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CONTENTS
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 3 Current state of implementation............................................................................................ 4
Case Study: Denmark .....................................................................................................................5 Case study: Spain ...........................................................................................................................7 Case study: Portugal.......................................................................................................................9 Case study: Ireland .......................................................................................................................10 Case study: Germany....................................................................................................................11
A high rate of increase in the installed capacity is also foreseen in the future. Several references exist that include predictions of the installed capacity and it is important to notice that the tendency is an exponential increase in the installed capacity. The wind turbines are of course concentrated in regions with a good wind resource. This means that there are areas with very significant amounts of wind turbine capacity installed. This is for example, the case for Western Denmark, Schleswig-Holstein in Germany and Navarra in Spain. In these areas the wind power has a significant impact on the power system. The wind turbine technology is also going through rapid development with continuously increase in the size of the wind turbines, their blade angle control system and shift from mechanical gearbox to power electronics drives The business has also changed. The size of the many of the projects that are being implemented is much larger now than in previous years. Wind farm sizes larger than 100MW are nowadays common. Wind farms are also installed offshore in Denmark, Germany, Sweden and also the UK/Ireland. 4
The power systems in Denmark, Portugal, Spain, Ireland and Germany have the highest wind penetrations in the world. Some important parameters can be seen in table 1.
Denmark (West + East)
P eak demand (GW) Minimum demand (GW) 2010 wind power capacity (GW) Wind energy produced in 2010 (TWh) Maximum possible instant penetration (wind/minimum demand) Capacity penetration (wind/peak demand) Energy penetration (yearly wind generation/gross demand) 3.7 + 2.6 = 6.4 0.9 + 0.9 = 1.8 2.7 + 0.97 = 3.7 5.9 + 1.9 = 7.8 204% (W: 300%, E: 108%) 58% (W: 73%, E: 37%) 21.9% (W: 27.8%, E: 13.4%)
Portugal
9.4 3.5 3.9 9.0 111%
Spain
45.4 18 20 42.7 110%
Ireland
4.5 1.65 1.425 2.9 86%
Germany
80 34.6 26.4 36.5 76%
42%
44%
32%
33%
17%
16%
10.5%
6.7% (2009)
Table 1: Overview of some European wind penetration levels, based on 2010 data. source: IEEE power and
energy society.
The management of the different power systems to date, with increasing amounts of wind energy, has been successful. There have been no reported incidents in which wind has directly or indirectly been a major factor causing operational problems on the system. In some areas with high wind penetration, however, the transmission system operator (TSO) had to increase remedial actions significantly in order to decrease the loading of system assets during times of high wind power infeed. In some areas, the risk of faults may have increased. Higher targets for wind power will mean even higher penetration levels locally and high penetration levels in larger power systems. In the following sections, the actual situation in the previous mentioned countries is described, since it constitutes the starting point for the analysis of actual and future challenges for the increasing integration of wind energy in the power grids.
Wind Power in the Electricity Markets One of the principal tools for integrating a large amount of wind power into the Danish power system is a well-functioning common Nordic electricity market among the nations of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark. In November 2009, a market coupling between the Nordic countries and the German power exchange was implemented, resulting in the European Market Coupling Company (EMCC), which allocated the cross-border transport capacity between Germany and Denmark. Since November 2010, market coupling has been implemented between the Nordic countries and the former central West countries, made up of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, France, and Germany, in an interim tight volume coupling (ITVC) arrangement. These are important steps towards the European goal of integrated electricity markets. Most Danish wind power is traded on the Nordic power market, which is made up of two main markets: the Nordic Power Exchange (NPX)itself divided into three marketplacesand the TSOs real-time electricity markets. Wind power has contributed to the market design in that a negative price has been allowed since 30 November 2009. Before then, the Nord Pool Spot price was set to zero during hours of excess generation due to wind. By implementing negative spot prices, suppliers have a stronger incentive to reduce their supply bids in hours with very strong wind forecasts, and consumers also have a stronger incentive to use electricity in hours with negative prices. In western Denmark, there were two incidents of negative prices in December 2009 (a total of nine hours) and five incidents in all of 2010 (a total of 11 hours). In the first half of 2011, western and eastern Denmark have each experienced ten hours with negative prices. Forecasting The probability of an excess or deficit of generation is estimated some days before the day of operation. With a large share of wind power capacity in the grid, it is important to have good wind forecasts in order to know whether wind power capacity is available or not. At present, the overall annual mean absolute error (MAE) on day-ahead forecasts amounts to about 5% relative to the installed wind power capacity. The intraday power market, though having low liquidity, is used from 3 p.m. the day before up until one hour before operation. This market is followed by the regulating power market, used several hours before the hour of operation until the hour of operation. Wind power forecasts are updated every 15 minutes, with a five-minute resolution. By using a scaling-up procedure, the actual wind production is estimated, thus facilitating optimal trading at the intraday market. Future Challenges The Danish government has ambitious plans for transforming Denmark into a country free of fossil fuels by 2050. Most of the renewable potential will be provided by wind energy, mainly from offshore, which will be connected to the transmission system. Simultaneously, the transport and heat sectors are planned to become more closely connected to the electricity system, and thus excess production is expected to be used for transport purposes by electric cars or for heat production. Neighboring countries will also go through substantial changes of their energy systems, and therefore it is important to coordinate grid development in an international context.
