Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
No Maktab :
11435
Kelas
4B (2011)
Guru MP
Miss Zurina
9.1
Sulphuric Acid
1. Sulphuric acid is used to manufacture almost all products. Some of the example are : Fertilisers Paint pigment Detergents Synthetic fibres Electrolyte in car batteries Cleaning metals Plastics Other chemicals
2. Sulphuric acid is also used in laboratory in school as follows: As drying agent As dehydrating agent As catalyst As strong acid
CONTACT PROCESS
Stage 1: Combustion of Sulphur In the furnace, molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide, SO2. The gas produced is purified and cooled. S(l) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Stage 2: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide in the converter In the converter, sulphur dioxide, SO2 and excess oxygen gas, O2 are passed over a few plates of vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5 catalyst at 4500C to produce sulphur trioxide, SO3. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this reversible reaction.
Stage 3: Production of sulphuric acid in absorber and diluter In the absorber, the sulphur trioxide, SO3 is first reacted with concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7. SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7
The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produced concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 in large quantities. H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) The two reactions in the third stage are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide, SO3 directly to water. SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(l)
of water. It also produces sulphurous acid. 4. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain.
5. Acid rain can cause many effects such as
i. ii. iii.
iv.
Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure Destroys trees and plants Decrease the pH of th soil and make it become acidic Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living things.
6. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by:
i.
Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium carbonated before it is released Neutralise the acidic soil and water by treating them with calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate.
ii.
iii.
9.2
Uses of ammonia
1. Ammonia is produced industrially as an intermediate compound and as raw material for many other chemical processes. 2. The main uses of ammonia are as follows : To manufactured nitrogenous fertilisers needed for plant growth As raw material for the manufactured of nitric acid As cooling agent in refrigerators To produce ammonium chloride used as electrolyte in dry cells To prevent coagulation of latex To make synthetic fibres such as nylon As smelling salts to revive people who have fainted Making of explosives
Properties of ammonia
1. Ammonia is a covalent compound with the following physical properties :
HABER PROCESS
1. Gases mixed and scrubbed Haber process combines N2 gas from the air with H2 gas from natural gas to form NH3. The two gases are mixed. The mixture is scrubbed to get rid of impurities. 2. Compressor
One volume of N2 gas and three volume of H2 gas is compressed to a pressure of 200 500 atm
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) 3. Converter Then, it goes to the converter. It is then passed through layers of iron catalyst with aluminium oxide as a promoter at a temperature of 4500C 5000C 4. Cooler A mixture of three gases leaves the converter. It is cooled until the ammonia condenses. The nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back to the converter for another chance to react. 5. Storage tanks NH3 is formed and then liquefy and separated to get a better yield. The NH3 is run into tanks and stored as a liquid under pressure.
Ammonium Fertilisers
1. Nitrogen is used by plant to make protein. Protein is important for the growth of plants. Other nutrients needed by plants include phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. 2. Nitrogenous compounds are removed from the soil by the plants. Some are replaced naturally by bacteria. To restore the balance, nitrogenous fertilisers are added to the soil. 3. Nitrogenous fertilisers contain ammonium ions. 4. In the soil, the ammonium ions are converted to nitrate ions by the bacteria. This is because nitrogen can only be absorbed by plants in the form of soluble nitrate ions. 5. Examples of ammonium fertilisers are : Ammonium nitrate Ammonium sulphate Ammonium phosphate Urea
by mass in them.
7. The fertilisers with a higher percentage of nitrogen is more effective for growth than
those fertilisers with a low percentage of nitrogen. 8. The percentage of nitrogen by mass can be calculated from the formulae of the fertilisers using the following formula.
9.3
Alloys
Typical pure metals have the following physical properties : Ductile Malleable Lustrous High density High melting and boiling points Good conductors of heat and electricity
Pure Metal
2. Pure metals are weak and soft because the arrangement of atoms in pure metals make
them ductile and malleable. 3. A pure metal contains atoms of the same size arranged in a regular and organized closed-packed structure.
