COMMUNITY-LED SANITATION PROJECTS TO TREAT & COMPOST WASTE, IMPROVE PUBLIC HEALTH & CREATE JOBS AROUND RECYCLING.

DISTANCE PROJECT: GROUP 6 THERMOPHILIC COMPOSTING IN HAITI

GROUP 6: David Steiger Igor Pavic Nadine Loris Blinkenberg-Thrane Rebeca Sequera Pineda Ryan Boland 1

 Contents
........................................................................................................................................1 ........................................................................................................................................1 Contents..........................................................................................................................2 Executive Summary.......................................................................................................3 Introduction....................................................................................................................3 Background: Haiti/Earthquake...................................................................................4 Thermophillic Composting .......................................................................................5 GiveLove ...................................................................................................................6 Reasons for Recommendation....................................................................................7 Role of Government in Haiti..........................................................................................8 Different Types of Eco-San/Alternatives.......................................................................9 Portable Toilets..........................................................................................................9 Pit Latrines...............................................................................................................10 Pour flush toilets.......................................................................................................11 Pros and Cons of Thermophillic composting...............................................................11 Cover Material..........................................................................................................11 Toilet wash water.....................................................................................................12 Potential Groundwater Contamination.....................................................................12 Success Stories.............................................................................................................13 AMURT...................................................................................................................13 GRUB.......................................................................................................................13 Henri Christophe School..........................................................................................14 Tilory Community....................................................................................................14 Projects that havent worked........................................................................................15 The future of GiveLove................................................................................................15 Conclusion/Recommendation......................................................................................16 References....................................................................................................................17

Executive Summary
January 2010 the third deadliest earthquake ever struck Haiti, not far from its capital, Port-Au-Prince. An estimated 300, 000 people were killed in the quake and hundreds of thousands more left displaced from their homes and without access to clean water or sanitation. Many NGOs have tried to come up with suitable solutions for these many problems but with a lack of financial support and access to remote areas establishing successful and sustainable projects is always going to be a difficult task. GiveLove has managed to establish multiple projects throughout rural and urban Haiti utilising the potentially sustainable thermophillic composting toilet system. Thermophillic composting is a way of sustainably and productively managing human waste by turning it into fertiliser through careful composting techniques and vigilance. By creating a fertilizer the Haitians are then able to create gardens which can feed families and create an income at local markets, giving them a sense of ownership, responsibility and an increased direction for the future. When looking at other potential sanitation options the restricting factors include: Water availability Ground water contamination Cost Social acceptance

Although thermophillic composting does have its issues as well, these can be managed so as to create a sustainable sanitation solution while the people of Haiti find their feet again. Problems such as a reliable source of carbon based cover material and providing enough education so that the NGOs are able to leave Haiti trusting the local people to be able to look after themselves are the challenges for the future.

Introduction
Haiti is the poorest country in the Americas as per the human development index, which is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living. Haiti is ranked as number 145 of 182 countries in 2010. (Wikipedia, 2011) In January 2010 an earthquake struck on Haiti, and this destroyed big parts of the capital Port-auPrince. A lot of people were left without homes and around 634,000 people were forced to live in displacement camps (World: Contries and Terrotories: Haiti, 3

2011). The reconstruction of Haiti brought along a lot of changes; one of these is alternative sanitation. Before the earthquake the normal use of sanitation was Pit latrines, and after the earthquake they are still used. These pit latrines are however very smelly, messy and poorly maintained, therefore unpleasant to use for most. They are also very unhygienic and therefore a lot of diseases can be spread from usage. After the earthquake the use of portable toilets has increased dramatically. This solution however is not sustainable and they fill up so quickly and uncontrollably that when it reaches capacity no one wants to use them. Because of the bad sanitary conditions in Haiti, the organization GiveLove is working on improving sanitation through an alternative method, which is called eco-sanitation, or thermophillic composting. This assignments focus is to evaluate the GiveLove efforts in Haiti. The assignment will also focus on: The GiveLove organization and background. Introducing the technologies of thermophillic composting and urine separation. Different types of eco-sanitation and alternatives. The advantages and disadvantages of the eco-sanitation method. The social and economic effects of the GiveLove project. The projects future, obstacles and potential improvements.

