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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References


The objective of this article is to provide engineers with a brief introduction to the finite element method (FEM). The article includes an overview of the FEM, including a brief history of its origins. The theoretical basis for the FEM is discussed, with emphasis on the basic methodologies, assumptions, and advantages (and limitations) of the method. Next, the basic steps that must be performed in any FEM analysis are illustrated (using an example from solid mechanics), and FEM examples are provided for problems from other engineering disciplines. To aid the reader in selecting a FEM software package, a brief survey of currently available FEM software is presented, together with a discussion of alternative analysis techniques that might be considered in lieu of the FEM. Finally, we examine future trends in the FEM.
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Contents
Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References
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Finite Element Method Defined

Many problems in engineering and applied science are governed by differential or integral equations. The solutions to these equations would provide an exact, closed-form solution to the particular problem being studied. However, complexities in the geometry, properties and in the boundary conditions that are seen in most real-world problems usually means that an exact solution cannot be obtained or obtained in a reasonable amount of time.
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Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

Current product design cycle times imply that engineers must obtain design solutions in a short amount of time. They are content to obtain approximate solutions that can be readily obtained in a reasonable time frame, and with reasonable effort. The FEM is one such approximate solution technique. The FEM is a numerical procedure for obtaining approximate solutions to many of the problems encountered in engineering analysis.
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Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

In the FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is discretized into simple geometric shapes called elements. The properties and the governing relationships are assumed over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of unknown values at specific points in the elements called nodes. An assembly process is used to link the individual elements to the given system. When the effects of loads and boundary conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations is usually obtained. Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of the continuum or system.

Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

The continuum has an infinite number of degrees-offreedom (DOF), while the discretized model has a finite number of DOF. This is the origin of the name, finite element method. The number of equations is usually rather large for most real-world applications of the FEM, and requires the computational power of the digital computer. The FEM has little practical value if the digital computer were not available. Advances in and ready availability of computers and software has brought the FEM within reach of engineers working in small industries, and even students.
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Finite Element Method Defined (cont.)

Two features of the finite element method are worth noting. The piecewise approximation of the physical field (continuum) on finite elements provides good precision even with simple approximating functions. Simply increasing the number of elements can achieve increasing precision. The locality of the approximation leads to sparse equation systems for a discretized problem. This helps to ease the solution of problems having very large numbers of nodal unknowns. It is not uncommon today to solve systems containing a million primary unknowns.
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Origins of the Finite Element Method

It is difficult to document the exact origin of the FEM, because the basic concepts have evolved over a period of 150 or more years. The term finite element was first coined by Clough in 1960. In the early 1960s, engineers used the method for approximate solution of problems in stress analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer, and other areas. The first book on the FEM by Zienkiewicz and Chung was published in 1967. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a wide variety of engineering problems.
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Origins of the Finite Element Method (cont.)

The 1970s marked advances in mathematical treatments, including the development of new elements, and convergence studies. Most commercial FEM software packages originated in the 1970s (ABAQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, MARK, PAFEC) and 1980s (FENRIS, LARSTRAN 80, SESAM 80.) The FEM is one of the most important developments in computational methods to occur in the 20th century. In just a few decades, the method has evolved from one with applications in structural engineering to a widely utilized and richly varied computational approach for many scientific and technological areas.
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How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer?

The FEM offers many important advantages to the design engineer:
Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects composed of several different materials and having complex boundary conditions. Applicable to steady-state, time dependent and eigenvalue problems. Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems. One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemical reactions, electromagnetism, biomechanics, heat transfer and acoustics, to name a few.

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How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer? (cont.)

General-purpose FEM software packages are available at reasonable cost, and can be readily executed on microcomputers, including workstations and PCs. The FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid modeling and mesh generation. Many FEM software packages feature GUI interfaces, auto-meshers, and sophisticated postprocessors and graphics to speed the analysis and make pre and postprocessing more user-friendly.

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How can the FEM Help the Design Organization?

Simulation using the FEM also offers important business advantages to the design organization:
Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening the product development time. Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed. Refine components before dependencies to other components prohibit changes. Optimize performance before prototyping. Discover design problems before litigation. Allow more time for designers to use engineering judgement, and less time turning the crank.

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Sources of Error in the FEM

The three main sources of error in a typical FEM solution are discretization errors, formulation errors and numerical errors. Discretization error results from transforming the physical system (continuum) into a finite element model, and can be related to modeling the boundary shape, the boundary conditions, etc.

Discretization error due to poor geometry representation.

Discretization error effectively eliminated.