4. Pure metals are soft because the orderly arrangement of atoms enables
the layers of atoms to slide over each other easily when an external force is applied are on them. This in makes the the metals ductile of and metal can be drawn to form long wires. 5. There imperfections natural arrangements atoms. Empty space exist in the structures of pure metals. When hammered or pressed, groups of metal atoms may slide into new positions in the empty spaces. This makes metals malleable, able to be made into different shapes or pressed into thin sheets.
6. The strong forces of attraction between metal atoms requires high energy to overcome
Alloys
1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain composition in which the
2. In the process of alloying, one or more foreign elements are added to a molten metal.
When the alloy hardens, the positions of some of the metal atoms are replaced by the atom of foreign elements, which size may be bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms. 3. In an alloy, these atoms of foreign elements disrupt the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms and also fill up any empty space in the metal crystal structure. 4. Hence, the layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over each other easily. This makes the alloy harder and stronger, less ductile and less malleable than its pure metals.
5. The properties of a pure metal are thus improved by making them into alloys. 6. There are three aims of alloying a pure metal:
a) b) c)
To increase the hardness and strength of a metal To prevent corrosion or rusting To improve the appearance of the metal surface
ornaments, electric parts Cupro-nickel 75% copper 25% nickel 99% iron 1% carbon 74% iron 8% carbon 18% chromium 93% aluminium Duralumin 3% copper 3% magnesium 1% manganese 96% tin Pewter 3% copper 1% antimony 50% tin 50% lead 37.5% gold 51.5% copper 11% silver Beautiful surface, shiny, hard, does not corrode easily Hard, strong Shiny, strong, does not rust Buildings, bridges, body of cars, railway track Cutlery, sinks, pipes, surgical instruments Coin
Steel
Stainless steel
Light, strong
Shiny, strong, does not corrode Hard, shiny, low melting point Shiny, strong, does not corrode
Art objects, souvenirs Soldier for electric wires and metal Jewellery
Solder
9-carat gold
9.4
Synthetic Polymers
Polymers
1. Polymers can be defined as large molecules composed of numerous smaller, repeating
form the big molecule known as the polymers. 3. There are two types of polymerization process: a) Addition polymerization
Involves monomers with the carbon-carbon double bonds between the carbon atoms smaller and simple molecules such as water.
b) Condensation polymerization
4. A polymer is a very big molecule (macromolecule). Hence, the relative molecular mass of a polymer is large. 5. The properties of polymer are different from its monomers. 6. Polymers can be divided into two types: Naturally occurring polymers
This type of polymer exists in living things in nature like the plants and
animals.
Examples of naturally occurring polymers are:
Plastic
1. Plastics are made from the products of cracking of petroleum fractions such as alkenes molecules through addition polymerisation. 2. Plastics are the largest group of synthetic polymers with the following properties :
Can be easily moulded and coloured Low density Strong Inert to chemicals Insulators of heat and electricity Impermeable Non-biodegradable
Polypropene
Propene
Polystyrene
Phenylethene
plates, packaging materials, toys, heat insulator Replacement for glass. Lenses, optical fibres Coating for non-stick pans, electrical insulators
Perspex Teflon
As most of polymers are non-biodegradable, they will not decay like other organic garbage.
9.5
1. The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2.
2. Both glass and ceramic have the same properties as follow :
Hard and brittle Inert to chemical reactions Insulators or poor conductors of heat and electricity Withstand compression but not stretching Can be easily cleaned Low cost of production
3. Differences between glass and cerement are, glass is transparent, while ceramic is opaque. Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature than normal glass.
: It is consist mainly of silica or silicon dioxide It has high heat resistance It cannot withstand high temperatures It can withstand high temperature High refractive index
a)
Fused glass
b) c) d)
5. Uses of improved glass for specific purpose a) Photochromic glass It is sensitive to light intensity It conducts electricity b) Conducting glass
6. Ceramic is a manufactured substances made from clay, with the main constituent of
aluminosilicate with small quantity of sand and feldspar. 7. Superconductor is one improved ceramics for specific purposes.