Voltage Control
Before April 2009, Spanish regulations established that wind farms had to comply with a reactive power bonus table, receiving a financial bonus or penalty depending on the power factor provided at each hour of the day. During periods of changing output, simultaneous connections and disconnections of wind plant capacitors occurred, leading to sudden changes in the network voltage profile. In order to avoid these situations, and as a short-term measure, in April 2009 it was established that wind facilities of more than 10 MW must maintain an inductive power factor of between 0.98 and 0.99, except in certain nodes of the system where particular instructions were sent due to specific requirements. Future Challenges One of REEs goals is to increase the ability of the system to integrate more renewable generation while maintaining quality of service. This implies:
1.
The international exchange capacity among neighboring countries must be increased. This is one of REEs highest priorities, and it is also classified as a top priority by the EU. A reinforcement of the France-Spain interconnection is planned for the year 2014. It will double the current exchange capacity between the two countries. Cross-border exchange of balancing energy must be established. Intense work has been carried out by REE and its neighboring TSOs to develop market-oriented mechanisms for the exchange of balancing energy as long as there is available international exchange capacity in the required direction. The minimum manageable generation required must be reduced by increasing the flexibility of the manageable generation and reducing its time response. Demand must be turned into a flexible resource. REE set up a demand-side management department in 2007 with the goal of promoting demand management mechanisms: interruptible service, promotion of efficient integration of electric vehicles, time-of-use tariffs, and smart metering. These technologies and processes must be integrated into the smart grid of the future. More storage capabilities must be installed, with the objective of maximizing renewable integration
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Future Challenges The German government has ambitious aims to increase the production of electricity from renewable energy. By 2020, the share of renewable energy in the electricity production mix should reach 35%. The amount of installed wind power should reach a level of 37 GW onshore and 14 GW offshore. For PV, a target installed peak capacity of 51 GW has been announced. This means a growth of 88% for wind energy and 188% for PV within the next nine years. Those developments require a massive reinforcement of the transmission system in Germany. The German dena Grid Study II, initiated by Deutsche Energie-Agentur GmbH (dena) and published in November 2010, focuses on the requirements for a reliable power supply system in 2020. It identified the need for about 3,600 km of new transmission lines in Germany in the extra-highvoltage grid. Besides the requirements for grid development, there are also important consequences for the system operation. The TSOs will need more flexible measures to market and balance the increasingly weather-dependent generation. A monitoring system and control mechanisms for the units are also required. An increase of the magnitude announced by the German government also requires an active provision of ancillary services by the units that deliver the variable infeed.
