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Assessment of the distal nerve function and blood supply is essential. Young children will not understand complicated instructions. It is easier to assess their motor function by asking them to copy simple movements and to assess their sensation by touching areas reliably supplied by each nerve (Table 1). The diagnosis is conrmed with radiographs.
Abstract
Orthopaedic injuries of the upper limb in children are common. The majority may be managed by simple non-operative means, but others require surgical intervention. Common injuries in children will be discussed along with the principles of their management and the possible complications.
Introduction
Fractures of the upper limb account for more than half of the bony injuries sustained in children. They are uncommon below the age of 18 months as infants are less likely to fall on their outstretched arms. The frequency of injury rises with increasing mobility. Childrens bones are more malleable than those of adults. The periosteum is thicker and the physes are open. They may therefore suffer from fracture patterns not seen in adults such as buckle (torus) or greenstick fractures, plastic deformation and injuries affecting the physes. The majority of fractures affecting a childs upper limb will heal rapidly and with minimal intervention. The modelling capabilities of growing bones can compensate for some degree of malunion so perfect anatomical reduction may not always be necessary. A proportion of these injuries will, however, require stabilisation. Complications are few but may be signicant and will be discussed in relation to specic fractures. No discussion of childrens fractures is complete without reference to non-accidental injury. Factors such as an inconsistent history, multiple injuries, and delayed presentation should raise the suspicions of the examining practitioner and initiate appropriate referral for further investigation.
Clinical assessment
Injured children are usually reluctant to be examined. Appropriate analgesia will make the child more comfortable and more prone to comply with examination. Inspection may reveal deformities, bruising and wounds. The limb should be palpated to localise the area of maximal tenderness. The joints above and below the injury should be assessed for range of movement and stability.
David Rowland MA FRCS(Orth) is a Consultant in Childrens Orthopaedics at The Royal Hospital for Sick Children in Glasgow, UK. Conicts of interest: none declared.
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Pre- and postoperative images of a displaced proximal humeral fracture treated with intramedullary nailing. Figure 1
Treatment Most may be managed non-operatively with a collar and cuff for comfort for the rst week or two, then gentle mobilisation as tolerated. If the diaphyseal fragment is prominent, having buttonholed through the deltoid for example, the fracture should be reduced by closed or open means. If unstable it may be stabilized with K wires or elastic nails.
increasingly popular, but plating or external xation are alternatives. Radial nerve injuries are usually neurapraxias and are not routinely explored at initial presentation.
Elbow injuries
Anatomy Assessment of the radiographs of a childs elbow is made difcult by the numerous ossic centres (Figure 2). The order of their development can be remembered by the acronym CRITOE (Table 2). Radiographs of the opposite elbow may provide a useful comparison.
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Lateral epicondyle
Medial epicondyle
Radial head
Capitellum
Figure 2
The anterior humeral line should pass through the capitellum on the lateral view. A line along the long axis of the radius should also pass through the capitellum on antero-posterior (AP) and lateral views. (Figure 3)
the dislocation but should also be inspected for fractures of the radial head, humeral epicondyles and coronoid process of the ulna. Treatment Prompt reduction should be performed and an above elbow backslab applied. Neurology should be reassessed after reduction. Radiographs should conrm reduction and ensure that no fragments remain incarcerated in the joint. The elbow should be immobilized for 3 weeks before gentle range of movement exercises begin. Complications Neurological injuries are often neurapraxias and usually recover well. Elbow instability and myositis ossicans are rare, but stiffness is not uncommon.
Humerus
Radial head
Pulled elbow
Aetiology The classic history is of a young child who refuses to use their arm after a traction injury. The radial head is pulled out of the annular ligament.
Capitellum
Radiocapitellar line
Figure 3
Diagnosis The child is reluctant to move the elbow and it is tender over the radial head. Radiographs may not demonstrate the unossied radial head but can rule out fractures.
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Treatment Pressure is applied over the radial head with the forearm supinated. As the elbow is extended a palpable clunk suggests reduction of the radial head. Full function usually returns soon after.
extension type following hyperextension of the elbow. Flexion types are caused by a fall onto a exed elbow. Diagnosis The elbow may be swollen and deformed. The triangular relationship between the epicondyles and olecranon is preserved. Any of the nerves around the elbow may be injured so a full examination must be performed. The brachial artery passes over the anterior aspect of the humerus and may be injured by the diaphyseal fragment so the distal circulation must be assessed.
Pre- and postoperative wiring images of a supracondylar fracture of the humerus. Figure 5
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Diagnosis The elbow is swollen and tender laterally. The fracture may not always be appreciated on initial radiographs as it occurs through an area which may be only partially ossied. Treatment Undisplaced fractures may be treated in a cast for 4 weeks, but with imaging at 1 and 2 weeks to ensure that there has been no displacement. Displacement should be treated by open reduction and stabilization with divergent K wires or an interfragmentary screw. Anatomical reduction of the joint surface should be obtained. The joint is immobilized in a cast for 4 weeks. The wires or screw are removed once fracture healing is assured. Complications Non-union is uncommon in childrens fractures, but is occasionally seen with this fracture. Displaced fractures must be stabilised and it is recommended that radiographic evidence of union is obtained before the xation is removed. Cubitus valgus deformity may occur as a consequence of nonunion or physeal injury on the lateral side. This may be associated with a tardy ulnar nerve palsy. The latter may be treated by transposition and the former by osteotomy but, as in cubitus varus correction, the risk of complications is signicant.