Background: Haiti/Earthquake
Haiti is a pour country and have since 2010 been hit by natural disasters that have set back the development of the nation even further. On Tuesday the 12th of January, the earthquake hit the capital of Haiti, Port-Au-Prince, and caused major damage to the town and its habitants. An estimated 3 million people were affected by this natural disaster, and The United States Agency for International Development reported the death of around 220 000, and 1.5-1.8 million people were made homeless. Aftershocks from the earthquake and the following tsunami affected the country, for a period of time, after the main earthquake. As a result of the earthquake, and the many homeless people in Port-au-Prince, there has been a sanitation crisis, due to the lack of access to clean water, latrines and safe sewage etc. This has started an outbreak of cholera and this, has since 2010, led to the death of 4000 people (GiveLove, 2011). Prior to the earthquake the sanitary conditions were not that much better. The sanitation was extremely underfunded, and very few people had access to improved sanitation. This has a major effect on the overall public health as well as the child mortality rate:

Percentage of the population with access to improved drinking water: 53 percent (urban), 52 percent (rural). Percentage of the population with access to improved sanitation: 42 percent (urban), 25 percent (rural). Percentage of households with water supply: 52 percent (urban), 26 percent (rural). No city in Haiti has a functioning sewage system. Under five mortality percentage, as a result of waterborne illness: 16 percent. The effect of diarrhea on child mortality is exacerbated by limited access to improved drinking water sources, hygiene and sanitation facilities. (Office of the special envoy Haiti, 2011)

Thermophillic Composting
Thermophillic composting is the controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter that includes a hot phase with heat producing bacteria. The temperatures of composting are 45 C or hotter. The hot phase can last days, weeks, or months depending on factors such as: Organic ingredients Ambient temperatures Geographic location Moisture content

Human pathogens find the thermophillic environment hostile and that they will quickly die off in such an environment. Research shows that the composting method destroys human pathogens such as viruses, protozoa, intestinal worms and bacteria. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists composting as one Process to Further Reduce Pathogens or PFRP. Other than the thermophillic stage of composting, compost piles will undergo several stages of decomposition. After the hot phase has slowed, the organic material will continue the process of biological degradation and transformation into humus assisted by non-thermophillic microorganisms, macro organisms such as earthworms and other insects, and fungi. These stages allow for the further decomposition of the organic material to produce a plant-friendly and beneficial final product. The composting process includes both temperature and the element of time.

Together, they produce a product that is safe, sanitary, pleasant-smelling, and stable and can be used for growing human food. Cover material used for composting includes sugar cane bagasse and amyris wood sawdust. Food scraps are added to the compost bin twice a day. Temperatures in the nearly full active compost bin can measure approximately 60C or 140F. It will require months to cool down and reach maturity. After each use of the toilet the user has to throw a small amount of cover material into the large drum. When toilet receptacles are full, the contents are deposited into a compost bin. First, the cover material in the bin is raked back, then a depression is dug into the top of the compost pile .The toilet material is added into the depression and the cover material is raked back over the fresh deposit. The next step is rinsing the toilet receptacle with water. The water is then dumped into the compost pile and new cover material is added. The compost needs to mature for approximately one year after it is collected or it can become phytotoxic (it will kill plants). Composting maturity occurs when the compost pile cools down and the compost temperature is approximately the same as average ambient outdoor temperature. When maturity is reached the compost should be suitable for growing food. This can be tested by planting a seed, such as a squash or cucumber, in a sample of the compost. The location of the compost bins is adjacent to the toilet stalls, allowing the contents to be conveniently composted without the need to transport the toilet material. The system should be designed to prevent unpleasant odour and flies. A hand washing station is conveniently located next to the toilet stall. The approximate recommendation for the size and volume of each compost bin is 1.5 meters wide, 2.0 meters long and 1.0m high. It takes approximately three months to fill up the volume.

