CHAPTER 1: STUDY OF LIFE Biology Scientific study of life Characteristics of Life 1.

. High Degree of Order All living organisms are organized Biological organization is based on hierarchy of structural levels with each level building on the levels below it 2. Reproduction Organism reproduce, whether asexually or sexually Life comes only from life (biogenesis) 3. Growth and Development Heritable programs stored in DNA direct the species specific patter of growth and development 4. Energy Utilization Organisms take in and transform energy to do work, including maintenance of their ordered state ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate 5. Response to Environment Organisms respond to stimuli from their environment 6. Homeostasis Organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a steady-state, even in the face of fluctuating external environment 7. Evolutionary Adaption Systems Biology Approach that attempts to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on study of interactions Levels of Biological Organization 1. Molecules Chemical structure made of two or more small chemical units called atoms 2. Organelles Functional components present in the cell 3. Cells Lifes fundamental unit 4. Tissues Made up of group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function 5. Organs and Organ Systems Organ - body part that carries out a particular function in the body. Organ Systems - team of organs that cooperate in a larger function. Plants dont have organ systems. 6. Organisms Individual living things 7. Populations All individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specified area 8. Communities Array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem 9. Ecosystem All living things in a particular are, along with the non-living components of the environment with which life interacts (such as soil) 10.Biosphere All life on earth, all places where life exists

Chemistry of Life Living organisms obey chemical and physical laws Based on carbon compounds 70% water Depends largely on chemical reactions Normally complex Atoms Smallest unit of element Molecules Group of two or more atoms linked together DNA DeoxyriboNucleic Acid Made up of two long chains called Strands - Arranged in a double helix - Made up of four chemical building blocks called Nucleotides Substance of Genes - Units of Inheritance Provides blue prints for making proteins Proteins Main player in building and maintaining the cell and carrying out its activities Genome The entire library of genetic instructions that an organism inherits Scientific Method 1. Observation Use of the senses to gather information Recorded observations are called Data - Items of information on which scientific inquiry is based - Quantitative: Measurements - Qualitative: Form of recorded descriptions 2. Inductive Reasoning Derive generalizations from a large number of specific observations 3. Hypothesis Tentative answer to a well-framed question Leads to predictions that can be tested by performing experiments 4. Deductive Reasoning Generally used after hypothesis has been developed Involves logic that flows opposite direction, from general to specific Organic Molecules 1. Sugar - Polysaccharides 2. Fatty Acids - Fats, lipids, membranes 3. Amino Acids - Proteins 4. Nucleotides - Nucleic Acids *Building blocks of cells

CHAPTER 6: A TOUR OF THE CELL Cell

Parts of the Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus: Information Central Contains most of the genes Parts: Nuclear Envelope - Encloses the Nucleus, separating it from cytoplasm - Double membrane, each a lipid bilayer - Perforated by pore structures Pore Complex - Entry and exit of proteins, RNAs, and large complexes of macromolecules Nuclear Lamina - Netlike array of protein filaments - Maintains the shape of the nucleus - mechanically supporting the nuclear envelope Nuclear Matrix - Framework of protein fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior Nucleolus - Mass of densely stained granules and fibers Within the Nucleus, DNAs are organized into chromosomes Chromatin - Complex of DNA and proteins making up chromosomes Ribosomes: Protein Factory Complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein Carry out protein synthesis Two cytoplasmic locations: Free Ribosomes - Suspended in the Cytosol Bound Ribosomes - Attached to the outside of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Nuclear Envelope Endomembrane System Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory Network of membranes Endoplasmic - within the Cytoplasm; reticulum - little net Network of membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae ER lumen or Cisternal Space - Internal compartment of ER Two structures: Smooth ER - Lacks Ribosomes - Functions: Synthesis of Lipids Detoxification of Poison Storage of Calcium Ions Metabolism of Carbohydrates Rough ER - Studded with ribosomes - Membrane Factory of the cell - Function: Makes membrane phospholipids