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Sources of Error in the FEM

Formulation error results from the use of elements that don't precisely describe the behavior of the physical problem. Elements which are used to model physical problems for which they are not suited are sometimes referred to as ill-conditioned or mathematically unsuitable elements. For example a particular finite element might be formulated on the assumption that displacements vary in a linear manner over the domain. Such an element will produce no formulation error when it is used to model a linearly varying physical problem (linear varying displacement field in this example), but would create a significant formulation error if it used to represent a quadratic or cubic varying displacement field.

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Sources of Error in the FEM (cont.)

Numerical error occurs as a result of numerical calculation procedures, and includes truncation errors and round off errors. Numerical error is therefore a problem mainly concerning the FEM vendors and developers. The user can also contribute to the numerical accuracy, for example, by specifying a physical quantity, say Youngs modulus, E, to an inadequate number of decimal places.
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Advantages of the Finite Element Method

Can readily handle complex geometry:
The heart and power of the FEM.

Can handle complex analysis types:

Vibration Transients Nonlinear Heat transfer Fluids

Can handle complex loading:

Node-based loading (point loads). Element-based loading (pressure, thermal, inertial forces). Time or frequency dependent loading.

Can handle complex restraints:

Indeterminate structures can be analyzed.
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Advantages of the Finite Element Method

Can handle bodies comprised of nonhomogeneous materials:
Every element in the model could be assigned a different set of material properties.

Can handle bodies comprised of nonisotropic materials:

Orthotropic Anisotropic

Special material effects are handled:

Temperature dependent properties. Plasticity Creep Swelling

Special geometric effects can be modeled:

Large displacements. Large rotations. Contact (gap) condition.

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Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method

A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem. A general closed-form solution, which would permit one to examine system response to changes in various parameters, is not produced. The FEM is applied to an approximation of the mathematical model of a system (the source of so-called inherited errors.) Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct a good finite element model. A powerful computer and reliable FEM software are essential. Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare and interpret.
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Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method

Numerical problems:
Computers only carry a finite number of significant digits. Round off and error accumulation. Can help the situation by not attaching stiff (small) elements to flexible (large) elements.

Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors:

Poor choice of element types. Distorted elements. Geometry not adequately modeled.

Certain effects not automatically included:

Buckling Large deflections and rotations. Material nonlinearities . Other nonlinearities.
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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Six Steps in the Finite Element Method

Step 1 - Discretization: The problem domain is discretized into a collection of simple shapes, or elements. Step 2 - Develop Element Equations: Developed using the physics of the problem, and typically Galerkins Method or variational principles. Step 3 - Assembly: The element equations for each element in the FEM mesh are assembled into a set of global equations that model the properties of the entire system.
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Six Steps in the Finite Element Method

Step 4 - Application of Boundary Conditions: Solution cannot be obtained unless boundary conditions are applied. They reflect the known values for certain primary unknowns. Imposing the boundary conditions modifies the global equations. Step 5 - Solve for Primary Unknowns: The modified global equations are solved for the primary unknowns at the nodes. Step 6 - Calculate Derived Variables: Calculated using the nodal values of the primary variables.
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Classification of Solid-Mechanics Problems

Analysis of solids Static Dynamics

Elementary
Behavior of Solids

Advanced
Stress Stiffening Large Displacement Geometric Linear Nonlinear Fracture Material Geometric Classification of solids Plasticity Viscoplasticity Instability

Skeletal Systems 1D Elements Trusses Cables Pipes

Plates and Shells 2D Elements Plane Stress Plane Strain Axisymmetric Plate Bending Shells with flat elements Shells with curved elements

Solid Blocks 3D Elements Brick Elements Tetrahedral Elements General Elements

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Process Flow in a Typical FEM Analysis

Start Problem Definition Analysis and design decisions Stop

Processor Pre-processor
Reads or generates nodes and elements (ex: ANSYS) Reads or generates material property data. Reads or generates boundary conditions (loads and constraints.) Generates element shape functions Calculates master element equations Calculates transformation matrices Maps element equations into global system Assembles element equations Introduces boundary conditions Performs solution procedures

Post-processor
Prints or plots contours of stress components. Prints or plots contours of displacements. Evaluates and prints error bounds.

Step 6

Step 1, Step 4

Steps 2, 3, 5
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Step 1: Discretization Mesh Generation

Geometry from CAD program surface model
3 1 12 14 13 2 4 5 11

mesh generator

meshed model
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Step 4: Boundary Conditions for a Solid Mechanics Problem

Displacements DOF constraints usually specified at model boundaries to define rigid supports. Forces and Moments Concentrated loads on nodes usually specified on the model exterior. Pressures Surface loads usually specified on the model exterior. Temperatures Input at nodes to study the effect of thermal expansion or contraction. Inertia Loads Loads that affect the entire structure (ex: acceleration, rotation).

