and would rcmain thcrc until
March :. Sincc hc had had an attack ol lury dircctcd against his mothcr on thc train, hc was
immcdiatcly placcd undcr scdation. !n thc paticnt book hc was cntcrcd as rcligion: Prot
cstant, condition: progrcssivc paralysis, causc: syphilis. (Tc account ol his rcligion hardly
inspircs condcncc in thc account ol his condition.) Villcs diagnosis, in othcr words, was
acccptcd without qucstion or cxamination by 8inswangcr who also had progrcssivc paral
ysis as a spcciality.
Physically Nictzschc was still in good shapc. Tc incrcascd wcight brought on by his
gargantuan appctitc madc him look good, and lor at lcast thc ncxt two ycars hc was capablc
ol walking thrcc to lour hours without diculty. From now on, howcvcr, though intcr
spcrscd with lragmcnts ol sanity, his mcntal condition wcnt into stccp dcclinc. Produccd
on stagc in a lccturc to mcdical studcnts (paticnt dignity was cvidcntly a low priority), hc
was cngagcd in convcrsation by 8inswangcr, a convcrsation in which, as a studcnt rccordcd,
hc spokc about thc wondcrs ol Turin and thc rclativc advantagcs ol largc and small citics
with a cogcncy ol contcnt and spcllbinding stylc thc studcnt had ncvcr bclorc cxpcricnccd,
but thcn lost thc plot and collapscd into mumbling incohcrcncc.
6
His musicianship, on thc
othcr hand, rcmaincd unimpaircd: K osclitz visitcd and rcportcd him improvising awlcssly
on thc piano. Tcrc wcrc clustcrs ol chords, lull ol thc spirit ol Tristan, with wondcrlul
:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
orchcstral cccts: dramatic pianissimos, choruscs ol tromboncs, and trumpct lanlarcs ol
8ccthovcnlikc grimncss.

From timc to timc thcrc wcrc still momcnts ol ionysian cuphoria. Hc was inclincd to
introducc himscll as thc ukc ol Cumbcrland or thc Gcrman mpcror, and as thc hus
band ol Cosima Vagncr. Vhcn a ccrtain 8aron X (a paticnts rcport prcscrvcs, hcrc, thc
anonymity ol a lcllow paticnt) startcd to play his zithcr, Nictzschc would lcap to his lcct
and dancc until a wardcr quictcncd him down. Hc must havc bccn a dashing danccr in his
youth, thc anonymous paticnt rcmarks.
8
Tcrc wcrc, howcvcr, lcss attractivc aspccts ol his loss ol (as his philosophy would say,
Apollonian) control. Hc rcgrcsscd into a kind ol inlantilism, smcaring cxcrcmcnt ovcr
walls, wrapping lacccs in papcr and putting thcm in thc drawcr ol a tablc, and urinating in
a boot and drinking thc rcsult.
!n spitc ol thc momcnts ol cuphoria, which bccamc cvcr lcss lrcqucnt, Nictzschcs ovcrall
statc in thc Jcna clinic sccms to havc bccn onc ol grcat unhappincss. utbursts ol lury wcrc
lrcqucnt: on onc occasion hc kickcd a lcllow paticnt and on anothcr put his st through
a window. And thc probablc causc ol most ol thc lury hc sucrcd lrcqucnt attacks ol
paranoid dclusion. Hc thought that hc was bcing torturcd during thc night and that an
archduchcss was trying to poison him. Hc smashcd anothcr window panc bccausc hc saw
thc barrcl ol a ric bchind it. Hc askcd lor a pistol lor sclldclcncc.
Towards thc cnd ol +88, Julius Langbcin, art historian, Nictzschc lan, and author ol
Fembrandt as Educator, hallpcrsuadcd Franziska that hcr son was bcing illtrcatcd in thc
clinic and that what hc nccdcd was talk thcrapy rathcr than drugs. Langbcin, a lorcrun
ncr ol Nictzschcs Nazi appropriators, was an antiScmitic mystagoguc who claimcd thc
Gcrmans to bc thc inhcritors ol thc grcatncss that was Grcccc. Aiming to makc Nictzschc
thc gurchcad ol his movcmcnt, hc dcmandcd lcgal custody ol him lor two ycars, as wcll as
control ol his pcnsion. Nictzschc still had cnough scnsc to takc an instant dislikc to thc man,
ovcrturning a tablc and shaking his st at him on thcir rst cncountcr. Noncthclcss, hc was
lorccd to takc scvcral walks with this rcptilian gurc until vcrbcck cvcntually managcd to
convincc Franziska that hc was vcry bad ncws.
At thc cnd ol March, +o, Franziska dccidcd to movc him into a privatc rcsidcncc in
Jcna whcrc, though rcmaining undcr mcdical survcillancc, hc sccmcd happicr and quictcr.
Hc still playcd thc piano bcautilully inter alia, 8ccthovcns pus + sonatas and wcnt
on long walks with his mothcr. n onc ol thcsc walks, howcvcr, disastcr struck. scaping
matcrnal supcrvision, hc wandcrcd o looking lor thc public baths. Finding thcm closcd,
and having, sincc his schooldays, bccn a kccn and ablc swimmcr, hc dccidcd to swim in
a city lakc and strippcd nakcd. Franziska cvcntually lound him chatting amiably with a
policcman, and two ol thcm brought him homc without diculty. Tc clinic, howcvcr,
was lurious, lcaring that its rcputation lor sccurity would bc compromiscd. Anticipating
rcincarccration, mothcr and son bcat a hasty rctrcat to Naumburg.
In Naumburg

n May +:, +8o, Nictzschc lound himscll back in thc housc in thc Vcingartcn strcct
lrom which, thirtytwo ycars carlicr, hc had sct out lor Plorta. Until hcr dcath scvcn
Te End


ycars latcr, Franziskas dcvotion to and carc lor hcr son, aidcd by thc laithlul scrvant Alwinc,
was cxtraordinary. nc can pcrhaps surmisc that shc cxpcricnccd a kind ol happincss that
Fritzs antithctical mind no longcr cxistcd to lrustratc thc cxprcssion ol hcr lovc, that shc
had nally rccovcrcd hcr son. Tough hc was in rcasonablc shapc to start with, Nictzschcs
physical condition bcgan to dctcrioratc rapidly. 8y thc cnd ol +8+ his loss ol manual control
dcstroycd his piano playing and by thc cnd ol thc lollowing ycar hc was mainly bcd and
whcclchairriddcn. Tc lollowing ycar Franziska had a door put into thc wall ol his upstairs
room so hc could bc whcclcd out to takc thc air on thc vcranda. Massagc bccamc ncccssary
to prcvcnt bcdsorcs. Hc now lailcd to rccognisc old lricnds such as Paul cusscn and cvcn
bccamc unccrtain as to his mothcrs idcntity. Hc sank morc and morc into apathy, littlc
intcrcstcd him apart lrom dolls and othcr childrcns toys. Hc still spokc occasionally, but
mainly to producc stock scntcnccs in thc stylc ol a brainwashcd schoolboy. Franziska madc
a rccord ol somc ol thcm: ! translatcd much. ! livcd in a good placc callcd Naumburg.
! swam in thc Saalc. ! was vcry nc bccausc ! livcd in a nc housc. ! lovc 8ismarck. !
dont likc Fricdrich Nictzschc. !t would bc a mcrcy to think that hc cxpcricnccd at lcast a
kind ol vcgctativc contcntmcnt, but this sccms not to havc bccn thc casc. Hc sucrcd lrom
his lilclong cursc ol insomnia, and visitors downstairs wcrc oltcn disturbcd by groans and
howls coming lromthc upstairs bcdroom. Towards thc cnd ol +8 Franziska rccordcd him
uttcring Morc light! (Gocthcs dying words) and !n short, dcad! suggcsting that that is
what hc wantcd to bc.
Becoming a Star
V
ith latcs cklc irony, Nictzschcs spiritual dcclinc was accompanicd by thc cxpo
ncntial growth ol his lamc. Alrcady in Fcbruary, +88, thc llgemeine Sch.eizer
ncwspapcr had got wind ol his collapsc and, borrowing lrom Shakcspcarc (phclia on
Hamlct), obscrvcd what a noblc mind is hcrc ocrthrown. Tc samc month an cightccn
pagc cssay, Fricdrich Nictzschc: Tc utlinc ol His Systcm and His Pcrsonality, appcarcd
in thc magazinc Unsere Zeit, an cssay which, thc lollowing ycar, its author, la Hansson,
cxpandcd into a book, Friedrich Nietzsche: His Personality and His System. (vidcntly Hans
son has misscd thc aphorism thc will to systcm is a lack ol intcgrity.) !n May ol +88 a
translation ol twclvc ol Nictzschcs aphorisms appcarcd in thc Ne. York Century Magazine.
8ooks on Nictzschc now bcgan to lollow thick and last: Lou Salom cs work ol intuitivc
insight in +8 (p. o: abovc) vcrbcck thought it thc bcst availablc and, among thc
lollowing ycars crop, \olumc ! ol lizabcths twovolumc attcmpt to makc a killing on thc
Nictzschc markct.

(Tis lundamcntally toxic work was dcsigncd to narratc Nictzschcs lilc

in a way that would (a) dcstroy Lou Salom c (whcn Lous book appcarcd lizabcth put it
about that shc was a Finnish Jcw), (b) cxcludc hcr mothcr as a signicant lactor in hcr
brothcrs lilc, and (c) rcvcal hcrscll as its truc costar.) Pilgrims lrom all ovcr Gcrmany
and bcyond bcgan to comc to Naumburg to stand bclorc thc housc on Vcingartcn, hop
ing to catch a glimpsc ol thc dcrangcd philosophcr at his upstairs window. !n thc agc ol
madwomcninthcattic \ictorian novcls, Nictzschcs madncss can only havc incrcascd
thc lascination with his philosophy.
,

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Ilizabeth Cashes In
A
lmost lrom thc bcginning, thc F orstcrs Paraguayan vcnturc lound itscll in dccp
troublc. 8ascd on Aryan idcology rathcr than skill and planning, it soon lound itscll
short ol watcr and, with no roads or railways, unablc to transport thc timbcr that was
to havc bccn its cconomic loundation to any markct. Tcrc was strilc ovcr thc pricc thc
F orstcrs chargcd thcir scttlcrs lor basic houschold supplics, and thc sizc ol thcir own grand
housc causcd grcat rcscntmcnt. Tc land thcy sold thc scttlcrs as lrcchold had in lact mcrcly
bccn rcntcd lrom thc govcrnmcnt, so that whcn disgruntlcd scttlcrs wishcd to lcavc thcy
lound that thcir dcposits had disappcarcd into rcntal paymcnts. n Junc , +88, 8crnhard
F orstcr poisoncd himscll with a combination ol morphinc and strychninc, dying alonc in
thc bcdroom ol a Paraguayan hotcl. Tis was thc bcginning ol lizabcths long carccr as
a countcrlcitcr. (As wcll as laking Te !ill to Po.er, cxpurgating Ecce Homo and Te nti-
christ, and lorging lcttcrs lrom Nictzschc to hcrscll, shc also rcprcscntcd hcr lathcrs dcath
as duc to lalling downstairs and hcr brothcrs madncss to a combination ol ovcrwork and
slccpingtablct abusc.) Shc bribcd a local doctor to producc a lakc dcath ccrticatc lor hcr
husband citing a hcart attack as thc causc ol dcath to no avail, sincc ncws ol thc suicidc
had alrcady rcachcd thc local ncwspapcrs.
lizabcth rcturncd to uropc at thc cnd ol +8o, whcrc shc rcmaincd until thc middlc
ol +8: attcmpting, amazingly, to gain lurthcr rccruits and moncy lor thc projcct. !n thc
main scttlcr ncwspapcr, thc S udamerikanische Kolonial-Nachrichten, onc ol hcr scttlcrs, Fritz
Ncumann, accuscd hcr ol pcrpctrating a crimc by continuing to lurc scttlcrs to Nue.a
Germania. Altcr invcstigation, thc ncwspapcr itscll agrccd, dcscribing thc wholc vcnturc
in an cditorial as a plundcring ol incxpcricnccd and crcdulous pcoplc, pcrlormcd without
conscicncc and in a most ruthlcss way. !n thc lollowing ycar a lormcr ally ol lizabcths,
Paul Ulrich, wrotc to thc papcr calling hcr a liar, thicl and disastcr lor thc colony, and urging
thc scttlcrs to turn hcr out.
+o
!n Scptcmbcr +8, sccing that thc gamc was nally up, lizabcth liquidatcd what asscts
shc had and rcturncd to uropc lor good, dctcrmincd to cash in on somcthing lar morc
glamorous and potcntially lucrativc, thc Nictzschc busincss. Lcgally changing hcr namc to
F orstcrNictzschc (a contradictory combination ol antiScmitismand antiantiScmitism),
shc dcvotcd hcr cnormous rcscrvcs ol cncrgy, ruthlcss lack ol scruplc, and unlimitcd will to
powcr to taking complctc control ol thc Nictzschc busincss, to obtaining solc control ovcr
both his works and what rcmaincd ol his lilc.
As much givcn to thc warrior mcntality as hcr brothcr (though in a vulgar, un
spiritualiscd lorm), lizabcth pursucd a twoprongcd stratcgy lor taking control ol his
litcrary works, both publishcd and unpublishcd. First, shc had thc idca ol thc Nictzschc
Archivc, which was to bc a rcpository lor documcnts and Nictzschcmcmorabilia, a sctting
lor spccial Nictzschc cvcnts and, in gcncral, a shrinc lor Nictzschcworship. n Novcm
bcr +8, +8, shc lurnishcd and opcncd thc archivc in two rooms on thc ground oor ol hcr
mothcrs housc. 8y thc lollowing ycar thcrc wcrc rcgular asscmblics to hcar rcadings lrom
thc sacrcd tcxts, including thc still unpublishcd ntichrist, rcadings which wcrc, howcvcr,
somctimcs disturbcd by shouts and groans lrom abovc.
Sincc +8+, with Franziskas approval, vcrbccks advicc, and Naumanns cncouragcmcnt
(thc nancial hcalth ol his rm having bccomc hcavily dcpcndcnt on thc Nictzschc tcxts),
Te End


K osclitz had bccn working hard to producc an cdition ol Nictzschcs complctc works, cach
with an introduction by himscll. Judging by thc dcscription hc gavc vcrbcck ol thc gcn
cral linc ol intcrprctation, thcsc introductions wcrc judicious, intcrcsting, accuratc, and, to
a suitablc dcgrcc, dctachcd. Honourcd tcachcr, hc wrotc vcrbcck,
in thc introduction to Zarathustra . . . !vc cmphasizcd a particular aspcct ol Nictzschcs
tcaching that man must rst achicvc self-mastery: mastcr morality within thc world ol
drivcs in thc individual pcrson. Tc rcst mastcry ol othcrs thcn happcns by itscll. Tc
supcrman !vc madc into a quality, an abstraction, though ! know Nictzschc mcant it oth
crwisc. ! want to lcavc it a dccadc until thc rcadcr has bccomc accustomcd to this con
ccption bclorc spcaking ol thc grcat mastcrs ol disciplinc (Zucht) that Nictzschc thought
ncccssary . . . ! conlcss ! havc ncvcr lound anything similar to what Nictzschc says on thc
qucstion ol rank: thc ncarcst is Plato . . . Nictzschc wants to organise a people in a dcmocratic
agc.
++
Tis is prcciscly thc communitarian, Platodcpcndcnt rcading ol Nictzschcs philosophy !
havc bccn urging through this book and, coming lrom somconc who kncw his intcntions
bcttcr than anyonc clsc, an important conrmation.
8y thc cnd ol +8, vc volumcs ol this collcctcd works had bccn printcd. Unablc to
tolcratc work not carricd out undcr hcr ovcrsight, howcvcr, lizabcth instructcd K osclitz
that his scrviccs wcrc no longcr rcquircd. Vho madc you cditor, thcn: shc dcmandcd,
and ordcrcd all copics ol his cdition pulpcd. Tc lollowing ycar shc appointcd in his placc
a young, pianoplaying poct with a doctoratc in philosophy and a lcrvcnt admiration ol
Nictzschc, thc vcry good looking Fritz K ogcl. Hc was instructcd to bcgin work on a sccond
attcmpt at a collcctcd works.
Mcanwhilc thcrc was thc problcm that, lcgally, it was Franziska, togcthcr with a g
urchcad cousin, who owncd all thc rights to thc Nictzschc tcxts. vcntually, altcr a long
campaign to wcar down hcr rcsistancc (during which lizabcth stolc thc bundlc ol Nictz
schcs lcttcrs to his mothcr), Franziska agrccd to makc ovcr thc rights to thc Archivc, that
is, lizabcth, lor a downpaymcnt ol o,ooo marks and an annual royalty ol +,6oo marks.
lizabcths argumcnt, which clinchcd thc dcal, was that a group ol admircrs had bandcd
togcthcr to ocr thc o,ooo marks spccically in ordcr to buy thc rights lor thc Archivc.
!n lact, thc moncy was a bank loan arrangcd by lizabcth which shc had pcrsuadcd thc
admircrs to guarantcc.
!nitially, work on thc ncw collcctcd works procccdcd smoothly, lizabcth vcry much
cnjoying hcr collaboration with thc attractivc young K ogcl. Soon, howcvcr, rclations bccamc
straincd. Hc bcgan to scc that shc planncd to supprcss, and cvcn lorgc, parts ol thc tcxts
and bcgan to makc a privatc rccord ol what thcy actually said. And lrom lizabcths point
ol vicw K ogcl committcd thc ultimatc sin ol lalling in lovc, not with hcr, but with thc
daughtcr ol a Vcimar prolcssor.
!n thc middlc ol +86 lizabcth dccidcd to study philosophy with Rudoll Stcincr, who
was hclping thc Archivc organisc Nictzschcs library, in ordcr to cquip hcrscll bcttcr lor
hcr philological task. Stcincr (latcr thc loundcr ol anthroposophy) ccctivcly gavc hcr a
lailing gradc, commcnting that shc lacks all undcrstanding ol nc, and cvcn ol crudc, logical
distinctions, and that cvcn thc rcmotcst rcspcct lor lacts and objcctivity cscapcs hcr.
+:
Hc
&

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
must, howcvcr, havc conccalcd this opinion ccctivcly, bccausc lizabcth ocrcd him thc
collcctcdworks cditorship in placc ol K ogcl. Viscly, Stcincr rcluscd. K ogcl was sackcd
thc lollowing ycar and his cdition abandoncd. Finally, in +88, a third cort at a collcctcd
works, known as thc Grossokta. cdition on account ol thc sizc ol papcr uscd, bcgan undcr
six cditors, including K osclitz, whom, rcalising his unrivallcd qualications, lizabcth had
lurcd back to thc Archivc. Vhy K osclitz succumbcd to thc ovcrturcs ol a woman hc loathcd
is unclcar. Possibly hc hopcd to prcvcnt at lcast thc worst pcrvcrsions ol thc tcxts. !l hc did
hc was unsucccsslul, sincc thc cdition, which appcarcd, volumc by volumc, bctwccn +8
and ++, was, as alrcady notcd, a philological disgracc.

lizabcths sccond stratcgic objcctivc was to gain control ol hcr brothcrs body, still a cul
tural objcct ol considcrablc potcncy. Soon altcr hcr nal rcturn lrom Paraguay shc bcgan a
campaign ol pcrsccution against hcr mothcr with this aim in mind. Shc tricd to pcrsuadc
mcdical authoritics that thc (in lact cxcmplary) carc providcd by Franziska and thc dcvotcd
lamily doctor, scar Gutjahr, was inadcquatc, dcmanding that Nictzschc bc dclivcrcd to
hcr carc in hcr now scparatc Naumburg rcsidcncc. And thcn, in +8, shc tricd to gct thc
8ascl pcnsion stoppcd on grounds ol allcgcd supcruity, knowing that without thc pcnsion,
Franziska would havc no option but to hand ovcr thc booty. vcrbcck put a stop to this
particular machination, carning lor himscll and lor anyonc who had anything to do with
8ascl lizabcths undying hatrcd.
Vorn out by hcr daughtcrs campaigns ol pcrsccution, Franziska bccamc ill and two
months latcr, on April :o, +8 (Hitlcrs cighth birthday), dicd at thc agc ol +. lizabcth
had nally achicvcd hcr sccond stratcgic goal.
Te Shrine in Weimar
A
s thc homc ol Gcrmanys grcatcst litcrary gurc, Gocthc, and now thc homc ol thc
GocthcSchillcr Archivc, Vcimar, lty kilomctrcs lrom Naumburg, rcprcscntcd thc
hcart ol Gcrman Kultur. Vith hcr shrcwd markctcrs cyc, lizabcth had lor somc timc
sccn that by rclocating hcrscll, thc Archivc, and thc rcmnants ol hcr brothcr to Vcimar
shc could promotc thc idca that Nictzschc, too, bclongcd to that hcart. Tc opportu
nity camc through thc gcncrosity ol Mcta von Salis, who, in May +8, purchascd thc \illa
Silbcrblick (Silvcrvicw), a lourstoricd housc, hall an hours walk lrom thc city ccntrc, sur
roundcd, at that timc, by cornclds and posscssing thc panoramic vicwovcr thc city implicd
by its namc. Mcta placcd thc housc cntircly at lizabcths disposal, both as a rcsidcncc lor
hcr brothcr and hcrscll and as a homc lor thc Archivc.
Running truc to lorm, lizabcth, immcdiatcly and without consultation, ordcrcd cxtcn
sivc altcrations and rcnovations to thc housc in ordcr to makc it suitablc not mcrcly lor thc
Archivc but also lor thc grand stylc in which shc intcndcd to livc all ol thcm to bc paid
lor by thc owncr ol thc housc. Mcta was lurious and, altcr lurthcr rccriminations, brokc
o all rclations with lizabcth thc lollowing ycar. !n +8 shc sold thc housc to lizabcths
cousin, Adalbcrt chlcr, who nally madc it ovcr to lizabcth in +o:. Tcrcupon liza
bcth cmploycd thc 8clgian Hcnry van dcr \cldc to rcconstruct thc wholc building, insidc
and out, in thc art nouvcau stylc that it has today (scc Platc o).
Te End


!n August, +88 brothcr and sistcr movcd into thc \illa. lizabcth now bcgan to livc in
thc stylc shc lclt shc dcscrvcd. \isitors wcrc mct at thc railway station by livcricd scrvants,
whilc shc hcrscll would usc hcr carriagc and a rctinuc ol scrvants lor cvcn thc shortcst trip
into town. (!n thc +os shc wclcomcd many ol thc Nazi bigwigs, including Hitlcr himscll,
to thc housc (scc Platc :) thcir stcnch somchow rcmains to this day. Tcrc is no tracc ol
Nictzschc.)
lizabcth sct up thc Archivc as a shrinc to hcr brothcr, with portraits, books, and manu
scripts laid out as quasisacrcd rclics. spccially lavourcd gucsts wcrc cscortcd upstairs into
thc prcscncc ol thc grcat thinkcr, now vcry thin, almost skclctal, his cycs rcccdcd dccp into
thc sockcts. Hc was paralyscd down his right sidc, which hc would rub inccctually. nc
visitor rcmarkcd that whcn lizabcth pcrsuadcd himto cxtcnd his hand, with its promincnt
grccnviolct vcins and cool, waxy lccl, it was morc likc shaking hands with a corpsc than
with a living pcrson. Anothcr visitor during thc last ycar ol Nictzschcs lilc was Richard
Strauss, who had alrcady giltcd a scorc ol his toncpocm lso Sprach Zarathustra to thc
Archivc in +86.
Vhat thc visitors saw was a man without qualitics, a blank slatc onto which thcy could
projcct whatcvcr lantasy thcy likcd. Almost always, though, it was thc prophct and sccr, thc
ZarathustraNictzschc, thcy wantcd to scc: somconc who was not mad but rathcr, as rnst
8crtram (onc ol thosc who would soon attcmpt to mythologizc Nictzschc into a Nazi hcro)
wrotc, had undcrgonc an asccnt into thc mystic, a proud transition to a highcr statc. rnst
Hornccr, onc ol thc cditors ol Grossokta. cdition, saw a prophct ol divinc simplicity . . . !
stood still, awcstruck with rcvcrcncc. Tc rst thing ! saw was thc mighty lorchcad. Tcrc
was somcthing Gocthcan, Jupitcrlikc in its lorm, thc lorm ol a lorchcad bclonging to a
man who no longcr dcnicd his own grcatncss.
+
Rudoll Stcincr, too, succumbcd to thc
quasircligious mood:
Vhocvcr saw Nictzschc at thc timc |hc wrotc| as hc rcclincd in his whitc, plcatcd robc |scc
Platc +| with thc glancc ol a 8rahman in his widc and dccpsct cycs bcncath bushy
cycbrows, with thc nobility ol his cnigmatic, qucstioning lacc and thc lconinc, majcstic
carriagc ol thc thinkcrs hcad had thc lccling that this man could not dic, but that his
cyc would rcst lor all ctcrnity upon mankind and thc wholc world ol appcarancc in this
unlathomablc cxultation.
+
lizabcth, ol coursc, cncouragcd such mythologizing to bc thc sistcr and guardian ol
a dcmigod could hardly lail to bc good lor both scllcstccm and busincss. !n +88 shc
commissioncd a bust by a Fricdrich Krausc making visiblc Nictzschcs ctcrnal cyc rcsting
upon mankinds luturc, and a bronzc rclicl by Curt Stocving showing thc philosophcrs
cagcr lacc bathcd in light strcaming lrom thc luturc and with Zarathustras caglc (thc
symbol ol his pridc and also, convcnicntly, ol Gcrmanys) in thc background. Fritz Schu
machcr dcsigncd a Nictzschc mcmorial showing, in his own words, a still, round tcmplc
on loncly, high ground with, on top, thc gcnius ol humanity with arms raiscd to thc hcav
cns and bclow dark gigantic lorms bound in thcir chains,
+
a dcsign which, unsurprisingly,
won him an invitation to Vcimar. thcr objccts wcrc massproduccd lor thc tourist mar
kct: picturc postcards showing thc Archivc togcthcr with Nictzschcs youthlul hcad and

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
again thc caglc and a plastcr modcl ol Nictzschc sitting in an armchair, dcsigncd lor thc
mantclpiccc.
Nietzsches eath
N
ictzschc sucrcd a strokc in thc summcr ol +88 and a morc scrious onc in May ol thc
lollowing ycar. n August :th, +oo, cight months into thc ccntury
+6
that would
lull thc dircst ol his lcars lor Gcrmany and thc world, hc dicd. K osclitz (who now insistcd
on bcing callcd by thc pscudonym Nictzschc had givcn him, Pctcr Gast) closcd his cycs,
although thc right onc kcpt opcning so that, cvcn in thc con, thc whitc ol thc cyc and
thc bottom ol thc iris was visiblc undcr thc cyclashcs. A ccrcmony was hcld in thc Archivc
with an important, and scllimportant, arthistorian, Kurt 8rcisig, bcing whcclcd in lrom
8crlin by thc Archivcs lcadcr to dclivcr thc culogy. Fritz Schumachcr takcs up thc talc:
An obvious lccling commandcd that thc mood ol thc hour bc capturcd in a lcw solcmn,
dccply lclt words . . . !nstcad, thc spcakcr pullcd out a thick manuscript and bcgan to rcad.
Sincc hc had troublc holding his manuscript, a lccturcstand was improviscd lor him out ol
Frau F orstcrs scwing box. And nowhc mcrcilcssly rcad to us a culturalhistorical analysis ol
thc Nictzschc phcnomcnon. Scldom havc ! cxpcricnccd a grimmcr momcnt. Scholarship
pursucd this man to thc gravc. !l hc had rcvivcd hc would havc thrown thc spcakcr out ol
thc window and chascd us out ol thc tcmplc.
+
Contrary to his wishcs hc had writtcn lizabcth in +886 that hc wishcd to bc buricd
on thc Chast c pcninsula in Sils Maria
+8
Nictzschc was buricd bctwccn his parcnts by thc
church in R ockcn ncxt to which hc had bccn born. Tc church bclls wcrc rung and thc
luncral oration, dclivcrcd by K osclitz, now lully absorbcd into thc mythologizing busincss,
cndcd with thc words Pcacc bc with thinc ashcs! Holy bc thy namc to all luturc gcncrations!
Vhcn lizabcth dicd in +, Hitlcr, who had bccn providing nancial support to thc
Archivc, attcndcd thc luncral, togcthcr with scvcral highranking Nazi ocials. !n dcath
shc inictcd thc last ol thc many indignitics shc had visitcd on hcr brothcr. n hcr ordcrs,
hc was dug up and placcd to onc sidc so that she could bc placcd bctwccn thc parcnts. Vhcn
it camc to powcr politics lizabcth won cvcry timc.
28
Nietzsches Madness
V
n~: w~s wrong with Nictzschc: Vhy did hc go mad: Tc qucstion has bccn
much discusscd, partly by mcmbcrs ol thc mcdical prolcssion who havc takcn
to diagnosing thc grcat dcad as a rccrcation, and partly by Nictzschc scholars.
Tc lattcr usually havc a vcstcd intcrcst in thc outcomc. 8roadly, il thcy arc admircrs ol
Nictzschc, thcy lavour a purcly physiological diagnosis usually thc traditional onc ol
syphilis whilc il thcy arc opponcnts thcy lavour a psychological onc. !l, that is, Nictz
schcs madncss was thc product ol psychological lactors arising lrom within his pcrsonality,
it bccomcs possiblc to makc thc argumcnt that his philosophy is taintcd by thosc samc
lactors, that it is, as thc rcvicwcr ol Beyond Good and E.il claimcd (p. o6 abovc), patho
logical. pponcnts gcncrally wish to opcn up this possibility, admircrs to closc it down.
Nictzschc sucrcd, wc havc sccn, timc altcr timc, awlul bouts ol dcprcssion that somc
timcs brought him closc to suicidc (p. abovc). !n Junc +88 hc dcscribcs himscll as
having bccn dcprcsscd lor an cntirc ycar,
+
a condition (Vinston Churchills black dog)
which hc dcscribcs as a worsc lorm ol sucring than all his physical ailmcnts, thc worst
pcnalty thcrc is lor lilc on carth.
:
Yct at othcr timcs hc cxpcricnccd momcnts ol grcat cla
tion, clation colourcd by touchcs ol grandcur, and incrcasingly by mcgalomania. As carly as
+88, thc othcr Nictzschc prcscnts himscll: thc supcrman lurking within mildmanncrcd,
bcspcctaclcd Fricdrich Nictzschc, to whom has bccn vouchsalcd thc sccrct thought ol thc
ctcrnal rcturn, a thought that will split history into two halvcs and rcvcal Jcsus a supcrcial
gurc in comparison with its posscssor (p. 8 abovc). And pcrhaps thc othcr Nictzschc
manilcstcd himscll alrcady in +86, in thc thrcat to tcrminatc thc lricndship with cusscn
on account ol thc lattcrs inadcquatc rcalisation ol thc honour ol having a univcrsity pro
lcssor lor a lricnd (p. abovc). (Tc spccial clcvation ol prolcssors in Gcrmanic culturc
is indicatcd by thc phrasc Godprolcssor.) Vhat this oscillation Lou Salom c obscrvcd
that Nictzschc was subjcct to violcnt mood swings (p. abovc) calls to mind is thc
labcl manicdcprcssivc, in morc anodync languagc, bipolar disordcr. To thc cxtcnt that it
is plausiblc to think ol Nictzschc as having bccn, lor many ycars, at lcast incipicntly manic
dcprcssivc, almost pcrmancnt habitation ol thc manic phasc ol manic dcprcssion sccms an
appropriatc dcscription ol his nal wccks in Turin.