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excess has to be exported or dealt with in another way. In order to do that it is necessary to have a strong transmission grid designed for the transmission of wind power. This basically means that it has the right capacity of power transport from the windy regions to the load centers. This of course is a set of problems that has been known in the past when the transmission grid capacity was designed to fit the needs of power transmission from large central (coal, natural gas or nuclear) power plants. The main problem is the rapid implementation of wind power which means that the reinforcement of the grid has not been planned and that the procedure for determination of the transmission capacity is different due to the stochastic nature of wind energy. When wind power is going to be exploited at high levels it means that large amounts of power has be transmitted over long distances and that in the regions with a high wind power production there will be very little if any conventional production. This also has an impact on how inter-area connections are handled with respect to controllability and security of supply. As the level of penetration increases the wind power will have a significant impact not only on the local voltage, but it will also have an impact on the system frequency. This is due to the variations in the wind turbine output, which means that the rest of the system not only has to be able to regulate the variations in consumption but also the variations in wind power production. At the same time less conventional capacity will be on-line since the optimal operation (in terms of economy) of the system means that some of the conventional plants have to shut down to save fuel. The ability of the conventional power plants to control power can therefore be limiting the amount of wind power that can be integrated in the system. In some areas this can be even worse since there can be other limitations on the operation of the system. This is the case in the Danish system. There large amounts of generation is heat bound local CHP (which is participating in the control of the grid) leaving even less capacity for frequency control. Such areas have to rely on power exchange with the neighboring areas in order to be able to control the system. The integration of wind power and energy in the market place is also made difficult by the unpredictability of the wind. This not so much a technical constraint, but a economic constraint. In the Nordpool power pool power on the spot market have to be announced at 12.00 for the next day. This means that a 36 hours prediction horizon is required. In Denmark, the System Operators have to make the announcement on the spot market. The prediction of the wind power production therefore covers the System Operators Area. Experience have shown that it is indeed very difficult to predict the production even considering the spatial distribution of the wind turbines that will give some averaging effect. Another barrier in the further implementation of wind power is the planning and operational procedures of the system/grid operators. Grid codes can be very restrictive for wind power since many of the grid codes are based on worst case analysis without any reflection on the probability of occurrence of the worst case. This can lead to very conservative design of the grid connection, which implies high cost. These costs will usually be borne by the wind turbine owner resulting in high energy costs. Planning and economic dispatch tools also have to be further developed to take the characteristics of wind power into consideration in order to optimize the system operation.
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HARMONICS
Harmonics are a phenomenon associated with the distortion of the fundamental sine wave of the grid voltages, which is purely sinusoidal in the ideal situation. Harmonic disturbances are produced by many types of electrical equipment. Depending on their harmonic order they may cause different types of damage to different types of electrical equipment. All harmonics causes increased currents and possible destructive overheating in capacitors as the impedance of a capacitor goes down in proportion to the increase in frequency. As harmonics with order 3 and odd higher multiples of 3 are in phase in a three phase balanced network, they cannot cancel out between the phases and cause circulating currents in the delta windings of transformers, again with possible overheating as the result. The higher harmonics may further give rise to increased noise in analogue telephone circuits. Highly distorting loads are older unfiltered frequency converters based on thyristor technology and similar types of equipment. It is characteristic for this type that it switches one time in each half period and it may generate large amounts of the lower harmonic orders. Newer transistor based designs are used in most variable speed WT today. The method is referred to as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). It switches many times in each period and typically starts producing harmonics where the older types stop, that is around 2 kHz. Their magnitude is smaller and they are easier to remove by filtering than the harmonics of lower order. IEC 1000-3-6 put forward guidelines on compatibility and planning levels for MV and HV networks and presents methods for assessing the contribution from individual installations to the overall disturbance level. 16
FREQUENCY
The electrical supply and distribution systems used world-wide today are based on alternating voltages and currents (AC systems). That is, the voltage constantly changes between positive and negative polarity and the current its direction. The number of changes per second is designated the frequency of the system with the unit Hz. In Europe the frequency is 50 Hz whereas it is 60 Hz in many other places in the world. The frequency of the system is proportional to the rotating speed of the synchronous generators operating in the system and they are - apart from an integer even factor depending on machine design - essentially running at the same speed: They are synchronized. Increasing the electrical load in the system tends to brake the generators and the frequency falls. The frequency control of the system then increases the torque on some of the generators until equilibrium is restored and the frequency is 50 Hz again.