Glass
1. Glass is made up from sand.
2. The major component of glass is SiO2. 3. There are four types of glass which are as follows
Name of glass
Properties High melting point High temperature High chemical durability Resistant to thermal shock Transparent to ultraviolet and infrared light Low melting point High thermal expansion coefficient Does not withstand heat Cracks easily with sudden change in temperature Good chemical durability Easy to mould and shape Transparent to visible light Transparent to visible light Resistant to chemicals Lower thermal
Composition
Uses
Silicon dioxide
Laboratory glassware Arc tubes in lamps Lenses Telescope mirrors Optical fibres
Fused glass
Flat glass Windowpanes Mirrors Light bulbs Industrial and art objects
Soda-lime glass
Borosilicate glass
expansion coefficient Resistant to thermal shock Can withstand wide range of temperature Lead crystal glass changes Soft and easy to melt Transparent to visible light High density High refractive index Silicon dioxide Lead(11) oxide Sodium oxide Tableware Art objects Crystal Prism Lenses Glass pipelines Electrical tubes
Ceramics
1. Ceramics are made from clay and composed of aluminium silicate mixed with sand. 2. The white clay used to ceramics is kaolin which is in rich in kaolinite or hydrated aluminosilicate. 3. Red clay consists of iron(III) oxide which gives the red colour. 4. Brick, tiles, mugs and clay pots are some examples of traditional ceramics 5. During the making of ceramics, the shaped objects are heated to very high temperature. They undergo a series of chemical reactions and are hardened to form ceramics. 6. These chemical reactions are irreversible and the ceramics cannot be melted and moulded.
1. Wet clay can be shaped easily because the tiny crystals in it can slide over each other. Clay has a plastic property. When the clay dries up, it keeps its shape as the crystals are now stuck together.
2. When heated to above 15000C, a series of chemical reaction produce other chemicals
and glass which packs the tiny mineral crystals together. 3. The object is now glazed and heated again. The reactions in the glaze cause the surface to be waterproof.
Properties of Ceramics
Very strong and hard Brittle Chemically inert and does not corrode Good insulator of electricity and heat Very high melting point and heat resistance Porous but can be made impervious by glazing
Uses
Building materials Decorative pieces and household items Kitchenware Insulation Insulating parts in electrical appliances
Examples
Tiles, bricks, roofs, cement, abrasive for grinding Vases, porcelain ware, sinks, bathtubs Cooking pots, plates, bowls Lining of furnace, engine parts Spark plugs, insulators in ovens and electric cables
9.6
Composite Materials
different substances like metals, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers. Usually, the new composite materials formed have properties that are superior to those of the original components.
2. The composite materials produced are harder, stronger, lighter, more resistant to heat
anymore.
Comparison of the Properties between Composite Materials with Those of Their Original Components Composite materials Original components Original
Hard, low tensile strength, does not rush, high Reinforced concrete Concrete compression strength, brittle, fireproof, waterproof, easy to maintain and cheap Good tensile strength, rust, expensive Non-conductor with high resistance to electricity
Properties Composite
High tensile strength, tough, does not crack easily, relatively cheap, can be moulded easily, very low building cost and needs very little maintenance Very good conductor with very little resistance
Steel
Yitrium oxide,
Transparent, cheaper in Glass Higher refractive index, non-conductor materials cost, much thinner, easily bend and lighter, less susceptible Fibre optic Plastic Lower refractive index, non-conductor to interference, much greater bandwidth, carry more data, chemically more stable than metal wires and data is transmitted digitally Fibreglass Photochromic glass Plastic Glass Glass Silver chloride, Silver bromide Soft, flexible, low density Brittle, strong, hard Transparent, not sensitive to light Sensitive to intensity of light Hard, strong, density Transparent and sensitive to intensity of light