GiveLove
GiveLove was founded by Patricia Arquette and Rosetta Millington-Getty to develop temporary housing solutions and improved sanitation systems in Haiti. GiveLove is working on community-led sanitation projects to treat and compost waste, improve public health, and create jobs around recycling (GiveLove, 2011). After the earthquake in January 2010 the actress Patricia Arquette from Hollywood travelled several times to Haiti and established valuable contacts in Port-au-Prince and also internationally. The result of these visits was the foundation 6

and registration of an organization that focus on mainly two targets: temporary housing solutions and improved sanitation systems. The first target was fulfilled in December 2010 after the construction of a housing complex in a hospital areal in Portau-Prince the NGO decided to focus a hundred percent on the sanitation target. A watershed event in the development of the eco-san solution that GiveLove implements today was the visit of the Joseph Jenkins, author of the Humanure Handbook and promoter of the thermophillic composting as a viable, safe and accessible solution for sanitation in developing countries (Jenkins, 2005). Mr. Jenkins orientated and trained the ground team in Port-au-Prince and advised the young NGO technically. After his visit the first experience with thermophilic composting was started in Tapis Vert, Cit Soleil one of the IDP-Camp in Haitis capital city. Until this moment GiveLove has implemented sanitation systems in an IDP-Camp (Tapis Vert), in a Camp-School (Amurt), in two Green Schools (SOPUDEP in PetionVille and LEnfant De LEspoir School and orphanage in Leogane) and communities (Tillory) (GiveLove, 2011). In Port-au-Prince GiveLove has a training centre for thermophilic composting of human excreta. During this first two years training sessions, seminars and information activities were offered to the interested public and the NGO participates actively in the Haitian sanitation development establishing a network between government, large and small organisations, public institutions and private sector. GiveLove is a small organisation with many international helpers and advisers. On field there is permanently employed one person for the housing projects and one person for ecological sanitation. In the United States are five board members responsible for fundraising and establishing the direction of the work in Port-auPrince.

Reasons for Recommendation

The key factors, when choosing to implement a new sanitation system in a society, can be a lot other than the terms need and demand. Of course these factors are also relevant, but for implementation of eco-sanitation in a Haiti, one major key factor is the sustainability. For a solution to be sustainable there is a lot of important things to investigate: Cultural acceptability: Is there any social and cultural barriers that could have an impact of the eco-sanitation system and its sustainability? What kind of sanitation systems are the people currently familiar with and use? What do the people expect in terms of a new sanitation system? Ease-of-use and maintenance: What kind of maintenance and management level can the people keep up, without it being a risk to health and contamination? What kind of training and information is needed for people to be able to use and maintain the system correctly?

Affordability: How much does the system cost to implement and maintain? Should everyone in the society contribute to the payment? Will Governments or NGOs contribute to the required costs of these projects? Availability and capacity for operation and maintenance: If the sanitation system is shared between households or is it in a public place? Who will take care of the operation and maintenance? Who should people address if a big technical problem arises that they themselves are not able to solve? Where can components and materials be purchased if there is a need for replacement? Environmental impacts: Are there any governmental standards and if so does this sanitation solution live up to this? Are soil conditions and hydrogeological conditions present such that they will impact the environment?

All of these factors are really important when a new sanitation system is to be implemented in a given society. If most of these questions have an available solution that can be found and implemented, the implemented new sanitation must be categorized as being sustainable. Sustainability is one of the key factors and reasons for recommendation.

Role of Government in Haiti

Currently Haiti is undergoing a reform in both the water and sanitation sector, which started in 2009. The whole process began with the formation of the National Department for Drinking Water and Sanitation (DINEPA). The role of DINEPA is to develop and implement policies in the drinking water and sanitation sector. They also have to coordinate all the forging and Haitian NGOs and donors like GiveLove. The UNICEFF led WASH cluster and the NGOs working with WASH are supporting DINEPAs work with sanitation and their development of key policies. USAID/Haiti will need to follow DINEPAs standards for sanitation on return areas and relocation sites: No less than 1 toilet per 4 families. Toilets must be within 50 meters from the furthest user. 1 hand washing station per 4 families or 1 station per household toilet. 1 toilet out of 10 for elderly/disabled persons. Excreta storage, treatment, storage and disposal must be at least 30 meters from any surface water source. The bottom of the pit must be at least 1.5 meters above the maximum height of the water table.