,
&c

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
Hcrc, courtcsy ol livcr Sacks,

arc somc dcscriptions ol thc mania ol ccrticd manic

dcprcssivcs (gcncrally thcy comc lrom thc paticnts thcmsclvcs, though occasionally lrom
thcir thcrapists): Hc startcd to scc himscll as a mcssiah, ! bclicvcd ! could stop cars and
paralyzc thcir lorccs by mcrcly standing in thc middlc ol thc highway with my arms out
sprcad (this comcs lrom thc poct, Robcrt Lowcll), intoxication, thc apothcosis ol hcalth,
a supcrpositivc statc, yourc lccling |so| . . . wcll, you must bc ill, thc rclcasc ol a dccp,
prcviously supprcsscd scll, not only did cvcrything makc pcrlcct scnsc, but it all bcgan to
t into a marvcllous kind ol cosmic rclatcdncss, My scnsc ol cnchantmcnt with thc laws
ol thc natural world causcd mc to zz ovcr |at| . . . how bcautilul it all was.
Trcc thcmcs run through thcsc dcscriptions: panthcistic ccstasy, thc scnsc ol thc world
as a pcrlcct totality, bclicving oncscll to bc a mcssiah, and thc posscssion ol thc causal powcr
to altcr thc world at will (stopping cars). Tcsc thcmcs cxactly charactcrisc Nictzschcs con
dition in his nal wccks in Turin. Hc was constantly cuphoric, bclicvcd thc world to bc
bcyond good and cvil bccausc it was complctcly good. Hc bclicvcd himscll a mcssiah thc
bringcr ol glad tidings (p. o abovc). And, having bccomc God, hc bclicvcd himscll to
posscss tclckinctic powcrs capablc, lor cxamplc, ol dcposing thc crowncd hcads ol uropc.
All in all, thcrclorc, bipolar mania sccms a plausiblc dcscription ol thc initial phasc ol his
madncss.
Tc mania, as wc havc sccn, did not last. Vithin a lcw wccks hc bcgan to display symp
toms ol scrious psychosis, hallucinations, paranoid dclusions, grossly disorganiscd bchav
iour, incohcrcnt thought and spccch (though intcrspcrscd with cohcrcnt lragmcnts ol
mcmory), catatonic withdrawal dcgcncrating, cvcntually, into a vcgctativc statc. !t is com
monly assumcd that psychotic symptoms such as thcsc rcprcscnt thc point at which a diag
nosis ol bipolar disordcr must givc way to onc ol schizophrcnia. Tis would lcad to thc
idca ol a dual psychiatric diagnosis: that Nictzschcs condition is to bc dcscribcd as onc ol
manic dcprcssion dcgcncrating, altcr +88, into schizophrcnia. Such, indccd, is r. Richard
Schains diagnosis.

!n lact, howcvcr, modcrn psychiatric thinking rccogniscs psychotic,

schizophrcnialikc cpisodcs as, in many cascs, indicativc, not ol schizophrcnia, but ol
bipolar disordcr. And counting against Schains diagnosis is thc lact that whcrcas Nictz
schcs psychotic symptoms appcarcd only in his lortics, thosc ol schizophrcnics typically
appcar in thc latc tccns or carly twcntics. Probably thc most plausiblc dcscription ol Nictz
schcs condition is, thcrclorc, bipolar disordcr with, in its latcr stagcs, psychotic lcaturcs.
Tc qucstion ariscs, howcvcr, as to whcthcr this ought to bc rcgardcd as a diagnosis or mcrcly
as a dcscription, whcthcr thcrc might not havc bccn a physical pathology undcrlying thc
psychological symptoms. Lct us considcr thc options.

Tc original and still, ! think, most widcly supportcd story is that Nictzschc sucrcd lrom
syphilis. Tis, as wc saw, was Villcs diagnosis in thc 8ascl clinic, a diagnosis rcpcatcd by
8inswingcr in Jcna. 8oth psychiatrists dccidcd that Nictzschc was sucring lrom gcncral
parcsis |partial paralysis| ol thc insanc, in othcr words, dcmcntia causcd by ncurosyphilis,
thc lorm ol tcrtiary syphilis in which thc spirochctcs (bactcria) attack thc brain. 8ccausc
syphilis was cxtrcmcly widcsprcad (thc H!\ ol thc day), this was thc ninctccnth ccnturys
dclault diagnosis lor middlcagcd mcn sucring lrom dcmcntia. 8ut it was by no mcans
thc only possiblc causc.
Rcccnt critiqucs havc rcvcalcd at lcast six wcakncsscs in thc syphilis diagnosis. First, thc
lact that Nictzschc sucrcd lrom choriorctinitis inammation ol thc rctina was takcn
Nietzsches Madness

&:
to havc bccn causcd by syphilis, which it indccd can bc. 8ut it can also bc causcd by a
widc varicty ol othcr conditions including simplc myopia, lrom which, wc know, Nictz
schc had sucrcd sincc childhood. Sccond, at thc timc ol his admission to thc Jcna clinic,
Nictzschc cxhibitcd no physical trcmors, an almost univcrsal symptom ol parctic syphilis.
Tird, though scvcrc migraincs can bc a symptom ol tcrtiary syphilis, thcy typically bcgin
only a lcw wccks, or at most months, bclorc a gcncral collapsc. Nictzschcs, howcvcr, bcgan
whilc hc was still a schoolboy. Fourth, lor somconc with parctic syphilis, Nictzschc livcd
an cxtraordinary long timc, clcvcn ycars, altcr thc Turin collapsc. !n onc latcninctccnth
ccntury study, out ol : paticnts with thc discasc, :: had dicd within vc ycars ol diag
nosis, :: within ninc. Filth, whcrcas parctic syphilis accts both hcmisphcrcs cqually, a
numbcr ol Nictzschcs physical symptoms (which wc will comc to in a momcnt) suggcst a
proccss conncd to thc right hcmisphcrc. Finally, thcrc is r. iscrs rcport that although
Nictzschc admittcd to gonorrhoca inlcctions lrom his studcnt ycars, hc cxplicitly dcnicd
cvcr having contractcd syphilis (p. :o abovc). Givcn his lrankncss about thc onc, it is
unlikcly hc would havc disscmblcd about thc othcr. Hc might, ol coursc, havc had syphilis
without knowing it, but givcn his constant and minutc obscrvation ol his own condition,
this sccms unlikcly.
Givcn all thcsc dicultics it is worth attcnding to an altcrnativc diagnosis proposcd by
r. Lconard Sax.

Sincc his tccnagc ycars, Sax suggcsts, Nictzschc had probably sucrcd
lrom a mcningioma, a nonmalignant brain tumour positioncd on thc right optic ncrvc.
Psychiatric symptoms, which may rangc lrom mania to dcmcntia, Sax cxplains, arc com
mon in paticnts with such tumours. Tcir dcvclopmcnt, hc claims, is slow but incxorablc,
and somctimcs may stop complctcly lor a numbcr ol ycars. Hcadachcs arc also common,
typically scvcrc and intcrmittcnt, and arc oltcn conluscd with migraincs. A tumour ol thc
right optic ncrvc bcncath thc right lrontal lobc ol thc brain would account lor thc right
sidcd prcdilcction ol Nictzschcs hcadachcs, rccordcd indcpcndcntly by two doctors in +88,
lor thc largcr sizc ol thc right pupil that his mothcr notcd at thc agc ol vc and lor thc
lact that thc right cyc bulgcd morc than thc lclt (thc rcason, clcarly, that his right cyclid
rcluscd to stay propcrly shut as hc lay in his con (p. 8 abovc)). At a ccrtain point, Sax
concludcs, thc growth ol thc tumour would havc lcd to a dc lacto lrontal lobotomy, which
would account lor thc lapsc into a quasivcgctativc apathy ol Nictzschcs nal ycars.
Vc havc, thcn, thrcc possibilitics bclorc us: thc syphilis story, Saxs brain tumour, and
thc possibility that Nictzschcs condition was a purely psychiatric onc, manic dcprcssion
with latcdcvcloping psychotic lcaturcs. !n light ol thc rcccnt critiquc, syphilis sccms thc
lcast likcly ol thc options. Saxs brain tumour is an clcgant attcmpt to account lor all ol
Nictzschcs hcalth problcms, mcntal and physical, in onc lcll swoop: thc lilclong hcadachcs,
thc mania, and thc cvcntual apathy, all causcd by thc brain tumour. Unlortunatcly, howcvcr,
it sccms that Saxs clcgant diagnosis hc is a mcdical gcncralist rathcr than a spccialist
ophthalmologist is inconsitcnt with basic ophthalmological lacts. For, rst, mcningiomas
in childhood, as postulatcd by Sax, arc actually cxtrcmcly rarc. Sccond, whcn thcy grow,
thcy grow, contra Sax, quickly and aggrcssivcly (unlikc mcningiomas in adulthood, which
may indccd grow slowly and insidiously). Tird, thcy do not producc a changc in pupil sizc
unlcss thcy also acct thc cyc musclcs. 8ut in that casc onc would cxpcct Nictzschcs right
cycball to havc bccn, sincc childhood, turncd pcrmancntly down and out and thc cyclid to
droop. 8ut this was ncvcr thc casc. Finally, had thc protrusion ol Nictzschcs right cyc bccn
causcd by a tumour onc would havc cxpcctcd it to incrcasc with thc incrcasing sizc ol thc
&:

vvivbvicn xiv:zscnv
tumour. 8ut thc many photographs takcn throughout his lilc providc no cvidcncc that this
was thc casc.
6
!t sccms, thcn, that Saxs brain tumour diagnosis is no morc likcly to bc truc than thc
syphilis story. 8ccausc thc thcorctical possibility ol cxhuming Nictzschcs body and pcr
lorming an autopsy using thc latcst mcdical tcchnology will ncvcr bc rcaliscd, wc will ncvcr
knowlor ccrtain whcthcr his mcntal condition was causcd by an undcrlying physical pathol
ogy. Noncthclcss, thc most plausiblc conclusion appcars to bc that Nictzschcs madncss was,
in lact, a purcly psychological condition.
Tis mcans that wc cannot avoid lacing up to thc issuc ol thc continuity bctwccn his
philosophy and his madncss: thc continuity, obscrvcd carlicr, bctwccn thc ionysian sidc
ol his philosophy and thc ionysian charactcr ol thc crazy lcttcrs and ol his nal days
in Turin. ocs thc continuity disclosc his philosophy as, in major rcspccts, pathological:
ocs madncss inlcct thc loundations ol Nictzschcs philosophy:

Nictzschcs philosophy placcs an unusually high valuc on ccstasy: a statc ol mind in which
onc transccnds oncs cvcryday idcntity whilc at thc samc timc nding thc world pcrlcct
and so bcing ablc to will its ctcrnal rcturn. Tis valuing ol thc ccstatic gocs right back to
thc bcginning, to thc vcry rst scction ol Te Birth of Tragedy with its cclcbration ol thc
statc in which all thc rigid hostilc barricrs bctwccn man and man dissolvc so that, singing
and dancing, onc lccls oncscll to bclong to a highcr community (p. +:8 abovc). Vhat is
important about this dcscription ol thc ionysian statc is that it is onc wc can all rccognisc
and cmpathisc with. For it is, as ! pointcd out, thc rockconccrt or lootballcrowd lccling.
Sincc wc all cncountcr thc ionysian statc in oursclvcs, wc arc in no position to dctcct
anything mad in thc ionysianism that appcars in Nictzschcs philosophy.
Vhat, howcvcr, wc cannot rccognisc in our own cxpcricncc is thc bclicl that wc can, at
will, control any aspcct ol thc world wc chosc. 8ut that is a salicnt charactcristic ol bipolar
mania and ol Nictzschcs nal days in Turin. Tcrc is thcrclorc, it sccms to mc, a clcar linc
ol dcmarcation bctwccn thc ionysianism ol thc philosophy and thc mad ionysianism
ol his nal days. Tough Nictzschcs philosophy was likcly produccd by a manicdcprcssivc
(as, probably, wcrc thc works ol Plato, Ncwton, Mozart, H oldcrlin, Colcridgc, Schumann,
8yron, \an Gogh, Gcog Cantor, Vinston Churchill, Silvia Plath, John Lcnnon, Lconard
Cohcn and many othcr grcat human bcings), thcrc is nothing pathological about it apart
lrom thc vicws on womcn.
Chronology
+8 October :: Nis born, rst child ol Karl Ludwig and Franziska Nictzschc (n cc
chlcr), in R ockcn, ncar L utzcn, ncar Lcipzig.
+86 July :c: lizabcth born.
+8q July c: Fathcr dics ol a brain discasc, agcd .
+8o January ,: cath ol Ns brothcr, Ludwig Joscph, agcd :.
Early pril: Movc to Naumburg. nrollcd in town primary school.
+8+ Spring: Translcrs to Vcbcrs privatc school, whcrc lricndship with Krug and Pindcr
bcgins. All thrcc translcr to Cathcdral Grammar School in +8.
+88 October: Family movc to +8 Vcingartcn, whcrc Franziska will rcmain until hcr
dcath in +8. Nbcgins to attcnd Plorta School.
+8q Mccts Paul cusscn.
+86o July :: N, Krug, and Pindcr lound Germania socicty. Schopcnhaucr dics in
Scptcmbcr. 8cginning ol lricndship with Paul cusscn.
+86+ JanuaryFebruary: Sucrs vcry bad hcadachcs.
March: Conrmcd. iscovcrs Vagncrs Tristan in this or thc lollowing ycar.
October :,: Calls H oldcrlin my lavouritc poct.
+86 September: First signs ol Ns moustachc.
+86 September: 8ccomcs lricnds with Carl von Gcrsdor. Graduation and dcparturc
lromPlorta. Rhincland holiday with cusscn.
October: 8cgins studics in 8onn, joins Franconia lratcrnity.
+86 February: ccidcs to switch lromthcology to philology. \isit to thc Colognc
brothcl.
October :,: nrols at univcrsity in Lcipzig, whcrc Rohdc will bccomc Ns closcst
lricnd.
No.ember: iscovcrs Schopcnhaucrs Te !orld as !ill and Fepresentation.
+866 Summer: iscovcrs Langcs History of Materialism.
+86y ugust: Hiking trip in 8ohcmian lorcst with Rohdc.
Summer: 8ccomcs incrcasingly cnthusiastic about Vagncr, mainly on account ol
Die Meistersinger.
September: 8cgins military scrvicc in Naumburg.
+868 March: Chcst wound in riding accidcnt, which tcrminatcs military scrvicc in Junc.
October: Rcturns to studics in Lcipzig.
No.ember : First mccting with Vagncr.
+86q February ::: Appointcd prolcssor ol classical philology at 8ascl.
pril :,: Takcs up rcsidcncc in 8ascl.
May :: First ol twcntythrcc visits to Vagncrs in Tribschcn.
July :: Movcs into Sch utzgrabcn (thc Poison Hut and latcr 8aumanns Cavc).

&
&,

Chronology
+8yo pril: Franz vcrbcck movcs into Sch utzgrabcn .
July :,: Frcnch parliamcnt dcclarcs war on Prussia.
ugust :: Arrivcs in rlangcn lor training as mcdical ordcrly.
ugust : : Scts olor lront, passing through rcccnt battlcclds. Horricd by body
parts on V orth battlccld.
ugust :: Vagncr marrics Cosima.
September :: Nat thc lront, which has nowmovcd to ArssurMoscllc, ncar Mctz.
Trcc days in closcd railway wagon accompanying woundcd back to Karlsruhc.
Catchcs dyscntcry and diphthcria and is hospitaliscd lor a wcck on rcturn to
rlangcn.
September :,October ::: Rccupcration in Naumburg.
No.ember: Tcaching again in 8ascl, rcads Vagncrs Beetho.en cssay, audits
8urckhardts lccturcs on historiography.
Christmas Day: Prcscnt at rst pcrlormancc ol Siegfried Idyll on Tribschcn staircasc
as birthday prcscnt lor Cosima.
+8y+ January :: Sccond Gcrman Rcich dcclarcd and Villiam! crowncd Kaiscr.
February :: nd ol FrancoPrussian war.
+8y: January :: Te Birth of Tragedy appcars with Fritzsch.
January :&: 8cgins lccturc scrics On the Future of Our Educational Institutions,
which runs until March :. cclincs ocr ol chair in Griclswald during this month.
pril ::: Vagncr lcavcs Tribschcn to takc up rcsidcncc in 8ayrcuth.
May ::: Togcthcr with Rohdc and von Gcrsdor, attcnds laying ol loundation
stonc ol Fcstspiclhaus in 8ayrcuth. Mccts Malwida von Mcyscnbug, a closc lricnd
ol thc Vagncrs.
Late MaySeptember: Rohdcs rcvicwol Te Birth of Tragedy and Vilamovitzs
critiquc. Long convcrsations with 8urckhardt arising out ol thc lattcrs lccturcs on
Grcck cultural history.
+8y Spring: 8cgins intcnsivc rcading ol books on natural scicncc, including Alrican
Spirs Tought and Feality.
May: First mccting with Paul R cc, invitcd to 8ascl lor thc summcr by Ns lricnd
Hcinrich Romundt.
ugust : First Untimely Meditation, Da.id Strauss, the Confessor and the !riter,
appcars.
No.ember: Ns Summons to the Germans (to support thc 8ayrcuth projcct) rcjcctcd by
thc Vagncrians.
+8y January :: Appointcd dcan ol 8ascls laculty ol humanitics.
February ::: Sccond Untimely Meditation, On the Uses and Disad.antages of History
for Life, appcars with Fritzsch.
July ,: Hcadhuntcd by publishcr rnst Schmcitzncr.
ugust: Appcars with 8rahms Song of Triumph in Vahnlricd, thc Vagncrs housc in
8ayrcuth. Vagncr lurious.
October :: Tird Untimely Meditation, Schopenhauer as Educator, appcars with
Schmcitzncr.
December: Complctcs, but docs not publish, Philosophy in the Tragic ge of the
Greeks.
Chronology

&
+8y Januarymid-July: Vorks on !e Philologists but ncvcr complctcs it.
July :ugust ::: Curc in Stcinabad.
utumn: Movcs to Spalcnthorwcg 8 with lizabcth as housckccpcr. Rcads R ccs
Psychological Obser.ations.
No.ember: First mccting with Hcinrich K osclitz (Pctcr Gast), who comcs to 8ascl
to attcnd Ns lccturcs.
+8y6 January: Rclicvcd ol P adcgogiumtcaching duc to poor hcalth. Hcadachcs makc
univcrsity tcaching dicult.
February: 8cginning ol lricndship with R cc.
pril ::: Marriagc proposal to Mathildc Trampcdach rcjcctcd.
July :c: Fourth Untimely Meditation, Fichard !agner at Bayreuth, publishcd by
Schmcitzncr. Frcnch translation by Maric 8aumgartncr appcars in Fcbruary
+8.
July :: Final visit to 8ayrcuth to attcnd rst 8ayrcuth Fcstival. Suddcnly lcavcs on
August lor Klingcnbrunn, whcrc hc bcgins work on Human, ll-Too-Human.
ugust : vcrbcck marrics !da Rothplctz.
ugust :::&: 8ack in 8ayrcuth lor rst pcrlormancc ol Fing cyclc. Mccts
Rcinhardt von Scydlitz, irts with Louisc tt.
October :: Arrivcs in Sorrcnto, whcrc hc will rcmain at thc \illa Rubinacci, rcntcd
by Malwida von Mcyscnbug, until May 8, +8.
+8yy June ::September :: Vorks on Human, ll-Too-Human in Roscnlaui.
Mccts CroomRobcrtson, cditor ol Mind.
October : xamination by r. tto iscr and ophthalmologist Gustav Kr ugcr in
Franklurt.
+8y8 January: Rcccivcs librctto ol Parsifal.
May : Human, ll-Too-Human appcars with Schmcitzncr.
+8yq March :c: ssorted Opinions and Maxims appcars with Schmcitzncr as an Appcndix
to Human, ll-Too-Human.
May :: Rcsigns lrom8ascl Univcrsity on grounds ol ill hcalth.
June ::September :&: !n St. Moritz. Hcalth rcachcs lowcst point.
Vorks on Te !anderer and His Shado., which appcars with Schmcitzncr on
cccmbcr +8.
+88o FebruaryMarch: Vorks on Da.n in Riva dcl Garda.
MarchJuly: Vith K osclitz in \cnicc.
Julyugust: cprcsscd in Maricnbad.
No.ember: First wintcr in Gcnoa, whcrc hc rcmains until thc lollowing May.
+88+ July ,October :: First summcr in Sils Maria.
July : Da.n appcars with Schmcitzncr.
Early ugust: Tought ol ctcrnal rcturn occurs to N.
October :: Sccond wintcr in Gcnoa, whcrc hc will stay until thc cnd ol March, +88:.
No.ember :: Hcars Carmen lor thc rst timc at Gcnoas Politcana thcatrc.
+88: JanuaryMarch: Vorking on Te Gay Science. R cc visits, bringing a typcwritcr.
March :,pril ::: !n Mcssina, Sicily.
End of pril: !n Romc. Mccts Lou Salom c. Proposcs marriagc to hcr, via R cc.
Rcjcctcd.
&&

Chronology
First half of May: Vith Lou on Sacro Montc. Apossiblc kiss. Proposcs marriagc to
hcr again in Lion Gardcn in Luccrnc. Again rcjcctcd. Vhip photograph takcn.
First .eek in June: Idylls fromMessina appcar in Schmcitzncrs monthly magazinc.
June :&-:: nc day in 8crlin in vain attcmpt to mcct up with Lou.
June :ugust :: !n Tautcnburg. Lou and lizabcth both thcrc, August :6.
Lou prcscnts Nwith hcr Praycr to Lilc, which hc immcdiatcly scts to music, using
mclody ol his +8 Hymn to Fricndship.
July :&: First pcrlormancc ol Parsifal.
ugust :&: Te Gay Science (books !!\) appcars with Schmcitzncr.
September : Lcavcs Naumburg lor Lcipzig, having quarrcllcd with his mothcr, who
is outragcd by thc NR ccLou aair as rcportcd by lizabcth.
October: Final mccting with Lou and R cc.
No.ember :: \ia Gcnoa and Santa Margucrita Ligurc to Rapallo, whcrc hc scttlcs
until thc cnd ol thc lollowing Fcbruary.
+88 February :: Vagncr dics in \cnicc.
February :,: Nrcturns to old apartmcnt building in Gcnoa.
June :September : Sccond summcr in Sils Maria.
End of ugust: Zarathustra Part I appcars with Schmcitzncr.
September: lizabcth announccd hcr cngagcmcnt to 8crnhard F orstcr.
December :: First wintcr in Nicc, whcrc hc will stay until April :o, +88.
+88 January: Zarathustra Part II appcars with Schmcitzncr.
pril: Zarathustra Part III appcars with Schmcitzncr. Rcsa von Schirnholcr visits N
in Nicc.
June: Mccts Mcta von Salis in Z urich.
July :September :: Tird summcr in Sils Maria. Mccts thc two mily Fynns.
October: Mccts Hclcnc ruscowicz in Z urich.
No.ember :: Sccond wintcr in Nicc, stays until April 8, +88.
+88 First .eek in May: Zarathustra Part I!privatcly printcd by Naumann at Ns
cxpcnsc.
June mid-September: Fourth summcr in Sils Maria. First plans lor !ill to Po.er.
SeptemberOctober: !n Naumburg, last mccting with lizabcth whilc sanc.
No.ember ::: Tird wintcr in Nicc, stays until bcginning ol May, +886.
+886 February: Tc F orstcrs sct olor South Amcrica.
June c: Filth summcr in Sils Maria, stays until Scptcmbcr :. Mccts Hclcn
Zimmcrn.
ugust ,: Beyond Good and E.il appcars, printcd and publishcd by Ncumann, at Ns
cxpcnsc.
ugust : Fritzsch takcs ovcr unsold copics and rights to Ns works lrom
Schmcitzncr.
September :October :c: !n Ruta Lugurc. Vritcs ncwprclacc to Te Gay Science.
October :c: Fourth wintcr in Nicc, will stay until April :, +88.
October:: Ncwcdition ol Te Birth of Tragedy (prclaccd by ttempt at a
Self-Criticism) appcars with Fritzsch. Ncw, twovolumc cdition ol Human,
ll-Too-Human (incorporating ssorted Opinions and Maxims and Te !anderer and
His Shado.) appcars with Fritzsch.
End of December: Zarathustra Parts IIII appcar as a singlc volumc with Fritzsch.
Chronology

&
+88y February :,: Nicc carthquakc.
June ::: Filth summcr in Sils Maria, will rcmain until Scptcmbcr +.
June :,: Ncwcdition ol Da.n appcars with Fritzsch. Ncwcdition ol Te Gay Science
(including thc ncw8ook \) appcars with Fritzsch.
October :c: Hymn to Life (lor choir and orchcstra) appcars with Fritzsch.
October :: Filth wintcr in Nicc, whcrc Nwill stay until April 8, +888.
No.ember :&: Genealogy of Morals appcars with Naumann at Ns cxpcnsc.
+888 pril : First stay in Turin, whcrc Nwill rcmain until Junc .
pril :cMay : 8randcss lccturcs on Nin Copcnhagcn.
June &: Scvcnth and last summcr in Sils Maria, will rcmain until Scptcmbcr :o.
von Salis and Kaltan obscrvc no signs ol madncss.
September ::: !n Turin, will rcmain until January .
September ::: Te !agner Case appcars with Naumann.
December: Collapsc into madncss.
+88q January :c:: !n thc mcntal institution in 8ascl.
January :: !n thc mcntal institution in Jcna, whcrc hc will rcmain until March :,
+8o.
January :,: T.ilight of the Idols appcars with Naumann.
February: Nietzsche contra !agner appcars with Naumann.
June : 8crnhard F orstcr commits suicidc.
+8qo March :,May ::: !n a privatc rcsidcncc in Jcna.
May ::: Vith his mothcr in Vcingartcn +8 in Naumburg, whcrc Nwill rcmain
until July +, +8.
+8q+ K osclitz bcgins complctc cdition ol Ns works.
+8q: March: Zarathustra Part I!appcars with Naumann.
+8q October: lizabcth ordcrs K osclitz to abandon his cdition ol Ns works. Ncwcdition
bcgun undcr cditorship ol Fritz K ogcl. lizabcth bcgins Archivc in mothcrs housc.
+8q No.ember: Te ntichrist appcars with Naumann.
+8q pril: First volumc ol lizabcths biography ol Npublishcd by Naumann.
December: lizabcth in solc control ol Ns works.
+8q6 ugust :: Archivc movcs to Vcimar. Rooms rcntcd with nancial support lrom
Mcta von Salis. Archivc will movc to \illa Silbcrblick latcr in ycar.
+8qy pril :c: Franziska dics. Sccond volumc ol lizabcths biography ol Nappcars with
Naumann during this spring.
June: K ogcl dismisscd as cditor ol collcctcd works.
July :c: !n \illa Silbcrblick, Vcimar, whcrc Nwill rcmain until dcath.
+8q8 Grossokta. cdition ol collcctcd works bcgun undcr six cditors, including K osclitz.
+qoo ugust :: Nictzschc dics.
+qo+ October :: Paul R cc dics, agcd :.
+qo pril :rd: Malwida von Mcyscnbug dics, agcd 8.
+qo June :&: vcrbcck dics, agcd 68.
+qo pril :: Cosima dics.
+q No.ember : lizabcth dics, agcd :.
+qy February : Lou Salom c dics, agcd .
Notcs
+. b~ c~vo
+. H +. (scc KSA + p. :).
:. T! ! .
. KGV +.+ ||.
. H + .
. YN p. :.
6. YN p. :.
. KGV +.+ ||.
8. YN p. +.
. YN p. +6.
+o. H+.. Tis is actually an carly vcrsion ol thc passagc in qucstion. !n cccmbcr +888 Nictz
schc rcwrotc it to includc scrious abusc ol his sistcr, a rcvision that rcmaincd supprcsscd until
thc +6os.
++. KG8 +.+ :6.
+:. KGV +.: +o |+o|.
+. KGV +.+ ||.
+. !bid.
+. YN p. +.
+6. !t is notablc that thc vcry rst lragmcnt prcscrvcd in Nictzschcs litcrary cstatc is a skctch
lor a play, writtcn at thc agc ol tcn, in which a king, as thc hcro, laccd a riot (KGV +.+ +
|+|). !n a lragmcnt prcscrvcd lrom his cightccnth ycar Nictzschc writcs that monarchical
statcs always do bcst in cvcryday aairs and particularly in war. Tc Grccks undcrstood this
by making Zcus rcign ovcr all thc othcr gods, thc might ol thc Pcrsian mpirc camc about
not bccausc thc Pcrsians wcrc particularly clcvcr, but bccausc ol thcir intcnsc dcvotion to thc
king (KGV +.: +o ||). !n +88, commcnting on thc dccadcncc ol Vcstcrn modcrnity,
hc writcs that thc agc ol kings is past sincc thc pcoplc arc no longcr worthy ol thcm: thcy
do not .ant to scc thc symbol ol thcir idcals in kings, but a mcans lor thcir prot (VP
:). !n his latc thought, as wc shall scc, Platos philosophcrking looms largc.
+. KGV +.+ ||.
+8. KG8 +++. 6:.
+. KGV +.+ ||.
:o. KGV +.+ ||. Nictzschc says that Joscph dicd at thc cnd ol +8o, but his mcmory is at
lault hcrc. Joscph actually dicd in Fcbruary ol that ycar (scc J ! p. ).
:+. KGV +.+ ||.
::. GM !! ::.
:. T! \! .
:. H ! +.
:. AM +.
:6. KGV +.+ ||.
:. YN pp. :+:.
:8. KG8 ++. 6.
:. YN p. ::.

