Ch04 Assembly Lines

Manual Assembly Lines
Sections: 1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Chapter 4 Lines 2. Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines 3. Line Balancing Algorithms 4. Other Considerations in Assembly Line Design 5. Alternative Assembly Systems
Manual Assembly Lines

Work systems consisting of multiple workers organized to produce a single product or a limited range of products Assembly workers perform tasks at workstations located along the line-of-flow of the product
Usually a powered conveyor is used Some of the workstations may be equipped with portable powered tools.
Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:

High or medium demand for product Products are similar or identical Total work content can be divided into work elements To automate assembly tasks is impossible
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Why Assembly Lines are Productive

Specialization of labor
When a large job is divided into small tasks and each task is assigned to one worker, the worker becomes highly proficient at performing the single task (Learning curve)
Some Definitions
Work flow
Each work unit should move steadily along the line
Line pacing
Workers must complete their tasks within a certain cycle time, which will be the pace of the whole line
Interchangeable parts
Each component is manufactured to sufficiently close tolerances that any part of a certain type can be selected at random for assembly with its mating component. Thanks to interchangeable parts, assemblies do not need fitting of mating components
Manual Assembly Line

A production line that consists of a sequence of workstations where assembly tasks are performed by human workers Products are assembled as they move along the line
At each station a portion of the total work content is performed on each unit
Manual Assembly Line

Configuration of an n-workstation manual assembly line
The production rate of an assembly line is determined by its slowest station. Assembly workstation: A designated location along the work flow path at which one or more work elements are performed by one or more workers
Base parts are launched onto the beginning of the line at regular intervals (cycle time)
Workers add components to progressively build the product
Manning level
There may be more than one worker per station. Two assembly operators working on an engine assembly line (photo courtesy of Ford Motor Company) Utility workers: are not assigned to specific workstations.
They are responsible for (1) helping workers who fall behind, (2) relieving for workers for personal breaks, (3) maintenance and repair
Manning level
Average manning level:
n
Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

Manual methods Work units are moved between stations by the workers (by hand) without powered conveyor Problems: Starving of stations
The assembly operator has completed the assigned task on the current work unit, but the next unit has not yet arrived at the station
wu + wi M=
i =1
where M=average manning level of the line, wu=number of utility workers assigned to the system, n=number of workstations, wi=number of workers assigned specifically to station i for i=1,,n
Blocking of stations
The operator has completed the assigned task on the current work unit but cannot pass the unit to the downstream station because that worker is not yet ready to receive it.
Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

To reduce starving,
use buffers
Work Transport Systems-Mechanized Methods

Continuously moving conveyor: operates at constant velocity
1. Work units are fixed to the conveyor
The product is large and heavy Worker moves along with the product
2. Work units are removable from the conveyor
To prevent blocking,
provide space between upstream and downstream stations.
Work units are small and light Workers are more flexible compared to synchronous lines, less flexible than asynchronous lines
Synchronous transport (intermittent transport stop-and-go line): all work units are moved simultaneously between stations.
Problem:
Task must be completed within a certain time limit. Otherwise the line produces incomplete units; Excessive stress on the assembly worker. Not common for manual lines (variability), but often ideal for automated production lines
But both solutions can result in higher WIP,

which is economically undesirable.
Asynchronous transport : a work unit leaves a given station when the assigned task is completed.
Work units move independently, rather than synchronously (most flexible one). Work the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work Variations in Systems andMikell P. times ISBN 0-13-140650-7. worker task Groover, by 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, Small queues in front of each station. NJ. All rights reserved.
Coping with Product Variety

Single model assembly line (SMAL) Every work unit is the same Batch model assembly line (BMAL ) multiple model line Two or more different products Products are so different that they must be made in batches with setup between batches Mixed model assembly line (MMAL) Two or more different models Differences are slight so models can be made simultaneously with no setup time (no need for batch production)
Coping with Product Variety

Advantages of mixed models over batch order models
No production time is lost during changeovers High inventories due to batch ordering are avoided Production rates of different models can be adjusted as product demand changes.
Disadvantages of mixed models over batch order models

Each station is equipped to perform variety of tasks (costly) Scheduling and logistic activities are more difficult in this type of lines.
Analysis of Single Model Lines

The formulas and the algorithms in this section are developed for single model lines, but they can be extended to batch and mixed models. The assembly line must be designed to achieve a production rate sufficient to satisfy the demand. Demand rate production rate cycle time Annual demand Da must be reduced to an hourly production rate Rp
Determining Cycle Time

Now our aim is to convert production rate, Rp, to cycle time, Tc. One should take into account that some production time will be lost due to
equipment failures power outages, material unavailability, quality problems, labor problems.
Rp =
Da 52S w H sh
where Da = annual demand Rp = hourly production rate Sw = number of shifts/week Hsh = number of hours/shift
Line efficiency (uptime proportion): only a certain proportion of the shift time will be available.
Tc =
60E Rp
where production rate, Rp, is converted to a cycle time, Tc, accounting for line efficiency, E.
Number of Stations Required