All organism are made of cells (Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann) Simplest collection of matter that can live Cell structure is co-related to cellular function All cells are related to their descent from earlier cells Every cell is: - Enclosed by a membrane - Uses DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) as its genetic information - Bounded by a selective barrier called Plasma Membrane - Contains a semi-fluid, jelly-like substance called Cytosol - Contains Ribosomes

Types of Cell 1. Eukaryotic Cell Eu - true; karyon - kernel DNA is in the Nucleus Subdivided by internal membranes into various membrane-closed organelles Largest organelle - Nucleus Other organelles are located in the Cytoplasm - Region between the Nucleus and Outer Membrane 2. Prokaryotic Cell Pro - before; Karyon - kernel DNA is not separated from the rest of the cell DNA is not membrane-enclosed - Nucleoid Lacks the other kinds of membrane-enclosed organelles Organelles Membrane-enclosed structures of eukaryotic cells Have specialized forms and functions Parts of the Cell (Eurakyotes and Prokaryoes) 1. Cytoplasm Interior of the cells Region between the Nucleus and Plasma Membrane 2. Plasma Membrane Functions as a selective barrier Double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids and other lipids with proteins attached or embedded to it Eukaryotic Cells 1. Animal Cell Organelles in Animal Cell only: - Lysosomes - Centrosomes and Centrioles - Flagella 2. Plant Cell Organelles in Plant Cell only: - Chloroplasts - Central Vacuole - Cell Wall - Plasmodesmata

Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center Consists of flattened membranous sacs - cisternae Manufactures some macromolecules Has two sides: Cis Face - Receiving department - Usually located near ER - Products of ER are usually modified here Trans Face - Gives rise to vesicles that pinch off and travel to other sites - Transport vesicles that eventually fuse with Plasma Membrane Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes Used to digest macromolecules Lysosomal enzymes work best in acidic environments Used to recycle cells own organic material through Autophagy - In Autophagy, damaged organelles becomes surrounded by a double membrane, and lysosome fuses with it to digest Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments Large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi Apparatus Selective in transporting solutes Solution inside is differs in composition from cytosol Kinds of Vacuoles: Food Vacuoles - Formed by Phagocytosis Contractile Vacuoles - Pump excess water from the cell Central Vacuole - Develops by the coalescence of small vacuoles - Plant cells main repository of inorganic ions - Largest compartment in plant cell Other Parts of the Cell Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells Site of Respiration Enclosed by two membranes - Phospholipid bilayer Parts: Outer Membrane - Smooth Inner Membrane - Convoluted with infolding - cristae - Divides the mitochondrion into two internal compartments: Intermembrane Space: Narrow region between inner and outer membranes Mitochondrial Matrix: Enclosed by the inner membrane; contains manny enzymes as well as mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy Contains chlorophyll - green pigment Lens-shaped organelles Parts: Thylakoid - Membranous system in the form of flattened sacs

Granum - Stacks of Thylakoids Stroma - Fluid outside the Thylakoid - Contains the chloroplast DNA and Ribosomes, as well as many enzymes Member of the specialized family of closely related plant organelles - plastids

Peroxisome: Oxidation Specialized metabolic compartment Bounded by a single membrane Produces Hydrogen Peroxide Detoxifies alcohol Contains enzyme that converts H2O2 to water Cytoskeleton Network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm Functions: - Give mechanical support to the cell - Maintain its shape - Provides anchorage for many organelles - Cell motility Components: Microtubules - Thickest Property Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) Structure Protein Subunits Hollow tubes Tubulin, a dimer consisting of a-tubulin and b-tubulin

Maintenance of cell shape (compression resisting) Main Functions Cell motility (flagella & cilia) Organelle movements Chromosome movements Microfilaments - Thinnest Property Structure Protein Subunits Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) Intertwined strands of actin Actin

Maintenance of cell shape (tension bearing) Cell motility (pseudopodia) Main Functions Muscle contraction Cytoplasmic streaming Cell motility Cell division Intermediate Filaments Property Structure Protein Subunits Main Functions Intermediate Filaments Fibrous proteins supercoiled into cables Keratin Maintenance of cell shape (tension bearing) Anchorage of Nucleus Formation of Nuclear Lamina