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Step 4: Applying Boundary Conditions (Thermal Loads)

300 275 250 225

Nodes from FE Modeler

300 275 250 225 200

Temp mapper

200 175

Thermal Soln Files

150 150 175

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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Information Available from Various Types of FEM Analysis

Static analysis:
Deflection Stresses Strains Forces Energies

Heat transfer analysis

Temperature Heat fluxes Thermal gradients Heat flow from convection faces

Dynamic analysis:
Frequencies Deflection (mode shape) Stresses Strains Forces Energies

Fluid analysis
Pressures Gas temperatures Convection coefficients Velocities

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Example FEM Application Areas

Automotive industry
Static analyses Modal analyses Transient dynamics Heat transfer Mechanisms Fracture mechanics Metal forming Crashworthiness Aerospace industry
Static analyses Modal analyses Aerodynamics Transient dynamics Heat transfer Fracture mechanics Creep and plasticity analyses Composite materials Aeroelasticity Metal forming Crashworthiness

Architectural
Soil mechanics Rock mechanics Hydraulics Fracture mechanics Hydroelasticity

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Variety of FEM Solutions is Wide and Growing Wider

The FEM has been applied to a richly diverse array of scientific and technological problems. The next few slides present some examples of the FEM applied to a variety of real-world design and analysis problems.

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 This example shows an intravenous pump modeled using hexahedral elements.

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Car tires require sophisticated analysis because of their complex geometry, large deformations, nonlinear material behavior, and varying contact conditions. Brick elements are used to represent the tread and steel bead, while shell elements are used in the wall area. Membrane elements are used to represent the tire cords.

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This forging example is a simulation of a bulk forming process with multiple stages. This axisymmetric analysis begins with a cylinder of metal meshed very simply.

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A 3-D finite element model of an instrumented canine cervical spine. The model consisted of four vertebrae (C3-C6), a titanium alloy plate, and two screws attached to the back of two vertebrae (C4-C5).

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Finite element analysis works on the premise that a complex structure like the helicopter shown here can be simulated on a computer screen so that the helicopter's physical properties can be studied to determine how well the design will perform under real-world conditions. The computer models permit the design team to examine a wide range of options and to detect design flaws long before the prototype stage.

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This guitar features two strips of graphite running the length of the neck. This FEM model was used to study how much the neck moved when string forces were applied and moisture content changed. Using the FEM calculations, designers could try different reinforcement scenarios to increase neck stability.

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The boats hull consists of a thick core material sandwiched between two thinner layers of plys oriented in different directions. The initial analysis work focused on maximizing the hull's overall stiffness by examining different core-material densities and varying the ply thickness and orientations.

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Dynamic analysis of a tuning fork, to find it's first eight modes of vibration.

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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Commercially Available FEM Software Suites

Here we present a survey of some of the better-known integrated FEM software packages. These integrated systems allow users to perform all facets of FEM analysis, including modeling, meshing, solution and post-processing. The Internet provides a vast new resource for individuals interested in the FEM. See the Reference section of this paper for interesting FEM links to start your Internet research. In addition to the integrated FEM packages listed below, many vendors offer dedicated software for solid modeling, mesh generation, FE equation generation and solution, and post-processing.
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Commercially Available FEM Software Suites (cont.) (partial list)

Software Package Introduced Comments ABAQUS 1978 General purpose, with special emphasis on advanced linear and nonlinear structures and heat transfer applications. ADINA 7.0 1975 Optimized for structural and heat transfer applications. Limited element library. Extensive material model library. ALGOR 1984 First FEM package available for PC use. ANSYS/LS-DYNA N/A For solving highly nonlinear structural dynamics problems (impact, large deformation, nonlinear materials, etc.) ANSYS/MECHANICAL 1970 Probably the best-known and most widely-used FEM software. Complete structures/thermal/acoustics modleing. ANSYS/Multiphysics N/A Coupled-field, multidisciplinary FEM program. ELFEN N/A Includes linear and nonlinear buckling, modal analysis, transient heat transfer analysis, impact and fragmentation. GENESIS N/A Fully integrated finite element analysis and numerical optimization software for structural analysis. LUSAS N/A Includes automatic meshing, advanced non-linear analysis, and composites analysis. MARC 6.2 1970 3D automated contact analysis capabilities suited for studying tough manufacturing problems, (metal forming/ etc.) MSC/FEA 1971 MSC participated in the 1965 development of NASA's public-domain FEM code, NASTRAN. MSC/NASTRAN for Windows N/A Handles stress, vibration, dynamic, nonlinear, heat transfer, and fluid flow analyses of mechanical components. NISA/DISPLAY 1973 A family of general purpose FEM programs for PCs and workstations. Modular design. PAM 1973 FEM software optimized to study restraint systems (PAM-SAFE), impacts (PAM-SHOCK) and metal forming. SAMCEF 1965 One of the oldest FEM codes available. A powerful FEM package for structural and heat transfer analysis. STARDYNE 1967 The world's first commercially available Finite Element Analysis software. STARS N/A Integrated, general-purpose, finite element software. Developed by NASA.