REACTIVE POWER
Reactive power is a concept associated with oscillating exchange of energy stored in capacitive and inductive components in a power system. Reactive power is produced in capacitive components (capacitors, cables) and consumed in inductive components (transformers, motors, fluorescent tubes). The synchronous generator is special in this context as it can either produce reactive power (the normal situation) when over magnetized or consume reactive power when under magnetized. Voltage control is effected by controlling the magnetizing level of the generator, high magnetizing level results in high voltage and production of reactive power. As the current associated with the flow of reactive power is perpendicular (or 90 deg. out of phase) to the current associated with active power and to the voltage on the terminals of the equipment, the only energy lost in the process is the resistive losses in lines and components. The losses are proportional to the squared of total current. Since the active and reactive currents are perpendicular to each other, the total resulting current is the root of the squared sum of the two currents and the reactive currents hence contribute as much to the system losses as do the active currents. To minimize the losses it is necessary to keep the reactive currents as low as possible and this is accomplished by compensating reactive consumption by installing capacitors at or close to the consuming inductive loads. Furthermore, large reactive currents flowing to inductive loads is one of the major causes of voltage instability in the network due to the associated voltage drops in the transmission lines. Locally installed capacitor banks mitigates this tendency and increases the voltage stability in the area. Many WT are equipped with induction generators. The induction generator is basically an induction motor, and as such a consumer of reactive power, in contrast to the synchronous generator which can produce reactive power. At no load (idling), the consumption of reactive power is in the order of 35-40% of the rated active power increasing to around 60% at rated power. In any given local area with WT, the total reactive power demand will be the sum of the demand of the loads and the demand of WT. To minimize losses and to increase voltage stability, the WT are compensated to a level between their idling reactive demand and their full load demand, depending on the requirements of the local utility or distribution company. Thus the power factor of WT, which is the ratio between active power and apparent power, is in general in the range above 0.96. For WT with pulse width modulated inverter systems the reactive power can be controlled by the inverter. Thus these WT can have a power factor of 1.00. But these inverter systems also give the possibility to control voltage by controlling the reactive power (generation or consumption of reactive power). 17
PROTECTION
The extent and type of electrical protective functions in a WT is governed by two lines of consideration. One is the need to protect the WT, the other to secure safe operation of the network under all circumstances The faults associated with first line are short circuits in the WT, overproduction causing thermal overload and faults resulting in high, possibly dangerous, over voltages, that is earth faults and neutral voltage displacement. The second line can be described as the utility view, that is the objective is to disconnect the WT when there is a risk to other consumers or to operating personnel. The faults associated with this line are situations with unacceptable deviations in voltage and/or frequency and loss of one or more phases in the utility supply network. Depending on the WT design, that is if it can operate as an autonomous unit, a Rate Of Change Of Frequency (ROCOF) relay may be needed to detect a step change in frequency indicating that the WT is operating in an isolated part of the network due for example to tripping of a remote line supplying the area. In Germany the grid protection device of WT will be tested accordingly. The test shows the capability of the WT, to meet grid protection limiting values set by utilities. During this test the reaction of the WT is checked and recorded for voltage and frequency exceeding upper and lower limits. Responding levels and response times are recorded and depicted in the final data sheet. The functionality of the complete protection system is also verified and certificated.
NETWORK STABILITY
The problem of network stability has been touched upon briefly above. Three issues are central in the discussion and all are largely associated with different types of faults in the network such as tripping of transmission lines (overload), loss of production capacity (any fault in boiler or turbine in a power plant) and short circuits. Permanent tripping of transmission lines due to overload or component failure disrupts the balance of power (active and reactive) flow to the adjacent areas. Though the capacity of the operating generators is adequate large voltage drops may occur suddenly. The reactive power following new paths in a highly loaded transmission grid may force the voltage operating point of the network in the area beyond the border of stability. A period of low voltage (brownout) possibly followed by complete loss of power is often the result. Loss of production capacity obviously results in a large power unbalance momentarily and unless the remaining operating power plants have enough so called spinning reserve, that is generators not loaded to their maximum capacity, to replace the loss within very short time a large frequency and voltage drop will occur followed by complete loss of power. A way of remedy in this situation is to disconnect the supply to an entire area or some large consumers with the purpose of restoring the power balance and limit the number of consumers affected by the fault. Short circuits take on a variety of forms in a network and are by far the most common. In severity they range from the one phase earth fault caused by trees growing up into an overhead transmission line, over a two phase fault to the three phase short circuit with low impedance in the short circuit itself. Many of these faults are cleared by the relay protection of the transmission system either by disconnection and fast re-closure, or by disconnection of the equipment in question after a few 18
hundred milliseconds. In all the situations the result is a short period with low or no voltage followed by a period where the voltage returns. A large - off shore - wind farm in the vicinity will see this event and disconnect from the grid immediately if only equipped with the protection described above. This is equivalent to the situation loss of production capacity and disconnection of the wind farm will further aggravate the situation. Up to now, no utility has put forward requirement to dynamic stability of WT during grid faults. The situation in Denmark today, and the visions for the future, have changed the situation and for wind farms connected to the transmission grid, that is at voltages above 100 kV, this will be required.