&,
c

Notes to Pages ::
o. KGV +.+ .
+. YN p. :.
:. KGV +.+ ||.
. KGV +.+ ||.
. KGV +.+ ||.
. YN p. 6.
6. KGV +.+ ||.
. Mcndclssohns incidcntal music to Shakcspcarcs cponymous play.
8. KGV +.+ ||. lvcs dancing in airy rings is a quotation lrom Schillcrs Tc ancc.
. Z + +.
o. KGV +.+ ||.
+. Z + +.
:. !bid.
. KGV +.+ ||.
. YN p. o.
. KGV +.+ ||.
6. YN p. :.
. KGV +.+ ||.
8. YN p. :.
. KGV +.+ ||.
o. !bid.
+. !bid.
:. VS o.
. YN pp. .
. YN p. :.
:. vvov:~
+. YN pp. .
:. !bid.
. YN p. +o.
. J ! p. 66.
. YN p. .
6. Janzs analogy. Scc J ! p. 66.
. KGV +.: 6 ||.
8. Hayman (+8o) p. :8.
. KGV +.: 6 ||.
+o. KG8 +.+ :+, ::.
++. KGV +.: 6 ||.
+:. KG8 +.+ .
+. KGV +.: 6 ||.
+. KG8 +.+ :.
+. KG8 +.+ 6.
+6. KGV+.: 6 ||.
+. UM !! .
+8. YN pp. +o8.
+. +.
:o. Tc namc was probably suggcstcd by that ol thc univcrsity lratcrnity in Jcna to which Fritzs
unclc by marriagc, mil Schcnk, bclongcd. !t has obviously nationalistic connotations.
:+. YN pp. +.
::. !bid.
:. r possibly at thc cnd ol +86o. Scc KG8 +.+ To Nictzschc .
:. YN p. 8.
Notes to Pages :,:

:
:. Listcd by Nictzschc at KGV +.: + |:8|.
:6. KG8 +.: Rcply +.
:. cusscn (+o+) p. .
:8. KG8 +.+ :o.
:. KG8 +.+ :88.
o. cusscn (+o+) p. .
+. KG8 +.+ .
:. KG8 +.+ :.
. KG8 +.+ To Nictzschc 6.
. KG8 +.+ o.
. H !! +.
6. KG8 +.+ .
. KG8 +.+ :.
8. Schlccha !!! p. ++.
. YN ++o.
o. Kohlcr (:oo:).
+. J ! pp. +:6.
:. KG8 +.+ :+. Tat hc discloscd this in a lcttcr to his mother and askcd lor a photograph ol
hcr to add to thc collcction indicatcs that no guilty sccrct was involvcd.
. C p. .
. J ! pp. +:.
. KGV +.: +o ||.
6. KGV +.: + |6|.
. GS 8.
8. HH +.
. KG8 +.+ o+.
o. J ! p. +o.
+. Fcucrbach (+8).
:. T! !X .
. KGV +.+ ||.
. !bid.
. KG8 +.+ :o.
6. HKG !! p. +:.
. Not to bc conluscd with his tutor, Robcrt 8uddcnsicg.
8. KG8 +.+ .
. HH ! +o.
6o. HKG !! p. ++.
6+. HKG !! pp. +. Notc lrom AprilMay +86.
6:. HKG pp. 68. Notc lrom AprilMay +86.
6. !bid.
6. Hcidcggcr (+ onwards) \ol. pp. :o.
6. Z. An allusion not noticcd by Parkcs is thc motto at thc bcginning ol Part !!! ol thc
work: Hc who climbs thc highcst mountains laughs at all tragcdics rcal and imaginary
(Trauer-Spiele und Trauer-Ernste). Trauer-Spiel rcappcars in Beyond Good and E.il: Tcrc
arc hcights ol thc soul lrom whosc vantagc point cvcn tragcdy stops having tragic cccts
(8G o). Givcn that mpcdoclcs, standing on thc summit ol Mt. tna, bclorc throwing
himscll to his mortal dcath in thc cratcr bclicvcd himscll to havc bccomc immortal, this
probably cchocs thc titlc ol H oldcrlins Der Tod des Empedocles: Fragmente eines Trauerspiels.
66. C p. o8.
6. Vilhclm is intcrcstcd in H oldcrlin alrcady in Novcmbcr +88 (KG8 +.+ To Nictzschc :),
but not until August +86+ docs Fritz show any intcrcst (KG8 +.+ ::). !n ctobcr +86+
hc writcs lrom Plorta asking his mothcr to scnd him thc biography ol H oldcrlin (Vilhclm
Ncumanns Moderne Klassiker. Deutsche Literature-Geschichte der neuern Zeit in Biographien,
Kritiken und Proben: Friedrich H olderlin) that is sitting in his bookcasc at homc and which
:

Notes to Pages ,:,
hc nccds lor thc cssay hc is writing (KG8 +.+ :8+), an cssay complctcd on thc ninctccnth
ol that month.
68. Trough thc biography mcntioncd in thc prcvious lootnotc.
6. ! owc thcsc parallcls to Tomas 8robjcrs usclul Beitrage zur Quellenforschung: bhandlungen
(8robjcr :oo+).
o. !t turns out that about hall ol this cssay is, as wc would now dcscribc it, plagiarizcd lrom
thc biography ol H oldcrlin mcntioncd in cndnotc 6 abovc. !t appcars that parts ol this
work wcrc, in turn, plagiarizcd lrom works by C. T. Schwab and Alcxandcr Jung. Nictz
schcs youthlul notcbooks arc lull ol passagcs copicd vcrbatim lrom othcr authors. !n his
maturity hc oltcn plagiarizcd thc 8iblc, Schopcnhaucr, H oldcrlin, and, lrcqucntly and
inaccuratcly, himscll. 8ut to spcak ol plagiarism hcrc is anachronistic. Tc idca ol intcl
lcctual propcrty had no purchasc at all anywhcrc in uropc until thc 8crn Convcntion ol
+886, so that unacknowlcdgcd borrowing was commonplacc at thc timc. !n Gcrmany it
was commonplacc until thc middlc ol thc twcnticth ccntury. Tc clcvation ol plagiarism
lrom a vcnal to a mortal sin is a vcry rcccnt phcnomcnon, a product ol thc absorption ol, in
particular, thc univcrsity into postmodcrn, Vcstcrn capitalism. ! am told that thc conccpt
still docs not cxist in Japancsc culturc nor, onc would gucss, in China. Tc only qucstion
that conccrns us hcrc is whcthcr thc plagiarism might indicatc that thc cssay was writtcn as
a tcdious chorc, so that littlc or no wcight is to bc placcd on thc dcscription ol H oldcrlin as
my lavouritc poct. 8ut thc clcar answcr is that it docs not. For, quitc apart lrom thc likc
lihood ol pcrsonal idcntication alrcady alludcd to, Nictzschcs lcttcrs ol thc timc suggcst
that hc was lully cngagcd with thc composition ol thc cssay. Vriting to his lricnd Rhodc on
Scptcmbcr , +86, morcovcr, hc rclcrs again to H oldcrlin as, among thc pocts, my lavour
itc lrom my timc at sccondary school. Nictzschc rcrcad H oldcrlin in thc +8os, rclcrring
to him as thc glorious H oldcrlin, and rccommcndcd him, and particularly Hyperion, to his
studcnt Louis Kcltcrborn (scc thc 8robjcr articlc mcntioncd in cndnotc 6).
+. KGV +.: +: |+|.
:. 8T +o.
. Tcsc cxccrpts lrom Hyperion arc all takcn lrom H oldcrlin (+6).
. KGV +.: + |6|.
. HKG !! pp. 6.
6. HKG !! pp. 6:.
. Scc Chaptcr + cndnotc +6. Notablc in this rcmark is thc habit Nictzschc ncvcr abandoncd
ol basing political conclusions on cvidcncc drawn cntircly lrom thc ancicnt world. !t hardly
cvcr occurs to him that dicrcnt and pcrhaps soundcr conclusions might bc drawn lrom
modcrn history. Tis ol coursc rcccts thc lact that, within thc walls ol Plorta, classical
antiquity was thc rcal world, thc world without thc walls somcthing ol a drcam.
8. KGV +.: +: ||.
. KGV+.: |+:A.+|. Nictzschc is hcrc paraphrasing an historian callcd Guizot. 8ut hc would
not havc plagiarizcd into his notcbooks which hc did out ol intcrcst rathcr than in rclation
to any school assignmcnt had hc not lound thc scntimcnts imprcssivc. And as wc havc
sccn, thcy corrcspond to thosc cxprcsscd in thc lccturc on Napolcon, which itscll is bascd
on notcs lrom Mcnzcls History of the Last Forty Years (scc KGV +.: +:A ||).
8o. KGV +.: +:A 6. Tcsc notcs arc again copicd lrom Tcodor Mundts History of Society
but again thc lact that thc copying was voluntary indicatcs Fritzs strong sympathy with
Mundts scntimcnts.
8+. !t is somctimcs suggcstcd that Nictzschcs schoollcaving cssay on Tcognis ol Mcgra, a
poctaristocrat ol sixthccntury Grcccc who lought against an attcmptcd popular rcvolu
tion, anticipatcd thc rcjcction ol dcmocracy in Nictzschcs maturc writings. As Curt Janz
points out, howcvcr, what Nictzschc says is simply that although Tcognis dcsignatcd thc
nobility as thc good and thc party ol thc pcoplc as thc bad (schlecht), his stancc simply
rcprcscntcd a typical aristocrat who sccs his spccial privilcgcs thrcatcncd by a oncoming
popular rcvolution. Hc cxprcsscs no admiration lor Tcognis, on thc contrary, hc calls him
a Junkcr with a sad and somcwhat conluscd longing lor thc past ( J ! pp. +:).
Notes to Pages ,&c


8:. KGV +.: +: ||.
8. KGV +.: +:A.
8. KGV +.: |:|.
8. KGV +.: 6 |66|.
86. HKG !! pp. .
8. KGV +.: + ||.
. noxx
+. KG8 +.: +.
:. KG8 +.: 6.
. KG8 +.: .
. Hayman (+8o) p. .
. KG8 +.: 6.
6. KG8 +.: 8.
. KGV +.: 8.
8. KG8 +.: o.
. KG8 +. To Nictzschc .
+o. KG8 +.: 6.
++. S !!! p. +:8.
+:. Hayman (+8o) p. 8.
+. KG8 +.: .
+. KG8 +.: o.
+. KG8 +.: .
+6. KG8 +.: .
+. KG8 +. To Nictzschc 6.
+8. Hayman (+8o) p. 6:.
+. JN p. ++.
:o. J ! p. +8.
:+. Z !\ +6.
::. KG8 +.: 6.
:. J ! pp. +8.
:. Mann (+) p. .
:. KG8 +.: 8o.
:6. KGV +. : |+|.
:. KGV +. |+|.
:8. KGV +. : |+|.
:. KGV +. 6 |+|.
o. KG8 +. To Nictzschc 86.
+. KG8 +. To Nictzschc 8.
:. JN p. +.
. J ! p. +.
. KG8 +. To Nictzschc .
. KG8 +.: 6. Tc lcttcr is datcd Junc ++, +86.
6. KG8 +.: 6.
. KG8 +.: o.
8. KG8 +.: .
. KG8 +.: , 6o.
o. KG8 +.: .
+. KG8 +.: .
:. !n Te Gay Science hc will look to art lor thc ability to vicw oncscll lrom a distancc in ordcr
to scc thc ovcrall shapc ol oncs lilc rathcr than a mcrc mass ol lorcground dctails (GS 8).
. KG8 +.: 8.
. KG8 +.: . Tis pocm is quotcd again in HH +o.
,

Notes to Pages &:
. Z !\ +.
6. GS .
. KG8 +.: 8.
8. J ! pp. +68.
. ivivzic
+. KG8 +.: 8+.
:. KGV +.: 6o |+|.
. !bid.
. !bid.
. YN p. +66.
6. KG8 +.: :.
. KG8 +.: .
8. KGV +. 6o |+|.
. KG8 +.: 8.
+o. KG8 +.: .
++. KSA +o +: |+| +6.
+:. KG8 +.: 8.
+. GS :.
+. KGV +. |o|.
+. KG8 +.: .
+6. KGV +. |o|.
+. KG8 +.: .
+8. KG8 +.: .
+. KGV +. |:|.
:o. AM :+8.
:+. KG8 +.: 6.
::. KGV +. 6o |+|.
:. KGV +. 6o |+|.
:. KG8 +.: o.
:. KG8 +.: +:.
:6. KG8 +.: o.
:. KG8 +.: ++.
:8. KG8 +.: +o.
:. KG8 +.: +.
o. KG8 +.: :8.
+. KG8 +.: +:.
:. KG8 +.: o.
. KG8 +.: +:.
. Scc KG8 +.: o and o.
. KG8 +.: +:.
6. KG8 +.: +.
. KG8 +.: To Nictzschc ++.
8. KG8 +.: 6.
. For an outstanding discussion ol thc militarization ol Prussian socicty scc Rohkr amcr
(:oo).
o. KG8 +.: ++. mphasis addcd.
+. KG8 +.: +:.
:. Tancra (+86) p. +o.
. Mcincckc (+6) p. :.
. KG8 +.: o.
. YN p. +o.
Notes to Pages


6. KG8 +.: .
. KG8 +.: .
8. YN p. :.
. KG8 +.: 6.
o. KG8 +.: .
+. KG8 +.: 6.
:. KG8 +.: +.
. KG8 +.: :.
. KG8 +.: +.
. KG8 +.: 6.
6. KG8 +.: 6:.
. KG8 +.: .
8. KG8 +.: 6o.
. J ! pp. :.
6o. KG8 +.: 6+o.
6+. Tis is rcportcd in cusscns mcmoirs and quotcd at KG8 +. p. 6+.
6:. KG8 +.:. 6o8.
6. KG8 +. To Nictzschc :++.
6. KG8 +.: 6:. Tis is, ! think, thc rst occurrcncc ol thc idca ol thc hcrd man, a notion
dcstincd to play a ccntral rolc in Nictzschcs maturc philosophy. Fachmensch mcans, litcrally,
spccialist, but Nictzschc uscs it pcjorativcly to mcan somconc whosc lilc is absorbcd into
thc robotic lullmcnt ol a narrow, prolcssional lunction, ncrd might bc a contcmporary
approximation.
. scnovvxn~ivv
+. HKG !!! pp. :8.
:. For a dctailcd account ol Schopcnhaucrs philosophy scc Young (:oo).
. VR ! p. +.
. VN p. :+6.
. VR !! p. 8.
6. VR !! p. o.
. VR ! pp. +:+, PP !! p. :.
8. VR ! p. +.
. VR ! p. +6.
+o. VR ! p. :6.
++. VR ! p. :6.
+:. VR ! p. 8o.
+. !bid.
+. VR !! p. +.
+. VR ! p. ++.
+6. !bid.
+. VR !! pp. 6+:+.
+8. GM !!! .
+. GM !!! :.
:o. GS +:.
:+. HKG !!! pp. :8.
::. VR ! p. 8 VR !! 6:8.
:. HKG !!! pp. :8.
:. KG8 +.: .
:. KG8 +.: .
:6. KG8 +.: .
:. KG8 ++.: 8.
&

Notes to Pages ,
:8. KG8 ++.: .
:. KG8 ++.: 6:.
o. KG8 +. lcttcr to Nictzschc +: scc, also, lcttcr to Nictzschc +o.
+. KG8 +.: 8.
:. KG8 +.: oo.
. VR !! Chaptcr +.
. VR ! p. ++.
. VR !! p. 6.
6. VR !! p. .
. Tc titlc ol Chaptcr 6 ol VR !! is n cath and !ts Rclation to thc !ndcstructibility ol
ur !nncr Naturc.
8. VR !! p. +.
. Fischcr (+86o).
o. Kant (+6) 8 xxxiv.
+. Langc (+:) pp. :+, ::.
:. Langc (+:) p. ::.
. Langc (+:) pp. ::.
. KG8 +.: 6:. Tis rccommcndation was actually madc in Fcbruary +868. 8ut Nictzschc
cvidcntly lorgot that hc had rccommcndcd Langc to von Gcrsdor much carlicr in August
+866 (KG8 +.: +) just altcr his rst discovcry ol thc book. Tc rcmaining quotations
conccrning Nictzschcs rccommcndation ol Langc to von Gcrsdorall comc lromthc carlicr
lcttcr.
. KG8 +.: +.
6. Langc (+:) p. :+.
. KG8 +.: +.
8. KGV +. |+|.
. KG8 +.: +.
o. VR !: p. .
+. VR !!: p. 8.
:. VR !!: pp. o.
. VR ! Scction 6 passim.
. VR !!: pp. +8.
. Young (:oo) p. .
6. Nictzschcs thoughts, hcrc, and Langcs too, arc somcwhat muddlcd, so that thc lollowing
is thc product ol a ccrtain amount ol tidying up. !t nccds to bc rcmcmbcrcd that at this stagc
ol his lilc Nictzschc was, though a prolcssional philologist, only an amateur philosophcr.
. Kant (+6) 8 xxx.
8. VR !! p. 6+.
. PP !! pp. ++.
6o. VR !! 6+:.
6+. VR !! pp. 6+.
6:. Scc p. 8 abovc.
6. VR pp. ++.
6. VR !! p. 68, VR ! pp. o+.
6. KG8 ++.: +. Comparc Vho could refute a tonc (GS +o6).
66. KG8 +.: .
6. KG8 ++.: +.
68. HH++. Nictzschc almost always quotcs lrommcmory and usually, thcrclorc, slightly inac
curatcly. Hcrc, howcvcr, hc has Schopcnhaucrs rcmark word pcrlcct, savc lor thc addition
ol thc glancc ol .
6. HH +.
o. HH +.
+. H !!! HH +. Somc nglish translations omit thc crucial in my naturc.
Notes to Pages ,:::


6. n~svi
+. YN p. :o.
:. KG8 ++.+ +.
. KG8 ++.+ .
. YN p. :o8.
. KG8 ++.+ +6.
6. KG8 ++.+ .
. KG8 ++.+ 6.
8. KSA + : |+| . Tc claim madc in thc sccond scntcncc appcars in Ecce Homo itscll
(H ! ).
. YN pp. ::8.
+o. J ! p. ::.
++. YN p. :o.
+:. KG8 +++. +:.
+. KG8 ++. :8.
+. KSA 8 +o |+|.
+. KG8 ++.+ 8.
+6. KG8 ++.+.
+. KG8 ++. o+.
+8. KG8 ++. oo.
+. KG8 ++. 8.
:o. KG8 ++.+ +6.
:+. KG8 ++.+ 8.
::. !bid.
:. YN p. ::.
:. H !!! HH :.
:. KG8 ++.: To Nictzschc +6.
:6. J ! pp. :.
:. KG8 ++.+ 8.
:8. J ! p. .
:. KG8 ++.+ .
o. KG8 ++.+ +.
+. KG8 ++.+ 8+.
:. GS ++.
. J ! pp. :68.
. KG8 ++.+ .
. YN pp. ::.
6. KG8 ++.+ 8+.
. J ! p. 6.
8. KG8 ++.+ :+:.
. KG8 ++.+ :+.
o. H !! .
+. KG8 ++. .
. vicn~vb w~cxvv ~xb :nv niv:n ov :nv niv:n ov :v~cvbv
+. KG8 ++.+ +.
:. KG8 ++.+ .
. KG8 ++.+ +o8.
. KSA + p. .

Notes to Pages ::::::
. A startling omission in Tomas 8robjcrs othcrwisc usclul book (8robjcr (:oo8)) is that
though it is dcvotcd to discussing contcmporary philosophical inucnccs on Nictzschc,
Vagncr rcccivcs no discussion at all. (Anothcr omission is Hyppolitc Tainc).
6. KSA + |o| ct passim.
. Philologischer nzeiger \ol. , No. , +8, pp. +.
8. VM p. .
. VM p. 68.
+o. VM p. .
++. VM p. 6.
+:. VM pp. 8.
+. VM p. 6:.
+. VPV p. +:o.
+. VM pp. +.
+6. VPV \ pp. +++.
+. VM p. 6.
+8. VM p. 6.
+. VM p. 6.
:o. KSA +|+|.
:+. VM p. 6.
::. VM p. 8+.
:. !bid.
:. VM p. 6.
:. VM p. 8.
:6. VM p. 8.
:. VM pp. 8.
:8. VM pp. o+.
:. VM p. 8.
o. VM p. 6.
+. VM pp. o+.
:. VM pp. :+.
. 8G :+:.
. H !! , H \! :.
. VM p. ::.
6. VM p. :.
. VC .
8. VM pp. ::8.
. VM p. :+.
o. VM p. ::8.
+. VM p. ::: Vagncrs cmphascs.
:. VM p. :.
. Hcidcggcr (+) \ol. !, p. 88.
. 8T Prclacc.
. KG8 ++.: To Nictzschc :.
6. KG8 ++.+ +.
. !bid.
8. Magcc (+8) p. .
. VM p. o:.
o. VM p. +.
+. VPV pp. +:.
:. VM pp. :o:+.
. VM p. +.
. VM p. +.
. VPV pp. 8o8+.
Notes to Pages :::::

,
6. !n !agner at Bayreuth (+86), Nictzschc dcals with thc conict bctwccn thc rcscrvations hc
is nowbcginning to havc about Vagncr and thc still ovcrriding dcsirc to praisc thc composcr
and promotc thc causc ol 8ayrcuth, by narrating Vagncrs carccr as a kind ol Bildungsroman,
a novcl ol cducation, in which his highcr scll gradually triumphs ovcr his lowcr scll . !t
sccms to mc likcly that thc structurc ol this cssay consciously alludcs to thc structurc ol thc
8ccthovcn cssay.
. VPV p. .
8. VPV pp. 88+.
. Vagncr actually says symphony in F, which could mcan cithcr thc Sixth or thc ighth.
Tc lormcr, howcvcr, sccms lar morc likcly.
6o. VPV pp. +. Latcr on, Nictzschc will scizc on this as a criticism ol othcrworldly,
romantic music. As with drugs, hc will suggcst, thc withdrawal symptoms morc than out
wcigh thc bricl momcnt ol ccstasy.
6+. PP !! pp. :6.
6:. KSA 8 |:+|, 8T :+.
6. Vagncr coincd thc tcrm absolutc to rclcr to purcly instrumcntal music. nc can to somc
dcgrcc tracc thc proccss ol Nictzschcs thinking his way into Vagncrs latcr thcorctical stancc
via his usc ol absolutc in thc notcbooks ol thc pcriod. !n thc autumn ol +86, lor instancc,
in linc with Vagncrs carlicr thcory with which Nictzschc was lamiliar prior to thc Trib
schcn pcriod, absolutc, as applicd to music, lunctions as a tcrm ol clcar disapproval (KSA
+ ||). 8ut by thc cnd ol thc ycar a ycar in which Nictzschc cclcbratcd Christmas at
Tribschcn it has lost its critical connotation (KSA |:|), and by thc cnd ol +8o it has
bccomc a tcrm ol high approbation (KSA |++o|).
6. KSA |o|.
6. VPV p. +o.
66. VR ! p. :6+.
6. VR ! p. :6, VR !! p. .
68. VPV p. +:+.
6. Hcidcggcr (+) pp. 868.
o. Might not a socicty composcd ol world and willncgating ascctics waiting paticntly lor
dcath to absorb thcm into a bcttcr world count as a rcdccmcd civilization: Hardly. For in
thc abscncc ol will, ol action, such a socicty would soon gct wipcd out by willlully aggrcssivc
ncighbours. Tc idca ol a willdcnying civilization is, in short, an oxymoron. To livc is to
act, and as Nictzschc says, action is worldarmation (KSA |:|).
+. VPV p. +:+, my cmphasis.
:. VM p. o.
. VM pp. 6.
. KG8 ++.+ +.
. Vagncr himscll spcaks ol such a split. !n a lcttcr to his lricnd August R ockcl, writtcn in
August +86, hc obscrvcs that thc thcmc ol rcnunciation, thc ncgation ol thc will appcars
alrcady in prcSchopcnhaucrian works such as Tannha user and Lohengrin. Hc cxplains this
as a split bctwccn artist and carly thcorctician: with my conscious rcason, ! was work
ing in dircct opposition to thc intuitivc idcas rcprcscntcd in thcsc works. Vhilc as an
artist ! felt |thc nccd lor worlddcnial| . . . as a philosophcr ! sought to discovcr a totally
oppositc intcrprctation ol thc world, onc, namcly, supportivc ol socialism (Magcc (+8)
p. +).
6. KG8 ++.+ .
. 8T .
8. 8T , +o.
. 8T .
8o. !bid.
8+. n thc Pathos ol Truth, thc rst ol thc Fi.e Prefaces for Fi.e Un.ritten Books Nictzschc
dcdicatcd to Cosima. (KSA + p. 6.)
c

Notes to Pages ::::
8:. Tis is how thc wisdom ol Silcnus is lormulatcd in Tc 8irth ol Tragic Tought, a
lccturc ol +8+ (KSA + p. 88). !t strikcs mc as morc intcrcsting than thc slightly dicrcnt
lormulation givcn in Te Birth itscll (8T ).
8. AM :+8.
8. 8T +, :, .
8. 8T +,, +6.
86. 8T . Noticc thc rst appcarancc ol thc idca that bcing bcyond good and cvil is a good
statc to bc in.
8. Tc ionysian Vorldvicw, 8T pp. ++8, p. +:.
88. 8T .
8. 8T , , +6.
o. 8T , my cmphasis.
+. 8T +:.
:. 8T +.
. 8T +6.
. 8T .
. 8T ++.
6. 8T +o.
. 8T :+, :.
8. 8T :, .
. 8T +.
+oo. 8T :.
+o+. Tc Grcck Music rama, a lccturc ol January +8o (KSA + p. :+).
+o:. 8T +.
+o. Strictly, ol coursc, it is Schillers, not 8ccthovcns dc to Joy that is sct to music in thc last
movcmcnt ol thc Ninth Symphony. r rathcr, it is mainly Schillcrs dc. As hc rcports
in thc 8ccthovcn cssay, Vagncr discovcrcd, on inspccting thc original scorc, that lor
Schillcrs !as die Mode streng getheilt (what lashion has strictly scparatcd) 8ccthovcn had
substitutcd !as die Mode frech getheilt (what lashion has impudently scparatcd). Hc suggcsts
that strict was not strong cnough to cxprcss 8ccthovcns ragc at thc division bctwccn man
and man. 8ccausc hc kncw thc 8ccthovcn cssay intimatcly, Nictzschc is cngaging, surcly,
in a quict piccc ol scholarship in rclcrring to 8ccthovcns dc to Joy.
+o. 8T +.
+o. 8T 8.
+o6. 8T 8.
+o. 8T .
+o8. 8T +.
+o. 8T :.
++o. 8T :. !n thc notcbooks Nictzschc idcntics thc childsculptor as Zcus (KSA +
p. 8).
+++. 8T 6.
++:. 8T :+.
++. 8T :+. !n thc Genealogy of Morals thc will to nothingncss providcs thc dcnition ol
nihilism (GM !!! +).
++. Comparc with this thc dcscription ol thc ccstatic statc in Tus Spoke Zarathustras 8clorc
Sunrisc: idcntilying himscll with thc azurc bcll ol thc sky, Zarathustra lcarns to smilc
uncloudcdly down lrom bright cycs and lrom milcs away whcn undcr us compulsion and
purposc and guilt strcam likc rain.
++. KSA + p. , comparc 8T .
++6. 8T :+.
++. 8T :+.
++8. 8T .
++. 8T .
+:o. 8T :.
+:+. 8T :.
Notes to Pages :::,

:
+::. KSA + p. +8.
+:. KSA |+|.
+:. 8T :+. id Vagncr thc artist cvcr achicvc this combination ol mctaphysical comlort
with thc noblc illusion that cnablcs us to carry on with lilc: Pcrhaps just oncc. Arguably,
onc ol thc things Nictzschc achicvcs in Te Birth is an articulation ol thc mystcriously
ambivalcnt charactcr ol Mastersingers. !l onc attcnds to Hans Sachs (who is, ol coursc,
Vagncr himscll ), and in particular to his grcat !ahn! !ahn!