Microtubules Centrosomes an Centrioles - Microtubule-organizing center - Microtubules grow out of the centrosomes - Centriole: Composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring Cilia and Flagella - Microtubule-containing extensions that project from the cell - Composed of nine doublets of microtubules arranged in a ring; in the center are two single microtubules - Flagella: Generates force in the same axis as the tail - Cilia: work more like oars; act as signal receiving antenna - Microtubule assembly is anchored in the cell by a basal body Composed of nine triplet microtubules - The ring formation is caused by cross-linking proteins - Dyneins Large motor protein Responsible for bending movement of cells flagella or cilia Connects a doublet to another doublet Microfilaments Cortex - Semisolid consistency of a gel - Outer Cytoplasmic layer Myosin - Acts as a motor protein - Makes thicker filaments - Composed of thousands of Actin Filaments Pseudopodia - Cellular extensions - Used for cell motility - False feet Cytoplasmic Streaming - Circular flow of the cytoplasm within the cells - Speeds the distribution of materials within the cell Extracellular Components of the Cell Cell Wall Functions: - Protects plant cell - Maintains its shape - Prevents excessive water intake More thicker than the Plasma Membrane Parts: Primary Cell Wall - Relatively thin and flexible - First secreted by young plant cells Middle Lamella - Between primary cell walls of adjacent cells - Thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides - Gles adjacent cells together Secondary Cell Wall - Between secondary Plasma Membrane and Primary Cell Wall

Has Strong and durable matrix Cell protection and support

Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Made of glycoproteins and other carbohydratecontaining molecules Collagen: Most abundant glycoprotein in ECM; embedded in a network woven out of protogylcans Small core protein with many carbohydrates Fibronectin: Binds to cell-surface receptor proteins called integrins Cell Junctions Plasmodesmata Desmos - to bind Membrane-lined channels filled with Cytoplasm Unify most of the plant into one living continuum Water and small solutes can pass freely Junctions in Animal Cells Tight Junctions - Prevents leakage of extracellular fluid - The Plasma Membranes of neighboring cells are very tightly pressed against each other Desmosomes (Anchoring Junctions) - Fasten cells together into strong sheets - Anchored by intermediate filaments Gap Junctions (Communicating Junctions) - Provide Cytoplasmic channels - Similar to plasmodesmata - Composed of membrane proteins

CHAPTER 7: MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Cellular Membrane Composed of Lipids and Proteins Phospholipids - Most abundant lipids in membrane - Amphipathic Molecule - have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions Fluid Mosaic Model - Fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in or attached to bilayer of phospholipids Held together by hydrophobic interactions Moves: - Lateral Movement: Adjacent phospholipids switch positions - Flip-flip: Transversely across the membrane switching from one phospholipid layer to another Membrane Proteins Determine most of the membranes functions Types of Membrane Proteins: Integral Proteins - Penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the phospholipid layer - Transmembrane Proteins: Span the membrane Peripheral Proteins - Not embedded in the lipid bilayer - Appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane Functions: Transport - Provides a hydrophilic channel across the membrane Enzymatic Activity Signal Transduction - Binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger Cell-cell Recognition - Usually short-lived Intercellular Joining - Hook together various kinds of junctions - Long-lasting Attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer Nonpolar Molecules - Hydrophobic - Dissolves in the lipid bilayer membrane Ions and Polar Molecules - Hydrophilic Transport Proteins Transports hydrophilic substances Types: Channel Proteins - Hydrophilic channel - Used as a tunnel - Aquaporins: Passage of water molecule Carrier Proteins - Change in shape in a way that shuttles molecules across membrane