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SOLUTIONS
The key to successfully increase the level of wind energy penetration and move towards an energy system that is much more sustainable in terms of exploitation of renewable energy sources is to view the system as a whole and take advantage of the various characteristics that different technologies provide. The keyword is flexibility. As presented above the main contributor to the barriers of integration of wind energy is the variability combined with the unpredictability of the wind. Many solutions to these barriers exist (available on the market, in development or as changes in the existing practices). In many of these solutions, power electronics and information technology can be used to mitigate the impact and add value. Power electronics installed as part of the wind turbines is increasingly common. This mainly takes the form of so-called variable speed turbines. The main advantages obtained with this combination is reduction of mechanical loads on the main wind turbine structure, which leads to reduced manufacturing cost, and improved grid connection characteristics, which leads to lower the grid connection costs. The reduced grid connection costs comes from the reduced impact during connection of the generator and from reduction of the power fluctuations in the flicker range. The application of power electronics also adds controllability of the power output both at partial load and at full load. This can successfully be utilized in wind farm control systems where the total output from a wind farm is controlled. Power electronics are used to control reactive power. The concept of wind farm control have been further developed in the grid connection requirements set by the Danish System Operators for the connection of large wind farms to the transmission grid. In these requirements it is specified how the wind farm should behave both during normal operation and during grid faults. In order to increase the ease by which the wind energy can be integrated it is specified that the output from the wind farm should be controllable in such a way that it can be reduced in 2s to 20% of rated output, it should also be able to limit the total output of the wind farm to any value and other similar requirements. On the Swedish island, Gotland, there has been a extensive implementation of wind turbines, especially in the Southern part of the island. The load centre is in the Northern part as is the unidirectional HVDC-connection from the mainland. This has resulted in several problems with the integration of wind power as well as in some interesting solutions. These include the application of HVDC transmission of the power and large converter stations based on voltage source converters using IGBTs. This system makes it possible to transmit power from the Southern part to the Northern part and due to the power electronics used in the converters it is also possible to control the reactive power. Also in the Southern part of the island (or rather offshore) a small wind farm (5*500kW stall controlled wind turbines) has been installed with wind turbines using power converters. The rating of converters used is one third on the wind turbine rating. This makes it possible to run the machines at variable speed at low wind speeds and produce slightly more power than if the machines were running at fixed speed. When the wind speed increases and the production from the wind turbine exceeds the rating of the power electronics, the induction machine is directly connected to the grid and the power electronics is used for power factor correction. Due to the large penetration of the grid in the Southern part of the island several other problems with the grid is also handled by the power electronics. The converters are also used to reduce the impact of the wind turbines on power quality (here taken 20
as flicker and voltage level) by controlling the reactive power and if necessary reducing the active power based on grid parameters. The combination of wind power and energy storage has also received some attention. The objective have again been several including elimination of local power quality problems (again flicker and voltage level) as well as making the wind power schedulable as conventional power plants. The type of storage depends on the application, but in general the current storage technology is not well suited for these applications. Some special applications are of interest. One of them is utilization of pumped storage. In areas where natural two-lake systems exist like in County Donegal, Ireland, this option is the least cost option when compared to grid reinforcement. For smaller system lead-acid batteries are an option. In combination with modern power electronics it is possible to provide a system with significant less power fluctuations. Other power electronic devices have also been applied in combination with wind farms in order to improve the grid compatibility. In Denmark to advanced SVC's have been installed in the grid connection of wind farms. The newest one was installed at the 24MW wind farm Rejsby Hede. The objective of the project was to reduce grid losses and improve voltage control. As pointed out in the previous section several other technologies are developing at a fast rate. Many of these developments have an impact on the challenges and possible solution in the future energy system. There has for many decades been worked on storage of electricity for power system applications. During the last few years new storage technologies have emerged. The most promising of these are based on so-called redox flow technology. They have three very important features. The efficiency is high above 80%, the lifetime is long more than 10 years (and the charge/discharge regime does not have an impact). The third very important feature is that power rating and