Uberall !ahn (!llusion! !llu
sion! vcrything illusion) monologuc, thc work appcars to bc, likc its immcdiatc prcdc
ccssor, Tristan, an cxprcssion ol Schopcnhaucrian lilcdcnial. Yct it has a happy cnding:
Valtcrs ncw music both rcinvigoratcs thc moribund tradition ol thc mastcrsingcrs and
wins him vas hand in marriagc. Truc music and truc lovc havc won thc day. And so, in
spitc ol thc ccntrality ol thc Schopcnhaucrian Sachs, onc lcavcs thc thcatrc with a scnsc
ol lilc wondcrlully armcd.
+:. nc might wish to objcct that thc noblc dcccption that shiclds us lrom nihilism can only
work on somconc who has ncvcr rcad Te Birth. !l action rcquircs thc vcil ol illusion and
this is irrcvocably shattcrcd by thc rcvclation ol thc truth ol Schopcnhaucrian idcalism,
thcn action, worldarmation, bccomcs impossiblc. 8ut this, ! think, assumcs that bclicls
arc morc stablc than thcy rcally arc. As wc havc sccn, Nictzschc was, in his youth, a pas
sionatc Prussian who cnthusiastically supportcd 8ismarcks +86 war against Austria. Yct
at thc samc timc hc was ablc to tcll his lricnd von Gcrsdor (himscll in mortal dangcr
in thc cld) ol momcnts whcn ! lrcc myscll lor minutcs lrom tcmporal consciousncss,
lrom my subjcctivc natural sympathy lor thc Prussians, and thcn ! havc bclorc mc thc
thcatrcpiccc ol a grcat statc action ol thc stu that history is now madc ol. Admittcdly
its not moral, but lor thc obscrvcr rathcr bcautilul and uplilting (KG8 +.: +). !n othcr
words, Nictzschc oscillatcs bctwccn thc cngagcd pcrspcctivc ol thc cvcryday human indi
vidual and thc discngagcd, acsthctic, pcrspcctivc which, in Te Birth, hc will idcntily as
bclonging to thc primal unity. And so did Vagncr who, whilc writing ol thc world as a
gamc ol play and ol nothingncss as thc only rcdcmption, was simultancously cngagcd in
thc 8ayrcuth projcct. Tis, as Nictzschc latcr points out, is probably thc grcatcst cxcrcisc
ol thc will to powcr in thc history ol art. Switching pcrspcctivcs is, ! think, much morc
common than is usually rccogniscd. ! may, lor cxamplc, most ol thc timc, rccognisc that
thc occ politics ol my workplacc arc vicious, trivial and pathctic. 8ut in thc occ ! am
still likcly to nd myscll as lully and nastily cngagcd as cvcryonc clsc. Tc psychological
truth ol thc mattcr is that onc inhabits dicrcnt bcliclsystcms at dicrcnt timcs. Tat in
somc momcnts ! bclicvc thc world ol thc principium indi.iduationis to bc idcal docs not
cxcludc my bclicving at a dicrcnt timc that it is rcal. Human bcings arc madc ol many
souls.
+:6. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc +.
+:. 8T ++.
+:8. 8T +.
+:. 8T +8.
+o. !bid.
++. 8T +.
+:. UM !\ .
+. 8T :.
+. Comparc Z ! +.
+. GS 8.
+6. 8T :.
+. 8T :, my cmphasis.
+8. 8T :.
+. !bid.
+o. !bid.
++. !bid.
+:. 8T +.
+. !bid.
:

Notes to Pages ::,,
8. w~v ~xb ~v:vv:~:n
+. KG8 ++.+ 86.
:. KG8 ++.+ 8.
. KG8 ++.+ 88.
. 8T pp. ++8.
. KG8 ++.+ 8. Nictzschcs cmphasis.
6. YN pp. :.
. KSA |+|.
8. YN p. :.
. KG8 +.: .
+o. To \ischcr hc writcs that it was two days and two nights (KG8 ++.+ ) but to
von Gcrsdor it is back to thrcc and thrcc (KG8 ++. + +o).
++. KG8 ++.+ +o.
+:. KG8 ++.+ +oo.
+. KG8 ++.+ +o.
+. !bid.
+. KG8 ++.+ +o.
+6. KG8 ++.+ +o.
+. KG8 ++.+ +o:.
+8. YN p. :.
+. KG8 ++. +.
:o. KSA : |6:|.
:+. KSA + pp. 8:, GM pp. +8.
::. GM p. +8.
:. 8T :.
:. GM p. +8.
:. KSA +6 |:6|, +6 |+8|.
:6. 8T p. +:.
:. .
:8. GM p. +8.
:. KG8 ++.+ +o.
o. KG8 ++.+ +++.
+. ! p. 8.
:. ! p. .
. ! p. 6.
. ! p. 6.
. ! p. 6.
6. ! pp. 6.
. ! p. .
8. ! p. .
. H p. .
o. ! p. 6.
+. ! p. .
:. ! p. .
. ! pp. 68.
. ! p. +.
. !bid.
6. ! pp. +8, 8.
. ! pp. 8:.
8. !bid.
. ! p. .
o. VR !! Chaptcr +.
+. ! p. 6.
Notes to Pages :,,:


:. ! p. 6o.
. ! p. .
. ! p. .
. ! p. 6o.
6. ! p. .
. ! p. 6.
8. KSA + |:|.
. Kant (+:) scction 6.
6o. VR !! pp. 6, +.
6+. ! pp. 66.
6:. ! pp. 66, 6.
6. ! p. 6.
6. ! p. 6.
6. ! p. 6.
66. KSA + |+|.
6. KSA 8 |:|.
68. ! p. ++.
6. H p. .
. ~x~i vniioiocv
+. KG8 ++.+ ++.
:. KG8 ++.+ +6.
. KG8 ++.+ +.
. KG8 ++.+ :o.
. KG8 ++.+ +68. Hc adds, using a H oldcrlinian tropc, Sincc thcsc bcst momcnts obvi
ously alicnatc us lrom thc spirit ol thc prcscnt agc, but sincc wc must nd a homcland
somcwhcrc, ! think wc havc, in thcsc momcnts, a dim scnsc ol that which is coming
(des Kommenden).
6. KG8 ++.+ +. Comparc thc last scction ol Zarathustra: My sucring . . . what docs that
mattcr: Am ! striving lor happiness: ! am striving lor my .ork!
. KG8 ++.+ +.
8. KG8 ++.+ +:.
. KG8 ++.+ :+8.
+o. KG8 ++.+ +o.
++. Janz ! pp. 6:.
+:. KG8 ++. ::.
+. J ! p. 6.
+. KG8 ++.+ +.
+. KG8 ++.: :8.
+6. KG8 ++. .
+. J ! pp. +++:.
+8. VPV pp. ::8.
+. KSA + |:6|.
:o. KG8 ++. ::.
:+. KG8 ++. ::.
::. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
:. KG8 ++. :68, :6.
:. KG8 ++. :6.
:. Tc sourcc ol this suggcstion is Vollgang 8ottcnbcrg, who is rcsponsiblc lor thc most
cxtcnsivc rccording ol Nictzschcs music and lor thc vcrsions availablc at thc wcbsitc lor this
book. Somc support lor thc suggcstion is to bc lound in Cosimas diary cntry lor January
+o, +86: Ncvcr, shc rccords, would hc |von 8 ulow| havc lost mc il latc had not brought
,

Notes to Pages ::&
mc togcthcr with thc man |Vagncr| lor whom ! had to rccognisc it as my task to livc or
dic.
:6. KG8++. :6. Tc pcrlormancc was conductcd by von 8 ulow. Sincc Nictzschc scnt himthc
Manlrcd Mcditation a month latcr, this may havc bccn partially inspircd by his cxpcricncc
ol thc pcrlormancc.
:. KG8 ++. :.
:8. KG8 ++. :.
:. ! owc this suggcstion to avid Krclls and onald 8atcss wondcrlul cocctablc book, Te
Good European (Krcll and 8atcs (+) p. 8:).
o. YN p. :.
+. KSA : |+|.
:. KSA 8 |6:|. My cmphasis. Scc, also, AM :+8.
. J ! p. 6.
. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc :6.
. YN p. :8o.
6. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
. KG8 ++. :8.
8. KSA + pp. :.
. J ! p. 6.
o. KSA + pp. 8o, 8T pp. ++.
+. KSA + |+8|.
:. GM pp. +686.
. Scc KSA +o |+|.
. GM p. +8+. Tis is pcrhaps a vcrsion ol Te Births rathcr silly conccit according to which
thc world only cxists as cntcrtainmcnt lor its solc author and spcctator (8T 6), thc primal
unity.
. GM pp. +86.
6. Z ! +.
. GM +8.
8. GM p. +8o.
+o. ix:i:viv :vbi:~:ioxs
+. KG8 ++. 66.
:. KG8 ++. oo.
. KG8 ++. o:.
. KG8 ++. o+.
. Hayman (+8o) p. +6o.
6. KG8 +++.+ +8.
. KG8 ++. :.
8. J ! pp. 6.
. KG8 ++. :.
+o. PTA pp. +6o.
++. KSA +6 |+8|.
+:. KG8 ++. o.
+. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc +.
+. KG8 ++. o.
+. KSA + |o|
+6. KSA + |:6|. !t has bccn suggcstcd by C. Landcrcr and M.C. Schustcr (Landcrcr and
Schustcr (:oo:) pp. ++) that thc long notc lrom thc spring ol +8+ (KSA +: |+|),
in which Nictzschc dclcnds Schopcnhaucrs vicw that music docs not havc any need lor
words, and argucs that Schillcrs words arc incsscntial to thc last movcmcnt ol 8ccthovcns
Ninth symphony, shows that, privatcly, hc was critical ol Vagncr and sympathctic to his
Notes to Pages :&:,


archopponcnt, duard Hanslick, cvcn bclorc Te Birth was publishcd. 8ut this is not so.
All that Nictzschc is doing, as wc havc sccn him doing on othcr occasions, is agrccing with
latc Vagncr thc Vagncr hc kncw, thc author ol thc 8ccthovcn cssay in criticising
Vagncrs early thcory ol opcra. Vagncr himself, that is to say, would havc agrccd with cvcry
word ol thc notc. !t is signicant that in thc lcttcr conlcssing to von Gcrsdor his nccd lor
a sanitary distancc, immcdiatcly adjaccnt to this conlcssion, hc praiscs Vagncrs Statc and
Rcligion as csscntial rcading, rcading that is cdilying in thc noblcst scnsc (KG8 ++. :8).
And lar lrom bcing sympathctic gurc, Hanslick nds himscll (along with inter alios thc
butt ol thc rst Untimely Meditation, avid Strauss) on a to bc attackcd list dating lrom
thc pcriod, latc +8: to carly +8 (KSA + |:|). !n short, whcn Nictzschc spcaks
ol nccding pcrsonal distancc to rcmain truc in a highcr scnsc hc spcaks thc cxact truth.
And this is not such an odd truth cithcr: writcrs arc quitc typically only ablc to writc at a
distancc lrom whcrc thcir cmotions arc most passionatcly cngagcd, only whcn cmotion can
bc rccollcctcd in tranquillity.
+. KG8 ++. o.
+8. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc +.
+. KG8 ++. o.
:o. KSA :.+. !n a March lcttcr to von Gcrsdor hc rclcrs to a projcctcd companion piccc
lor Te Birth that will pcrhaps bc callcd thc philosophcr as physician ol culturc (KG8 ++.
:8).
:+. H \ :.
::. H \ !.
:. A :8.
:. UM ! :.
:. UM + .
:6. UM ! .
:. KSA : ||.
:8. UM ! 6.
:. KG8 ++. o.
o. UM ! 6.
+. UM !, KSA :6 |+6|.
:. UM ! .
. UM ! 6, KSA : |+|.
. UM !.
. UM ! .
6. KG8 ++. +6.
. C p. o.
8. C p. o:.
. C p. o6.
o. C p. o:.
+. C p. o.
:. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 ++. +. Tc suggcstion that his lclt cyc gavc him thc most troublc is strangc, sincc
almost always thc right cyc was thc wcakcst. Pcrhaps hc was carricd away by thc litcrary
ncatncss ol thc contrast.
. C p. o.
. C p. :.
6. C p. oo.
. KG8 ++. +8.
8. KSA : |:|.
. KSA + pp. 8+.
o. Z ! +.
+. KSA : |8o|.
:. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
&

Notes to Pages :,:,
. C pp. o.
. KG8 ++. o.
. UM !! +.
6. UM !! :.
. UM !!! .
8. UM !! . !n thc notcbooks Nictzschc, using Vagncrs word, spcaks ol thc !ahn ol thc
monumcntal as promoting grcatncss (KSA : |8|), so illusion should, ! think, as in
Te Birth, bc dccouplcd lrom thc notion ol lalschood. Hc also writcs that thc potcntial
powcr ol art is so grcat that, cvcn now, a grcat artist could still rccrcatc Christianity, abovc
all its lcstival (KSA : |+|).
. UM !! +o.
6o. UM !! .
6+. UM !! :.
6:. UM !! .
6. UN !! , 6.
6. UM !! .
6. UM !! :.
66. UM !! , UM ! +. Tc most crucial word hcrc is unity. Timc and again thc notcs insist
that an authcntic culturc crcatcs unity, unity out ol multiplicity (KSA :6 |+6|, scc, too,
8G :+:). Abovc all culturc crcatcs, as onc might put it, e pluribus unum. Tc notcs draw
a sharp distinction bctwccn lashion and convcntion (KSA : |+::|). Tc lormcr is all
that modcrnity posscsscs, thc lattcr is thc gluc ncccssary to thcrc bcing a gcnuinc culturc.
Tc paradigmol thc convcntioncrcatcd human bcing is thc Prussian soldicr who is crcatcd,
lrom thc ground up, by convcntion (KSA : |++|). 8ut convcntional lorms ol bchaviour
can bccomc, with practicc, a sccond naturc, so that to bc simplc and natural is thc highcst
goal ol culturc (KSA : |++8|).
6. UM !! , UM ! +. So prcsumably cvcn Nictzschcs slavcs bclong to thc culturc hc bclicvcs
can only bc built on thc backs ol thcir labour.
68. UM !! .
6. KSA : |66|.
o. UM ! +.
+. UM ! +, UM !! .
:. UM !! .
. KSA : |o|, |+|, |+|.
. UM !! +o.
. Attcmpt at a ScllCriticism (8T pp. 6).
6. KSA : |+|.
. KSA : |+|.
8. KSA : |+o8|.
. KSA : |:o|, that is, multiplicity in unity.
8o. KSA + ||.
8+. KSA + |+:|. Tis is what Nictzschc lcarnt lrom Langc (scc p. o abovc).
8:. KSA : ||.
8. KSA + |+:|.
8. KSA :8 |+|.
8. KSA + |:|.
86. KSA + ||.
8. KSA + |+:|, scc, too, + |8|.
88. KSA : ||.
8. KSA o |8|.
o. KSA + |+|.
+. KSA : |8|.
:. KSA |+6o|.
. KSA |+|.
Notes to Pages :c:


. Scc KSA + |+|, lor instancc.
. KSA : |:|.
6. KSA : |++|.
. KSA : |+|.
8. KSA : |+|.
. KSA + ||.
+oo. KSA + |8|.
+o+. KSA :8 |6|.
++. ~i:vzvois nv~n:s-
+. KG8 ++. .
:. KG8 ++. 8.
. KG8 ++. 6.
. KG8 ++. 6.
. KG8 ++. 6.
6. KG8 ++. 68.
. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
8. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc :a.
. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
+o. KG8 ++. 6.
++. KG8 ++. 6+.
+:. KG8 ++. 8.
+. KSA 8 +8 |8|.
+. KG8 ++. 68.
+. KG8 ++. 6.
+6. KG8 ++. o.
+. KG8 ++. .
+8. KG8 ++. 6+.
+. KG8 ++. 6.
:o. KG8 ++. 6.
:+. . . . ins Begrenzste und Heimische (KSA : |+|).
::. KG8 ++. .
:. Tc notcs lrom thc bcginning ol +8 contain thc rst skctch plan lor thc lourth
Meditation (KSA : |+|).
:. KSA : |+|.
:. KSA : |:|.
:6. KG8 ++. 6.
:. KSA : |8|.
:8. KSA : |+6|.
:. KSA : ||.
o. KSA : |8|.
+. KSA : ||.
:. KSA : |:|.
. KSA |+o|.
. KSA : |:|.
. KSA : |8|.
6. KSA : ||.
. KSA : |o|.
8. KSA : ||.
. 8T :+.
o. KSA : |::|.
+. KSA : |+|.

Notes to Pages ::,
:. KSA : |8|.
. KSA : |:8|.
. KSA : |6+|.
. KSA : |:|.
6. KSA : |+|.
. KSA : |+o|.
8. KSA ||.
. KSA : |+:|.
o. KSA : |:+|.
+. KG8 ++. 6o.
:. KG8 ++. o.
. KG8 ++. +.
. KG8 ++. .
. YN p. +o.
6. YN pp. ++.
. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
8. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc :.
. KG8 ++. o.
6o. KG8 ++. :.
6+. UM ! +.
6:. J ! p. 6o.
6. J ! pp. 6:.
6. KG8 ++. 8o.
6. KG8 ++. 8.
66. KG8 ++. 8+.
6. KG8 ++. 8+.
68. KG8 ++. ::.
6. KG8 ++. 8:.
o. KG8 ++. +.
+. C p. :+.
:. C p. :+.
. C pp. :+:.
. YN p. :.
. !bid.
6. C p. ::.
. C pp. :.
8. KG8 ++. o.
. KG8 ++. .
8o. KG8 +++.+ :.
8+. UM !!! +.
8:. !bid.
8. !bid.
8. !bid.
8. UM !!! .
86. UM !!! :, , 6.
8. Human, ll-Too-Human, Prclacc to \olumc !!, scction +.
88. UM !!! :.
8. UM !!! .
o. UM !!! .
+. UM !!! .
:. UM !!! .
. UM !!! .
. !bid.
. 8T .
Notes to Pages :,:c,

,
6. UM !!! 6.
. UM !!! .
8. UM !!! 6.
. KSA + |+:|, + |8|.
+oo. At this stagc in his thought, Nictzschcs conccpt ol thc highcr is an uncasy mixturc ol thc
morc adaptivc and thc morc admirablc, i.c., morc spiritual.
+o+. UM !!! .
+o:. UM !!! 6.
+o. H \ :.
+o. C p. o.
+o. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc 6+.
+o6. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc .
+o. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc 8.
+o8. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc 6o.
+o. YN p. :o.
++o. KG8 ++. To Nictzschc 6+o.
+++. YN p. :.
++:. H \ . My cmphasis.
++. UM !!! .
++. YN pp. :o:+.
++. KG8 ++. o.
++6. KG8 ++. +.
++. !bid.
++8. KG8 ++. ::.
+:. ~iv wivbvvsvnvx n~vvvi:n
+. KG8 ++. +:.
:. YN p. o.
. KG8 ++. +.
. KG8 ++. ::.
. KG8 ++. +.
6. C pp. :.
. C p. 6.
8. KG8 ++. :.
. KG8 ++. .
+o. KG8 ++. 8.
++. KG8 ++. o.
+:. KG8 ++. +.
+. KG8 ++. .
+. KSA 8 |+||+6|.
+. KSA 8 |+:|.
+6. KSA 8 ||.
+. KSA 8 |+|.
+8. KSA 8 |+8|.
+. KSA 8 + |:|.
:o. KSA 8 |:o|.
:+. KSA 8 |+6|.
::. KSA 8 |68|, my cmphasis.
:. KSA 8 |6|.
:. KSA 8 ||.
:. KSA 8 |+|.
:6. KSA 8 |8|.
,c

Notes to Pages :c,::
:. KSA 8 |8|.
:8. KG8 ++. :8.
:. KG8 ++. .
o. C pp. 6.
+. KG8 ++. .
:. KG8 ++. o.
. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 +++. .
. KG8 ++.6/+ 68o.
6. KG8 ++.6/+ 6+.
. AM .
8. KG8 ++. 66.
. KG8 ++. 8+.
o. KG8 ++. 6.
+. KG8 ++. 6.
:. KG8 ++. o.
. !bid.
. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc 68o.
. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc .
6. KG8 ++. 8.
. KG8 ++. .
8. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 ++. +.
o. C p. 6.
+. KG8 ++. .
:. KG8 ++. :+.
. KG8 ++. :o.
. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 ++. .
6. KG8 ++. 8+.
. n his last day in Stcinabad Nictzschc wrotc to Carl Fuchs may God grant that wc bccomc
lrcc spirits, you can kccp thc rcst, which sccms to bc his rst usc ol this kcy cxprcssion (KG8
++. ).
8. KG8 ++. +.
. KG8 ++. .
6o. KG8 ++. .
6+. KG8 ++. 8+.
6:. KG8 ++. o.
6. KG8 ++. .
6. KG8 ++. .
6. KG8 ++. .
66. KG8 ++. .
6. KG8 ++. 8.
68. Catc (:oo:) p. ::.
6. Small (:oo) p. .
o. KG8 ++. :.
+. KG8 ++ 6.+ .
:. KG8 ++. o.
. KG8 ++. .
. HH 6.
. VR !! p. :+o.
6. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +o8, H !!! HH 6.
. GS .
8. J ! p. 6.
Notes to Pages ::::,

,:
. C pp. +.
8o. C p. .
8+. KG8 ++. +6.
8:. J ! p. 6o.
8. KG8 ++. +.
8. KG8 ++. :.
8. KG8 ++. .
86. KG8 ++. o.
8. H !!! 8T .
88. H !!! UM . My cmphasis.
8. V8 +.
o. V8 .
+. V8 8.
:. V8 8.
. V8 +.
. V8 .
. An imprcssivc notc lrom this pcriod rcads: ducation is rst a tcaching ol ncccssity, thcn
ol thc changcablc and altcrablc. nc shows thc pupil thc univcrsal sway ol laws in naturc,
thcn thc laws ol civil socicty. Vith rcgard to thc lattcr thc qucstion ariscs: must this bc so:
Gradually thc studcnt nccds history in ordcr to hcar how it was in thc past. 8ut hcrc hc
lcarns, too, that things can bc othcrwisc. How much powcr docs man havc ovcr things:
Tis is thc qucstion ol all cducation. And now to show how things could bc quitc dicrcnt
onc shows him, lor cxamplc, thc Grccks. Tc Romans onc nccds in ordcr to show how
things bccamc as thcy arc (KSA 8 |6|).
6. V8 ++.
. V8 , , +o.
8. V8 :.
. KSA 8 |+|. Tc phrasc is takcn ovcr lrom Karl ugcn uhring, whosc Te !alue of Life
Nictzschc had bccn rcading intcnsivcly during thc summcr ol +8.
+oo. V8 , :.
+o+. V8 .
+o:. V8 .
+o. KG8 ++. o.
+o. V8 .
+o. V8 .
+o6. KG8 ++. .
+o. V8 .
+o8. !t is unknown which oncs wcrc scnt sincc altcr hc bccamc persona non grata in !ahnfried
in thc lollowing ycar, Cosima dcstroycd most ol his lcttcrs.
+o. KG8 ++. , 6, , 8.
++o. Ecce Homos claim that Vagncr lailcd to rccognisc himscll in thc cssay (H !!! 8T ) is
thus somcthing ol a ction.
+++. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc .
++:. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc 6.
++. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc .
++. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc 8oo.
++. C p. o.
++6. YN p. o.
++. KG8 ++. .
++8. KG8 ++. .
++. KG8 ++. .
+:o. KG8 ++. .
+:+. KG8 ++. .
+::. KG8 ++. .
,:

Notes to Pages ::,:
+:. YN p. 86.
+:. YN p. :.
+:. H !!! 8T .
+:6. J ! p. :.
+:. YN p. 8.
+:8. YN p. 8.
+:. YN p. 8.
+o. 8T :, UM !! :.
++. KG8 ++. .
+:. YN pp. 6.
+. HH +.
+. HH \olumc !! Prclacc .
+. H !!! HH :.
+6. KG8 ++. .
+. YN p. +.
+8. Hc would marry on August 8, +8, a ycar to thc day altcr vcrbccks marriagc.
+. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc ++.
+o. H !!! HH :.
++. KG8 ++. .
+:. KG8 ++.6/+ To Nictzschc 8+o.
+. KG8 ++ 6/+ To Nictzschc 8+.
+. KSA 8 |6|.
+. KG8 ++. :.
+. sovvvx:o
+. KG8 ++. :6.
:. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 ++ 6/+ To Nictzschc 8:+.
. KG8 ++. 6. Jacob 8crnays had succccdcd Ritschl as prolcssor ol classical philology at
8onn. !n cccmbcr +8: Nictzschc had writtcn Rohdc, thc latcst is that Jacob 8crnays
has claimcd that |thc vicws prcscntcd in Te Birth of Tragedy| . . . arc his vicws, only strongly
cxaggcratcd. ! nd it a divinc chcck on thc part ol this cducatcd and clcvcr Jcw, but at thc
samc timc a chccrlul sign that thc cunning in thc land havc sccntcd whats up (KG8
++. :).
. J ! p. :.
6. C p. 8:.
. KG8 ++. +8.
8. J ! p. 6:.
. Availablc on thc Vcb in an nglish translation prcscntcd as an M.A. thcsis at 8righam
Young Univcrsity by Montc Gardincr.
+o. KG8 ++. +8.
++. Memoirs of a Female Idealist, Part !, Chaptcr +o.
+:. Villiam Jamcs citcs this passagc in his !arieties of Feligious Experience (scc Small (:oo)
p. :6).
+. KSA 8 :.+. Lambrcttas, unlortunatcly, havc changcd all that.
+. C p. 8.
+. GS .
+6. KG8 ++. 8o.
+. HH +.
+8. Small (:oo), p. :6.
+. C p. .
Notes to Pages ::,:

,
:o. C p. :.
:+. KSA :+ |+|.
::. KSA 8 + |+o8|.
:. KSA 8 :+ ||. !n a couplc ol ycars timc, whcn hc had bcgun to usc morality as a pcjor
ativc tcrm, Nictzschc could havc madc cxactly this samc rcmark with thc implication so
much thc worsc lor socialism. 8ut as yct hc has not hit on thc pcjorativc usc ol morality.
Vithout cxccption, in thc notcbooks lor +8, thc tcrm is uscd in thc traditional manncr
as an cxprcssion ol high approval.
:. KSA 8 : |+|.
:. KSA 8 + ||.
:6. C p. 86.
:. GS :.
:8. KG8 ++. 8+.
:. KG8 ++.6 To Nictzschc 88.
o. KG8 ++. 6.
+. C p. +8.
:. KG8 ++. 6o6.
. KG8 ++. 6o.
. HH o:, :.
. KG8 ++. 6.
6. KG8 ++. 6:.
. KG8 ++. .
8. K8G ++. 6:8.
. KG8 ++. 6.
o. KG8 ++. 6.
+. !bid.
:. GS 8+.
. KG8 ++. 6:.
. KG8 ++. 66+.
. KG8 ++. 66o.
6. Z !! +o.
. Janz (+6) ! p. 8:.
8. KG8 ++. 66.
. KG8 ++. 6:.
o. KG8 ++. 6.
+. C p. +.
:. KG8 ++. 6:o.
. KG8 ++. 6.
. KG8 ++. 66:.
. Janz ! p. 8.
6. C p. ::.
. KG8 ++. 66.
8. C p. +.
. Magcc (+8) p. +:+.
6o. C pp. +8.
6+. KG8 +++.+ 8.
6:. KG8 +++.+ o. Notc that Unnatural dcbauchcry, with indications ol pcdcrasty has
Vagncrs lcttcr to iscr wordpcrlcct.
+. ni:~x, ~ii:ooni:~x
+. KG8 ++. 68.
:. H !!! HH .
,,

Notes to Pages :,::,,
. KG8 ++. 6.
. KG8 ++. 6, +o.
. KG8 ++. 66.
6. Mathildc was rccipicnt ol thc lcttcr rclcrrcd to in cndnotc +o6 to Chaptcr +: and rcquotcd
in thc ncxt paragraph.
. KG8 ++. .
8. T! !\. Scc bclow, p. 8.
. VR !! p. +6.
+o. T! !\.
++. H !!! HH 6.
+:. T! !\.
+. HH 6o, 6+.
+. H !!! HH +. Alltoo contains hcrc, ! think, at lcast two mcanings: thc sourccs ol mcta
physical bclicl arc alltoohuman lor mctaphysics to achicvc, as it wcrc, lilto, and thcy
arc alltoohuman in that thcy arc all cascs ol thc human intcllcct having a bad day.
+. Te ntichrist, Prclacc.
+6. GS 8+. Scc, too, AM +8.
+. Small (:oo) p. +.
+8. KG8 ++. 6.
+. KG8 ++. .
:o. HH ::.
:+. Ibid.
::. VS :88.
:. Spir (+86) p. . Translatcd, thc documcnts titlc rcads, Proposal to the Friends of a Fational
!ay of Li.ing.
:. H !! +, T! \!!! :. Tough in his youth, as wc havc sccn, by no mcans unacquaintcd with
alcohol, latcr lilc hc hardly cvcr drank it, savc whcn hc thought it might bcnct his hcalth.
:. UM !! +o.
:6. HH :8:.
:. VS :+8+.
:8. HH :o. Scc, too, AM .
:. VS :.
o. KG8 ++. ::.
+. KG8 ++. 66. ccasionally hc says thc oppositc.
:. AM +8.
. Tat thc dcdication to \oltairc was rcmovcd lrom thc +886 cdition says somcthing about
Nictzschcs intcllcctual dcvclopmcnt.
. KSA 8 |o|.
. Small (:oo) p. +.
6. GS 8.
. HH Prclacc , . !n Zarathustra Nictzschc makcs thc samc point by rcquiring thc dcscrt
inhabiting lion to bc translormcd into thc crcativc child lor thc lull dcvclopmcnt ol thc
spirit to occur (Z ! +).
8. KG8 ++. :+.
. KG8 ++. .
o. KG8 ++. .
+. J ! p. o.
:. KG8 ++. ++.
. KG8 ++. 8.
. KSA 8 + |o|.
. KSA 8 + |o|.
6. HH +o.
. AM +8o.
8. HH +.
Notes to Pages :,,:,

,
. HH o.
o. HH 6.
+. HH ++.
:. HH , +:.
. HH +:6.
. HH ++, ++. Hcrc, in cmbryo, wc havc thc sccond cssay ol thc Genealogy of Morals.
. HH ! +++.
6. HH +.
. HH .
8. 8T +.
. HH +.
6o. HH :6, .
6+. VR !! Ch. +.
6:. HH +.
6. HH +.
6. Salom c (+88) p. 6.
6. HH +6.
66. HH +, +.
6. HH +6:.
68. HH +:.
6. Tc Tird Antinomy ol thc Critique of Pure Feason.
o. Scc FV pp. , VR ! pp. ++, +6, VR !! pp. +:+.
+. HH .
:. HH +o6.
. HH +8, .
. HH +o:.
. HH ++.
6. HH .
. HH , 6.
8. HH +o.
. HH +o.
8o. HH .
8+. HH +.
8:. HH :o.
8. HH ::.
8. HH .
8. HH ! :.
86. HH :.
8. HH .
88. KSA 8 : |+|, a prcliminary vcrsion ol HH 6.
8. HH 6, .
o. HH +o. Tat Nictzschc is consistcntly in lavour ol litcral prostitution ought to havc lcd
to rcscrvations about this rcmark.
+. HH +.
:. HH ++, ++, ++, +.
. HH +:.
. HH +o.
. HH +o8.
6. HH ::.
. HH +o8.
8. HH +:8.
. HH .
+oo. HH .
+o+. Z !\ +.
,&

Notes to Pages :,:&
+o:. KG8 ++ 6o.
+o. KSA 8 : |+6|.
+o. HH :.
+o. HH 8.
+o6. HH :o.
+o. Comparc HH :.
+o8. HH :.
+o. HH:. !n modcrn warlarc, ol coursc, lcadcrship and dangcr arc not so closcly conncctcd.
++o. HH , :8, :8.
+++. Comparc AM ++.
++:. HH ::6.
++. HH :+.
++. HH ::.
++. HH ::, 6.
++6. HH ::.
++. HH ::.
++8. KSA 8 + ||.
++. KSA + |+:|, + |8|.
+:o. HH ::.
+:+. HH 6:.
+::. HH . Comparc thc rcmarks in Tc Grcck Statc, GM p. +8o.
+:. KSA 8 : |+|. My cmphasis.
+:. HH 6:.
+:. HH 66.
+:6. HH +o, o.
+:. Z ! :+.
+:8. HH 8o.
+:. HH :.
+o. KSA +o |+| 8. ! havc no idca what occasioncd this rcmarkablc cntry.
++. HH :+.
+:. HH :8.
+. HH :6.
+. KSA 8 |:|.
+. HH +++.
+6. HH ! ++.
+. HH +++.
+8. AM :::.
+. 8T :.
+o. HH :6:. As wc know, onc crucial dicrcncc is that Grcck rcligion is polythcistic, thus
avoiding thc onc sizc ts all charactcr ol thc morality cmbodicd in Christian monoto
thcism and allowing humanity to ourish in all its rich varicty.
++. HH ::.
+:. urkhcim (+) p. .
+. HH :::. Tc quotation is lrom Gocthcs pocm, Tc 8ridcgroom.
+. AM .
+. AM ++.
+6. KSA 8 o |o|.
+. KSA 8 o |8:|.
+8. VS 8.
+. HH :.
+o. VS o.
++. VS :8.
+:. HH .
+. HH .
Notes to Pages :&:c

,
+. VS 6+.
+. KG8 ++. 6.
+6. AM 88.
+. HH :.
+. :nv w~xbvvvv ~xb nis sn~bow
+. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +o.
:. KG8 ++. .
. KG8 ++. :.
. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +o6.
. LN p. .
6. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +o8.
. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +o8:.
8. KG8 ++ 6/: To Nictzschc +o8.
. KG8 ++. .
+o. Salom c (+88) p. . Translation adjustcd.
++. KG8 ++. 8.
+:. KG8 ++. .
+. AM , o.
+. AM o.
+. AM .
+6. AM +.
+. AM :+.
+8. AM +o.
+. AM 8.
:o. AM +.
:+. AM .
::. KG8 ++. :.
:. KG8 ++. 8:.
:. KG8 ++. , 8.
:. KG8 ++. 8:.
:6. LN pp. .
:. KG8 ++. 8.
:8. KG8 ++. 8.
:. KG8 ++. 86.
o. KG8 ++. 86.
+. KSA 8 .
:. KG8 +++.+ +.
. H ! +.
. VS :.
. KSA 8 :8 |+|.
6. KSA 8 o |+|.
. KG8 ++. 8:6.
8. KSA ||.
. HH :.
o. AM ::.
+. VS +8.
:. VS 86.
. Hadot (+).
. KSA 8 + |8|.
. VS +:.
6. KSA 8 + |8|.
,

Notes to Pages :c:
. KG8 ++. 8:.
8. KSA 8 o |:|.
. KG8 +++.+ 68, +:.
o. KSA 8 + |:|.
+. KSA 8 :8 |+|.
:. KSA 8 :8 |o|.
. KG8 ++. 88o.
. KSA 8 : |:+|.
. Tis will bc discusscd lurthcr on pp. o8 bclow.
6. VS :.
. VS oo.
8. VS .
. VS o.
6o. Tat thcsc arc on his mind is indicatcd by thc titlc ol scction oo, nc thing is nccdlul, an
obliquc rclcrcncc to John 8unyans nc Ting !s Nccdlul, r Scrious Mcditations Upon
thc Four Lasting Tings: cath, Judgmcnt, Hcavcn, and Hcll. Nictzschc ol coursc rcjccts
8unyans lourlold. Tc only thing nccdlul is joy in thc hcart, to bc achicvcd through
wisdom.
6+. VS 6.
6:. KSA 8 o |+6|.
6. :8.
6. VS :6+.
6. VS :+.
66. VS :o.
6. VS :o.
68. VS :.
6. VS .
o. VS +6.
+. VS +.
:. !bid.
. 8T .
. VS o.
. VS ::.
6. VS 88.
. VS +8.
8. VS o: comparc VS 6.
. VS +.
8o. VS :o.
8+. VS .
8:. VS :88.
8. VS :86.
8. VS :8.
8. VS :8o.
86. VS +6.
8. VS :.
88. VS +8.
8. VS ::.
o. VS o.
+. VS :8
:. VS ::6.
. VS ::.
. VS :o.
. VS ::.
6. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +::.
Notes to Pages ::,