These rules are for general sanitation and are to be followed. However more relevant for the eco-sanitation project done by GiveLove, are the minimum standards for ecological sanitation: Projects must be planned and designed in collaboration with the community and presented to the local authorities with a timeline for planned activities. 8

Projects must be designed to respond to informed choices on the part of the community and be demand driven no construction should occur prior to approval of the community. Projects that exceed 500 beneficiaries must present their education and M & E framework and their toilet plans and compost hardware to DINEPA for review prior to the construction starting. All Eco-san projects must take into account worker protection through the provision of safety equipment and hygiene education. The health, safety and environment risk assessment should be presented for review by the DINEPA. Projects must have a strategy for the access to a good cover material for the toilets, and a carbon source for the compost site. Projects must include a strategy for the sanitization of excreta, whether it is in the toilet, on-site or offsite, and there should be a clear strategy for the reuse of the final product. All composting areas must be planned to ensure restricted access and must have the capacity to treat waste from all of the project toilets. Where thermophillic composting is used, the standard rule for pathogen destruction is temperatures throughout the pile must attain 50C for at least one week.

These minimum standards are made so that the eco-sanitation projects live up to a certain standard. But also DINEPA has a focus on sustainability through these minimum requirements, which shows that the government only wants good sustainable projects implemented in Haiti, and that they take responsibility for a certain quality of the sanitation in Haiti.

Different Types of Eco-San/Alternatives

Portable Toilets
After the earthquake, lots of people went to Haiti to offer their help and a lot of helpers saw portable toilets as an easy option to solving a very dramatic and serious sanitation problem. Portable toilets were the most used because of their affordability and thought of as being easy to maintain. These portable toilets are

made of plastic and use chemicals to disinfect and eliminate odours after utilisation instead of storing wastes in a hole. The problem with these toilets is that the waste often remains unemptied which results in terrible odours and fly-infestation. The locals then prefer not to use these at all and choose open defecation instead. Removal process is extremely poor. The toilets are emptied into trucks and dumped in a pond in Truitter where the waste leads to the sea, clearly not a sustainable option.

Pit Latrines
The pit latrine is the most affordable kind of toilets that can be used in sanitation systems. Human excreta is deposited into a pit that it is covered with a simple structure. On one hand, urine is percolated through the bottom and the sides of the pit into the soil and on the other hand, bacteria start degrading the organic wastes because of anaerobic processes. This decomposition releases gases (CO2, methane) and also decreases the volume of sludge. Sometimes, the pit is provided with a vent pipe that avoids unpleasant odours and insects and also eliminates produced gases. This kind of toilets is called Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP). As there are no barriers between the excreta and the soil, groundwater can be polluted (by chemical and microbiological contamination) because of infiltrations and that is the reason why these toilets are not used in areas where the groundwater table is high and/or where there are regular floods. In addition, they are not used in rocky areas but, however, they are very handy in dried places as this system does not need any water resource. An important point about these latrines is the emptying: They can be pumped out and reused but, as sometimes it is difficult to empty them, it can be decided to destroy the superstructure and dig another hole where the new latrine will take place. The full pit can be covered with soil and leaves. In the future trees can be planted over the top of the old latrine; however care has to be taken with respect to how early these trees are planted. If wastes are collected for further use however, they need to be treated to become humus, similar to Thermophillic toilets.

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Pour flush toilets

Pour flush toilet is a water-based system where the water is poured in by the user. It is provided with a water seal that avoids the growth of odours and flies. The quantity of water that it is needed is determined by the size of the seal but also, it is possible to save water collecting the dry cleaning materials in a separate bin (also in order to avoid clogs). However, in general, around 2 or 3 liters are necessary after each use. All these wastes are collected in a pit, biodegradated by bacteria and emptied in the same way as pit latrines. The worst disadvantage of this type of toilet is the necessity of a continuous water supply so it is not useful if there is not a constant water resource. In addition, the big amount of water that it is used in this kind of system increases the risk of contamination of the groundwater.

Sometimes, this type of toilet is provided with two pits so that one of them is used until it is full and then, people can utilise the other one while the wastes of the first pit are being degrading.

Pros and Cons of Thermophillic composting

Cover Material
Some people have the assumption that toilets should smell bad. The management of procedure is basic, if there is a bad odour more cover material must be used. There should be a trained compost crew who understands compost sanitation. One example is from an American relief agency where there werent any compost managers but just volunteers. However, the volunteers kept changing and the continuity of the maintenance was not maintained. This was a GiveLove system and the organisation removed the toilets from the site in 2012 due to mismanagement. 11

Toilet wash water

All toilet wash water must go into compost piles and not dumped anywhere else. This is done for the reason of not polluting the environment. By providing a solid foundation/carbon material base for compost bins the safety of underlying soil is secured.