Passive Transport Doesnt require energy Moves down its electrochemical gradient Moves down concentration gradient (hight to low concentration Diffusion - Movement of molecules that spread out evenly into available space - Spontaneous process Osmosis - Movement of water across cell membrane to balance water between cell and its environment - Free water concentration - from lower solute concentration to higher - Tonicity: Ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water - Isotonic: (Same concentration) No net movement of water - Hypertonic: (Higher concentration outside) Cells will lose water - Hypotonic: (less water in cell) Water will enter the cell faster than t leaves - Osmoregulation: control of solute concentrations and water balance Facilitated Diffusion - Aided by proteins - Ion Channels: Channel proteins that transport ions Active Transport Requires Energy Against concentration gradient All Carrier Proteins Enables cell to maintain internal concentrations of small solutes Sodium-Potassium Pump - Major electrogenic pump of Animals - Steps: 1. Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to Na-K pump 2. Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation 3. Phosphorylation leads to change in protein shape, and releases Na+ 4. K+ attaches to Na-K pump; releases phosphate group 5. Loss of phosphate group restores protein shape, and releases K+ 6. Cycle repeats Voltage - Electrical potential energy - Cytoplasmic side is negatively charged - Membrane Potential: Voltage across membrane Electrochemical Gradient - Combination of forces acting on an ion - chemical and electrical forces Electrogenic Pump - Transport Protein that generates voltage across a membrane - Proton Pump: Main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria Co-transport - Single ATP powered pump - Transports specific solute indirectly drive active transport - After substance is pumped, it diffuses through layer

Bulk Transport Required energy Cross the membrane by mechanism involving packaging in vesicles Occurs in Exocytosis and Endocytosis Exocytosis - Cell secretes certain biological molecules by fusion of vesicles - Transport vesicle that has budded from the Golgi Apparatus moves along microtubules - Used to export products - Delivers proteins and carbohydrates from Golgi vesicles to the outside of cell Endocytosis - Cell takes in biological molecule - Reverse of exocytosis - Small area of plasma membrane sinks inward to form a pocket - Types: Phagocytosis - Cellular eating - Cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it Pinocytosis - Cellular drinking - Cell gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles - Nonspecific in the substances that it transports Receptor-mediated Endocytosis - Enables cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances - Receptor proteins then cluster in regions of membrane called coated pits - Ligand: Any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site

CHAPTER 10: PHOTOSYNTHESIS Chloroplasts Site of Photosynthesis Found mainly in the cells of Mesophyll - tissue in the interior leaf Stomata: Microscopic pores that allows entrance and exit of certain molecules Parts: Stroma - Surrounded by two membranes - Dense fluid inside the chloroplast Thylakoid - Membrane system made up of sacs Thylakoid Space - Spaces inside sacs Grana - Thylakoids stacked in columns Chlorophyll - Green pigment - Gives leaves its color - Resides in the thylakoid membrane Photosynthesis 6 CO2 +12 H2O + Light energy ---> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O Involves Redox reaction Forms water as a byproduct Two stages: 2. Light Reactions 3. Calvin Cycle Overview of Photosynthesis Light Reactions - Convert solar energy to chemical energy - Water is split - providing electrons and protons - Gives of O2 as a byproduct - Light absorbed by Chlorophyll drives a transfer of eand H+ from water to an acceptor - NADP+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate) where they are temporarily stored - Generate ATP through Chemiosmosis to power addition of phosphate group to ADP Phosphorylation - Light is initially converted to chemical energy in: NADPH Source of e- as reducing power ATP Versatile energy currency of cell - Situated in Thylakoids Calvin Cycle - Named after Melvin Calvin - Begins by incorporating CO2 - Carbon Fixation - Uses ATP and NADPH - A.K.A. Dark reactions or light independent reactions - Situated in Stroma Nature of Sunlight Wavelength: distance between crests of electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic Spectrum: entire range of radiation Visible light: 380 - 750 nm; can be detected by human eye Photons: discreet particles of light

Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb visible lights Spectrophotometer: measures the ability of pigment to absorb various wavelengths Violet-blue and red light works best for photosynthesis Green is least effective Types of pigments in chloroplasts: Chlorophyll a - Participates directly in light reactions - Blue-green in color Chlorophyll b - Accessory pigment - Olive green in color Carotenoids - Accessory pigments - Various shades of yellow and orange - Used for photoprotection: absorbs excessive light that can damage chlorophyll Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light Absorption of photons boosts an electron to an orbital of higher energy - excited state Photosystem Chlorophyll molecules are organized along with other small organic molecules and proteins into complexes Composed of a reaction-center complex Surrounded by light harvesting complexes Holds a special pair of chlorophyll a Light harvesting complexes may vary (chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids) bound to proteins Primary Electron Acceptor Two types of Photosystem in thylakoid membrane: Photosystem II (PS II) - Functions first - Reactions center chlorophyll a - P680 Photosystem I (PS I) - Chlorophyll a - P700 Linear Electron Flow Occurs during light reactions Generates ATP and NADPH Steps: 1. Photon strikes pigment molecule in PS II, boosting eto higher energy. e- in nearby pigment is also raised to excited state. Process continues until it reacher P680 chlorophyll a. It excites an e- in this pair to a higher state. 2. e- is transferred from the excited P680 to Primary Electron Acceptor. P680 misses an e-, now as P680+. 3. Splitting of water molecule - producing 2 e- and 2 H+. H+ is released into the thylakoid lumen. Oxygen atom combines with another, forming O2. 4. Photoexcited e- passes from primary electron acceptor of PSII to PSI via electron transport chain. Electron chain is made up of Plastiquinone (Pq) - electron carrier, cytochrome complex, and Plastocyanin (Pc) - protein. 5. Synthesis of ATP in electron transport chain. 6. e- reaches Primary Acceptor of PSI. 7. Second electron transport chain - ferredoxin (Fd) protein 8. Transfer of e- from Fd to form NADPH.

Cylcic Electron Flow Alternative path that photoexcited e- take Uses PS I only Cycle back from Ferrodoxin (Fd) to cytochrome complex Produces ATP Calvin Cycle Anabolic - building carbohydrates from smaller molecules and consuming energy Product is Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (G3P) Consumes 9 ATP and 6 NADPH for three CO2 Three phases: Carbon Fixation 1. Incorporation of CO2 molecule. 2. Attaching it to a five-carbon sugar - Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP). 3. Rubisco (most abundant in chloroplast) enzyme catalyzes producing 6 carbon intermediate (short lived). 4. 6 carbon intermediate splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (for each incorporated CO2 molecule). Reduction 1. Each molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate receives additional phosphate group from ATP, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. 2. Pair of e- is donated from NADPH, reduced to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. 3. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate loses a phosphate group forming Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (G3P). 4. Three molecules of CO2 produces 6 G3P. One molecule of G3P exits the cycle, and the rest are recycled to RuBP. Regeneration of the CO2 Acceptor (RuBP) 1. Five molecules of G3P are recycled into three molecules of RuBP. Spends 3 more ATP. 2. Cycle repeats.

CHAPTER 9: CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP Fermentation - Partial degradation of sugars - Without the use of oxygen Aerobic Respiration - Most prevalent and efficient catabolic path way - Oxygen is consumed - Aer - air; bios - life Anaerobic Respiration - Harvest chemical energy without oxygen - An - without Glucose is the common fuel that cells use most often. Breakdown of glucose is exergonic. Redox Reaction Oxidation - Loss of electrons from one substance - Reducing agent Reduction - Addition of electrons to another - Oxidizing agent Combustion is a redox reaction Energy Harvest via NAD+ and Electron Transport Chain NAD+ - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide - Co-enzyme - Electron carrier - Oxidizing agent - Dehydrogenases: remove pair of hydrogen atom from substrate, thereby oxidizing it. Electron Transport Chain - Consists of number of molecules, mainly proteins. - Electrons removed from glucose are shuttled by NADH - Most electrons travel the following downhill route: Glucose - NADH - electron transport chain oxygen Overview of Cellular Respiration Substrate-level Phosphorylation: direct transfer of phosphate group from organic substrate to ADP Three metabolic stages: Glycolysis - Occurs in the cytosol - Degradation process - breaking down of glucose tin pyruvate Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle - Pyruvate enters Mitochondrion and is oxidized to a coumpound - Acetyl CoA - Acetyl CoA enters Citric acid cycle - Breakdown of glucose to CO2 Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron transport Chain and Chemiosmosis - Inner Membrane is the site for third stage - Electron transport chain accepts electrons from the breakdown of glucose in the form of NADH and FADH2. Electrons are conmbined with molecular oxygen and H+ forming water.