,,
. KG8 ++. oo.
8. PP !! pp. 6++.
. VS :.
+oo. VS :8.
+o+. KG8 ++.6/: To Nictzschc +:6.
+o:. C pp. .
+o. 6.
+o. KG8 ++. 88.
+o. KG8 ++. 86.
+o6. KG8 ++. 86.
+o. KG8 +++.+ :.
+o8. 8G ::.
+o. KG8 +++.+ +.
++o. KG8 +++.+ +6:.
+++. KSA +o:.
++:. C p. .
++. C p. .
++. C p. 8.
++. KG8 +++.+ .
++6. !bid.
++. KG8 +++.+ :.
++8. C p. 6.
++. KG8 +++.+ o.
+:o. LN p. .
+:+. Palaccs is a ight ol lancy. Tc strcct actually contains a tcrracc ol lour and vcstory
middlcclass houscs on onc sidc, with thc \illcta incgro park on thc othcr.
+::. KG8 +++.+ 6.
+:. KG8 +++.+ +o+.
+:. !bid.
+:. LN p. 8:.
+:6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
+:. KG8 +++.+ 66.
+:8. KG8 +++.+ 68.
+:. GS :+.
+o. GS :o, :+. Scc pp. ++ abovc.
++. KG8 +++.+ 6.
+:. :.
+. KG8 +++.+ 86.
+. KG8 +++.+ ++o.
+. KG8 +++.+ +o. Tis should probably bc takcn as cancclling thc carlicr claim that his own
Manlrcd Mcditation is thc musical background to Da.n (KG8 +++.+ 8).
+6. b~wx
+. H !!! +.
:. +.
. +6.
. !bid.
. !bid.
6. 6.
. :o, :o+.
8. +o, .
. .
&cc

Notes to Pages :,c
+o. Prclacc .
++. .
+:. :o.
+. 6.
+. .
+. H !!! +.
+6. .
+. 6.
+8. HH :.
+. .
:o. .
:+. ++, +.
::. +::. Tis arwinian dcconstruction is surcly a principal thought bchind Te Gay Sciences
asscrtion that thc total charactcr ol thc world is chaos, that any projcction ol ordcr or
wisdom onto it is a mcrc anthropomorphism (GS +o).
:. , +, : .
:. +8, +:8.
:. ++6.
:6. :o:. Prcsumably Nictzschc would also allowprotcction ol socicty and dctcrrcncc ol othcrs
as rational considcrations. Vhat hc dcnics rationality to is retribution.
:. +8.
:8. +8, +o, ++o, .
:. +8, :, +8, :o, 8, 6.
o. .
+. HH ::6.
:. 68.
. :.
. +8, .
. :.
6. KSA |++|.
. +o:.
8. +.
. .
o. +.
+. .
:. .
. :.
. !n thc notcbooks Nictzschc writcs, Kant: man is a moral bcing: thcrclorc hc is (+) lrcc (:)
immortal () thcrcs a rcwarding and punishing justicc: God. 8ut thc moral bcing is a
ction, thcrclorc . . . (KSA |:o|).
. +8.
6. 6.
. 8.
8. +o8.
. , .
o. +8.
+. ::, +6, .
:. +. As Karl Poppcr rcmarks ` a propos Frcud, claims likc this arc irrclutablc.
. 8ut scc cndnotc 6 ol Chaptcr :+.
. +, ::.
. KSA |+|.
6. +.
. 8T :+.
8. +.
Notes to Pages c:c

&c:
. KSA : |o|.
6o. 6.
6+. +.
6:. !bid.
6. KG8 +++. ++.
6. KSA : |+|.
6. +o.
66. +6.
6. Z ! +.
68. .
6. KSA |+|.
o. +:8.
+. ++.
:. +:.
. ++.
. 6o.
. KSA |o|, comparc AM 6.
6. VR ! pp. o. Tc charactcr that is unchangcablc is oncs rcpcrtoirc ol basic dispos
itions. Acquircd charactcr has to do with thc sct ol dispositions onc allows to cxprcss
thcmsclvcs.
. +o.
8. !bid.
. Tis working out ol thc tcnsion bctwccn Da.ns latalism and thc thcmc ol scllcrcation
was originally achicvcd by 8rian Lcitcr. Scc Lcitcr (:oo+).
8o. Prclacc .
8+. :.
8:. .
8. +o, scc, too, KSA 8 : |+|.
8. AM ::o.
8. +o.
86. :+8, scc too, , 68, and VS +:o.
8. 6.
88. VS ++.
8. :.
o. 8G :+:.
+. C p. .
:. +o8.
. +6.
. Z !\.+.
. KSA 8 o |+6|.
6. KSA ||.
. KSA 8 ||.
8. VS :.
. HH 6++.
+oo. 8G :+.
+o+. +.
+o:. Lcitcr (:oo:).
+o. .
+o. , +6, .
+o. +o.
+o6. 6.
+o. KG8 +++.+ o.
+o8. KSA 8 : |:|.
+o. Huttcr (:oo6).
&c:

Notes to Pages :c:
++o. +.
+++. :.
++:. .
++. KG8 ++. 6+.
++. KG8 +++.+ 8.
++. :. Nictzschcs cmphascs.
++6. +. Tis is thc idca that appcars in thc Prologuc to Zarathustra and in its discussion ol
thc giltgiving virtuc (Z ! ::) which suggcsts that thc lattcr should bc undcrstood on thc
modcl ol prcgnancy.
++. .
++8. Quotcd in Conradi (:oo+) and rcquotcd by Stuart Hampshirc (:oo+) in a rcvicw ol
Conradis book in Te Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books.
++. +.
+:o. KG8 +++.+ 8.
+:+. Z ! ::.
+::. +.
+:. :.
+:. .
+:. o.
+:6. HH :8.
+:. 6.
+:8. :.
+:. 6:.
+o. 6.
++. :8.
+:. :+.
+. 6.
+. +.
+. :.
+6. :8.
+. :.
+8. :.
+. ++.
+o. KSA +o | 8:|.
++. :.
+:. ++.
+. +.
+. 8T +.
+. Furthcr support lor thc vicw that Nictzschc is a Kantian rathcr than postmodcrnist lrom
thc notcbooks: Man in thc cnd docs not discovcr thc world, but rathcr his tactilc and
scnsc organs and thcir laws but isnt thcir cxistcncc a sucicnt prool ol rcality: ! think
thc mirror provcs thc things (KSA +o | 8|). ur scnsiblc world is not rcally prcscnt,
it contradicts itscll: it is a scnsory illusion. 8ut what thcn arc thc scnscs: Tc causc ol thc
illusion must bc rcal (KSA +o | |).
+6. KSA |+|, scc, too, VS +6.
+. Quinc (+6o) p. ::.
+. :nv c~v scivxcv
+. KG8 +++.+ +:.
:. KG8 +++.+ +::.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
. KG8 +++.+ +:.
Notes to Pages ::&

&c
. KG8 +++.+ +.
6. KG8 +++.+ +:.
. KG8 +++.+ +:.
8. KG8 +++.+ +:+.
. KG8 +++.+ +6.
+o. KG8 +++.+ +.
++. KG8 +++.+ +.
+:. KG8 +++.+ +:.
+. KG8 +++.+ +:8.
+. KG8 +++.+ +:.
+. KG8 +++.+ +6.
+6. H !!! Z +.
+. KSA ++ |++|.
+8. KG8 +++.+ +.
+. KG8 +++.+ +.
:o. KG8 +++.+ +8.
:+. KG8 +++.+ +.
::. KG8 +++.+ :6.
:. KG8 +++.+ +8.
:. GS Prclacc .
:. KG8 +++.+ +.
:6. KG8 +++.+ +8+.
:. KG8 +++.+ +8+.
:8. KG8 +++.+ +.
:. KG8 +++.+ +8.
o. KG8 +++.+ +88.
+. KG8 +++.+ +:.
:. KG8 +++.+ +.
. n July :6, +88:.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
. KG8 +++.+ :o:.
6. KG8 +++.+ +8.
. GS :6.
8. KG8 +++./+ Appcndix +.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
o. KG8 +++.+ :o+. This rcappcars in thc collcction ol pocms at thc bcginning ol Te Gay Science.
+. KG8 +++.+ +.
:. KG8 +++.+ :o6.
. KG8 +++.+ :+.
. KG8 +++.+ ::o.
. Kohlcr (:oo:).
6. KG8 +++.+ +:+.
. KG8 +++.+ ::+.
8. KG8 +++.+ :::.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
o. KG8 +++.+ +6:.
+. KG8 +++.+ :o.
:. KG8 +++.+ ::.
. KG8 +++.: ++8.
. KSA pp. :.
. KG8 +++.+ +, ::.
6. KSA ||.
. H !!! GS.
8. GS :.
&c,

Notes to Pages :&
. KG8 +++.+ :o.
6o. Z Prologuc .
6+. GS , scc, too, GS .
6:. GS :, scc, too, :.
6. GS 8+.
6. GS :6.
6. GS +.
66. GS 6.
6. !bid.
68. GS ++6+.
6. GS o.
o. !bid.
+. GS ++6.
:. GS .
. GS 6.
. GS :.
. GS :.
6. !bid.
. GS 8.
8. KSA 8 + ||.
. GS 8:.
8o. GS .
8+. GS :8.
8:. GS +o8.
8. GS +.
8. GS :.
8. GS :.
86. GS 6.
8. GS .
88. GS :.
8. GS +:.
o. GS +:.
+. GS 86.
:. KG8 +++.+ 8+, , 6.
. KSA +o |o|.
. GS 8. !n thc notcbooks: Against thc art ol artworks ! want to tcach a highcr art: thc
invcntion ol lcstivals (KSA ++ |+o|).
. GS 8.
6. KSA +o |:6|. Nictzschc actually says many picturcs, cxprcssing his rcquircmcnt that
thc polythcism ol Grcck rcligion should rcplacc thc monothcism ol Christianity. Tis
rcquircmcnt is madc cxplicit at GS +.
. GS 8.
8. GS +o6.
. Triumph of the !ill and Olympia.
+oo. GS :.
+o+. GS o+.
+o:. KSA ++.++.
+o. Z !! ::. Such thoughts may somctimcs, ol coursc, bc vcry bad thoughts. Tc lundamcntal
causc ol global nancial mcltdown ol :oo8 lay, surcly, not in thc grccd ol bankcrs but in
thc dominion ol ncoclassical cconomics, thc absurd assumption that cconomic agcnts arc
pcrlcctly rational.
+o. GS . Tis, at lcast at thc timc ol writing, is thc grcat hopc ol thc bama U.S. Prcsidcncy.
For thc rst timc in living mcmory wc sccm to bc ocrcd thc combination ol (bcnign)
spiritual lcadcrship with global powcr.
+o. GS :8o.
Notes to Pages ,

&c
+o6. GS +:o.
+o. GS ++8.
+o8. GS ++.
+o. KG8 +++.+ 8o. Scc lurthcr p. bclow.
++o. GS o.
+++. GS .
++:. GS :8.
++. GS .
++. GS :
++. GS 8.
++6. GS 8.
++. GS .
++8. GS :6.
++. GS +.
+:o. GS o.
+:+. GS .
+::. T! ! 8.
+:. GS .
+:. GS .
+:. GS .
+:6. GS .
+:. GS .
+:8. Tc tcrm is Hubcrt rcyluss, scc rcylus (++).
+:. GS .
+o. GS 8.
++. GS .
+8. :nv s~io: v ~vv~iv
+. GS :.
:. KG8 +++.+ :6.
. C p. 6.
. KG8 +++.+ :+.
. KG8 +++.: ++8.
6. !bid.
. C p. +o.
8. Tc hill is actually, and always has bccn, callcd Sacro Montc, Sacro Montc drta.
. KG8 +++ /+ p.o.
+o. Lous Tautcnburg diary Monday, thc :+st ol August 8: (KG8 +++./+ pp. o++).
++. J !! p. +o.
+:. KG8 +++.+ :.
+. KG8 +++. /+ Briefe, Erinnerungern und andere Materialien pp. 8.
+. KG8 +++.+ :+
+. KG8 +++.+ :.
+6. KG8 +++.+ :.
+. KG8 +++.+ :o.
+8. KG8 +++.+ :.
+. KG8 +++.+ :.
:o. KG8 +++.+ :.
:+. Scc Schaumann (+8) pp. 8. Prolcssor Gcrhard Schaumann suggcstcd to mc, whcn
! visitcd Tautcnburg in thc summcr ol :oo, that lizabcth was also hall in lovc with
thc (marricd) pastor, which pcrhaps cxaggcratcd hcr cstimation ol his ability to dcal with
Nictzschc on his own lcvcl.
&c&

Notes to Pages &::
::. Tc socicty still thrivcs. An intcrcsting point ol continuity is that Prolcssor Schaumann,
mcntioncd in thc prcvious cndnotc, is an activc mcmbcr.
:. KG8 +++.+ :6:.
:. Tautcnburg mcmorics as to thc location and numbcr ol bcnchcs contradict cach othcr. \cry
rcccntly thc 8cautication Socicty has crcctcd two bcnchcs in mcmory ol Nictzschcs visit,
but without any prctcncc that thcy arc placcd whcrc thc original bcnchcs wcrc.
:. KG8 +++.+ :.
:6. KG8 +++.+ :6.
:. KG8 +++.+ ::.
:8. KG8 +++.+ :6.
:. KG8 +++.+ .
o. KG8 +++.+ :8.
+. KG8 +++.+ :8.
:. KG8 +++.+ :.
. Scc KGV +++.+ p. 6.
. KGV +++.: +:.
. KG8 +++.+ 8, .
6. KG8 +++./+ pp. +:+8.
. KG8 ++.: +:.
8. KG8 +++.+ .
. C p. :.
o. KG8 +++./+ pp. o++.
+. KG8 +++.+ :8:.
:. C pp. o+.
. Salom c (+68) p. :.
. KG8 +++.+ ::.
. KG8 +++.+ :6.
6. KG8 +++.+ +o, :6, :.
. KG8 +++.+ :.
8. KG8 +++.+ :.
. !bid. !t is pcrhaps signicant that hc did not sct thc sccond vcrsc, whosc nal lincs sccm
inconsistcnt with his scarch lor a Godlcss thcodicy.
o. H !!! Z +.
+. KG8 +++.+ o+.
:. C p. :8.
. KG8 +++.+ o+. Nictzschc hcrc appcars to bc quoting lrom a lcttcr that has not survivcd.
. Naumburger Tugend (!bid.)
. KG8 +++.+ o.
6. KG8 +++.+ o.
. GS :8+.
8. C p. 8.
. KG8 +++.+ 8.
6o. KG8 +++.+ .
6+. KG8 +++.+ .
6:. KG8 +++.+ .
6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
6. KG8 +++.+ +.
6. KG8 +++.+ :.
66. KG8 +++.+ .
6. KG8 +++.+ :.
68. KG8 +++.+ 6:.
6. KG8 +++.+ .
o. KG8 +++.+ 6o.
+. KG8 +++.+ 6.
Notes to Pages ::

&c
:. Tc mcrson quotation mcntioncd on p. :o abovc.
. KG8 +++.+ 6, 6.
. J !! p. +6. Tc rcmark about Lous incapacity lor lovc is actually qualicd by at lcast at this
stagc ol hcr lilc and lor many ycars to comc.
. KG8 +++.+ 6.
6. 8anvillc (:oo6) pp. 6+.
. VR !! p. .
8. KG8 +++.+ .
+. z~v~:nis:v~
+. KG8 +++. o.
:. C p. 8.
. KG8 +++.+ :.
. KG8 +++.+ o.
. KG8 +++.+ o.
6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
8. KSA ++ :8 |6|.
. KG8 +++.+ 6.
+o. KG8 +++.+ .
++. KG8 +++.+ .
+:. KG8 +++.+ oo.
+. KG8 +++.+ +.
+. KG8 +++.+ .
+. KSA +o |::|.
+6. KSA +o |:+|. !n Te ntichrist this asscssmcnt ol Jcsus will bc radically rcviscd.
+. KG8 +++.+ 8:, 8.
+8. KG8 +++.+ 8o.
+. KSA +o |:|.
:o. KG8 +++.+ 8+.
:+. KG8 +++.+ 8:.
::. KG8 +++.+ 8+.
:. KSA 8 o |8:|.
:. KSA 8 o |o|.
:. KSA |8+|.
:6. KSA |+o|.
:. KG8 +++. 6.
:8. KG8 +++.+ o.
:. !bid.
o. KG8 +++.+ :, :6.
+. KG8 +++.+ :.
:. KG8 +++.+ :.
. KG8 +++. +.
. KG8 +++.+ :8. Scc, also, KG8 +++. +.
. KG8 +++.+ :.
6. KG8 +++ /+ pp. :.
. KG8 +++.+ .
8. KG8 +++.+ .
. KG8 +++.+ .
o. KG8 +++.+ 6.
+. KG8 +++.+ .
:. KG8 +++.+ .
&c

Notes to Pages &::
. KG8 +++.+ 8.
. KG8 +++.+ :.
. KG8 +++.+ .
6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
. !bid.
8. KG8 +++.+ .
. KG8 +++.+ .
o. KG8 +++.+ 8.
+. KG8 +++.+ .
:. KG8 +++.+ 8+.
. KG8 +++.+ 8.
. KG8 +++.+ .
. KG8 +++.+ .
6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
. KG8 +++.+ 8.
8. KG8 +++.+ .
. !bid.
6o. Janz !! p. :.
6+. KG8 +++.+ 8o.
6:. HH ! +, +.
6. KG8 +++.+ o.
6. KG8 +++.+ .
6. KG8 +++.+ 8.
66. KG8 +++.+ o
6. KG8 +++.+ .
68. KG8 +++.+ o.
6. H !!! Z :.
o. H !!! Z 6.
+. KG8+++.+ :. Sincc Vagncr dicd on Fcbruary +, +88, Part ! ol Zarathustra was actually
complctcd at lcast two wccks carlicr.
:. KG8 +++.+ o.
. H !! +o.
. Z ! :+.
. Scc, lor cxamplc, KG8 +++.+ o, :+.
6. KSA +: ||.
. GS .
8. H !!! Z 8.
. KG8 +++.+ .
8o. Z !! +.
8+. Z Prologuc +o.
8:. Fepublic 8c.
8. Z !! +.
8. YN pp. :. lizabcth claims that a rcgular trick ol thc tightropc walkcr, old Vciz
mann, was to havc an accomplicc, approaching lrom thc oppositc dircction, jump ovcr
him without disturbing his balancc.
8. !n Matthcw ::+:6 Pilatc asks thc crowd which prisoncr hc should rclcasc, Jcsus or
8arabbas. Tcy choosc 8arabbas.
86. GM !!! .
8. Z ! +.
88. Z !!! :.
8. 8G :8o.
o. Z ! .
+. Z ! .
:. Z ! .
Notes to Pages ::

&c,
. Z ! 6.
. KSA +o +6 |o|.
. Z ! +.
6. KSA +o |+88|.
. Z ! +8.
8. KG8 +++.+ :.
. Z !! +o.
+oo. Z !!! +.
+o+. 8T +.
+o:. 8T :.
+o. Z !!! +.
+o. Z !!! .
+o. Z ! :o.
+o6. HH ! :.
+o. GS +, 8G :+.
+o8. Z ! :+.
+o. KG8 +++.+ 8:.
++o. Z ! ::.
+++. Scc, lor instancc, KSA +o |:6|.
++:. KG8 +++.+ .
++. Z Prolognc +.
++. Z !\ +. Scc, too, Z !\ :o.
++. Z !! +.
++6. Anothcr !slc ol thc 8lcsscd (der Gl uckseligen) was, as wc havc sccn, Tribschcn (p. +o6
abovc). Tc phrasc rst occurs in Hcsiods !orks and Days.
++. Z !! +o.
++8. KG8 +++.+ :.
++. H !!! Z 6.
+:o. 8T +.
+:+. Z !! :.
+::. HH ! +++.
+:. KSA +: +o |+|.
+:. Z !! .
+:. 8M pp. :, VR ! pp. 6.
+:6. Z !!! +:.
+:. KG8 +++.+ .
+:8. Z !! .
+:. Z !! +.
+o. H !!! Z , .
++. KG8 +++.+ 8.
+:. Z !! +:.
+. 8G :.
+. 8G 6. My cmphasis.
+. VR !! p. +8:.
+6. Z !! :o.
+. A .
+8. Z !\ +o.+o.
+. KSA +6 |::|.
+o. Z !!! :.
++. Z !!!. .
+:. H !!! Z .
+. H !!! Z .
+. 8T +.
+. 8T +o.
&:c

Notes to Pages :,c
+6. KSA + + |+| (VP +oo).
+. Z !!! +: +. A phrasc which rcappcars in Rilkc.
+8. Salom c (+88) p. .
+. T! \! 8.
+o. !l (Apollonian) rcason supports thc idca ol transccndcncc, why should thcrc bc anything
cspccially ionysian about it: ! think Nictzschcs thought is that bccausc thc cvcryday
pcrspcctivc on thc world that is ccntrcd on thc cvcryday scll is so cngraincd it is, altcr
all, its most csscntial piccc ol survival cquipmcnt it takcs somcthing cxtraordinary
poctry, drugs, spring, strong cmotion, somc kind ol intoxication to achicvc, as it wcrc,
lilto: to propcl onc into thc widcst sphcrc, into thc supraindividual pcrspcctivc on thc
world.
++. GS o.
+:. H !!! Z 6.
+. GS :. Vc arc also warncd not to rcmovc thc scarc quotcs around pcrsonal providcncc,
not backslidc into bclicl in thc old God.
+. GS :8.
+. 8ooks !!\.
+6. GS :8.
+. KG8 +++.+ .
+8. KG8 +++.+ 6.
+. KG8 +++. : calls thc publishing busincss in gcncral a whorchousc, yct lcttcrs and
8o makc clcar that, initially, hc would havc publishcd il hc could.
+6o. KG8 +++. 6+, .
+6+. Z !\ ++.
+6:. Z !\ +, +8.
+6. Lichtcnbcrg (+86) p. :6 .
+6. KG8 +++ /: p. 6.
+6. KG8 +++.+ 6o+.
+66. 8G 8.
+6. 8T +.
+68. Z !\ +. !n a latcr cdition thc titlc was changcd to Tc Slccpwalkcrs Song.
+6. Z !\ :o.
+o. H !!! HH +.
++. Z ! .
:o. xiv:zscnvs civciv ov wo:vx
+. KG8 +++.+ 6o6.
:. KG8 +++.+ 86.
. C pp. 8o.
. C p. 8+.
. KG8 +++.+ :6.
6. KG8 +++.+ :8.
. C pp. 8o:.
8. C p. 86.
. KG8 +++.+ o.
+o. KG8 +++.+ . Tis idca actually originatcd with K osclitz, who, bccoming cvcr morc
slavish, wrotc Nictzschc in Fcbruary, +88 that Zarathustra givcs onc thc lccling that timc
should bc ncwly datcd lrom it and that onc day you will bc accordcd a highcr rcvcrcncc
than that accordcd to thc loundcrs ol Asian rcligions (KG8 +++.: To Nictzschc ::). 8ut
as wc shall scc, Nictzschc took to it as a duck to watcr.
++. KG8 +++. 8.
+:. Gilman (+8) p. +.
Notes to Pages ,c,

&::
+. KG8 +++. 8.
+. C p. 88.
+. C p. :.
+6. C p. .
+. C p. 88.
+8. KG8 +++.+ :8. Alas, thc projcct ncvcr camc to lruition.
+. KG8 +++. o.
:o. KG8 +++. :.
:+. KG8 +++. o.
::. C pp. 88.
:. Gilman (+8) pp. +6+6.
:. J !! p. :6.
:. KG8 +++.+ +, .
:6. KG8 +++.+ .
:. !bid.
:8. J !! p. :8. Tis is a continuation ol KG8 +++.+ + discovcrcd by Janzs cxamination ol
thc manuscript to bc missing in KG8.
:. KG8 +++.+ :.
o. KG8 +++.+ :8.
+. KG8 +++.+ 6:. Tc word ne. appcars only in thc rcpctition ol thc vcrsc at thc cnd ol thc
pocm.
:. KG8 +++.: To Nictzschc :6:.
. J !! p. 6.
. KG8 +++.+ +.
. KG8 +++.+ 8:, 8.
6. KG8 +++.+ o.
. KG8 +++.+ +:
8. GM ! +o.
. KG8 +++.+ .
o. KG8 +++.+ +.
+. KG8 +++.+ +.
:. KG8 +++.+ .
. KG8 +++. 6:.
. KG8 +++. 8o.
. KG8 +++. +.
6. Tcsc dctails about ruscovitzs lilc and works arc dcrivcd lromRobcrt C. Holubs cxccllcnt
Nictzschc and thc Vomans Qucstion (8G :+8), which appcars to havc no cxistcncc
savc on thc Vcb.
. KG8 +++. +.
8. KG8 +++. 6o.
. KG8 +++. 8:.
o. KG8 +++.+ +.
+. Gilman (+8) pp. +8:.
:. KG8 +++. 6o.
. KG8 +++. 6+.
. Gilman (+8) p. :+.
. KG8 +++. 6+.
6. KG8 +++. 66+.
. Gilman (+8) p. +.
8. Gilman (+8) p. :+.
. KG8 +++. 66.
6o. KSA +o |+| 6.
6+. Tis point has bccn wcll cmphasiscd by Robcrt Holub (op. cit.).
6:. Aschcim (+:) p. 86.
&::

Notes to Pages ,,c
6. Aschcim (+:) pp. 6:.
6. KG8 +++. 6oo.
6. J !! p. oo. A translation appcars in Gilman (+8) p. +6o. !n Gilmans indcx this passagc
is givcn thc quaint but appropriatc titlc n mans potcntial (my cmphasis).
66. SalisMarschlins (:ooo) pp. +6.
6. KSA ++ : |:|.
68. KG8 +o |+| :.
6. T! !X o.
o. KG8 +++. 66.
+. KG8 +++. 66.
:. KG8 +++. +.
. KG8 +++. 6:.
. KG8 +++. ++.
. !bid.
6. KG8 +++. :o.
. KG8 +++. 66.
8. KG8 +++. 6.
. KG8 +++. 66.
8o. KG8 +++. 6.
8+. KG8 +++. 68.
8:. KG8 +++. 6o.
8. GS 6:.
8. 8G ::.
8. 8G :o8.
86. AM .
8. V8 , 8G 6.
88. 8G ::.
8. !bid.
o. Scc KG8 +++.+ and 8G +88, lor cxamplc.
+. 8T :.
:. KG8 +++. 68:.
. KG8 +++. 68.
. KG8 +++.+ .
. C p. 6.
6. KG8 +++. :6.
. Janz !!! pp. :.
8. 8G :o8.
. KGV +++ /,: Appcndix 6.
+oo. KG8 +++. +8.
+o+. C p. 6+.
:+. nvvoxb coob ~xb vvii
+. KG8 +++. +.
:. KG8 +++. 6+.
. KG8 +++. 6o.
. 8G 6.
. KG8 +++. +o6. Scc also KSA + +6||.
6. Tc principlc that ought implics can is gcncrally rcgardcd as a truism. 8ut in that
bald lorm it is, in lact, not rcally truc at all. Tcrc is nothing incohcrcnt in Schopcnhaucrs
position that wc both ought to bc altruists and that (as lcast as natural bcings) wc cannot
bc. !t is prcciscly thc conjunction ol ought and cannot which, il truc, rcndcrs thc projcct
ol lilc onc which no onc in thcir right mind would choosc to participatc in any morc than
Notes to Pages ,c,:

&:
onc would choosc to participatc in a gamc in which hc who makcs thc rst movc always
loscs and in which onc always has to makc thc rst movc. Tc truc principlc is that relati.e
to the assumption that life is .orth li.ing, ought implics can.
. 8G .
8. T! !X .
. Schopcnhaucr, Nictzschc rcmarks, was a stubborn man ol morality who had to ncgatc thc
world in ordcr to bc right about morality (KSA +: : |+o6|).
+o. KG8 +++. ++.
++. KG8 +++. 68.
+:. T! ! 8.
+. 8G .
+. 8G :, Z !! +:.
+. KG8 +++. +o+.
+6. KG8 +++. +o6.
+. 8G o.
+8. 8G :+o, :++.
+. 8G :o.
:o. 8G :++.
:+. 8G Prclacc.
::. 8G :.
:. !bid.
:. 8G +.
:. 8G +:.
:6. 8G +.
:. !bid.
:8. VR ! p. 8.
:. VR !! p. +8.
o. VR !! p. +:.
+. 8G :.
:. KSA ++ 6 |+|.
. T! !X +.
. 8G :.
. 8G +.
6. 8G :.
. Z !! +:.
8. 8G :.
. 8G :.
o. 8G :.
+. !bid.
:. 8G +.
. 8G 6.
. 8G ::.
. GS .
6. 8G +o, :o8.
. 8G :, .
8. 8G :, :.
. 8G +:.
o. 8G .
+. A , KSA : |+|, :.
:. 8G :+:.
. 8G ::, ::.
. 8G ::.
. 8G ::.
6. !bid.
&:,

Notes to Pages ,:,:
. UM !! .
8. 8G ::.
. 8G :o.
6o. 8G :6:.
6+. Scc p. + abovc.
6:. 8G 6.
6. KG8 +++. +o+.
6. 8G :6o.
6. 8G 6:.
66. 8G +68.
6. 8G 6:.
68. !bid.
6. 8G , :, 6+.
o. 8G 6:.
+. Noticc that Nictzschc sccms conccrncd, hcrc, to raisc thc a.erage lcvcl ol thc hcrd. !t
is initially unclcar whcthcr this is bccausc hc thinks thcrc is morc chancc ol brccding
cxccptional individuals lrom a high basc or whcthcr hc thinks that a hcalthy socicty nccds
both cxccptional typcs and a high and happy hcrd. 8ut sincc a strong and happy hcrd surcly
makcs an important contribution to a communitys succcss in thc cvolutionary strugglc,
thc lattcr intcrprctation must, ! think, bc thc corrcct onc.
:. 8G 6:.
. 8G :.
. 8G 6:.
. GS +o8.
6. 8G :o:, :o.
. 8G :.
8. 8G :o:, KSA ++ : |+|, : |:++|.
. 8G :o:.
8o. 8G ::, :, :8, :.
8+. 8G :o:.
8:. 8G .
8. 8G :o+, :o:, .
8. 8G :+:.
8. 8G :o:.
86. 8G +, +8.
8. 8G :.
88. KSA +: || = VP :.
8. 8G :++.
o. 8G .
+. GS :.
:. 8G :o.
. H !!! 8G +. Comparc H oldcrlins pocm, Homccoming/To thc Rclativcs.
. 8G .
. 8G :+:.
6. 8G :+:.
. 8G :o8
8. 8G 6+.
. 8G :++, :o.
+oo. 8G .
+o+. !bid.
+o:. 8G 6+.
+o. 8G :++.
+o. 8G :o.
+o. 8G :o8, :. Tc mctaphor claboratcd on in Vidmanns rcvicw (p. o abovc).
Notes to Pages ,:,c