The Wilkins modication of Gartlands classication of extension type injuries is used (Table 3). Treatment Type I fractures may be treated in a plaster for 3 weeks, but should have another radiograph to conrm that the position has not changed at a week. Type IIA fractures with angulation of less than 5e10 may be treated in a cast exed beyond 90 at the elbow. Imaging in the plaster should show adequate positioning. If not, the patient should be taken to theatre for manipulation K wires. Type IIB and type III fractures should be reduced and stabilised with K wires and protected in an above elbow cast. Ninetyve percent will reduce with closed manipulation. The wires and cast are removed at 3 weeks. Most patients return to full movement within 6 weeks. They should avoid contact activities until then. Vascular compromise requires emergency management. The patient should be taken to theatre for reduction of the fracture. If the pulse and capillary rell return the fracture is stabilised with wires. If the pulse is present before reduction but disappears after, the xation should be removed and the fracture remanipulated. If the blood supply does not return after manipulation the vessel should be explored by a surgeon trained in vascular repair. Complications Volkmanns ischaemic contracture is a disastrous contracture of the wrist and ngers caused by scarring of the muscles in the forearm from compartment syndrome. Patients developing increasing pain or discomfort must be considered to have vascular compromise and should be managed appropriately. Most neurological injuries are neurapraxias and settle with time. Ulnar nerve symptoms which develop after insertion of a medial wire should prompt repositioning of the wire. Cubitus varus malunion is more common than cubitus valgus and produces the gunstock deformity. Surgical correction of this deformity is fraught with complications and is best reserved for only the most signicant deformities.
Olecranon fractures
Aetiology The most common cause of this rare injury is a fall onto the elbow. Diagnosis The patient may be swollen and tender over the olecranon process and sore on resisted elbow extension. Treatment Undisplaced fractures can be treated in plaster for 4 weeks. Displaced fractures are managed with open reduction and a tension band technique.
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Pre- and post-wiring images of a lateral mass fracture of the humerus. Figure 6
Diagnosis There may be local tenderness and a reduced range of rotation in the forearm. Treatment Angulation of less than 30 at the radial neck will correct with modelling. A sling or cast may be provided for comfort but early mobilization is preferable. Displaced or more angulated fractures are treated in theatre. Closed manipulation is attempted rst. If this is unsuccessful a percutaneous K wire may be used to manipulate the fracture. The wire is withdrawn after reduction. The Metaizeau technique of passing an intramedullary elastic nail from distal to proximal radius allows manipulation of the
fracture by rotation of the nail once it is engaged with the radial head. The nail is left in situ until the fracture has healed. A cast is applied for 3 weeks. Complications Some loss of forearm rotation may occur, particularly in more displaced fractures. There is a small risk of avascular necrosis, which may contribute to elbow stiffness.
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only one is injured the joints between it and its partner should be assessed carefully. Diagnosis There may be tenderness, deformity and reduced motion. Imaging may reveal plastic deformation, greenstick or complete injuries. Treatment Undisplaced injuries are managed in above elbow cast for 5e6 weeks with imaging at 1 and 2 weeks. Fractures with displacement or angulation more than 10 should be reduced. Closed reduction is possible in the majority. A well-moulded above elbow cast is applied in the position of maximum stability. Follow-up should be as above. Unstable fractures should be stabilised. Intramedullary elastic nails have proven more popular than plates. Stabilised fractures need not be immobilized for such a long period and the cast can be removed after 2e3 weeks if comfort allows. Complications Malunion can lead to reduced rotation so regular follow up in plaster should be performed. Synostosis is a rare complication, the treatment of which is rarely satisfactory.
Treatment Reduction of the ulnar fracture and manipulation of the radius acutely should reduce the dislocation. There should be a low threshold for stabilising the ulna. In delayed presentations an osteotomy of the ulna and soft tissue stabilisation of the radiocapitellar joint may be necessary. The arm should be immobilised for 4e5 weeks with radiographs at 1 and 2 weeks to ensure reduction is maintained. Complications Late subluxation or dislocation of the radial head can restrict elbow exion and rotation.
Galeazzi lesion
A fracture of the radius with dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint, this injury is the opposite of the Monteggia lesion. It is rare in children, but is managed by the same principles of reduction and stabilisation
Pre- and postoperative manipulation images of a Monteggia lesion with plastic deformation of the ulna. Figure 7
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Pre- and postoperative wiring images of a displaced distal radial fracture. Figure 8
Greenstick fractures are less stable. Angulation greater than 15 should be reduced and a well-moulded cast applied. Radiographs should be taken at 1 and 2 weeks and the cast continued for 4 weeks. Displaced or angulated complete fractures should be similarly managed but may need to be stabilised with percutaneous
K wires. The wires are removed at 4 weeks. If the fracture is still tender a wrist splint can be provided for a further 2 weeks. Complications Malunion may restrict forearm rotation so close follow up is required to ensure that reduction is not lost.
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Nerve injuries are uncommon and usually represent neurapraxias which resolve spontaneously.
Complications Premature physeal closure may occur in a small proportion. It may lead to shortening or angulation of the radius relative to the ulna and may need treatment by osteotomy or shortening of the ulna. Redisplacement in plaster is uncommon, but a radiographic check of the position should be performed at a week. A
FURTHER READING Beaty JH, Kasser JR, eds. Rockwood & Wilkins fractures in children. 7th edn. Lippincott, 2009. Section 2 Upper Extremity. Benson M, Fixsen J, Macnicol M, Parsch K, eds. Childrens orthopaedics and fractures. 3rd edn. Springer, 2010: 715e50. Part V section 2, [chapters 43e45]. Dietz H-G, Schmittenbecher PP, Slongo T, Wilkins K. AO manual of fracture management e elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) in children. Thieme, 2006. Herring JA, ed. Tachdjians Paediatric Orthopaedics. 4th edn. Saunders, 2007; Vol 3: 2423e572. Upper extremity injuries, [chapter 42].
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