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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Technologies That Compete With the FEM

Other numerical solution methods:
Finite differences
Approximates the derivatives in the differential equation using difference equations. Useful for solving heat transfer and fluid mechanics problems. Works well for two-dimensional regions with boundaries parallel to the coordinate axes. Cumbersome when regions have curved boundaries.

Weighted residual methods (not confined to a small subdomain):

Collocation Subdomain Least squares* Galerkins method*

Variational Methods* (not confined to a small subdomain) * Denotes a method that has been used to formulate finite element solutions.
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Technologies that Compete With the FEM (cont.)

Prototype Testing
Reliable. Well-understood. Trusted by regulatory agencies (FAA, DOT, etc.) Results are essential for calibration of simulation software. Results are essential to verify modeled results from simulation. Non destructive testing (NDT) is lowering costs of testing in general. Expensive, compared to simulation. Time consuming. Development programs that rely too much on testing are increasingly less competitive in todays market. Faster product development schedules are pressuring the quality of development test efforts. Data integrity is more difficult to maintain, compared to simulation.

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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Future Trends in the FEM and Simulation

The FEM in particular, and simulation in general, are becoming integrated with the entire product development process (rather than just another task in the product development process):
FEM cannot become the bottleneck.

A broader range of people are using the FEM:

Not just hard-core analysts.

Increased data sharing between analysis data sources (CAD, testing, FEM software, ERM software.) FEM software is becoming easier to use:
Improved GUIs, automeshers. Increased use of sophisticated shellscripts and wizards.
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Future Trends in the FEM and Simulation (cont.)

Enhanced multiphysics capabilities are coming:
Coupling between numerous physical phenomena.
Ex: Fluid-structural interaction is the most common example. Ex: Semiconductor circuits, EMI and thermal buildup vary with current densities.

Improved life predictors, improved service estimations. Increasing use of non-deterministic analysis and design methods:
Statistical modeling of material properties, tolerances, and anticipated loads. Sensitivity analyses.

Faster and more powerful computer hardware. Massively parallel processing. Decreasing reliance on testing. FEM and simulation software available via Internet subscription.
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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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Selected FEM Resources on the Internet

The internet offers virtually unlimited resources to persons interested in the FEM. The following links are a small sample of FEM sites on the Internet which the author has found useful. Thousands more (at least!) are readily available. Most commercial FEM developers have extensive presence on the Internet, with web pages that include company histories, descriptions of software products, and example FEM solutions. Other good FEM resources on the web originate with academia, government, and discussion and user groups.
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Selected FEM Resources on the Internet

http://www.engineeringzones.com A website created to educate people in the latest engineering technologies, manufacturing techniques and software tools. Exellent FEM links, including links to all commercial providers of FEM software. http://www.comco.com/feaworld/feaworld.html Extensive FEM links, categorized by analysis type (mechanical, fluids, electromagnetic, etc.) http://femur.wpi.edu Extensive collection of elementary and advanced material relating to the FEM. http://www.engr.usask.ca/%7Emacphed/finite/fe_r esources/fe_resources.html Lists many public domain and shareware programs.
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Selected FEM Resources on the Internet

http://sog1.me.qub.ac.uk/dermot/ferg/ferg.html#Fi nite Home page of the the Finite Element Research Group at The Queen's University of Belfast. Excellent set of FEM links. http://www.tenlinks.com/cae/ Hundreds of links to useful and interesting CAE cited, including FEM, CAE, free software, and career information. http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/5978/fea.h tml Extensive FEM links. http://www.nafems.org/ National Agency for Finite Element Methods and Standards (NAFEMS).
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Introduction to the Finite Element Method (FEM) Steps in Using the FEM (an Example from Solid Mechanics) Examples Commercial FEM Software Competing Technologies Future Trends Internet Resources References

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References
Cashman, J., 2000. Future of Engineering Simulation, ANSYS Solutions, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 3-4. Chandrupatla, T. R. and Ashok D. Belegundu, 1997. Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Kardestuncer, H., 1987. Finite Element Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York. Krouse, J., 2000. Physical Testing Gets a Bum Rap, ANSYS Solutions, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 2. Lentz, J., 1994. Finite Element Analysis Cross Training, unpublished lecture notes, Honeywell Engines and Systems, Phoenix, Az. Nikishkov, G.V., 1998. Introduction to the Finite Element Method, unpublished lecture notes, University of Arizona, Tucson, Az. Rajan, S.D., 1998. Finite Elements for Engineers, unpublished lecture notes, Arizona State University, Tempe, Az. Segerlind, L. J., 1984. Applied Finite Element Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
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