&:
+o6. !bid.
+o. 8G :++.
+o8. 8G :o.
+o. 8G :, :6.
++o. 8G :o8.
+++. 8G :+o.
++:. 8G :o.
++. KSA !!!. 8.
++. KSA !!!.+ +, .
++. 8G :+:.
++6. KSA +: ||.
++. H !!! 8G :.
++8. 8G :.
++. A .
+:o. 8G 6+. Tc cxactncss ol thc corrcspondcncc to Platos idcal statc bccomcs cvcn clcarcr
in scction ol Te ntichrist.
+:+. 8G o.
+::. 8G ::+.
+:. !bid. Tis idca that Christian cthics cannot acccpt stratication ol thc virtucs, it might
bc argucd, is thc samc crror that Nictzschc makcs whcn hc supposcs that moral cquality
prccludcs all spccial privilcgcs (p. :o abovc).
+:. GM p. +8.
+:. !bid.
+:6. 8G :.
+:. Russcll (+) p. 6.
+:8. Hcncc conscqucntial pcrlcctionism is anothcr labcl lor thc position Nictzschc is accuscd
ol holding.
+:. Rawls (+:) scction o. Savc lor thc bricl honcymoon around thc timc ol Da.n, lar lrom
thinking ol Socratcs as a supcrman, Nictzschc actually thinks ol himas a d ecadent (T! !!,
KSA + ++ ||). Tis suggcsts that Rawlss acquaintancc with Nictzschc was rclativcly
slight, that what hc was altcr was a straw man rathcr than a gcnuinc undcrstanding ol
Nictzschcs philosophy.
+o. 8G :o8.
++. 8G 6+.
+:. KG8 +++. ++o.
+. 8G :, :.
+. 8G :.
+. 8G :.
+6. 8G :.
+. 8G ::.
+8. 8G :.
+. 8G +.
+o. KG8 +++.+ , 8.
++. 8G :.
+:. 8G :8.
+. 8G :.
+. 8G :.
+. KSA + ++|+|.
+6. 8G :8. My cmphasis.
+. A .
+8. A .
+. 8G :6:.
+o. 8G :+:.
++. 8G .
&:&

Notes to Pages ,c,&
+:. 8G :6.
+. T! !X ++.
+. AM .
+. 8G ::.
+6. 8G 6+.
+. 8G +o.
+8. 8G 8. Scc, too, :6.
+. 8G :. My cmphasis.
+6o. HH +:, GS o:.
+6+. 8G 6:.
::. civ~vixc :nv bvcxs
+. J !! p. 8o.
:. C p. 6o.
. KG8 +++. +, 6.
. GS 6.
. KG8 +++. 6+.
6. KG8 +++. 8o, 8++.
. KG8 +++. . !n Junc +88, howcvcr, hc rcvcrtcd to calling Vidmanns rcvicw vcry
intclligcnt (KG8 +++. 86) and scnt him, in gratitudc, a complcmcntary copy ol Te
Gay Science (KG8 +++. 86).
8. KG8 +++. .
. KG8 +++. o.
+o. KG8 +++. 6o.
++. KG8 +++. 6.
+:. KG8 +++.68, KG8 +++. 8.
+. KG8 +++. 8.
+. KG8 +++. 8:. Scc KSA +: |o|, which says that Tainc showcd that thc intcns
ity, cohcrcncc and inncr logic ol Napolcons drcam madc him thc brothcr ol antc and
Michclangclo.
+. KSA +: :. +. Zarathustras claim in Tc thousand and onc Goals that oncc you havc
rccogniscd a pcoplcs nccd and land and sky and ncighbour you can surcly gucss thc law
ol its ovcrcomings, its morality, looks to havc bccn inspircd by milieu thcory.
+6. T! !X . Comparc KSA +: || and |:|.
+. KG8 +++. , KG8 +++. +.
+8. H !!! Z +.
+. KSA +: : |+o6|, : |++|, : |++|.
:o. KG8 +++.+ :, scc p. : abovc.
:+. KG8 +++. +, o.
::. KG8 +++. .
:. KG8 6o.
:. KG8 +++. .
:. KG8 .
:6. KG8 +++. , .
:. KG8 +++. .
:8. KG8 +++. 6o.
:. KG8 +++. o.
o. KG8 +++. 8.
+. KG8 +++. 8.
:. KG8 +++. o.
. KG8 +++. 8+.
. KG8 +++. .
Notes to Pages ,&,,

&:
. KG8 +++. .
6. KG8+++. :. Tat thc Untimely Meditations did not comc within thc scopc ol this projcct
might suggcst that Nictzschc did not considcr thcm major works, but a morc likcly rcason,
! think, was that Fritzsch had inhcritcd lcw, il any, unsold copics ol thcsc works.
. KG8 +++. o, o.
8. KG8 +++. 8.
. KSA +: + |+:6|, : ||, ||.
o. KG8 +++. .
+. KG8 +++. o.
:. Tc unrcliability ol thcsc prclaccs lrom a scholarly point ol vicw contrasts with much morc
accuratc dcscriptions ol carlicr works such as Te Birth of Tragedy in thc notcs ol +888 (scc
KSA + |+| passim).
. KG8 +++. o8.
. GS :.
. GS o. Z ! is also morc accuratc.
6. KG8 +++.: .
. GS .
8. GS , my cmphasis.
. GS .
o. GS .
+. !bid.
:. GS +.
. GS .
. GS 8+.
. GS .
6. GS . Comparc KSA +: 6 |++|.
. Scc, lor cxamplc, KSA +: |o|.
8. GS .
. !bid.
6o. GS +:.
6+. KSA +: |+o|.
6:. GM !!! :.
6. HH +o.
6. KSA 8 |:|, scc pp. :6 abovc.
6. GS 66, , 8+.
66. KSA +: + |+|, |+|.
6. GS .
68. GS , 8o.
6. GS .
o. GS .
+. GS 6. Noticc that Nictzschc rulcs out only thc possibility ol a socicty in which birth is
dcstiny, not thc possibility ol building any kind ol ncw socicty.
:. GS .
. GS .
. GS .
. GS 8:.
6. GS 8:.
. GS 8o.
8. GS .
. GS .
8o. GS .
8+. GS .
8:. GS 6.
8. GS 8.
&:

Notes to Pages ,,&,,
8. GS .
8. GS 8:.
86. GS o.
8. !bid.
88. KSA + ++ |+o|.
8. GS :88.
o. 8G 6.
+. KG8 +++. 8. !n August, +88, Paul cusscn visitcd Nictzschc in Sils Maria cn routc to
Grcccc.
:. GS o. Tc samc clcvation ol thc classical occurs in his talk about music. Hc can think
ol no highcr praisc lor thc wondcrlul music ol thc ncw Mozart, Hcinrich K osclitz, than to
call it classical (KG8 +++. +).
. GS .
. Scc p. o abovc.
. GS .
6. GS 8, scc, too, ++ and VC .
:. :nv cvxv~iocv ov :ov~is
+. KG8 +++. .
:. KG8 +++. :.
. KG8 +++. .
. KSA +: |+|.
. KG8 +++. 8:.
6. KG8 +++. 8+.
. KG8 +++. 8o.
8. KG8+++. 8o. To point out that Vidmanns rcvicwol Beyond Good and E.il (p. o abovc)
bcgins with a quotation lrom ostoycvskys Te Younger Generation would bc to quibblc.
. KG8 +++. +++.
+o. KG8 +++. 8o.
++. KG8 +++. 8o.
+:. KG8 +++. 8o.
+. KSA +: +o |:+|.
+. KG8 +++. 8:o.
+. KG8 +++. 8. Sincc lor cxamplc, Hcinrich von Stcin was twcntyscvcn whcn Nictzschc
mct and was cntranccd by him, this must cxprcss a momcntary irritation rathcr than a
considcrcd judgmcnt.
+6. KG8 +++. 8.
+. KG8 +++. 8+, 8:.
+8. KSA +: ||.
+. KG8 +++. 8:o.
:o. KG8 +++. 8:.
:+. KG8 +++. 8:, 8.
::. Gilman (+8) p. +.
:. KG8 +++. 88.
:. KG8 +++. 8+.
:. KG8 +++. 86.
:6. KG8 +++. 8+. nc wondcrs whcthcr thc brothcls wc know Nictzschc somctimcs visitcd
wcrc also massagc parlours.
:. KG8 +++. 8.
:8. KG8 +++. 68.
:. KG8 +++. 8o.
o. KG8 +++. 8.
Notes to Pages ,,,&:

&:,
+. KG8 +++. 8.
:. KG8 +++. 68.
. KG8 +++. 86.
. KG8 +++. 8o.
. !bid.
6. KG8 +++. 868.
. KG8 +++. 8o.
8. KG8 +++. 8, 88.
. KG8 +++. 8.
o. KG8 +++. 88.
+. KG8 +++. 88.
:. KG8 +++. 88.
. C p. 6o.
. !t appcarcd in nglish translation as Te Sutras of the !edanta .ith the Commentary of Cankara
in +o6.
. KG8 +++. 8, o.
6. C pp. 6+:.
. KG8 +++. o.
8. C p. 6.
. KG8 +++. .
o. KG8 +++. 8.
+. KG8 +++. 6.
:. KG8 +++. o.
. KG8 +++. 8.
. KG8 +++.6 oo.
. KG8 +++. 6o.
6. KG8 +++. 6.
. KG8 +++.6 o.
8. KG8 +++. 66.
. KG8 +++. 6.
6o. KG8 +++. 6.
6+. KG8 +++. 88.
6:. KG8 +++. 8.
6. KG8 +++. 88.
6. KG8 +++. 8.
6. KG8 +++. .
66. KG8 +++. 8.
6. KG8 +++. +o+.
68. KG8 +++. 8.
6. KG8 +++. +, o8, 6.
o. KG8 +++. 6.
+. GM Prclacc .
:. GM Prclacc .
. GS , GM !! +:.
. GM ! :.
. GM ! +o.
6. GM ! .
. GM! 6. Prcsumably, thcn, whcn scction : ol Beyond Good and E.il claims that thc pathos
ol distancc can only originatc in an aristocratic socicty, it allows lor thc possibility that thc
socicty in qucstion may bc an aristocracy bascd on psychological attributcs rathcr than on
social class.
8. GM ! .
. KG8 +++ 6 :.
8o. GM ! .
8+. 8G 6.
&:c

Notes to Pages ,&:,&,
8:. As wc shall scc, a quitc dicrcnt account ol thc pricsts naturc and motivation is givcn
in Te ntichrist (scction :). Tis may havc bccn a rcsponsc to vcrbccks criticism that
ressentiment is too simplc an cxplanation ol thc slavc rcvolt (KG8+++.6 To Nictzschc +o).
8. GM ! 6, , +o, ++.
8. KG8 +++. +.
8. A :.
86. GM ! .
8. Jamcs Stcwart has suggcstcd that 8uddhist morality might bc rcgardcd as anothcr spccics,
givcn that it grcw out ol a rcaction against thc opprcssivc practiccs ol thc 8rahmins.
88. GM ! 8, my cmphasis.
8. GM ! ++.
o. GM ! +.
+. GM ! +.
:. GM ! +.
. GM ! +. Aquinas is, in lact, pr ccising Te Book of Fe.elations.
. GM ! +o.
. GM ! +o.
6. GM ! ++.
. GM ! +o.
8. H !!! GM.
. H !!! 8G :.
+oo. GM ! .
+o+. GM ! +6.
+o:. GM ! ++.
+o. GM ! ++, +:.
+o. H !!! HH +.
+o. GM ! +.
+o6. GM ! +:.
+o. GM !! +.
+o8. GM ! +o.
+o. GM !! :.
++o. GM !! .
+++. Scc GM !!! .
++:. GM !! :.
++. GM !! :.
++. Z ! +.
++. GM !! :.
++6. KG8 +: |6|.
++. GS +o.
++8. KG8 +.: 8, scc p. 6 abovc.
++. 8G 6+, scc p. :6 abovc.
+:o. GM !! :.
+:+. GM !! :.
+::. GM !! .
+:. GM !! .
+:. GM !! , 6, , 8.
+:. GM !! +.
+:6. GM !! :o.
+:. GM !! :+.
+:8. !bid.
+:. GM !! +6.
+o. GM !! +6.
++. GM !! +8.
Notes to Pages ,&,,,

&::
+:. Nictzschc adds two points hcrc. First, thc Christian idcal ol scllsacricc grows out ol
plcasurc in cruclty to scll. nly thc will to scllviolation providcs thc condition lor valuing
thc uncgoistic. Sccond, thc upsidc ol this awlul sickncss is that man dcvclops an inncr lilc:
acquiring what will bc latcr callcd a soul, man bccomcs intcrcsting and lull ol luturc.
His sickncss is likc prcgnancy (GM !! +6, +).
+. A ::.
+. GM !! :.
+. GM ! +6.
+6. GM !! +.
+. GM !! +.
+8. GM !! :.
+. GM !! :.
+o. 8G :8o.
++. H !!! GM.
+:. GM !!! 8.
+. GM !! :.
+. GM !! .
+. GM !! 6.
+6. !bid. Nictzschc trics to claim that Schopcnhaucrs acsthctic thcory contradicts itscll sincc
hc has thc most pcrsonal intcrcst possiblc in cntcring thc acsthctic statc. 8ut this is a bad
mistakc: that onc has an intcrcst in cntcring thc acsthctic statc by no mcans cntails that
thc statc itscll is intcrcstcd.
+. GM !! .
+8. VR ! pp. +86.
+. Christophcr Janaway (:oo) points this out in Chaptcr +: ol his Beyond Selessness).
Tough ! do not agrcc with Janaway on all mattcrs, ! havc lound this chaptcr an cxtrcmcly
hclplul guidc to thc Genealogys third cssay.
+o. GM !! +:.
++. GS .
+:. GM !! +:, comparc KSA +: + |o|.
+. VR !! pp. 8+, :, PP !! p. 6.
+. KSA ++ |++|.
+. ! bclicvc that this map analogy has rcccntly bccn rcvivcd by Frijol 8crgmann.
+6. GS .
+. KSA +: : |+|.
+8. KSA +: : |+8|.
+. GM !!! ++.
+6o. !bid.
+6+. GM !!! +.
+6:. GM !! ++.
+6. GM !!! +.
+6. !bid.
+6. GM !!! :o.
+66. GM !!! +.
+6. GM !!! +.
+68. !bid.
+6. Matthcw +::.
+o. Z !! +:.
++. GM !!! ++6.
+:. GS 8.
+. GM !!! +.
+. GM !!! :.
+. GM !!! +.
+6. GM !!! +.
&::

Notes to Pages ,,,
+. GM !!! +.
+8. GM !!! +.
+. GM !!! :o.
+8o. !bid.
+8+. GM !!! +.
+8:. GM !!! :.
+8. GM !!! :8.
+8. H !!! GM.
+8. KG8 +++.+ , +++. ++:. Scc p. 8 abovc.
+86. GM !!! :.
+8. GM !!! :.
+88. GS 8. My cmphasis. Nictzschc chooscs k onnen rathcr than d urfen a dcsccnt lrom his
normally clcvatcd usc ol languagc bccausc, it sccms to mc, likc thc nglish can, it
cmbraccs both may and can. Mere criticism, hc is saying, is ineecti.e, idlc whinging.
Vithout a countcridcal to ocr in placc ol thc criticiscd idcal, criticism will bc unablc to
prcvcnt backsliding, sincc, as wc know, thc will to powcr prclcrs to havc an unhcalthy goal
to no goal at all.
+8. GM !!! :.
+o. GM !!! :.
++. GM !!! :.
+:. GS .
+. GM !!! : Scllsublation and scllsublimation arc othcr possiblc translations. Tc gcn
cral principlc is obviously cithcr lalsc or trivial, but that is not rcally important, sincc Nictz
schc is only conccrncd with onc instancc ol it. !t is, ! think, littlc morc than a rhctorical
ourish.
+. !bid.
+. !bid.
+6. H Forcword .
+. GS o.
+8. KSA ++ |8|.
+. GS 6:.
:oo. KSA +: |6+|.
:o+. KSA +: : ||. Scc, too, KSA +: : |6| and KSA ++ |8|.
:o:. GM ! +:.
:o. ! amindcbtcd to John Richardson lor making clcar to mc thc rclcvancc ol this obscrvation.
:. +888
+. J !! p. .
:. KG8 +++. ++o, +++o.
. KG8 +++. 8.
. KG8 +++. +oo.
. KG8 +++. .
6. KG8 +++. +ooo.
. KG8 +++. +oo.
8. GS Prclacc .
. NCV Prclacc.
+o. KG8 +++. +oo, +oo.
++. KG8 +++. 8.
+:. KG8 +++. +o.
+. !bid.
+. KG8 +++. +oo.
+. KG8 +++. +o+.
Notes to Pages ,,,,

&:
+6. !bid.
+. !bid.
+8. KG8 +++. +o::, +o:.
+. KSA + ++ |:6|.
:o. KG8 +++. +o68. Te !agner Cases Sccond Postscript, howcvcr, calls himVagncrs clcvcr
apc.
:+. KG8 +++. ++::, ++8.
::. KG8 +++. +o6.
:. KG8 +++. 6.
:. KSA + +6 |6|.
:. KG8 +++. +o:6.
:6. KG8 +++. +o+.
:. KG8 +++. +o8.
:8. KG8 +++. ++8+.
:. KG8 +++. ++o.
o. KG8 +++. ++6o.
+. KG8 +++. ++6.
:. KG8 +++. ++o.
. KG8 +++. +:o.
. KG8 +++. +:+o.
. KG8 +++. ++.
6. KG8 +++. +o.
. KG8 +++. +o+8.
8. KG8 +++. +o66.
. KG8 +++. +o8.
o. KG8 +++. +o68.
+. Gilman (+8) p. :o.
:. Gilman (+8) p. :o6.
. J !! p. 6:+.
. J !! p. 6:o.
. KG8 +++. +++.
6. KG8 +++.+ +.
. KG8 +++. +o66.
8. KG8 +++. ++o+.
. KG8 +++. +++o.
o. C p. oo.
+. C p. 6.
:. C. p. oo.
. KG8 +++. ++++.
. KG8 +++. ++o8.
. KG8 +++. ++++.
6. KG8 +++. ++.
. KG8 +++. +o.
8. VC Postscript, lootnotc.
. Nictzschc sccms to havc takcn ovcr thc tcrmand part ol thc conccpt lromthc Frcnch writcr
and litcrary critic and scllstylcd d ecadent Paul 8ourgct (scc Ncumann (:oo+)), whom hc
rst rcad in thc wintcr ol +88 (KSA +o : |6|). Tc tcrm docs not, howcvcr, appcar in
his publishcd works until +888.
6o. VC .
6+. T! !X .
6:. VC , KSA +: : |+:|.
6. VC .
6. VC Sccond Postscript.
6. VC .
&:,

Notes to Pages ,,c
66. VC cpiloguc.
6. VC.
68. VC 8, +:.
6. Tc postscript contains onc glancing and virtually mcaninglcss rclcrcncc to it, which may
havc bccn inscrtcd in thc attcmpt to covcr ovcr thc wcakcning ol thc casc against Vagncr
its omission rcprcscnts.
o. KG8 +++. ++o:.
+. KG8 +++. ++++.
:. No longcr, howcvcr, lor rcasons to bc discusscd Chaptcr :6, to bc callcd Te !ill to Po.er.
. KG8 +++. +++. !n Novcmbcr Nictzschc claims it was writtcn in tcn days (KG8 +++.
++), but by thcn hc was bcginning to losc touch with rcality.
. KG8 +++.6 8+, KG8 +++. ++::.
. KG8 +++. ++o.
6. KG8 +++. ++o.
. !bid.
8. KG8 +++. ++o.
. KG8 +++. ++o.
8o. KG8 +++. ++o.
8+. H !!! T! :.
8:. T! !\.
8. H Prclacc :.
8. T! \! .
8. T! \! 8.
86. T! !X .
8. T! !X 6.
88. 8G :+.
8. T! !X 8.
o. T! !X :.
+. T! ! .
:. C p. .
. T! !X +:.
. Surprisingly, in vicw ol his Anglophobia, Nictzschc had rcad, or at lcast dippcd into, no
lcss than six works by Mill (8robjcr (:oo8) p. :+).
. 8G ::8.
6. T! ! 8.
. T! ! +o.
8. T! !X .
. T! !! :.
+oo. Salom c (+88) p. :.
+o+. T! !!.
+o:. T! X .
+o. T! X .
+o. AM .
+o. H !!! Tc 8irth ol Tragcdy .
+o6. T! !!! :.
+o. A +.
+o8. T! \ +.
+o. T! \ :.
++o. T! \ +.
+++. T! \ .
++:. KSA + : |:|. Hc gocs on to suggcst that Vagncr bctraycd himscll in just this way, a
passagc cxpurgatcd by lizabcth in thc rcappcarancc ol thc notc as VP 8+.
++. T! !X .
++. T! \! :.
Notes to Pages c:

&:
++. T! !X .
++6. T! !X .
++. GM ! +o.
++8. T! !X .
++. 8G +.
+:o. GM ! +6.
+:+. UM ! +.
+::. T! \!!! :.
+:. T! \!!! .
+:. T! !X :.
+:. T! \!!! 6
+:6. T! !X 8.
+:. T! !X o.
+:8. !bid.
+:. T! \ 6.
+o. T! !X , +o, :.
++. T! \ .
+:. KG8 +++. ++::.
+. !bid.
+. KG8 +++. ++:.
+. KG8 +++. +++:.
+6. A 6:.
+. A :.
+8. A :6. Scc p. 6: abovc.
+. A :.
+o. !bid.
++. A o.
+:. A :.
+. A :, o, , .
+. A :o, ::, :.
+. A :.
+6. A .
+. A +, :. According to biblical scholars, Paul actually took ovcr thc doctrinc ol pcrsonal
immortality, not lrom Plato, but lrom thc Phariscc scct to which hc originally bclongcd.
+8. A 8, .
+. H Prclacc :.
+o. A :+.
++. A .
+:. A ::.
+. A , 8.
+. A .
+. A .
+6. A .
+. A 6.
+8. A 6o.
+. T! \!! .
+6o. A 8.
+6+. A .
+6:. A 8.
+6. !bid.
+6. KSA + ++ |+|.
+6. H !!! 8T .
+66. KSA + +8 |+|. Scc, too, H !!! 8T . sscntially, scction ol Te ntichrist ocrs, in
abbrcviatcd lorm, what would havc bccn thc contcnt ol that book.
&:&

Notes to Pages :::
+6. A .
+68. A .
+6. H Prclacc .
+o. H +.
++. A .
+:. A .
+. !bid.
+. A .
+. Givcn Nictzschcs vicw that thc ctcrnal rcturn can only bc cmbraccd lrom a ionysian
pcrspcctivc, this, ! think, is thc point ol a cryptic notc that rcads, ionysus thc typc ol
thc lawgivcr (KSA + : |8|).
+6. !n thc skctch ol contcnts lor thc lourth book ol Te !ill to Po.er (KSA + +8 |+|) mcn
tioncd carlicr, two ol thc thrcc main topics (thc third is too cryptic to bc intclligiblc) arc
rdcr ol Rank: thc Principlc ol Lilc and Tc tcrnal Rcturn.
+. A 8.
+8. A .
+. !bid.
+8o. !bid.
+8+. A +6.
+8:. GM !! +.
+8. A +6.
+8. A :.
+8. KSA + ++ |6|.
+86. KSA + ++ ||.
+8. A +.
+88. Tc ld Tcstamcnt rccogniscs, at lcast, only onc truc god.
+8. KSA + +6 |+6|.
+o. H Prclacc :.
++. H !!! +.
+:. KG8 +++. ++.
+. H Prclacc .
+. GS :.
+. H !!! Z 6.
+6. H ! .
+. H !!! :.
+8. !bid.
+. H ! .
:oo. H !!! UM .
:o+. H !!! Z :.
:o:. H !! .
:o. !bid.
:o. H !!! Z .
:o. H !! .
:o6. H !!! HH :.
:o. H !! .
:o8. H !!! HH .
:o. H !!! HH +.
:+o. H !!! HH 6.
:++. H !\ +.
:+:. H Prclacc :.
:+. H !\ .
:+. Tcrc is no room, thcrclorc, lor globalwarming dcnicrs.
:+. Z Prclacc .
:+6. H Vhy ! Am a cstiny .
Notes to Pages :c

&:
:+. H !!! 8T .
:+8. H !!! 8T .
:+. KG8 +++. ++.
::o. KG8 +++. ++.
::+. KG8 +++. ++.
:::. KG8 +++. ++.
::. KG8 +++. ++
::. !bid.
::. KG8 +++. ++:.
::6. KG8 +++. ++.
::. KG8 +++. ++8.
::8. KG8 +++. ++8.
::. KG8 +++. ++:.
:o. KG8 +++. ++:.
:+. KG8 +++. +:o:.
::. KG8 +++. ++6, +:o, +:+.
:. H !!! +.
:. KSA + :.++.
:. KG8 +++. ++:.
:6. KG8 +++. ++:.
:. KG8 +++. ++:.
:8. KG8 +++. ++.
:. KG8 +++. ++, ++8.
:o. KG8 +++. +:+o.
:+. KG8 +++. ++86.
::. KG8 +++. +:+o.
:. KG8 +++. +:o.
:. KG8 +++. ++.
:. KG8 +++. ++:.
:6. KSA + : || .
:. KG8 +++. +oo.
:8. KG8 +++. ++:.
:. KG8 +++.6 +.
:o. KG8 +++. +++.
:+. KG8 +++. +:o.
:. c~:~s:vovnv
+. C p. +6.
:. KG8 +++. ++.
. KG8 +++. ++, ++:.
. KG8 +++. ++.
. KG8 +++. ++68.
6. KG8 +++. ++o.
. !bid.
8. KG8 +++. +::.
. KG8 +++. +::.
+o. KG8 +++. +:.
++. KG8 +++. +:.
+:. KSA + :.+.
+. KSA + :.+.
+. VS :8, o, scc pp. :66 abovc.
+. KG8 +++. ++:, ++, +:, +:.
&:

Notes to Pages c
+6. KG8 +++. ++:8.
+. KG8 +++. +:8, +:.
+8. KG8 +++. +:, +:, +:, +:o, +:+, +::.
+. KG8 +++. +:6.
:o. KG8 +:, cl. +:.
:+. KG8 +++. +::.
::. KG8 +++. +:8.
:. KG8 +++. +:.
:. KG8 +++. +:6.
:. KG8 +++. +:o.
:6. KG8 +++. +::.
:. KSA + : ||.
:8. KG8 +++. +o.
:. GS 8.
o. T! !X .
+. J !!! p. .
:. H !! .
:6. :nv visv ~xb v~ii ov :nv wiii :o vowvv
+. HH , o, , +.
:. Z ! +.
. Z !! +:.
. KSA ++ |:|.
. KSA ++ |+|.
6. KSA +: : |+oo|.
. KG8 +++. +.
8. KG8 +++. .
. Tc plan lizabcth uscs, takcn lrom a skctch ol March +, +88, was a plan lor a lour
volumc work containing aphorisms. l thcsc, +o wcrc not uscd at all. l thc rcmaining
:o lragmcnts, + arc rcproduccd incomplctcly or with intcntional altcrations dclction ol
hcadings or wholc scntcnccs, dismcmbcrmcnt ol tcxts that bclong togcthcr, and so on (scc
Montinari (:oo) pp. :). And, ol coursc, 6 lragmcnts ol lizabcths +o6 cdition wcrc
not intcndcd to go with thc +8 plan at all. Many ol thcsc had in lact bccn consigncd to
Nictzschcs wastcpapcr baskct in Sils, lrom which, lor unknown rcasons, urisch rctricvcd
thcm.
+o. Hcidcggcr (+) \ol. ! pp. 8.
++. Hcidcggcr (+) \ol. p. +8.
+:. Tc chaptcr in qucstion is Chaptcr !\ ol Nietzsche (Schacht (+8)). Tcsc statistics appcar
in Magnus (+86).
+. !n thc KSA cdition.
+. Scction +: ol thc sccond cssay in thc Genealogy of Morals might bc construcd as asserting it.
+. r intcrprctation uslegung.
+6. Vhy cvcnts rathcr than things: 8ccausc, wc know, Nictzschc bclicvcs things in gcncral
to bc an illusion ol grammar (p. 8 abovc). Rcality, hc holds, is madc up ol cvcnts. Tc
only qucstion rcquiring discussion is thc charactcr ol thosc cvcnts.
+. KSA ++ |+|.
+8. KSA ++ o |:|.
+. 8crnoulli (+o8),\ol. ! p. :6. My cmphasis.
:o. KSA : |o|.
:+. FR p. +.
::. KSA +: : |88|.
:. KSA ++ 6 |+|.
Notes to Pages ,

&:,
:. VR !! p. +8.
:. 8G +.
:6. 8G :.
:. GS .
:8. KSA +: + ||.
:. 8G :.
o. KSA ++ 6 |+|.
+. VP +o66. Gcorgc Simmcl provcd this argumcnt lallacious in +o.
:. KSA ++ 8 |+:| = VP +o6.
. KSA +: : |+oo|.
. KSA +: || = VP :.
. KSA +: +o |+|.
6. KSA + ++ ||.
. KSA + ++ ||.
8. KG8 +++. ++o.
. KSA + ++ |+|.
o. 8G :.
+. VR !! p. 6o.
:. VP .
. KSA + ++ |+|.
. KSA + +: |+|.
. KG8 +++. +.
6. KG8 +++. +ooo.
. Nictzschc sccms to think that hc arrivcd unusually carly in +88, but this is a mistakc. Tc
carlicst Nictzschc cvcr appcarcd in Sils was Junc , in +88. !n +88 hc arrivcd on Junc +:.
8. KG8 +++. +o.
. KSA + +8 |+|.
o. KG8 +++. +o8.
+. KSA + |:|+ |8|.
:. KG8 +++. ++++.
. T! Prclacc.
. KG8 +++. +++.
. KG8 +++. ++.
6. KSA + :: |+|.
. KSA + ++ |+o|.
8. GS .
. 8G :+o, GM .
6o. GM Prclacc :.
6+. Scc, too, H Prclacc .
6:. VR ! p. +++.
6. 8G :.
6. 8G : (my cmphasis), 8G 6.
6. 8G 6. My cmphasis.
66. Scc, too, 8G +.
6. 8G 6. My cmphasis.
68. KSA ++ o ||.
6. T! !X .
o. GS +o.
+. 8G 6.
:. KSA + ++ |+++|.
. 8G :.
. KSA + ++ |+++|.
. Noticc that a logical limit to thc othcrwisc insatiablc will to powcr would bc to
bccomc God. id, onc wondcrs, Nictzschcs own insipicnt mcgalomania hclp support his
&c

