TIME RESPONSE Time Response:

Definition: Time response is the response of the system as a function of time. It is denoted by c(t). The response c(t) can be obtained from the transfer function of the system and input to the system. It has two parts Transient response: It shows the response of the system when the input changes from one state to another. Steady state response: It shows the response as time, t tends to infinity. Transient response Steady state response

Types of standard test signals:

The input signal is used to predict the response of the system. The commonly used test signals are Step signal: The step signal is a signal whose value changes from zero to A at t=0 and remains constant at A for t>0 r(t) = A u(t) where u(t) = 1 ; t0 u(t) = 0 ; t<0 Step signal Ramp signal Parabolic signal Impulse signal

r(t ) A

Ramp Signal: The step signal is a signal whose value linearly increases with time from an initial value of zero at t=0. r(t) = A t ; t0 = 0 ; t<0

r(t) (t)

Parabolic signal:

In parabolic signal the instantaneous value varies as square of the time from an initial value of zero at t=0. r(t) = A ; t0

= 0 ; t<0

r(t) (t) Impulse Signal: A signal which is available for a short duration is called a impulse signal. A signal which is having zero values at all times except at t=0. t (t) = 0 ; t 0 r(t) (t)

Time-domain specifications
Specifications for a control system design often involve certain requirements associated with the time response of the closed-loop system. The requirements are specified by the behaviour of the controlled variable y(t) or by the control error e(t) on well defined test signals. The most important test signal is a unit step on the input of the control system and requirements are placed on the behaviour of the controlled variable y(t), as shown in Figure. The requirements for a unit step response are expressed in terms of the following standard quantities:

The maximum overshoot Mp is the magnitude of the overshoot after the first crossing of the steady-state value (100%). This value is normally expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value of the controlled variable.

The peak time tp is the time required to reach the maximum overshoot. The settling time ts is the time for the controlled variable first to reach and thereafter remain within a prescribed percentage of the steady-state value. Common values of are 2%, 3% or 5%.

The rise time tr is the time required to reach first the steady-state value (100%). It may also be defined as the time to reach the vicinity of the steady-state value particularly for a response with no overshoot, e.g. the time between 10% and 90%. The 50% rise time tr, 50% is defined as the time to first reach 50% of the final value.

Response of first order system for unit step input

The closed transfer function of first order system,

For unit step input, r(t) = 1 and R(s) =

C(s) = R(s)

=
By partial fraction, C(s) = Solving, A = 1 and B = -1 Therefore, C(s) =

C(t) = L-1[C(s)] =

C(t)

t Response of first order system to unit step input

Second-Order Systems
The canonical form for a second order system is as follows:

[Second-order transfer function]

Where is called the damping ratio of the function, and is called the natural frequency of the system. Damping Ratio The damping ratio of a second-order system, denoted with the greek letter zeta (), is a real number that defines the damping properties of the system. More damping has the effect of less percent overshoot, and slower settling time. It is the ratio of actual damping and critical damping. Natural Frequency: The natural frequency is occasionally written with a subscript: We will omit the subscript when it is clear that we are talking about the natural frequency, but we will include the subscript when we are using other values for the variable . Classification: Based on the value of damping ratio, Case 1: undamped system = 0 Case 2: under damped system 0<<1 Case 3: Critically damped =1 Case 4: Over damped >1 The time response of undamped second order system for unit step input is C(t) = 1-cos nt C(t)

t Response of undamped second order system to unit step input

The time response of under damped second order system for unit step input is C(t) = 1sin(d t + )

C(t)

t Response of under damped second order system to unit step input The time response of critically damped second order system for unit step input is C(t) = 1-

(1+nt)

C(t)

t Response of critically damped second order system to unit step input The time response of over damped second order system for unit step input is C(t) = 1-

C(t)

=1.5

=2 =3 t

Response of over damped second order system to unit step input

Steady state Error:

Error signals Consider the feedback system in Figure 1. In this system R(s) is the Laplace transform of a reference input, and D(s) is the Laplace transform of a disturbance. The transfer function G(s) is called loop gain transfer function.

Note that it may be a series combination of the plant and a compensator. The output Y (s) is required to track the reference input R(s). The input into plant G(s) is the tracking error

Let e(t) denote its inverse Laplace transform. The limit

is referred to the steady state error. The value of ess characterises the final value of error as a difference between the final value of the input r(t) and the final value of the output y(t). In other words, ess is the value of error after transients have died out. To calculate ess, we use the Final Value Theorem for Laplace transforms. According to this theorem, as long as E(s) does not have any poles in the right half of the complex plane, except maybe, s = 0, then

Note that a change in the disturbance input has the same effect on the error as a change in the reference input, except the sign is opposite. This observation allows us to drop D(s) and focus on the reference input R(s). Conclusions drawn about R(s) can then be applied to D(s). Steady state error for a step input Let D(s) = 0. Consider R(s) = A/s, the step input of the height A. In this case, E(s) simplifies to

It can be shown that, except for s = 0, E(s) and the closed loop transfer function G= (1 + G) have the same poles. Therefore, the condition of the Final Value Theorem for E(s) to have all its poles in the left half of the complex plane or at the origin, reduces to the condition that the closed loop system must be stable or maybe have poles at s = 0. If this condition is met, then we can continue the calculation:

Note that in this case, the steady state error is determined by the DC gain of G(s). The larger is DC gain, the smaller is the steady state error. Furthermore, if G(s) has one or more poles at s = 0, then lim s->0 G(s) = 1. In this case, ess = 0. A pole at s = 0 occurs if G(s) is proportional 1=s, i.e. if G(s) includes integrator. This effect is called the integral action. Thus, as long as G(s) has one or more poles at s = 0 and the closed loop system is stable, the steady state error remains zero despite large modelling errors or changes in the plant. Note that this is true for a constant reference input or constant disturbance input. The number of poles at the origin of the loop gain transfer function (i.e. the number of integrators) defines the system's type number. Type zero systems do not include an integrator and therefore have a finite DC gain G (0). A constant called the position error constant, Kp, is used to indicate the size of DC gain G (0),

Note that the constant Kp is relevant only in relation to step inputs. A step input has the physical interpretation as a change in reference position for a positioning system and thus the name position error constant. For a type zero system the steady-state error in response to a step input of height A is

Steady state error for a ramp input Now consider the steady-state error in response to a ramp input r(t) = At. The Laplace transform of the ramp input is R(s) = A/s2 and

Since ramp input corresponds to a change in velocity in a position control system, we call the error constant associated with ramp inputs the velocity error constant, Kv: If G(s) is a type zero system with no poles at the origin, then Kv = 0

and the steady-state error in response to the ramp input is infinite, that is, the error grows with time. If you have a type zero system and you wish to be able to follow a ramp within some degree of accuracy, you must add at least one integrator to your controller. If G(s) is a type two or higher system, Kv is infinite and the steady-state error for a ramp input or disturbance is zero. A type one system will have a finite, non zero Kv and the steady-state error is given by

and is constant. This situation is demonstrated in Fig. 2.

Steady state error for a parabolic input For a parabolic input r(t) = At2=2, we take R(s) = A=s3. Since parabolic input corresponds to a change in acceleration in a position control system, the associated error constant, Ka, is called the acceleration error constant in reference to a positioning system:

Type zero and type one systems have Ka = 0 and an infinitely growing error to a parabolic input. A type three or higher system has an infinite Ka and zero steady-state error. A type two system has a finite Ka and a finite steady-state error with a parabolic point.

Controllers
Definition: A controller is a device which modifies the error signal and produces the control signal. Classification: Depending upon the control action provided controllers can be classified as, 1. Two position controller 2. Proportional controller 3. Integral controller 4. Proportional + Integral controller 5. Proportional + Derivative controller 6. Proportional + Integral + derivative controller Two position controller / On-off controller It has only two fixed positions. It is very simple in construction and hence less expensive. u(t) = u1 for e(t) = 0 = u2 for e(t) > 0
E(s) +U2 U1 U(s )

P-Controller The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal which is proportional to the error signal, e(t) u(t) e(t) u(t) = Kp e(t) where Kp is proportional gain or constant On taking Laplace transform, U(s) = Kp E(s) = Kp
E(s) +U(s )

Kp

Effect:
Amplifies the error signal by an amount Kp Increases the loop gain by an amount Kp Improves the steady state tracking accuracy

Improves the disturbance signal rejection Makes the system less sensitive to parameter variation Drawback: Leads to constant steady state error
R

R2 Electrical Realization of P-Controller R1 e(t) + u1(t ) Inverting amplifier

R + Sign Changer u (t)

Equivalent Circuit of amplifier

I1 e(t) + I =0 + u1(t ) R1 I1 R2

Equivalent Circuit of sign changer

I2 u1(t ) + I =0 + u(t) R I2 R

Solving the circuit we get, Kp = Integral controller The integral controller is a device that produces a control signal which is proportional to the integral of the error signal, e(t) u(t) e(t) dt u(t) = Ki e(t) dt where Ki is proportional gain or constant On taking Laplace transform,

U(s) = Ki E(s) = Ki
E(s)

Effect:

+-

Ki/s

U(s )

Reduces the steady state error without the need for manual reset.

Drawback: Lead to oscillatory response and system become unstable

PI Controller The proportional plus integral controller is a device that produces a control signal which consists of two terms i) proportional to the error signal, e(t) ii) proportional to the integral of the error signal, e(t) u(t) [e(t) + e(t) dt] u(t) = Kp e(t) + where Ki is integral gain or constant On taking Laplace transform, = Kp(1+
E(s) +-

e(t) dt

) Kp(1+)
U(s )

Electrical Realization of PI-Controller

R2 R1 e(t) + u1(t ) Inverting amplifier R

R + Sign Changer u (t)

Effect:

Amplifies the error signal by an amount Kp Increases the loop gain by an amount Kp Improves the steady state tracking accuracy Improves the disturbance signal rejection Makes the system less sensitive to parameter variation Reduces the steady state error without the need for manual reset.

PID Controller The proportional plus integral plus derivative controller is a device that produces a control signal which consists of three terms a) proportional to the error signal, e(t) b) proportional to the integral of the error signal, e(t) c) proportional to the derivative of error signal, e(t) u(t) [e(t) + e(t) dt + u(t) = Kp e(t) + where Kd is derivative gain or constant On taking Laplace transform, = Kp(1+ +Td s)
d e(t ) ] dt

e(t) dt + KpTd e(t)

+-

Kp(1++Td s)

U(s )

Effect:

Amplifies the error signal by an amount Kp Increases the loop gain by an amount Kp Improves the steady state tracking accuracy Improves the disturbance signal rejection Makes the system less sensitive to parameter variation Reduces the steady state error without the need for manual reset. Increases the stability and reduces the rate of change of error.