energy capacity can be sized independently of each other. The plant consists of two main parts: A cell stack in which the two electrolytes can interact through a membrane and storage tanks for the two electrolytes. The power capacity is determined by the area of the membrane and the energy capacity is determined by the volume of the storage tanks (or rather by the volume of the electrolyte in the system). Fuel cells will also play a very important role in the future energy system. To begin with because it will be possible to have a very high total efficiency of the energy conversion from fuel to electricity (above 70%) and heat. This will make it attractive to uses in houses as well as in office buildings and industry. However, from an integration point of view the real perspective is the ability of some types of fuel cells to work reversibly. In a power system with a high penetration of wind energy there will be long periods with surplus wind energy. This surplus energy can be fed to the fuel cells and hydrogen can be produced. This hydrogen can then later be used for power production if there is a deficit of wind energy, but it can also be used in transportation. In this way renewable energy is used to produce fuel for cars, trucks and tractors enabling a much higher degree of sustainability. The event of widespread application of micro CHP and also PV will result in a power system with a much more distributed nature. This will have to be integrated with wind power that will be concentrated in regions far from the consumption centers. This will have a huge impact on the design and operation of the transmission grid and it will also require new technologies to be developed that can control such a system and further can interact with a energy market. Information technology will be the key technology in this and its application will not be limited to 21
the production side. Many benefits can be gained from including the demand side in the overall system operation in order to increase the flexibility and there by improve the matching of production and consumption. The value of wind energy can be increased significantly by reorganizing the way the power markets operate. Reducing the lead time will also reduce the error in the prediction of the wind power produced. Studies have to be made in order to establish a market structure that is fair to all types of generation. Green certificates have also been investigated as an option, but creating such a market have shown not to be an easy task. These options have also been investigated in order to change from a fixed tariff system to a market based system for renewable energy. It is evident from the above that no single solution or family of solutions exist that can eliminate or reduce all the barriers. However, it is noticed that integration in the different meanings previously presented is the key to success. It is also noticed that many of the solutions require significant research effort if the potential is to be realized.
CONCLUSIONS
There is growing experience with the integration of high amounts of wind generation into power systems in Europe. Operational challenges are encountered especially in times of high wind and low load. No incidents in which wind generation has directly or indirectly caused unmanageable operational problems have been reported to date, however. The system operators face rapidly growing installed capacity of wind power and must try to maintain the same level of operational security and reliability while minimizing curtailments from wind power. The key elements for the future integration of high penetration levels of wind power are: 1. Interconnections and transmission upgrades inside the countries must be enabled. The delivery of the required transmission and distribution infrastructure forms a major part of the work needed to meet the 2020 renewable policy targets in many countries. 2. Enhancing the use of existing grid infrastructure and interconnections to enable operation at full capacity is also important. 3. There must be well-functioning markets offering a range of scheduling periods (i.e., dayahead, hour-ahead, and real-time) to accommodate the uncertainty in wind plant forecasts. Establishing cross-border exchange mechanisms for balancing energy is also important. 4. Improved system operational tools will need to be developed and deployed as the operation of the power system becomes more complex with more wind generation. These tools include the ability to forecast wind output accurately, to obtain accurate real-time information on generation levels, and to assess the stability of the power system in real time in order to control wind plant output when necessary from a system security point of view. 5. System flexibility must be increased. This means reducing the response time of the conventional generation plants, turning demand into a flexible resource, and looking for feasible storage options. 6. Policies and capabilities must be put in place to deal with system issues such as transient stability, voltage collapse, and reactive power support.
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REFERENCES
1. H. Bindner, P. Lundsager. Integration of wind power in the power system. IEEE Xplore. 2002 2. R. Doherty, D. Eleanor, M. OMalley. System operation with a significant wind power penetration. IEEE, Transactions on Power Systems. 2003 3. H. Siegfried. Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Wiley & Sons Ltd, Second Edition, England 2006. ISBN-10: 0-470-86899-6. 4. T. Ackermann. Wind Power in Power Systems. Wiley & Sons Ltd, England 2005. ISBN: 0470-85508-8. 5. Y. Zhang, K.W.Chan. The Impact of Wind Forecasting in Power System Reliability. IEEE plore. 2008 6. The Waves of Wind. An update on Wind Integration. IEEE power & energy magazine. november / december 2011.
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