Understanding Economic Fluctuation and Its Impacts on Business Economy-wide fluctuations in production or economic activity over several months

or years could be known as business cycle or economy cycle. Business cycles are usually measured by considering the growth rate of real gross domestic product (GDP). Despite being termed cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not follow a mechanical or predictable periodic pattern. In recent years economic theory has moved towards the study of economic fluctuation rather than a business cycle though some economists use the phrase 'business cycle' as a convenient shorthand. For Milton Friedman calling the business cycle a "cycle" is a misnomer, because of its non-cyclical nature. Friedman believed that for the most part, excluding very large supply shocks, business declines are more of a monetary phenomenon. Fiscal policy decisions have a widespread effect on the everyday decisions and behavour of individual households and businesses. Consider the impact of an increase in the basic rate of income tax or an increase in the rate of national insurance contributions. The rise in direct tax has the effect of reducing the post-tax income of those in work because for each hour of work taken the total net income is now lower. This might encourage the individual to work more hours to maintain his/her target income. Changes to indirect taxes in particular can have an effect on the pattern of demand for goods and services. For example, the rising value of duty on cigarettes and alcohol is designed to cause a substitution effect among consumers and thereby reduce the demand for what are perceived as de-merit goods. In contrast, a government

financial subsidy to producers has the effect of reducing their costs of production, lowering the market price and encouraging an expansion of demand. The use of indirect taxation and subsidies is often justified on the grounds of instances of market failure. But there might also be a justification based on achieving a more equitable allocation of resources e.g. providing basic state health care free at the point of use. Lower rates of corporation tax and other business taxes can stimulate an increase in business fixed capital investment spending. If planned investment increases, the nations capital stock can rise and the capital stock per worker employed can rise. The government might also use tax allowances to stimulate increases in research and development and encourage more business start-ups. A favourable tax regime could also be attractive to inflows of foreign direct investment a stimulus to the economy that might benefit both aggregate demand and supply. The Irish economy is often touted as an example of how substantial cuts in the rate of corporation tax can act as a magnet for large amounts of inward investment. The very low rates of company tax have been influential although it is not the only factor that has underpinned the sensational rates of economic growth enjoyed by the Irish economy over the last fifteen years. Capital investment should not be seen solely in terms of the purchase of new machines. Changes to the tax system and specific areas of government spending might also be used to stimulate investment in technology, innovation, the skills of the labour force and social infrastructure. A good example of this might be a substantial increase in real spending on the transport infrastructure. Improvements in our transport system would add directly to aggregate demand, but would also provide a boost to productivity and

competitiveness. Similarly increases in capital spending in education would have feedback effects in the long term on the supply-side of the economy. Monetarist economists on the other hand believe that government spending and tax changes can only have a temporary effect on aggregate demand, output and jobs and that monetary policy is a more effective instrument for controlling demand and inflationary pressure. They are much more sceptical about the wisdom of relying on fiscal policy as a means of demand management. Monetary policy is often seen as something of a blunt policy instrument affecting all sectors of the economy although in different ways and with a variable impact. Lower interest rates will (ceteris paribus) lead to an increase in both consumer and business capital spending both of which increases equilibrium national income. For the most part, the demand for goods and services is not related to the market interest rates quoted in the financial pages of newspapers, known as nominal rates. Instead, it is related to real interest ratesthat is, nominal interest rates minus the expected rate of inflation. For example, a borrower is likely to feel a lot happier about a car loan at 8% when the inflation rate is close to 10% (as it was in the late 1970s) than when the inflation rate is close to 2% (as it was in the late 1990s). In the first case, the real (or inflation-adjusted) value of the money that the borrower would pay back would actually be lower than the real value of the money when it was borrowed. Borrowers, of course, would love this situation, while lenders would be disinclined to make any loans. Changes in real interest rates affect the public's demand for goods and services mainly by altering borrowing costs, the availability of bank loans, the wealth of

households, and foreign exchange rates. For example, a decrease in real interest rates lowers the cost of borrowing; that leads businesses to increase investment spending, and it leads households to buy durable goods, such as autos and new homes. In addition, lower real rates and a healthy economy may increase banks' willingness to lend to businesses and households. This may increase spending, especially by smaller borrowers who have few sources of credit other than banks. Lower real rates also make common stocks and other such investments more attractive than bonds and other debt instruments; as a result, common stock prices tend to rise. Households with stocks in their portfolios find that the value of their holdings is higher, and this increase in wealth makes them willing to spend more. Higher stock prices also make it more attractive for businesses to invest in plant and equipment by issuing stock. In the short run, lower real interest rates in the U.S. also tend to reduce the foreign exchange value of the dollar, which lowers the prices of the U.S.-produced goods we sell abroad and raises the prices we pay for foreign-produced goods. This leads to higher aggregate spending on goods and services produced in the U.S. The increase in aggregate demand for the economy's output through these different channels leads firms to raise production and employment, which in turn increases business spending on capital goods even further by making greater demands on existing factory capacity. When the economy is in a recession, monetary policy may be ineffective in increasing spending and income. In this case, fiscal policy might be more effective in stimulating demand. Other economists disagree they argue that changes in monetary policy can impact quite quickly and strongly on consumer and business behavior.