Notes to Pages ,
mctaphysics ol powcr: !s his laith in thc psychological doctrinc sustaincd, in part, by intro
spcction:
6. T! !X +.
. T! ! :6.
8. T! !X ++.
. KSA + +. |++|.
8o. HH , +, ::.
8+. VR ! p. 8o.
8:. H ! .
8. Tis is surcly a major part ol thc point bchind thc rcpcatcd asscrtion that Crcators arc hard,
hard as diamond|s| (Z !!! +:, T! X!).
8. VC piloguc.
8. A 6.
86. A 6, +.
8. VC Sccond Postscript, VC .
88. VC 6.
8. T! !! .
o. A o, :.
+. A :.
:. T! !X .
. 8G :.
. Z !! +:.
. T! ! +:.
6. A :.
. A ++.
8. T! \!!! .
. T! \ +.
+oo. KSA +o +6 |o|.
+o+. T! X .
+o:. 8G +.
+o. T! \ +.
+o. GM !!! .
:. :nv vxb
+. C p. .
:. C p. 6.
. T! X .
. C p. .
. C p. 8.
6. C p. .
. C pp. 6.
8. C p. +.
. YN and LN.
+o. Hollingdalc (+) p. :.
++. J !!! pp. +8.
+:. C p. .
+. Gilman (+8) p. :.
+. Hollingdalc (+) p. :.
+. C p. 8+o.
+6. r, pcdantically rcckoncd, lour months bclorc that ccntury.
+. Gilman (+8) p. :8.
Notes to Pages &:

&:
+8. KG8+++. +. Scc also p. 6+ abovc. !t is appropriatc, thcrclorc, that at lcast thc Nictzschc
Mcmorial (Platc :6) is sitcd on Chast c.
:8. xiv:zscnvs :~bxvss
+. KG8 +++. 8o.
:. KG8 +++. 88.
. Sacks (:oo8).
. Schain (:oo+).
. Sax (:oo). Tc mcdical dctails ol thc abovc critiquc ol thc syphilis diagnosis arc dcrivcd in
part lrom Sax and in part lrom Schain (:oo+).
6. ! am indcbtcd lor thcsc lacts to Hclcn ancshMcycr, V & L Stcvcnson Prolcssor ol
phthalmology at thc Univcrsity ol Aucklands Mcdical School and a world authority on,
in particular, mcningiomas. Tis cntirc chaptcr has bccn grcatly improvcd as a rcsult ol hcr
critiquc ol an carlicr dralt.
8ibliography ol Sccondary
Litcraturc
Aschhcim, S. (+:) Te Nietzsche Legacy in Germany :,c:,cc (8crkclcy: Univcrsity ol Cali
lornia Prcss).
8anvillc, J. (:oo6) Rcvicw ol Feiner Maria Filke and Lou Salom e: Te Correspondence, trans. .
Snow and M. Vinklcr (Ncw York: Norton, :oo6) in thc Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books \ol. ,
No. :o, cccmbcr pp. 6+.
8crnoulli, C. (+o8) Franz O.erbeck und Friedrich Nietzsche. Eine Freundschaft, : vols. ( Jcna:
ugcn icdcrichs).
8crtram . (++8) Nietzsche, !ersuch einer Mythologie (8crlin: 8ondi).
8robjcr, T. (:oo+) 8citragc zur Qucllcnlorschung: Abhandlungcn. A iscussion and Sourcc
ol H oldcrlins !nucncc on Nictzschc: Nictzschcs Usc ol Villiam Ncumanns H oldcrlin, in
Nietzsche-Studien \ol. o, pp. 6.
(:oo8) Nietzsches Philosophical Context (Urbana: Univcrsity ol !llinois Prcss).
Conradi, P. (:oo+) Iris Murdoch: Life (Ncw York: Norton).
Catc, C (:oo:) Friedrich Nietzsche (London: Hutchinson).
cusscn, P. (+o+) Erinnerungen an Friedrich Nietzsche (Lcipzig: 8rockhaus).
rcylus, H. (++) Being-in-the-!orld: Commentary on Heideggers Being and Time, Di.ision
I (Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss).
urkhcim, . (+) Elementary Forms of the Feligious Life, trans. K. Ficlds (Ncw York: Frcc
Prcss).
Fcucrbach, L. (+8) Te Essence of Christianity trans. Marian vans (Ncw York: Calvin 8lan
chard).
Fischcr, K. (+86o) Geschichte der neueren Philosophen, \ols. and : Ent.icklungsgeschichte und
System der kritischen Philosophie (Mannhcim: 8asscrmannschc \crlag).
Gilman, S. (+8) Con.ersations .ith Nietzsche, trans. . Parcnt (Ncw York: xlord).
Hadot, P. (+) Philosophy as a !ay of Life : Spiritual Exercises from Socrates to Foucault, trans.
M. Chasc (xlord: 8lackwcll).
Hampshirc, S. (:oo+) Rcvicw ol Iris Murdoch: Life, by P. Conradi (Ncw York: Norton), in thc
Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books vol. 8, no. +8, Novcmbcr, pp. :6.
Hayman, R. (+8o) Nietzsche: Critical Life (London: Vicdcnlcld and Nicolson).
Hcidcggcr, M. (+ onwards) Heidegger: Gesamtausgabe, cd. F.V. von Hcrmann (Franklurt
am Mcin: Klostcrmann).
(+), Nietzsche, \ols., trans. . Krcll (San Francisco: Harpcr & Row).
H oldcrlin, F. (+6) Hyperion, or the Hermit in Greece, trans. V. R. Trask (Ncw York: Fricdrich
Ungar).
Hollingdalc, R. (+) Nietzsche: Te Man and His Philosophy (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcr
sity Prcss).
Huttcr, H. (:oo6). Shaping the Future: Nietzsches Ne. Fegime of the Soul and Its scetic Practices
(Garcld, VA: Lcxington 8ooks).
Janaway, C. (:oo) Beyond Selessness (xlord: xlord Univcrsity Prcss).
Janz, C. P. (+6) Friedrich Nietzsche: Der musikalische Nachlass (8ascl: 8 arcnrcitcr).
Kant, !. (+6) Critique of Pure Feason, trans. N. Kcmp Smith (London: Macmillan).
Kant, !. (+:) Critique of Judgment, trans. J. H. 8crnard (Ncw York: Halncr).
Kohlcr, J. (:oo:) Zarathustras Secret. Te Interior Life of Friedrich Nietzsche, trans. R. Taylor (Ncw
Havcn: Yalc Univcrsity Prcss).

&
&,

Bibliography of Secondary Literature
Krcll, . and 8atcs, . (+) Te Good European (Chicago: Univcrsity ol Chicago Prcss).
Landcrcr, C. and Schustcr, M.C. (:oo:) Nictzschcs \orstudicn zur Gcburt dcr Tragodic in
ihrcr 8czichumg zur Musik asthctik duard Hanslicks, in Nietzsche-Studien \ol. +, pp. ++
.
Langc, F. (+:) Te History of Materialism and Criticism of Its Importance, trans. . Chcstcr
Tomas, intro. 8crtrand Russcll (Ncw York: Arno Prcss).
Lcitcr, 8. (:oo+) Tc Paradox ol Fatalism and ScllCrcation in Nictzschc, in J. Richardson and
8. Lcitcr, Nietzsche (xlord: xlord Univcrsity Prcss), pp. :8+:+.
(:oo:) Nietzsche on Morality (London: Routlcdgc).
Lichtcnbcrg, G. (+86) !ermischte Schriften, \ol. (Gottingcn: Hcinrich ictcrich).
Magcc, 8. (+8) Te Philosophy of Schopenhauer (xlord: Clarcndon Prcss).
Magnus, 8. (+86) Nictzschcs Philosophy in +888: Tc Vill to Powcr and thc

Ubermensch,
in Journal of the History of Philosophy \ol. :, pp. .
Mann, T. (+) Nictzschcs Philosophic im Licht unscrcr rlahrung in Die neue Fundschau,
\ol. 8, pp. 88:.
Mcincckc, F. (+6) Das Zeitalter der deutsche Erhebung (+o6), th cd. (G ottingcn: \andcn
hocck and Ruprcch).
Mithcn, S. (:oo) Te Singing Neanderthals: Te Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body
(London: Vcidcnlcld and Nicolson).
Montinari, M. (:oo) Feading Nietzsche, trans. G. Vhitlock (Urbana: Univcrsity ol !llinois
Prcss).
Ncumann, \. (:oo+) ic lranz osishc Krankhcit: Nictzschcs Rczcption dcs 8cgris d ccadcncc
von Paul 8ourgct in Man ist .iel mehr K unstler als man .eiss, cd. G. Scubold (8onn:
cnkMal).
Ncumann, V. (+8) Moderne Klassiker. Deutsche Literature-Geschichte der neuern Zeit in Bio-
graphien, Kritiken und Proben: Friedrich H olderlin (Kasscl: 8aldc).
Quinc (+6o) !ord and Object (Cambridgc, MA: M!T Prcss).
Rawls, J. (+:) Teory of Justice (Cambridgc, MA: Harvard Univcrsity Prcss).
Rohkr amcr, T. (:oo) Single Communal Faith? (Ncw York: 8crghahn).
Russcll, 8. (+) History of !estern Philosophy (London: Allcn and Unwin).
Sacks, . (:oo8) A Summcr ol Madncss, in thc Ne. York Fe.ie. of Books \ol. 6o, No. +,
Scptcmbcr, pp. 6+.
SalisMarschlins, M. (:ooo) Philosoph und Edelmensch: Ein Betrag zur Charakteristik Friedrich
Nietzsches (Schuttcrwald: Visscnschaltlichcr \crlag).
Salom c, L. (Andrcas) (+68) Lebensr uckblick, cd. . Plcicr (Franklurt/M: Suhrkamp).
(+88) Nietzsche, cd. and trans. S. Mandcl (Rcdding Ridgc, CT: 8lack Swan 8ooks).
Sax, L. (:oo) Vhat was thc causc ol Nictzschcs dcmcntia: in thc Journal of Medical Biography,
\ol. ++, pp. .
Schacht, R. (+8) Nietzsche (London: Routlcdgc and Kcgan Paul).
Schain, R. (:oo+) Te Legend of Nietzsches Syphilis (Vcstport, CT: Grccnwood Prcss).
Schaumann, G. (+8) Tautenburg bei Jena: Kulturgeschichte einer th urinischen Sommerfrische
( Jcna: Quartusvcrlag).
Small, R. (:oo) Nietzsche and F ee: Star Friendship (Ncw York: xlord Univcrsity Prcss).
Spir, A. (+86) !orschlag an die Freunde einer .en uftighen Lebensf uhrung (Lcipzig: JG Findcl).
Tancra, K. (+86) n der Loire und Sarthe (N ordlingcn: 8cck).
Young, J. (:oo) Schopenhauer (London: Routlcdgc).
!ndcx
Altcrsong,
Altruism (cgoism), :, :, :n, :, o:,
o:n, o
mor fati doctrinc, +8, 6, +, o+
AnalCompulsivc Philology, +6
Anaximandcr, +66
Andrcas, Fricdrich, o,
AndrcasSalom c, Lou. See Salom c, Lou
(Andrcas)
ntiantiScmitism, 66n, :, 8, +:,
, 8
AntiCatholicism, +8, +8n
ntichrist, Te
Christianity, critiqucs ol, +:+
Curse on Christianity, , +:
on happincss, :
Jcsus, historical, 6, +++:
Judaism, slavc morality dcvclopmcnt and,
6:, +o++
Nictzschcs Rcpublic, rank ordcring in, :,
++
Nictzschcs Rcpublic, rcligion in, ++8
ovcrvicw, o+o, 6:n
Pauls pcrvcrsion, 6, +:, 6:n
writing ol, o, +
Antiquarian history, +6
AntiScmitism, +86, :+:+, :, :,
8, 6, :, 86, :
phorisms on Lifes !isdom (Schopcnhaucr),
:++
Apollonian/ionysian duality, +6
Appollonian worldvicw, +:6, ++:,
+8
rchitecture of Happiness, Te (8otton), :8:
Art
Gay Science on, o:
Human, ll-Too-Human attack on, :o:,
::n, +, 8:
T.ilight of the Idols on, o8
!anderer on, :86, :86n
Artdcication,
Art in highcr culturc, :66
Asccticism
critiquc ol, 8o
in modcrnity, 8
ovcrvicw, +,
philosophys rolc in, :, 6:+n
pricsts practicc ol, 68, 6:on
Schopcnhaucr on, 8
scicncc in, 8o:
Vagncr as idcal, +
Ass Fcstival (Fcast ol Fools), 8, 8n, 86
ssorted Opinions and Maxims, :6, , o,
6
AustroPrussian Var, +n
8ach, Johann Scbastian, , :
8acholcn, Johann Jacob, +o
8acdcckcr, Fritz, +
8ascl
alicnation lrom, +8, :o:, :++, :8
clinic, o+
collcagucs, lricnds gcncrally, +o
dcparturc lrom, :6
dcscribcd, +o+
hcalth issucs, rclcasc lrom tcaching dutics
duc to, :
lccturcs, studcnts on, :o+:
philology chair position appointmcnt,
6
univcrsity lilc, +o+, +66, +8
womcn, admission ol to univcrsity, ++,
o
8audclaircVagncr anity, 86
8aumgartncr, Adoll, +8:, ::, :
8aumgartncr, Maric, +8:, +o+
8 aumlcr, Allrcd,
8ayrcuth Fcstival, ::6
8ayrcuth opcra housc, +o
8ayrcuth projcct
lunding ol, +8
as Gcrman rcdcmption, +6, +6n
Nictzschcs commitmcnt to, +8, +6,
+68
Nictzschcs rccvaluation ol, +8
Summons to thc Gcrmans, +
8ccthovcn, Ludwig von, , +:+:, :+:o,
8on

&
&&

ixbvx
Before Sunrise, 8+
Being Scientic about Science, ,
8crg un, ++:
8crnays, Jacob, ::o, :n
8crnhardt, Sarah, , :
Beyond Good and E.il
Altcrsong,
audicncc, ++
cultural criticism, +::
on dcmocratic cnlightcnmcnt, +:+
cpistcmology, +6
hcrd man conccpt in, ++
on hicrarchy (rankordcring), :
on idcalism, o8+o
mctaphysical dualism, +:, +:n, +
mctaphysicians, prcjudiccs ol gcncrally,
+++:
moral rcvolution thcmc, o8, +o++
Nictzschcs Rcpublic, :, :+
on panuropcanism, o
powcr, mctaphysics ol, ++, o, 8,

publishing, o
rcalism, common scnsc, +
rcalism, scicntic, ++
rcvicws, o6, , , n, 88, 6+8n
Schopcnhaucrian idcalism, +
on slavcry, :, 6+:
on womcn, :, :n, :
writing,
8iblc, oo
Bildung, +6
8inswangcr, tto, +:
Bird Judgement, :6
Te Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music, Te
Appollonian world vicw in, +:6, ++:,
+8
ccntral mcssagc ol, +
community, laith in, :6:
ionysian statc ol ccstasy in, +:, ++:,
+8, ::o+, 8+, o+, 8on, 6+on
cxistcntial philology in, +6
on Grcck culturc, :o
H oldcrlins inucncc on, +:
on individuality, sucring,
on musical inspiration, 8
on politics, +:
prclacc, +886, , 6+n
printing ol, +:, +o
rcissuc ol, 6
Ritschl on, +:
Rohdc on, +o+
rolc ol myth in, +o+, +, +n, +,
::6, :6
romanticism in, ::
on salvation, +:, ++:, n
Schopcnhaucrs inucncc on, o+, +:,
+, :n
as targct ol criticism, 68
tragcdy thcmc in, o+, :+, ::o+
and Tribschcn, +++
on violcncc, +
Vagncrs critiquc ol, +
Vagncrs inucncc on, ++:, +:n, +:,
++:, 8n
Vilamowitz on, ++:
8ismarck, tto von, , :, 6:, +6,
86
8onapartc, Napolcon, , , 6
8onapartc, Napolcon !!!, , n, 8, +6
8onn
dcparturc lrom, 6+:
nancial issucs, :
lratcrnity, nctworking, , 6:
girlchasing, 6
journcy to, +:
litcrary works, 8
ovcrvicw, +
8oscovitch, Rogcr, :n
8otton, Alain dc, :8:
8rahms, Johanncs, +86, +:,
8randcs, Gcorg, 8, 8
8rcnncr, Albcrt, ::, ::
8robjcr, T., 8n
8rothcls
Christianitys banishmcnt ol scx to, :o
Colognc, 6, :+6
Nictzschcs visits to, :, :o, :6
8uddcnsicg, Robcrt, :
8 ulow, Hans von, +o, +, +
8urckhardt, Jacob, +oo, +o+, +o, :o,

Camus, Allrcd, 86, +:, :6

Cannobio, :
Carmen, :+:, 8, 8n
Casaubon, dward, 6
Castc systcm (rank ordcring), ++
Charactcr, !anderer on, :86, :86n
Childhood ycars
lamily lilc, 6
Naumburg, +:+
R ockcn (See R ockcn)
Christianity.See also rcligion
accticism in, 68, 6:on (See also
asccticism)
criticisms ol gcncrally, +o, +:+
cruclty, lcar thcmcs in, o+
Index

&
d ecadence in, 8
dcvclopmcnt ol, Jcwish pcoplc in, ++6n,
++n, 6:, +o++
cthics in, :86o
on cvil, o+
guilt thcmc in, o+, o
mctaphysics critiquc, Da.n, oo+
morality as powcr grab, ++, 6+
morality critiquc, Da.n, o+,
original sin as dcbt thcmc, 68o
vcrbcck on, +6
scicncc, inucnccs on, :8, , 6
scllhatrcd, promotion ol, :8, :8n,
:o
scllhatrcd lcgacy ol, ++, +8+, +n, 6,
6n, 6:+n
sprcad ol, historically, oo
sucring, causcs ol, :8
on truthlulncss, 8+, 8+n
valucs ol, 8
Christianity, Nictzschc and
attacks on, :o
critiqucs ol, 66+, +
dctachmcnt lrom (See litcrary works,
+88+86)
dcvotion to, +8:o
laith, loss ol, 86
upbringing in, 6
war on, ++, :8, , :8
Christmas, Nictzschcs lovc ol, +8+,
6o+
Christmas Oratorio, 8
Chur,
Colognc brothcl, 6, :+6. See also brothcls
Columbus imagc,
Communal morality in socictal wcllbcing,
:
Community, Vagncr on, +++6
Compctition, sublimation ol violcncc via,
+o+, +6:
Comtc, Augustc, ::, :n
Conscrvation, :6
Cornclius, Pctcr, +6
Cosmopolitanism, o
Cosmopolitanism, nationalism .s., +8o,
86n
Crimcan Var, ++
Criminals, punishmcnt ol, :6
Critical history, +6
Critique of Judgment (Kant), o:, o:n
Critique of Pure Feason (Kant), , +8
Culturc, Nictzschc on, +6, +::, 86n.
See also modcrnity
criticism, Beyond Good and E.il, +::
Gay Science cvolution thcmc, :
Human, ll-Too-Human cvolution thcory,
:6+:
Culture of the Fenaissance in Italy (8urckhardt),
+o
Curse on Christianity, , +:
Cynics (stoicism), :8
arwin, Charlcs, +8, ::, 6
Das Judentum in der Musik, 6, 6n
Da.n
on bcncvolcnt cgoism, o, ++n, +:
Christian mctaphysics critiquc, oo+
Christian morality critiquc, o+,
concrctc advicc in, +:+
on cnlightcncd cgoism, o, on
on crror, ++
lricnds, making, +
on happincss, :
happincss paradox, o8, 6o+n
hcroicidyllic thcmc in, o8, 6n
ovcrvicw, :6, :n
publishing ol, :, :6
rcissuc ol, 6
on scll carc, +:
on scllcrcation, o
socicty, navigating, +:+
on spiritual dcprcssion curcs, :o
thcorctical lramcwork, :, ++
on usc ol mood, :8:
writing ol, :+
writing stylc, :8n
cath
ol God, Gay Science, :o, 8
Nictzschc on, +66, :68, o+
Schopcnhaucr on, :, 88, +:
D ecadence conccpt, , 8, 6:n
cmocratic cnlightcnmcnt, :88,
+:+
crrida, Jacqucs, :
ctachmcnt as cscapc lrom sucring, 8
cusscn, Paul
acadcmic spccialty, +n
in 8onn, +
nancial support by, o, :
in FrancoPrussian Var, 6o
on Fritzs Christian laith, :8
as hctcroscxual, +:
last sanc cncountcr with, 6
Nictzschcs trcatmcnt ol, 88, n
on Schopcnhaucr, 88, 88n
visits with Nictzschc, +:, 6+8n
ict, importancc ol in daily lilc, :8+:,
8n
&

ixbvx
ionysian ccstasy
achicvcmcnt ol in madncss, :o
in Birth of Tragedy, +:, ++:, +8,
::o+, 8+, o+, 8on, 6+on
in hcalthy socicty, 6, 6n, 8
in Tus Spoke Zarathustra, +:, ++:,
8on
ionysian Vorldvicw, Tc, +6
isncy, V., +:+n
ostoycvsky, Fyodor, +, 6+8n
ruskowitz, Hclcnc, , :n
uclling,
uncan, !sadora, :6
Ecce Homo
on ctcrnal rcturn thcmc, +8, +8n
on Genealogy of Morals, 8o
on his lathcr, 6
on his war against Christianity,
on Human, ll-Too-Human, :
on Hymn to Life,
on Nictzschc, ::
on Night Song, 8
on thc ionysian, 6
ovcrvicw, +8:o
Pcnguin covcr portrayal ol Nictzschc,
+6
publication ol, :
on rcality, +:
on scarch lor ncw lcadcrs, ::
on sclldcvclopmcnt, :o:
on tcaching, +o:
on Tribschcn, +++
on T.ilight, 8
on Vagncr, :+8, ::
on writing ol !anderer, :8
on Zarathustra, 6
ducation
8onn (See 8onn)
Plorta (See Plorta)
primary schools, ++
systcm, Nictzschcs vicws on, +:, +o,
:6n
Vcbcrs prcp school, +
iscr, tto, :o, :8, :8+n
lbcrlcld, +:
liot, Gcorgc, 6
mcrson, Ralph Valdo, :o
mpcdoclcs, 6, +n
picurus, :88o, :8, :8n, 6n
pistcmology, +6
Essence of Christianity (Fcucrbach), 6
tcrnal rcturn thcmc
Gay Science, +8, +8n, +
in Tus Spoke Zarathustra, +8, +8n, 8,
6+on
T.ilight of the Idols, o+, 6:6n
Te !ill to Po.er, 6:6n
thics in Christianity, :86o. See also
Christianity, morality, Nictzschcs
vicws ol
ugcnics, :6
uripidcs, +:
uthanasia, :6
vcning Fantasy (H oldcrlin),
volution, +8, ::
xistcncc, guilt and sucring as naturc ol,
+66
xistcntialism, 86
xistcntial philology, +6
Famc, public rclations, 88,
Fantasia (isncy), +:+n
Fatc and History, 6, 6
Fcast ol Fools (Ass Fcstival), 8, 8n, 86
Fino, avidc, 8, o, :8, +, :
Fi.e Prefaces to Fi.e Un.ritten Books, +86:
Flims, ++:
F orstcr, 8crnhard, 6, oo, 6,
F orstcrNictzschc, lizabcth. See Nictzschc,
lizabcth (F orstcr)
Franconia, , 6:
FrancoPrussian Var
altcrmath, +8
dcclaration, Nictzschcs rcaction to, +
Mushackc in, 6:n
musical cclcbrations ol, +:
Napolcon !!! in, n
Nictzschcs involvcmcnt in, +6, +8
ovcrvicw, +6
von Gcrsdor in, +n
Frccdom
Human, ll-Too-Human critiquc ol,
:
postPlorta, +:
T.ilight of the Idols on, oo
Frccdom ol thc will and latc, o
Frcc spirits
cultivation ol, :,
in cultural cvolution, :
dcvclopmcnt, sclldcnial in, :8
dcvclopmcnt ol, 6, :
monastcry lor, :, :8n, :
Nictzschc socictics, :
Frcc will
as lalsc morality, 6
Human, ll-Too-Human on, :68, :
Nictzschcs dcnial ol, o
Index

&,
Schopcnhaucr on, 8:, +:, , +:o+
!anderer on abandonmcnt ol, :68
Frcnch Rcvolution ol +8, 8
Frcud, Sigmund, 6
Fricdcrich Vilhclm !\ (King ol Prussia), +
Fricndships gcncrally, +6+, :
Fritsch, Tcodor, :
Fritzsch, rnst, +:, +o, o+:, ,
:
Fuchs, Carl, +8, +8n, +, on
Fynn, mily (daughtcr), , :,
Fynn, mily (mothcr), , :, , ,
:8
Gast, Pctcr. See K osclitz, Hcinrich
Gauguin, Paul, 6
Gay Science, Te
on Appollonian outlook on lilc, +:
on art (music), o:
audicncc, :
8ook \: Being Scientic about Science, ,

contcmplation, dcstruction ol, :, n,

6on
on crcation, dcstruction, , :
cultural cvolution thcmc, :
dcath ol God thcmc, :o, 8
ctcrnal rcturn thcmc in, +8, +8n,
+
on laith, 86
on gcndcr rclations, +o
on lilc as artwork, , 8, 86
ovcrvicw, :6, :
on panuropcanism, o, 8
pcrspcctivcs in, , n, 6n
prclacc, +886, , 6+n
on rankordcring in hcalthy socicty, ,
6on
on rcality, truth, knowlcdgc, 8
rcbirth ol Grcck tragcdy thcmc, o,
o8, 6on
rcissuc ol, 6
on scllcultivation, o6, 8:
sclldcvclopmcnt, rccction on, 6o+, ,
n
on truth, +
on world as chaos, :
Genealogy of Morals
audicncc, 6o
bad conscicncc, origins ol, 68o
as conclusion ol cpoch, 6o
First Essay: Good and E.il, Good and Bad,
6+, 6o, 8, 6+n
mastcry ol carth conccpt in, 8:, 6::n
mcthodology qucstion, 8
modcrn obscssion with, n
on Napolcon,
on objcctivity, , 8n, n
ovcrvicw, 6o+
pcrspcctivism in, o, , n, 6
Second Essay: Morality of Custom and the
So.ereign Indi.idual, Te, 6, o+,
8
Tird Essay: !hat Do scetic Ideals Mean?,
+, (See also asccticism)
on truth, +
writing, , 6o
Gcnius, Nictzschc on, +6, +6+, +6+n, +,
+8,
Gcnoa, :, :o+
Germania Socicty, :8, :8n
Gcrman matcrialism, :8+:, 8n
Gcrman Rcich, :, o, 86
Gcrmany, hatrcd ol, 88, o68
Gcrsdor, Carl von, +, +n, :, , , 88,
n, ++:, ::8
Gillot, Hcndrik, o
Glagau, Gustav, o
Globalization, :66, :66n, :6
Gods cxistcncc, Hcgcl on, 8+:
Gocthc
lilc at Licpzig, 6
Nictzschcs admiration ol, +, , o+
Good and vil, Good and 8ad, 6+, 6o,
8, 6+n
Great Noon, Te, ++
Grcccc, , n
Grcck art
Nictzschc on, +:, +:, :66
sublimation ol violcncc in, +o
Grcck culturc
rcligion in, :66, 6n
as rolc modcl lor Vcstcrn civilization, :o,
8, 8n, , 6
sublimation ol violcncc in, ++, 6
Tc Grcck Statc, +6o+
Grcck tragcdy
Apollonian/ionysian duality in, +6
dcath ol, +:
Vagncr on, +++
Grcy, John, 6n
GucrricriGonsaga, mma, +o, +
Guilt, origins ol, 68o
Hammcr, Valthcr, +n
Handcl, Gcorg Fricdrich (H andcl), , +6, ,
6o, +, :
Hanslick, ., +:+, +:, +86, 8n, 8n
&,c

ixbvx
Happincss
Da.n on, :
paradox ol, o8, 6o+n
T.ilight of the Idols on, oo+
!anderer on, :8+, +8+
Hayman, R., :,
Hcalth issucs
abscncc in Licpzig, 6
ancicnt philosophy as curc lor, :8o+
ascctic curc attcmpts, :
chcst wound,
climatc rclationship to, :8:, +, :,
8, 8
dcprcssion, +8:, ::, :8, 8,

dictary habits, :6, +6+, , , n,

6
cycsight, dctcrioration ol, ++:, :6, :+,
8n
horsc story, +
insanity, thcorics ol, 6:
iron man curc attcmpts, :o
Jcna asylum, +:
madncss, carly inucnccs on, :
masturbation as causc ol, :o
mcgalomania, :, :8, o+
mcntal collapsc, +:o, :n, :,
:8+, o+
mountain air curc attcmpt, :
pcrsonality switchcs, 8, :
posttraumatic strcss disordcr, +8, +8
rcality, dissociation lrom, :8+
rclcasc lrom tcaching dutics duc to, :
scllprcscribingrclatcd, +8, +
strcssrclatcd (migrainc), ++, :, 6:,
++o++, +6, +8:, :o6, :o8, :o, :+:,
:, 8,
syphilis thcory, , :o, o, +:,
6:
Hcalthvirtuc conncction, Nictzschc on,
:+o
Hcalthy lilc thcmc, 8
Hcgar, Fricdrich, , 6n
Hcgcl, Gcorg
Camus on, 86
on Gods cxistcncc, 8+:
philosophy, Nictzschc on, +68+
on schools rolc in glorication ol statc, +
Hcidcggcr, Martin, +:, ++8+, +:, 8,
6
Hcinzc, Max, :, :n
Hcraclitus, +66
Hcrd man conccpt, , :, 68, ++,
n
Hcrmits Ycarning,
Hillcbrand, Karl, +o+, +8
Historiography, +
History of Materialism and Critique of Its
Signicance for the Present (Langc),
8o
Hitlcr, Adoll, 6, 8
Hohcnzollcrn, Fricdrich, 86
H oldcrlin, Fricdrich, +6, :o6, +n,
:n
Holmcs, Shcrlock, :8
Holtcn, Karl von, o+
Homcr and classical Philology, +o+
Homcrs Compctition, +, +6:
Horsc story, +
Ho. Christian Is Our Present-Day Teology
(vcrbcck), +6
Human, ll-Too-Human
altruism (cgoism), :, :, :n, :
art/artists, attack on, :o:, ::n, +,
8:
ssorted Opinions and Maxims, :6, ,
o, 6
cultural cvolution thcory, :6+:
cscapism thcmc in, ::6
lrccdom, critiquc ol, :
lrcc spirits, dcvclopmcnt ol, 6, :
lrcc spirits, monastcry lor, :, :8n, :
on lrcc will, :68, :
on globalization, :66, :66n, :6
hcroicidyllic thcmc in, o
highcr culturc, rcligion, art in, :66
highcr culturc conccption in, :6o
mctaphysics, critiquc ol, :
mctaphysics, mans nccd lor, :68
mctaphysics dcconstruction, bcncts ol, :,
:6n, :6o
on modcrnity, :6
morality, attack on, ::, :n, 6o,

on panuropcanism, o
positivism in, +o+, ::, :6n
prclacc, +886, , 6+n
publishing ol, :+:, n
rcissuc ol, , 6
rcvicws ol, :
on sclldcvclopmcnt, , 8, ::
on scxuality, :
writing ol, ::, :6, :8
Humboldt, Alcxandcr von, +6
Hymn to Fricndship, :oo
Hymn to Life, ,
Hymn to Solitude, :+
Hyperion (H oldcrlin), +:,
Index