Work content time (Twc): The total time of all work elements that must be performed to produce one unit of the work unit. The theoretical minimum number of stations that will be required to on the line to produce one unit of the work unit, w*: w* = Minimum Integer where Twc = work content time, min; Tc = cycle time, min/station
Theoretical Minimum Not Possible

Repositioning losses: Some time will be lost at each station every cycle for repositioning the worker or the work unit; thus, the workers will not have the entire Tc each cycle Line balancing problem (imperfect balancing): It is not possible to divide the work content time evenly among workers, and some workers will have an amount of work that is less than Tc
Twc Tc
If we assume one worker per station then this gives the minimum number of workers
Repositioning Losses
Repositioning losses occur on a production line because some time is required each cycle to reposition the worker, the work unit, or both
On a continous transport line, time is required for the worker to walk from the unit just completed to the the upstream unit entering the station In conveyor systems, time is required to remove work units from the conveyor and position it at the station for worker to perform his task.
Repositioning Losses
Repositioning time = time available each cycle for the worker to position = Tr Service time = time available each cycle for the worker to work on the product = Ts Service time Ts = Max{Tsi} Tc Tr where Tsi= service time for station i, i=1,2,..,n Repositioning efficiency Er =
Ts Tc Tr = Tc Tc
Cycle Time on an Assembly Line

Components of cycle time at several stations on a manual assembly line
Line Balancing Problem

Given: The total work content consists of many distinct work elements The sequence in which the elements can be performed is restricted The line must operate at a specified cycle time (=service time + repositioning time) The Problem: To assign the individual work elements to workstations so that all workers have an equal amount of work to perform
Tsi=service time, Tr=repositioning time
Assumptions About Work Element Times

1. Element times are constant values
But in fact they are variable
Work Element Times

Total work content time Twc Twc =
Tek
k =1
ne
where Tek = work element time for element k Work elements are assigned to station i that add up to the service time for that station Tsi =
2. Work element times are additive

The time to perform two/more work elements in sequence is the sum of the individual element times Additivity assumption can be violated (due to motion economies)
Tek
k i n
The station service times must add up to the total work content time Twc =
Tsi
i =1
Constraints of Line Balancing Problem

Different work elements require different times. When elements are grouped into logical tasks and assigned to workers, the station service times, Tsi, are likely not to be equal. Simply because of the variation among work element times, some workers will be assigned more work. Thus, variations among work elements make it difficult to obtain equal service times for all stations.
Precedence Constraints
Some elements must be done before the others. Restrictions on the order in which work elements can be performed Can be represented graphically (precedence diagram)
Example:
Example:
Grommet : sealant like ring


Example: A problem for line balancing

Given: The previous precedence diagram and the standard times. Annual demand=100,000 units/year. The line will operate 50 wk/yr, 5 shifts/wk, 7.5 hr/shift. Uptime efficiency=96%. Repositioning time lost=0.08 min. Determine (a) total work content time, (b) required hourly production rate to achieve the annual demand, (c) cycle time, (d) theoretical minimum number of workers required on the line, (e) service time to which the line must be balanced.
Example: Solution
(a) The total work content time is the sum of the work element times given in the table ne Twc = Tek Twc=4.0 min (b) The hourly production rate Da 100,000 Rp = Rp = = 53.33 units/hr 50 S w H sh 50(5)(7.5) (c) The corresponding cycle time with an uptime efficiency of 96%
Tc = 60(0.96) = 1.08 min 53.33
k =1
Tc =
60E Rp
(d) The minimum number of workers: T w* = (Minimum Integer 4.0 /1.08=3.7)=4 workers w* = wc Tc (e) The available service time Ts=1.08-0.08=1.00 min Ts = Tc Tr
Measures of Balance Efficiency

It is almost imposible to obtain a perfect line balance Line balance efficiency, Eb: Eb =
Twc wTs
Overall Efficiency
Factors that reduce the productivity of a manual line
Line efficiency (Availability), E,
Perfect line: Eb = 1 Repositioning efficiency (repositioning), Er, Balance efficiency (balancing), Eb, Perfect line: d = 0
Balance delay, d: d=
wTs Twc wTs
Tc =
60 E Rp
Eb =
Twc wTs
Er =
Ts Tc Tr = Tc Tc
Note that Eb + d = 1 (they are complement of each other)

Overall Labor efficiency on the assembly line = E Er Eb

Skip - Worker Requirements

Skip this part The actual number of workers on the assembly line is given by:
w = Min Int
R pTwc 60EEr Eb = Twc T = wc E r E bTc E bTs
Continously moving conveyors - Workstation considerations

Total length of the assembly line
n
L = Ls i
i =1
where w=number of workers required Rp=hourly production rate, units/hr Twc=work content time per product, min/unit 60 E T T T T Tc = Er = s = c r Eb = wc Rp Tc Tc wTs
where L=length of the assembly line, m: Lsi=length of station i, m Constant speed conveyor: (if the base parts remain fixed during their assembly) Feed rate fp=1/Tc where fp=feed rate on the line, products/min Center-to-center spacing between base parts sp=vc/fp=vcTc where sp= center-to-center spacing between base parts, m/part and vc=velocity of Work Systems and the Methods,m/min and Management of Work the conveyor, Measurement,
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Continously moving conveyors - Tolerance Time