Potential Groundwater Contamination

One of the most obvious concerns of sanitation in a developing nation such as Haiti is the possibility of pathogens and faecal coliforms reaching the underground aquifer systems. According to standard microbial tests that have been carried out in the PortAu-Prince metropolitan area none of the latrines as of yet are affecting the quality of groundwater. However these tests are unable to test for viruses which have different survival and transport characteristics. Therefore the extent of this type of contamination in Port-Au-Prince at least, is currently unclear. The transport of the 15 gallon drums and other sealant issues are the most obvious causes for this contamination and the need for regular testing is vital to the safety of Haitis water supply. According to the World Health Organisations studies, there is little risk of groundwater contamination where there is at least 2 m of fine soil between a pit or drainage trench and the water table level. Based on reports produced by GiveLove, regular inspections of current projects ensures the quality construction of thermophillic latrines and with vigilance, groundwater problems should be avoided.

Contenido nutricio Gallina

(Source: Gotaas, 1956, Composting)

Cerdo

1,25
12

1,87

Success Stories
AMURT
In September 2010 GiveLove started its Green School program at AMURTs (Ananda Marga Universal Relief Team) Primary school in Delmas. The school consists of 22 classrooms and houses 820 students. There are currently 8 composting toilets and rainwater catchment systems, two compost sites. The maintenance and operation of the toilets is supplied by a woman who cleans the receptacles and two men who manage the composting. These three workers are paid by the school itself allowing a sense of independence for the community and institution. Classes are also run by two Agronomists (Soil management scientists) and three technicians who teach afterschool sustainable sanitation and agriculture programs to the parents, youth and womens groups.

The 60 litre toilet receptacles are replaced eight times every 3 days where they are emptied into a 3m3 compost bin. Sugar cane bagasse and wood sawdust are the primary cover materials. These are used after each toilet use and to cover the top of the compost pile. The use of these materials has proved successful in reducing flies and odour problems.

GRUB
In November 2010 GiveLove established a small project at the Grass Roots United Base (GRUB). GRUB is a base camp for training volunteers before they are allocated tasks to work on in the rebuilding of Haiti. They have established two container homes as well as setting up two thermophillic compost systems with in the camp and are used as a training/demonstration facility for newly inducted volunteers. Here they are also experimenting with cover materials such as Sugar Cane Bagasse, Dry Leaf Shredding and Rice Husks. Based on the results they have provided it would seem Rice Husks are the most efficient/quicker method to produce the final product, compost. The acceptance of using these toilets is something one would expect when working with volunteers who are open to the new ideas and concepts and the access to the required materials would be rather easy. Taking this technology into the real world is the real challenge.

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Henri Christophe School

The Henri Christophe School is located in Darbonne, approximately 32 kms west of Post-Au-Prince has 7 teachers and 250 students aged between 5 and 13. In March 2011 GiveLove established a project to build 4 thermophillic toilets for the students and staff. The initial activities involved giving tours of the AMURT and GRUB projects and a training session for the local workers and administration staff of the school. Haiti Partners are responsible for the employment and supervision of the workers and managers, while GiveLove monitors the processes to ensure safe working conditions and end results. GiveLove has also covered the construction costs of around $1000 USD as well as the cover material costs. The main issue with this project is the confirmation of a reliable cover material source. At the moment the Darbonne Sugar factory is the preferred source due to their large supply of bagasse, but is currently asking for the waste material to be bought ($12USD/m3) rather than donate it. GiveLove is currently working on this contract but could restrict the sustainability of this project.

Tilory Community
The 5000 person large Tilory community is located on the border of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. In October 2010 GiveLove conducted two introduction training sessions for 60 members of the public (including the local doctor and pharmacist) and 9 soon-to-be technicians. The courses focussed on hygiene, toilet use, cholera prevention, compost systems and latrine construction and design. Following these sessions GiveLove set about constructing 7 composting toilets with the compost managers throughout the community as well communal compost bins. According to reports 6 out of the 7 toilets were very well maintained, however the one closest to the hospital was in bad shape with locals throwing rubbish and plastics into the compost pile. The manager then moved the toilet to a location nearby where the locals voluntarily maintain it. Another problem was that the cover material and using it to cook and light fires. The other concern which seems to be recurring is the supply of cover material. Here in Tilory they use sawdust which isnt ideal. GiveLoves aim is to identify more diverse cover material options that can be easily sourced from local providers. The managers also have established small gardens where beans, corn, peanuts and other foods are sold at the Saturday markets. This is a great way for the managers to have their wages self-supplied partially. As well as this there are also plans to establish agreements with World Vision who are building large scale plant nurseries in the Dominican Republic forest programs very close to Tilory.