&,:
!dcalism
Notcs SummcrVintcr +8 on, +8
Schopcnhaucrian, +
Idylls from Messina, :6, 6
!mmortality, Zarathustra on, :+
!ndcpcndcncc ol thought, Schopcnhaucr on,
6, 8+:
!ndividuality
Birth of Tragedy on,
sovcrcign, 6, 6n
sucring, Nictzschc on, +:, +:oo
Internationale Monatschrift, :
!ntoxicatcd Song, :, 8, 8n, 86
Jahn, tto, +, 6+:
Januarius, Saint, ::
Janz, Curt Paul, 8, 8n, :++, ::, :
Jcna asylum, +:
Jcsus, historical, 6, +++:
Jcsus, Nictzschc on, 6
Joke, Cunning, Fe.enge (K osclitz), :o+
Judaism
Christianity dcvclopmcnt via, ++6n, ++n,
6:, +o++
slavc morality dcvclopmcnt and, 6:,
+o++
J ungcr, rnst, o
Jupitcr Symphony, ::n
Kaltan, Julius, o
Kaisermarsch, +, :+:o
Kant, !mmanucl
on Gods cxistcncc, 8+:
inucncc on Nictzschc, +, 6o:n
Langc, impact on, 8o
on moral virtuc, ::
on natural world, 8:
on objcctivity,
on sclshncss, on
on Socratism, +6o
on will, 8:
Kcllcr, Gottlricd, +o+
Knight, Death and De.il ( urcr), :n
Knowlcdgc, acquisition ol in pursuit ol moral
virtuc, +
K onigswatcr, :
K osclitz, Hcinrich
last sanc visit with Nictzschc,
pscudonym, origin ol, :+n
publication ol Nictzschcs work by,
rclationship with Nictzschc, :+:, :,
:o+, , :+n
on Untimely Meditation, :++
on Zarathustra, 6+on
Kr amcr, scar, :, :
Krug, Gustav, +, +, ++, :8, +o
Kulturkampf, +8, +8n
Lampc, Valthcr, +8n
Langbcin, Julius, :
Langc, Fricdrich, 8o, 6n
Languagc
as barricr to truth, +6o, :+
as lundamcntal posscssion,
music as prior to, , n
Lanzky, Paul, 6
La Rochcloucauld, :++, :8n
Lcadcrship, spiritual, , 6on
Lcipzig
8icdcrmanns,
classical philology, study ol, 6
classical philology chair position, 6
cnrollmcnt in, 6
as happy timcs, 6
music in, 66
Philological Club, 66
Life of Jesus (Strauss), 6
LilcRclorm Movcmcnt, :
Lilcs work, purposc, Nictzschc on, :6o
Lipincr, Sicglricd, :, :
Liszt, Franz
attcndancc at Fing cyclc prcmicrc, ::
8achs translation ol, 6
on Birth of Tragedy, +o
as Cosimas lathcr, +o6
on rst Untimely Meditation, +o+
on Mcmorics ol a Ncw Ycars vc, +
music, Nictzschc on,
music, Vagncr on, +
on Nictzschc as composcr, +o+o
Parsifals comparison to, :+
on succcss, :++
Vagncr commcnts on Tristan and Isolde,
++
Vagncrs physical similarity to, 8n
Litcrary works, +88+86
latc and lrccdom, o
homcland .s. world citizcnship,
morality, politics, 68, :n, n
music,
ovcrvicw,
plagiarism in, :n
poctry, +6
rcligion,
tragcdy, o+
Litcrary works, 8onn, 8
Little !itch, Te, :
Lovc, Nictzschc on, 8n
&,:

ixbvx
Ludwig ol 8avaria, ::, ::n
Luthcr, Martin,
Luthcran Church dcscribcd, 6
Macho morality, :6, :
Manlrcd Mcditation, +, :6, 8n,
n
Marriagc
critiqucs ol, :6, :6, , o8
dcsirc towards, :, :6
tt, Louisc, ::8, :6, :6
Salom c, Lou (See Salom c, Lou)
Trampcdach, Mathildc, :++, :
Vagncr commission on, +8:
Marx, Karl, 8
Mastcry ol carth conccpt, 8:, 6::n
Mcaninglul livcs, Nictzschc on, :o6, on
Mcistcrsingcr, dic (Mastcrsingcrs), :+, :+n,
6
Memoirs of a female Idealist (Mcyscnbug), :+,
o8
Mcmorics ol a Ncw Ycars vc, +o+o
Mcssina, :6
Mctaphysicians, prcjudiccs ol gcncrally, +++:
Mctaphysics
Christianity critiquc, Da.n, oo+
dcconstruction, bcncts ol, :, :6n,
:6o
dualism in, +:, +:n, +
Human, ll-Too-Human critiquc ol, :
mans nccd lor, :68
Mcycr, Richard M., o
Mcyscnbug, Malwida von
on Human, ll-Too-Human, :
as mothcrly pcrson, :+
Nictzschcs criticism ol, o8, +o, :n,
:
rclationship with Nictzschc, +o, :+, ::
rolc, Nictzschcs pcrccption ol, ++
on scllcultivation, o
on Untimely Meditations, +
\illa Rubinacci communc, :o, ::
Vagncr, loyalty to, 88
on !agner in Bayreuth, ::
Michaclis, P., o6
Mill, John Stuart, oo, 6:n
Modcrnity
asccticism in, 8
critiqucs ol, +:, +6, :, +::,
, o8, 86n
larming as bad lor human hcalth, 6, 6n,
6:+n
Human, ll-Too-Human on, :6
mastcry ol carth conccpt in, 8:, 6::n
Nictzschcs war on, +o, :6o, 68,
8n
rcdcmption ol, ::, , 6, n
Vagncr on, +++
Monarchy
libcralism .s., 8
Nictzschcs lovc ol, 8, 6n
Monod, Gabricl, +66, +66n
Monodic ` a dcux, +66
Monumcntal history, +, 86n
Morality, Nictzschcs vicws ol.See also
Gcncalogy ol Morals
bcncvolcnt cgoism, o+:
communal, in socictal wcllbcing, :
critiquc, Da.n, o+,
ol custom, 6
dcvclopmcnt, history ol, 6+, 6:n, 6
Human, ll-Too-Human attack on, ::,
:n, 6o,
litcrary works, +88+86, 68, :n,
n
as ncccssity, 6
rcligion and,
scicncc, inucnccs on, :8
slavc, Judaism in dcvclopmcnt ol, +o++
slavc .s. noblc, 6
Morality, Schopcnhaucr on, 86, ::, o:,
o:n
Morality ol Custom and thc Sovcrcign
!ndividual, 6, o+, 8
Moscngcl, Adoll, +6, +8
Mozart, V. A., ::n
Mushackc, Hcrmann, 6:, 6:n, 88
Music
as communication with transccndcnt, ,
8, 6+8n
Gay Science on, o:
as inucncc on Fritz, 6, ++6, :
inspiration, Birth of Tragedy on, 8
in Licpzig, 66
litcrary works, +88+86,
naturc ol, Schopcnhaucr on, 8
as prior to languagc, , n
Schopcnhaucr on, +:+,
as shapcr ol socicty, :+
Vagncr on, +:+, n, n
Myth, rolc ol in Birth of Tragedy, +o+, +,
+n, +, ::6, :6
Myth of Sisyphus, Te (Camus), 86, :6
Nationalism .s. cosmopolitanism, +8o,
86n
Naturalism.See also positivism
Nictzschcs shilt to, ::+:, :
Index

&,
powcr, mctaphysics ol, ++
Schopcnhaucr on, 8:
Natural world
Nictzschcs vicw ol, 8
scicnccs inucncc on, 8o
Naumann, Constantin Gustav, o,

Naumburg, +:+, :
NcoKantianism, 8o
Nicc, 6, 8, 6, o:, 6, +:,
, 86
Niclscn, Rosalic, +:
Nictzschc, lizabcth (F orstcr)
alicnation ol, :
on 8ascl,
on 8ayrcuth Fcstival rchcarsals, ::n
on brothcrs war scrvicc, +
control ol brothcrs body by, 6
dcath ol, 8
dcscribcd, 6
on Germania Socicty, :
on King Squirrcl gamc, +
Lou Salom c .s., 6, :, 6+
on Ludwig, 6
marriagc, oo
on Naumburg, +:
on Plorta, ::, :
publication ol brothcrs works by, 6
rclationship with Fritz, n, +, 86o, +o,
++, :+:, :, 6o, 6+, , 6,
, 8
in Tautcnburg, 6
on Tribschcn, ++o
vcrsion, !ill to Po.er, , n, ,
6:8n
Vagncrs and, :o:
Nictzschc, rdmuthc, , 6, +:,
Nictzschc, Franziska chlcr
alicnation ol, :8, :o:, :
carc ol son by, +:, :
dcath ol, +:, 6
dcscribcd, 6
on lizabcths marriagc, 6
on Plorta, :+
rclationship with childrcn, 6,
salc ol rights by,
support ol son by, 86o
Nictzschc, Fricdrich Fritz
as allcgcd homoscxual, +:, :
birth,
childhood/lamily lilc, 6
as composcr, +
criticisms ol, 6, 6n,
dcath ol, 8
dcscribcd as youth, ++8
lathcrs dcath, inucnccs on, +o
hcalth issucs (See hcalth issucs)
mcmorials to, +8n
music as inucncc on, 6, ++6, :
mythologizing ol, 68
oscillating pcrspcctivcs ol, 8+n
pcrsonality, intcnsity ol, o, on, 8
pcrsonality switchcs, 8, :
rclationship with lizabcth, n, +, 86o,
+o, ++, :+:, :, 6o, 6+, ,
6, , 8
Vagncrian idcalism, adhcrcncc to, 6o
war gamcs, playing, ++
Nictzschc, Karl Ludwig, 6, +o
Nictzschc Archivcs, 8
Nietzsche as Educator, +, +n
Nietzsche contra !agner, :
Nictzschcs Rcpublic
ctcrnal rcturn thcmc, 6:6n
ovcrvicw ol, 8
rankordcring in, , :, :,
++, 6on
rcligion in, ++8
Night Song, Te, 8
Nihil admirari, +
Nocturnal Mystery, Te, :
Notcs SummcrVintcr +8
gcniuscs, +
idcalism .s. rcalism, +8
nationalism .s. cosmopolitanism, +8o,
86n
ovcrvicw, +8
philosophys purposc, +8o
rcligion, luturc ol, +8o+
scicncc, limits ol, +8
bcrdrcis, :
bjcctivity
Genealogy of Morals on, , 8n, n
Schopcnhaucr on,
chlcr, Augustc, 6, +:
chlcr, avid rnst,
chlcr, dmund, n
Of Joys and Passions, +
Old and Ne. Faith, +68+
On Child and Marriage,
n Judaism in Music (Vagncr), ++6n, ++n
nlythcsupcrmancounts vicw, +6+, +6+n
n Mans Nccd lor Mctaphysics, :+
On Old and Young little !omen, :
On Sal.ation, 8o
On Self-O.ercoming, 8
n Statc and Rcligion (Vagncr), ++, +:o
&,,

ixbvx
On the Behind-the-!orldly, o+
n thc Childhood ol Pcoplcs,
On the Free Death,
On the Future of our Educational Institutions,
+:, +o, +6o, +, :6n, :,
n, o
On the Gift-Gi.ing !irtue,
n thc Pathos ol Truth, +6o
n thc Rclation ol Schopcnhaucrs Philosophy
to a Gcrman Culturc, +6+:
On the Tousand Goals and One, +:
On the Tree Metamorphoses, 6o
On the Uses and Disad.antages of History for Life,

On the !ision and the Fiddle, 8o+

On Tose !ho Pity,
pcra, 8, ++
Opera and Drama (Vagncr), n
ratorio, 8
Origin of the Moral Sentiments (R cc), ::
tt, Louisc, ::8, :6, :6
vcrbcck, Franz
carc ol Nictzschc by, +, o+
dclivcry ol Nictzschc to asylum by, o+
lizabcth, rclationship with, n
on Nictzschc, 6
Nictzschc, rclationship with, +o, +66,
:, :+n
Romundt, rclationship with, :o6
Pacism, dcvclopmcnt ol, +8
Pancth, Joscph, 6, 88
Parmcnidcs, +66
Parsifal (Vagncr), +::, +86, :, :+, ::, 6,
o
Pauls pcrvcrsion, 6, +:, 6:n
Pcoplc. See \olk
Pcrsonality switchcs, 8, :
Pcrspcctivism, +6, o, , n, 6
Pcssimism
joylul, 8
Nictzschc dcscribcd as, :8, 8
Nictzschc on, +:, , 6,
o
ovcrcoming, +66, 8, +6
Schopcnhaucr on, 8:, +6, o:
Vagncr on, +:o+, +:
Plorta
culturc, ::6, :n
curriculum, :6
Germania Socicty, :8, :8n
history ol, :+:
as idcal gymnasium, +:
litcrary works (See litcrary works, +88+86)
Nictzschc on, ::, :6
Nictzschcs translcr to, ++, :+
philology as prolcssion, +
tccnagc rcbcllion, :+
Philological Club, 66
Philology, classical
dcparturc lrom, +6
limitations ol, :o
as prolcssion, +
study ol, 6
Vagncrs critiquc ol, +
Philology, cxistcntial, +6
Philosophcr as cducator, +:oo
Philosophy
asccticism, rolc in, :, 6:+n
chair position, rcjcction lor, +8
dcvotion to, +6
goals, Hcllcnistic pcrccptions ol, :88o
lack ol background in, +8
purposc, Notcs SummcrVintcr +8 on,
+8o
scicncc and, +8
Philosophy in the Tragic ge of the Greeks, +6,
+66
Pindcr, Vilhclm, +, +, ++, :8
Plato, ++n, ++n, :
Plural rcalism, +6on
Poctry
litcrary works, +88+86, +6
to Lou Salom c, :
rolc ol in Grcck art, +o+
Politics
Birth of Tragedy on, +:
litcrary works, +88+86, 68, :n,
n
Vagncr on, 8, +:o
Positivism.See also naturalism
Human, ll-Too-Human in, +o+, ::,
:6n
Nictzschcs shilt to, ::+:, :
powcr, mctaphysics ol, ++
in !anderer, :
Powcr
mctaphysics ol, ++, o, 8,
will to (See will to powcr conccpt)
Prahlcn, !sabclla von, :o
Praycr to Lilc, :oo, +:,
Protcstant Rclormation, , :+:
Prussia.See also FrancoPrussian Var
civil war, 6:
cducation systcm, Nictzschcs vicws on,
+:, +o, :6n
inucncc ol on Nictzschc, , :6
military scrvicc in, :
Index

&,
Nictzschcs latcr philosophy on, ++:,
+68+
Psychological Obser.ations (R cc), :+:+
Railways, +n
Rankc, Lcopold von, ::
Rcalism
common scnsc, +
Genealogy of Morals on, , 8n, n
Notcs SummcrVintcr +8 on, +8
Schopcnhaucr on, 8
scicntic, ++
Rcality, naturc ol, 8, 8n, , n
Rccoaro, :
Rcdtcl, Anna, +:
R cc, Paul.See also Salom c, Lou
Human, inucncc on, :, ::
Nictzschc, rclationship with, :+:+, ::,
:o, ::
Nictzschcs criticism ol, :8n, , 8o+
Origin of the Moral Sentiments, ::
in whip photograph,
Rcich, Gcrman, :, o, 86
Rcligion.See also Christianity, Christianity,
Nictzschc and
attack on, :o
corrcct lunction ol, 6
as lundamcntal posscssion,
in highcr culturc, :6
litcrary works, +88+86,
Notcs SummcrVintcr +8 on luturc ol,
+8o+
Richtcr, Hans, +o, +on
Fing cyclc (Vagncr), +::, +86, +n, ::o, ,
6n,
Ritschl, Fricdrich, +, 6+:, 6, 66, 88o,
+:
Ritschl, Sophic, 66
Robcrtson, Croom, :8
R ockcn
dcscribcd,
Nictzschc on, 8
vicaragc, 6, , 8, 8n
R odcrVicdcrhold, Louisc,
Rohdc, rwin
Beyond Good and E.il rcvicw, o6
on Birth of Tragedy, +o+
on Human, ll-Too-Human, :, :
marriagc, 6n, ::8
Nictzschc, rclationship with, 6, n
scvcrancc ol tics with, o,
as Vagncr disciplc, 88, +o8
on !anderer, :8
on Villamowitz, +6
Romanticism, ::, 6, 6n, 8
Romundt, Hcinrich, +6, +6n, +66, +8o,
:o6
Roscnlaui, :8
RothcnburgobdcrTaubcr, +8
Rousscau, JcanJaqucs, 8, n
Rubcns, Pctcr Paul, :n
Ruta Lugurc,
R utimcycr, Ludwig, +o
Sacro Montc, :
Salis, Mcta von
doctoral thcsis,
as lcminist, 8oo, :n, :8
nancial support by, o
last sanc cncountcrs with, 6, o
Nictzschc, rclationship with, o, on,
8oo, :
rolc, Nictzschcs pcrccption ol, ++
Vcimar shrinc, 68
Salom c, Lou (Andrcas)
aair, altcrmath, , 6+
aair, cnding ol,
dcscribcd,
lizabcth .s., 6, :, 6+
cxpcricnccs with, inucncc ol Nictzschcs
latcr thought, 8, :n, , 8n
historys pcrccptions ol,
mccting, :, , +
motivations, o, o+
Ncitzschcs courtship ol, , o
Ncitzschcs proposal to, +
quarrcls,
R cc and, :+:+, o+, , o
rclationship, pocms on, :
rolc, Nictzschcs pcrccption ol, ++
on Sacro Montc, :
in Tautcnburg, 6, o
whip photograph, ,
Salvation
Birth of Tragedy on, +:, ++:, n
culturc as, +6o+
Zarathustra on, 8o
Schacht, Richard, 6
Schillcr, Fricdrich,
Schirnholcr, Rcsa von, 88, :, 8oo,
:n,
Schmcitzncr, rnst, +o, :o8, ::, :+:,
:, 8, o+:
Schopcnhaucr, Arthur
criticism ol, o+, 6:+n
on dcath, :, 88, +:
discovcry ol, :o
on cscapc lrom sucring, 8, :+
&,&

ixbvx
Schopcnhaucr, Arthur (cont.)
idcalism, +
on indcpcndcncc ol thought, 6, 8+:
inucncc ol on R cc, :++
inucncc ol on Vagncr, 6, 6n
on moral virtuc, 86, ::, o:, o:n
on music, +:+,
on natural world, 8:
Nictzschc on, +6
Nictzschcs admiration ol, 66, , :
Nictzschcs introduction to, 6, 8+
on objcctivity,
philosophy, Nictzschcs convcrsion to,
86
on rcality, 8
rcconstruction ol, +
Rohdc on signicancc ol, +o+
on scxuality, 6, :
on sucring, will, 8:, +:, , +:o+
Vagncr on, , ++:
!orld as !ill and Fepresentation, 6, 8+6,
+
Schopenhauer as Educator, +8, +o, +:oo,
:+8, :, :6:, +n, :o, +n
Schulplortc. See Plorta
Scicncc
in asccticism, 8o:
Christianity, inucnccs on, :8, , 6
convictions in, +
criticism ol, o
inucncc ol on natural world, 8o
Notcs SummcrVintcr +8 on limits ol,
+8
Sclal, Johanncs, o6
Sclldcnial in lrcc spirit dcvclopmcnt, :8
Sclldcvclopmcnt
Human, ll-Too-Human on, , 8,
::
rccctions on, 6o+, 6, o, , n,
on
Scllcstccm, La Rochcloucauld on, :++
Scllhatrcd
Christianitys promotion ol, :8, :8n,
:o
as Christian lcgacy, ++, +8+, +n, 6,
6n, 6:+n
Sclshncss, T.ilight of the Idols on, o, on,
o6
Scxuality
Nictzschc on, :, +o, + (See also
asccticism)
Schopcnhaucr on, 6, :
Scydlitz, Rcinhart von, :, :
Siegfried (Vagncr), +o6, +o
Sils Maria, +6+, 6o+, o+, 6, :,
, 8o, 6:n
Singing Neanderthals, Te (Mithcn), n
Slavcry, +6o+, :6:, :, 6+:, 6,
86n, 6:on
Social arwinism, +8, :6+:, :
Socialism, Nictzschc on, +:, :, :86,
n
Socicty, improvcmcnt ol, o8, ++. See also
modcrnity
Socratism, +:, +6o, :6n, :6, :8
Solitudc
as Nictzschcs nccd, +6
as pocts pricc lor cxccllcncc, +
Song of a Goatherd, :
Songs of Prince !ogelfrei, :, 6
Spinoza, 8aruch, +:o, n, 6n
Spir, Alrican, :, :n
St. Moritz, :
Statcs subscrvicncc to civil socicty idca,
+6
Stcin, Hcinrich von, :, , 6+8n
Stcinabad, :o8+:
St oltcn, Hcrmann, 6, 6on
Stradc Nuova, :, :n
Strauss, avid, 6, +68+
Straussiade, +68+
Stra. Dogs (Grcy), 6n
Strcss or borcdom argumcnt, 8:, +
Strindbcrg, August, 88
Sucring
Birth of Tragedy on,
Schopcnhaucr on, 8:, +:, , +:o+
Schopcnhaucr on cscapc lrom, 8, :+
Suicidc as philosophical qucstion, +:, :6
Summons to thc Gcrmans, +
Supcrman thcmc, +6, +6+, +6+n, +,
+8,
Supcrnatural world, Nictzschc on, 6, 8,
6
Sutras of the !edanta (cusscn), 6
Syphilis thcory, , :o, o, +:,
6:
Tainc, Hippolytc, , 6:n, 6+6n
Tautcnburg, 6, o
Tautcnburg 8cautication Socicty, 6,
6o6n
Tcognis ol Mcgra, 6, :n, n
Toughts conccrning choral Music in Tragcdy,
o
Tus Spoke Zarathustra
on acadcmic ruminants, 68
antiantiScmitism in, 8
Index

&,
Ass Fcstival (Fcast ol Fools), 8, 8n,
86
audicncc, :6, 6
as autobiography, 6
On the Behind-the-!orldly, o+
On Child and Marriage,
criticism ol,
ionysian statc ol ccstasy in, +:, ++:,
8on
ctcrnal rcturn thcmc in, +8, +8n, 8,
6+on
On the Free Death,
on lricndships, +6+
On the Gift-Gi.ing !irtue,
happincss paradox ol, o8, +o++,
6o:n
on immortality, :+
inspirations lor, 66, n, 6
!ntoxicatcd Song, :, 8, 8n, 86
Of Joys and Passions, +
on marriagc, :6
Night Song, Te, 8
On Old and Young little !omen, :
ovcrvicw, 66, 6+6n
Part !, 8, 66,
Part !!, 8o, 8,
Part !!!, 8o, 8
Part !\, 8, 88
prologuc, 6
rcissuc ol, 6
Salom` cs inucncc on, o
On Sal.ation, 8o
On Self-O.ercoming, 8
spccchcs, 6
on statc domination, +6+
Before Sunrise, 8+
On Tose !ho Pity,
On the Tousand Goals and One, +:
On the Tree Metamorphoses, 6o
Upon the Isles of the Blessed, 6
On the !ision and the Fiddle, 8o+
on will to powcr,
on womcn, , :6, 88, n
on work, 6:, +8, :, 8n
To Pain, o:
To Vhat xtcnt Vc, Too, Arc Still Pious,
+
Tragcdy
Grcck (See Grcck tragcdy)
litcrary works, +88+86, o+
Trampcdach, Mathildc, :++, :
Tribschcn
abandonmcnt ol, ++o++
atmosphcrc, +o+o
Birth of Tragedy on, +++
Vagncrs antiScmitism, dcvclopmcnt ol,
+o
Tristan und Isolde (Vagncr), :8, +o6, ++:o,
+:o, +86, :+, 8+n
Triumphlied (8rahms), +, :+:o
Truth
Christianity on, 8+, 8+n
dcnial ol cxistcncc ol, n
dcvotion to, 66+, o
Genealogy of Morals on, +
Turin, 86, o
T.ilight of the Idols
on art, o8
on d ecadence,
liot, criticism ol, 6
ctcrnal rcturn thcmc, o+, 6:6n
on lrccdom, oo
Gcrmany, critiquc ol, o68
on happincss, oo+
on milieu thcory,
ovcrvicw, 8
rcality, naturc ol, 8, 8n, , n
on sclshncss, o, on, o6
on socicty, improvcmcnt ol, o8, ++
on sublimation ol violcncc, o, 6:n
on thc will to livc, +, 6
writing ol, o, +, 6:n
Union activism, +:
Unity, achicvcmcnt ol in madncss, :o
Univcrsal causal dctcrminism, o, :, :
Univcrsalism, rcjcction ol, 8
Univcrsity ol Grcilswald, +8
Untimely Meditations
on Christianity, +6
rcissuc ol, 6+n
rcvicws, :o, :8
Schopenhauer as Educator, +8, +o,
+:oo, :+8, :, :6:, +n, :o, +n
on Socratism, +6o
Straussiade, +68+
Uses and Disad.antages of History for Life,
+, +8:, +o, ::6, 86n
!agner in Bayreuth, +8, :+:6, :66
Vc Philologists, :o, :o8, :+, :+
Upon the Isles of the Blessed, 6
Usclulncss to community as cthical bchavior,
:86o
Uses and Disad.antages of History for Life,
+, +8:, +o, ::6, 86n
!aterhaus, loss ol as loss ol sccurity, ++
\cnicc, :+:,
&,

ixbvx
\cytcux, :+
\illa Rubinacci, :o, ::
\iolcncc
Birth of Tragedy on, +
sublimation ol, T.ilight of the Idols on,
o, 6:n
sublimation ol in Grcck culturc, ++,
6
\ischcr8ilngcr, Vilhclm, +o, +8
!olk, (pcoplc). See also 8ayrcuth projcct
artwork as csscncc ol, ++, +++6, +6
bcncts ol knowlcdgc ol, +6
myths rolc lor, +o+, +
sharcd community in prcscrvation ol, :6+
supcrman, birth ol lrom, +6
Vagncrian conccpt ol, ++6+, :o6,
:+8+, ::o
\oltaircan dcconstruction, :
Vagncr, Cosima
antiScmitism ol, :+, :, :
Gcorgc liot and, :
on lcaving von 8 ulow, 8n, 8n
on Nictzschc as composcr, +o+o
Nictzschcs rclationship with, ++,
on Nictzschcs war scrvicc, +6
rclationship with lizabcth Nictschc, :o:,
6
rcvicw ol rst Untimely Meditation, +
rcvicws ol Nictzschcs works by, ++:, +66,
:
trcatmcnt ol Nictzschc by, :o8
Vagncr, Richard
on art, ++, ++8+, +:
8rahms banning by, +:
on Christianity, ++
on community (!olk), +++6
on consumcrism, ++
dcath, 6o
d ecadence ol,
on Grcck tragcdy, +++
on Human, ll-Too-Human, :
on industrialization, ++
on lovc, scxuality, :
on music, +:+, n, n
on nationalism, ++6+, ++n
n Statc and Rcligion, ++, +:o
on politics, 8, +:o
on postmodcrn nihilism, +++
Rohdc on signicancc ol, +o+
on Schopcnhaucr, 8n, n
Schopcnhaucrs impact on, , ++:, 8+n
Siegfried, +o6, +o
Tristan und Isolde, :8, +o6, ++:o,
+:o, +86, :+, 8+n
tyrannical naturc ol, 6, +86, +
on Untimely Meditations, +o+, +
world vicw ol, +++
Vagncr, Richard, Nictzschc and
admiration, 66, 6, +88
alicnation, +8, +o, +, :o:, :o68,
:+o++, :::, ::o, :, :o
attacks, :+
criticism, +8, :++8, :, :+:
idcals, promotion ol, +o, 8n
mccting, 68
Opera and Drama, n
rclationship, 8n, 88, +o+o, ++:, +8,
+6, +68, +8:, :o, n, 8n, 8n
on unity in works, +88
!agner Case, Te
d ecadence conccpt, , 6:n
ovcrvicw, 8n, :
rcvicws, :, :
Ring cyclc story, , 6n, , 6:n
!agner in Bayreuth, +8, :+:6, :66, :o,
n
!ahn, ++n, 8+n
Valdcn Two
art and charactcr in, :86, :86n
blucprint lor, :8
dcmocracy in, :88
cconomics ol, :86
war and pcacc in, :86
womcn in, :88
!alk ure, ::n
Valls as providcrs ol sccurity, +:+
!anderer and His Shado., Te
on abandonmcnt ol lrcc will, :68
ancicnt philosophy inucncc on, :88o
on art and charactcr, :86, :86n
background, :8o+
on dcath, 8:
on dcmocracy, :88
on cconomics, :86
on happincss, :8+, +8+
hcroicidyllic thcmc in, o8
as lilc coaching manual, :8+:, 8n
positivism in, :
publishing ol, :
rcactions to, :8
rcissuc ol, , 6
on scllcultivation, o
scllmastcry, attainmcnt ol, :8
scrcnity, dcvclopmcnt ol, :8
thcorctical qucstions, indicrcncc to, :8:
Index

&,,
Valdcn Two, :8
on war and pcacc, :86
on womcn, :88
Vc Fcarlcss ncs, o
Vcimar shrinc, 68
Vclti, Hcinrich, o6
Vc Philologists, :o, :o8, :+, :+
!estminster Fe.ie., :o
!hat Do scetic Ideals Mean?, +, . See also
asccticism
!hat is Fomanticism?, 6, 6n, 8
Vhip photograph, ,
Vidmann, Joscph, o
Vicl, Joscph, :o8
VilamowitzM ollcndor, Ulrich von, ++:,
+6
Villc, Ludwig, o+
Vill to livc, T.ilight of the Idols on, +, 6
!ill to Po.er: ttempt at a Fe.aluation of all
!alues, Te
abandonmcnt ol, :
Casaubon impulsc, 6
d ecadence, 8
dualism thcmc,
lizabcths vcrsion, , n, , 6:8n
Great Noon, Te, ++
hcalthy lilc thcmc, 8
intcllcctual clcanlincss in, :
Nachlass, inucncc ol, , n, 6
ovcrvicw, o
publishing ol,
rank ordcr, ctcrnal rcturn thcmcs in, 6:6n
thcory ol cvcrything, 8, 6:8n
writing ol, , , 8, o+, 6:n
Vill to powcr conccpt
biological doctrinc, , 6, 6:n, 6on
cosmological doctrinc,
cxpansion ol, 6, 6n, 8
psychological doctrinc, , 6
Vinckclmann, Johann Joachim, +:, +:n
Voll, Hugo,
Vomcn
admission ol to univcrsity, ++, o
Beyond Good and E.il on, :, :n, :
cmancipation ol, :+, o
Nictzschcs rclationships with gcncrally, ++,
:++, :, 88, n, 8oo
Zarathustra on, , :6, 88, n
Vork, 6:, +8, :, 8n
!orld as !ill and Fepresentation, Te
(Schopcnhaucr), 6, 8+6, +
Zimmcrn, Hclcn, +:, :n
Zurich,