Defined as the time a work unit spends inside the boundaries of the workstation Provides a way to allow for product-to-product variations in task times at a station
Tt =
Continously moving conveyors -Total Elapsed Time

The time a work unit spends on the assembly line.
ET =
L = nTt vc
Ls vc
where Tt = tolerance time, min; Ls = station length, m (ft); vc = conveyor speed, m/min (ft/min)
where ET = total elapsed time, min; Tt = tolerance time, min; L = length of the assembly line, m (ft); vc = conveyor speed, m/min (ft/min)
Line Balancing Objective

To distribute the total work content on the assembly line as evenly as possible among the workers Minimize (wTs Twc) or w Minimize (Ts Tsi )
i =1
Line Balancing Algorithms Heuristics

1. Largest candidate rule 2. Kilbridge and Wester method 3. Ranked positional weights method, also known as the Helgeson and Birne method
Subject to: (1) Tek Ts

ki
(2) all precedence requirements are obeyed
In the following descriptions, assume one worker per workstation

Largest Candidate Rule

List all work elements in descending order based on their Tek values; then, 1. Start at the top of the list and selecting the first element that satisfies precedence requirements and does not cause the total sum of Tek to exceed the allowable Ts value When an element is assigned, start back at the top of the list and repeat selection process 2. When no more elements can be assigned to the current station, proceed to next station 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all elements have been assigned to as many stations as needed
Solution for Largest Candidate Rule
Example:

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7. 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.

Physical layout of workstations and assignment of elements to stations using the largest candidate rule
Ranked Positional Weights Method

A ranked position weight (RPW) is calculated for each work element
RPW for element k is calculated by summing the Te values for all of the elements that follow element k in the diagram plus Tek itself
Solution for Ranked Positional Weights Method
Work elements are then organized into a list according to their RPW values, starting with the element that has the highest RPW value Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the largest candidate rule
Example:

Other Considerations in Line Design

Methods analysis
To analyze methods at bottleneck or other troublesome workstations
improved motions, better workplace layout, special tools to facilitate manual work elements product design
Other Considerations - continued

Storage buffers between stations
To permit continued operation of certain sections of the line when other sections break down To smooth production between stations with large task time variations
Utility workers
To relieve congestion at stations that are temporarily overloaded
Parallel stations
To reduce time at bottleneck stations that have unusually long task times
Preassembly of components
Prepare certain subassemblies off-line to reduce work content time on the final assembly line
Worker (Labor) Shifting with crosstraining

Temporary (or periodic) relocation to expedite or to reduce subassembly stocks
Most Follower Rule

3 1 8 5 4 3 5 2 6 4 6 9 7 4 9 6 10 10
Item i Most Follower 1 9 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 1
We omit
Worker Requirements in 4.2.2
8 5
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4.3.2 Kilbridge and Western Method 4.5 Alternative Assembly Systems
19/19 19
16/19 19
15/19 19
10/19 19

Ch04 Assembly Lines

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Manual Assembly Lines

Manual Assembly Lines

Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:

Why Assembly Lines are Productive

Manual Assembly Line

Manual Assembly Line

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

Work Transport Systems-Manual Methods

Work Transport Systems-Mechanized Methods

2. Work units are removable from the conveyor

But both solutions can result in higher WIP,

Coping with Product Variety

Coping with Product Variety

Disadvantages of mixed models over batch order models

Analysis of Single Model Lines

Determining Cycle Time

Number of Stations Required

Theoretical Minimum Not Possible

Cycle Time on an Assembly Line

Line Balancing Problem

Tsi=service time, Tr=repositioning time

Assumptions About Work Element Times

Work Element Times

2. Work element times are additive

Constraints of Line Balancing Problem

Grommet : sealant like ring

Grommet : sealant like ring

Example: A problem for line balancing

Measures of Balance Efficiency

wTs Twc wTs

Note that Eb + d = 1 (they are complement of each other)

Overall Labor efficiency on the assembly line = E Er Eb

Skip - Worker Requirements

Continously moving conveyors - Workstation considerations

Continously moving conveyors - Tolerance Time

Continously moving conveyors -Total Elapsed Time

Line Balancing Objective

Line Balancing Algorithms Heuristics

Subject to: (1) Tek Ts

(2) all precedence requirements are obeyed

In the following descriptions, assume one worker per workstation

Largest Candidate Rule

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Grommet : sealant like ring

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Ranked Positional Weights Method

Solution for Ranked Positional Weights Method

Grommet : sealant like ring

Other Considerations in Line Design

Other Considerations - continued

Worker (Labor) Shifting with crosstraining

Most Follower Rule

4.3.2 Kilbridge and Western Method 4.5 Alternative Assembly Systems

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