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Projects that havent worked

The first experience of GiveLove with ecological sanitation in Haiti was the recycling centre of IDP camp in Tapis Vert, where GiveLove provided public toilets and employed a team for composting and maintenance of the toilets. Although GiveLove at this moment had no experience working on sanitation in Haiti, the scale of this project was the largest ever, compared to the current projects. Very soon GiveLove experienced the consequences of setting up this project. Toilet paper, leads, tarps and even the roofs of the toilets disappeared constantly. The working conditions in this camp were dangerous; some of the workers didnt work well and complained that the salary was too low and finally the project failed because of a conflict with the owner of the land that was offered for the emergent construction of the camp. The experience showed the difficulty to work in public spaces in urban areas, especially in IDP camps where people live without stability and own belongings. The problem of these camps is the legal aspect. NGO`s needs to follow the orders of the land owners who in the case of Tapis vert was a ambivalent local politician. After the experience in Tapis Vert GiveLove decided to focus on decentralized small scale project in established institutions as schools, orphanages or organized communities in rural areas.

The future of GiveLove

The successful experiences with educative institutions like the Green Schools and good relationships with other organisations moves GiveLove to keep implementing small scale sanitation systems. The training centre at GRUB was shared with other small NGO with recently left the country. That for GiveLove wants to construct a new training centre. The expectations of this centre are high due to the organization nneds to find ways to keep on working in Haiti with a very small budget. Generally GiveLove is looking for options that allow keeping on supporting environmental friendly sanitation systems without larger expenses.

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Conclusion/Recommendation
When looking at thermophillic compostings potential in Haiti one has to wonder why it isnt used in more areas. Its ability to create a use for human waste such as fertiliser for Haitis highly depleted soils and also an income source for the good produced males it an extremely likely solution to Haitis sanitation problems. However the system isnt perfect. As has been witnessed in IDP camps the social acceptance of such systems isnt as high as one would hope. Equipment gets stolen and the health and safety of users and managers are at times put at risk. The small and relatively inexperienced NGO, GiveLove, has since solved this problem by moving its focus projects to decentralised areas such as Tilory and small school communities. The other issue that has been raised by these projects but not necessarily solved is the sourcing of cover material. Sugar cane bagasse puts the sugar manufacturers ethics into play with certain companies unwilling to donate or give away this waste product to people in serious need of a solution. The use of wood chippings where deforestation is already a massive problem in surrounding regions seems to be an unsustainable option. Perhaps the Haitian Government needs to step in and make provisions for this sugar cane bagasse to be made available for projects similar to this. Until this occurs or another source can be established for existing projects the sustainability of wood chips must be seriously considered. GiveLove has great ambitions for sanitary hygiene throughout Haiti and its present and future projects will be given all the attention and assistance necessary from financial sources all around the world to try and achieve success after such a devastating disaster.

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References
GiveLove. (2011). Hentede 28. Oct 2011 fra Eco-sanitation: http://www.givelove.org/#!eco-sanitation Graham, J. (2011). DRAFT Assessment of sanitation options for USAID/Haiti's new settle program. I Sanitation options for new settlements USDA/Haiti (s. 1-17). Office of the special envoy Haiti. (2011). about Haiti: Water and sanitation. Hentede 27. Oct 2011 fra Office of the special envoy Haiti: http://www.haitispecialenvoy.org/about-haiti/water-sanitation/ Wikipedia. (2011). Hentede 28. Oct 2011 fra List of countries by Human Development Index: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Ind ex World: Countries and Territories: Haiti. (26. Oct 2011). Hentede 27. Oct 2011 fra The New York Times: http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/haiti/i ndex.html Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies of Eawag: http://www.eawag.ch/index_EN UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme): http://www.unep.org/ Jenkins, Joseph. 2005. The Humanure Handbook. Third Edition. Joseph Jenkins, Inc.143 Forest Lane, Grove City, PA 16127 USA. ISBN-13: 978-09644258-3-5

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