Energy release a each step of chain is stored in mitochondrion that is used to make ATP from ADP. - ATP Synsthesis - Oxidative Phosphorylation.
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Glycolysis Means sugar-splitting Byproduct is 2 molecules of pyruvate per glucose Glucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into two threecarbon sugars. The three carbon sugars are oxidized to form Pyruvate Net energy per glucose: 2 ATP and 2 NADH No carbon released Two phases: Energy Investment - Cell spends 2 ATP Energy Payoff - 2 ATP and 2 NADH are formed Oxidation of Pyruvate Byproduct is Acetyl CoA (Acetyl Coenzyme) Links glycolysis and citric acid cycle Citric Acid Cycle Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Krebs cycle Functions as a metabolic furnace Generates 1 ATP per turn Produces 1 ATP, 4 NADH an 1 FADH2 Steps: 1. Acetyl CoA adds to Oxaloacetate producing Citrate. 2. Citrate is converted to Isocitrate, removal and addition of H2O molecule. 3. Isocitrate is oxidized, forming NADH. CO2 is released. 4. Another CO2 is released, and NADH is formed. Molecule attach to Coenzyme A. Forming an unstable bond. 5. CoA is displaced by phosphate group, which is transferred to GDP, forming GTP, which generate ATP. 6. Succinate is oxidized. Formation of FADH2. 7. Addition of H2O molecule. 8. Substrate is oxidized, forming NADH. Regeneration of Oxaloacetate. Pathway of Electron Transport Chain Most components of the chain are proteins Exists in multi-protein complexes numbered I to IV. Tightly bound to these proteins are Prosthetic Groups - Nonprotein components - Essential for catalytic functions Doesnt make ATP directly Complex I - Accepts electrons from NADH - Called Flavoprotein, has prosthetic group called Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN) - Has Iron-Sulfate Protein (Fe-S) - Passes electrons to Ubiquinone (Q) Electron carrier Hydrophobic molecule Only member that is not a protein. Complexes III and IV - Contains proteins called Cytochromes

Their prosthetic group, called Heme Group, contains iron atom that accepts and donates electrons - Cyt a3 passes e- to O2, which is very electronegative forming water Complex II - Accepts electrons from FADH2 - Donate equivalent number of electrons for oxygen reduction
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Obligate Anaerobes Organisms that carry out only fermentation or aerobic respiration Cannot survive in the presence of oxygen Facultative Anaerobes Make enough ATP to survive using fermentation or respiration.

Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism Process in which energy stored in the form of hydrogen ion gradient across the membrane is used to drive cellular work such as synthesis of ATP Osmos - push Production of ATP happens in Mitochondrial Matrix ATP Synthase - Enzyme that actually makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate - Works like an ion pump - Power source: difference in concentration of H+ on opposite sides of mitochondrial membrane - Four main parts that are made up of multiple polypeptides: Rotor Stator Internal Rod Catalytic Knob Energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work. Anaerobic Respiration Generates ATP without the use of oxygen Electron transport chain is used Takes place in certain prokaryotic cells Fermentation Do not use the electron transport chain Harvesting chemical energy without the use of oxygen Glycolysis happens whether oxygen is present or not Extension of glycolysis Needs sufficient supply of NAD+ Types of Fermentation: Alcohol Fermentation - Pyruvate is converted to Ethanol - Pyruvate is formed from glycolysis - Releases CO2, forming Acetaldehyde - Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH forming Ethanol Lactic Acid Fermentation - Pyruvate is directly reduced by NADH to from lactate - Used to make cheese and yogurt - Human muscle cells use LA Fermentation when oxygen is scarce Final Electron Acceptors Fermentation: pyruvate (Lactic Acid) and acetaldehyde (Alcohol) Aerobic: Oxygen Anaerobic: molecule that is electronegative